Open-channel hydraulics

STEADY FLOW IN OPEN CHANNELS

→ constant discharge, other geometric and flow characteristics

depended only on position

Uniform flow Non-uniform flow

S; y; v = const. y1 ≠ y2; v1 ≠ v2
i = i 0 = iE i ≠ i0 ≠ iE
K141 HYAE Open-channel hydraulics 1
 2
1 S,O
Equation of uniform flow
G’ y F2
pressure forces F1 = F2 F1 y 2
1 G
weight of water G = ρgSdL Ft dZ
dZ
slope of bottom i0 = = tgα ≈ sinα dL
dL
⇒ force in direction of motion G′ = Gsinα = ρgSdLi
against motion – friction force Ft = τ0 OdL
equilibrium of forces ⇒ G’ = Ft ⇒ ρgSdLi = τ0 OdL ⇒
τ
τ0 = ρgRi (R = S/O) → 0 = gRi = v
*
- friction velocity
ρ

K141 HYAE Open-channel hydraulics 2

Relation for τ0 and v
friction coefficient:
sheer stress τ0 τ0
ff = =
kinetic energy in elementary volume 1 ⋅ ρ ⋅ v 2
2
1 2 ⋅ τ0
τ 0 = ⋅ ff ⋅ ρ ⋅ v 2 ⇒ v =
2 ff ⋅ ρ
2 ⋅ τ0
expressing τ 0 = ρgRi ⇒ v=
ff ⋅ ρ
2 ⋅ρ ⋅ g⋅R ⋅i 2⋅g
v= = ⋅ R ⋅i
ff ⋅ ρ ff

introducing C = 2 ⋅ g [m0,5s-1]
ff

v = C⋅ R ⋅i - Chézy equation

K141 HYAE Open-channel hydraulics 3

SOLUTION OF CHANNELS
1. Chézy equation (1768) v = C R⋅ i0 Q = C S R ⋅ i0 = K i0
C – velocity coefficient, K - conveyance (m3⋅s-1)

2. Manning equation (1889) 1 2 3 12

v= R i
n - roughness coefficient n
1 16
comparison of both equations ⇒ C = ⋅R
n
validity: n > 0,011, 0,3m < R < 5m

Pavlovskij (1925): C =
1 P
n
⋅ R , P = 2,5 n − 0,13 − 0,75 R ( n − 0,1 )
validity: 0,011 < n < 0,04 , 0,1m < R < 3m
⎛ R ⎞
Bretting (1948): C = 17,72 ⎜ log + 1,171⎟⎟
⎜
⎝ de ⎠
K141 HYAE Open-channel hydraulics 4
Determination of n:
- tables – values 0,008 ÷ 0,150 (÷ 0,500):
Type of channel and description n min. n nor. n max.
Streams on plain
a) clean, straight, full stage, no rifts or deep pools 0,025 0,030 0,033
b) same as above but more stones and weeds 0,030 0,035 0,040
c) clean winding, some pools and shoals 0,033 0,040 0,045
- photographic method
- formulas in dependency on di
1 21,1
Strickler (1923) = 1 validity: 4,3 < R/de < 276
n
de 6
Grain-size curve
- screen analysis (fine-grained)
- random sample (course-grained)
- .....

K141 HYAE Open-channel hydraulics 5

 different roughness on wetted perimeter
→ equivalent roughness coefficient
∑ Oi ni 2
weighted average n = ⎛ ⎛ 3 ⎞ ⎞ 3
O ⎜ ∑ ⎜ Oi ni ⎟ ⎟
2 O3,n3
⎝ ⎠ O2,n2
Horton, Einstein, Banks n= ⎜ ⎟
⎜ O ⎟ O1,n1
⎜ ⎟
3. Darcy-Weisbach equation ⎝ ⎠
L v2
Zt = λ ⇒v
4R 2 g
Hey (1979): 1 aR
= 2,03 log
λ 3,5 d84
a = 11,1 ÷ 13,6 … coefficient of channel shape
validity: R/d84 > 4
1
8 C R 6
Relation among C, n and λ: = =
λ g n g
K141 HYAE Open-channel hydraulics 6
CHANNEL DESIGN
- calculation of velocity and discharge Q → basic equations
- calculation of bottom slope i0 → basic equations
- calculation of depth y0 → semi-graphically y = f(Q) (rating curve)
→ by numerical approximation yi → Qi ; Q → y0

- calculation of channel width b → similarly as determination of depth

Compound channels
! velocities, roughness coefficient, discharge Q = ∑Qi
S2 S3
S1

S2 S3
S1
O2 O3
O1
K141 HYAE Open-channel hydraulics 7
 Part-full circular pipes

y
v → for = 0,813
max D
y
Q = 1,087Q → for = 0,9495
max D D

K141 HYAE Open-channel hydraulics 8

 CRITICAL, SUB-CRITICAL AND SUPERCRITICAL FLOW
α v2 α Q2
Ed = y + =y+
2g 2 gS2
Ed – energy head of cross section
(specific energy)
Ed = f (y) → for Q = const.
Critical flow:
→ Q = const. → Edmin (Ed = const. → Qmax)
determination of minimum Ed = f (y)
y
Q = const. dEd α Q2 dS
sub-critical = 1− 3
=0
flow
dy g S dy
S = f (y) → dS = Bdy
critical flow
yk α Q2 B
supercritical flow 1- 3
=0
g S
Edmin Ed
K141 HYAE Open-channel hydraulics 9
 α Q 2 S3
= - general condition of critical flow ⇒ yk
g B

Determination of critical depth yk

a) from Ed = f(y) ⇒ Edmin ⇒ yk
b) from general condition - analytically
– possible only exceptionally: S = f (y), B = f (y)
Q
for rectangle: B = b, Sk = b ⋅ yk, specific discharge q =
2
b
α Q2 Sk3 α Q α 2
= = b2 yk3 ⇒ yk = 3 2
= 3 q
g Bk gb g
c) from general condition - graph.– numer.
d) iteratively (approximation)
e) empirical formulas

K141 HYAE Open-channel hydraulics 10

 Transition through critical depth

Q → yk → i k … e.g. from Chézy equation

Froud number - from general condition of critical flow
α Q2 B
=1
Fr2 g S3
application of continuity equation Q = B ys v, α ≈ 1 :
Q 2B v 2 y 2sB3 v2 v S
3
= 3 3
= = = Fr ys = - mean
gS gy sB gy s gy s B depth
Fr = 1 - critical flow

g ys ≅ vk → velocity of wave front on water level

K141 HYAE Open-channel hydraulics 11
 Determination of type of flow (regime of flow)

Flow Fr y v i
critical Fr = 1 y = yk v = vk i = ik
sub-critical Fr < 1 y > yk v < vk i < ik
supercritical Fr > 1 y < yk v > vk i > ik

K141 HYAE Open-channel hydraulics 12

 NON-UNIFORM FLOW
in direction of flow: depth increases → backwater curve
depth decreases → drawdown curve
Profile of free surface - example
backwater – subcritical flow drawdown – subcritical flow

i0 < ik i0 < ik
backwater – supercritical flow hydraulic jump

subcritical flow

i0 < ik

K141 HYAE Open-channel hydraulics 13

 sub-critical flow - backwater
supercritical flow - drawdown

sub-critical flow - drawdown

supercritical flow - backwater

K141 HYAE Open-channel hydraulics 14

Determination of free surface profile iE
ΔZ
Bernoulli equation 1 – 2: v1
i
v2 y y1
2
αv 12 αv 22
i0 ΔL + y1 + = y2 + + ΔZ i0
2g 2g
2 ΔL 1
i0 ΔL − (y 2 − y1 ) =
(α v −v
2
2
2
)
+ iE ΔL
1 ⇒ ΔL
2g

Expression of iE from Chézy equation:

v2 Q2
v = C R ⋅ iE ⇒ iE = 2 = 2 2
Cp ⋅ Rp Cp ⋅ S p ⋅ Rp

index p → values calculated from depth yp= 0,5(y1+y2)

(event. average of values in pf. 1 and 2)

K141 HYAE Open-channel hydraulics 15

 HYDRAULIC JUMP
– transition from supercritical to sub-critical flow

direct (with bottom regime) undular

Fr1 ≤ 2

yk
Ls Ls
practical significance:
kinetic energy dissipation bellow spillways, weirs, dams ...
→ stilling pool

K141 HYAE Open-channel hydraulics 16