ADAMA SCIENCE ANDTECHNOLOGY

UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL,
CHEMICAL & MATERIALS ENGINEERING
THERMAL ENGINEERING PROGRAM
Combustion (ThE 6206)
Kinetics of Combustion
Group members ID Number
1. Amanuel Shumeta Pgr/22405/13
2. Charan Tut Pgr/22264/13
3. Daniel Merga Pgr/21935/13
4. Kalkidan Mekonnen Pgr/22330/13
5. Merdokiyos Amare Pgr/22379/13

Submitted to: Dr. Dawit G.

ASTU, Adama, Ethiopia
April 2021

i
Contents
CHAPTER FOUR.......................................................................................................................................1
FLAMES.....................................................................................................................................................1
4.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................................1
4.2 Structure and propagation of flames in homogeneous gas mixture....................................................1
4.3 Simplified Rankine- Hugoniot relations............................................................................................2
4.3.1 Properties of Hugoniot curve......................................................................................................4
4.3.2 Analysis of detonation and deflagration branches.......................................................................5
4.3.3 Properties of Chapman Jouguet wave.........................................................................................5
4.4 Laminar pre-mixed flame..................................................................................................................6
4.4.1 Structure of laminar pre-mixed flames........................................................................................8
4.5 Theories of flame propagation and calculation of flame speed..........................................................9
4.5.1 Thermal theories of laminar flame speed and thickness calculation.........................................10
4.6 Flame speed measurements.............................................................................................................14
4.7 Stability limits of laminar flame......................................................................................................20
4.8 Gas Burner Design...........................................................................................................................21
4.8.1 Burner Types............................................................................................................................22
4.9 Flame Stabilization..........................................................................................................................23
4.9.1 Flame stabilization by burner rim.............................................................................................24
4.10 Flammability limits, flame quenching and quenching distance.....................................................25
4.11 Combustion of gaseous fuel jets....................................................................................................28
4.11.1 Physical description of gaseous fuel jet flame........................................................................28
4.11.2 Burke-Schumann jet diffusion flame......................................................................................29
Review question........................................................................................................................................32
Summary...................................................................................................................................................32
Reference...................................................................................................................................................33

ii
CHAPTER FOUR

FLAMES
4.1 Introduction
We know that rapid exothermic reaction occurs at a particular zone accompanied by visible light which
is known as flame zone or flame front. Generally the self-sustainable combustion zone moves at certain
velocity into unburnt fuel-air mixture is known as combustion wave.

Flame can be defined as a spatial domain in which rapid exothermic reaction occurs often-emitting light.
In flame propagation there will be a very drastic change in properties like temperature, mass fraction of
participating species of chemical reactions.

Flames are classified into: i) Diffusion flame and ii) Premixed flame.

In diffusion flames, the fuel and oxidizers are unmixed even up to flame surface they mixed only at the
combustion zone. Some examples of diffusion-based combustion are wood stoves, coal burners, gas
turbine combustors and solid and liquid propellant rocket engines.

In pre-mixed flame, fuel and oxidizers are mixed well at the molecular level before combustion takes
place. Examples of premixed flames are Bunsen burner, after burner in jet engine, LPG domestic burner,
spark ignition engine etc. In premixed flame combustion, the flame can be propagated with a particular
speed known as burning velocity.

Based on the velocity of combustion wave the premixed flame can be classified into i) Detonation
(supersonic speed) and ii) Deflagration (subsonic speed).

4.2 Structure and propagation of flames in homogeneous gas mixture

Let us consider a long tube which contains homogeneous combustible gaseous mixture. If ignition
energy is supplied at the one end, a combustion wave will propagate towards the other end, towards the
unburnt mixture. If the tube is, open at both ends combustion wave move at a
speed range of 20-340 cm/s depending up on the type of mixture and equivalence ratio.

The speed of the combustion wave is much less than the speed of sound. In this case, transport process
involves simultaneous conduction of heat and diffusion of radicals, which governs the

1
speed of combustion wave. The combustion wave is nothing but the flame and it is
subsonic hence it is called as Deflagration. Now if the tube containing combustible gaseous mixture is
closed at both ends and ignited, the combustion wave undergoes a transition from subsonic to supersonic
speed. This type of combustion wave (flame) is known as detonation. The speed of flame in detonation
is controlled by shock waves, which causes the temperature and pressure to increases to such an extent
that it can lead to explosion and large amount of energy is released during this process.

4.3 Simplified Rankine- Hugoniot relations

Let us consider a steady 1-dimensional flow with external heat transfer as shown in figure 1,

Figure 1: Steady 1-dimensional flow with external heat transfer

Let us presume that a chemical reaction coupled with a normal shock undergoes a transition from state 1
to state 2. Considering that the un-burnt gases flowing at a velocity exactly equal to its propagation
velocity oppose the propagating combustion wave, we will analyze this as steady1D combustion wave
using conservation equation at locations 1 and 2.

 Continuity; ρ1V1 = ρ2 V 2 = m= constant.

 Momentum; P1 + ρ1V12 = P2 + ρ2V22.
 Energy; Cp1T1+ V12/2 +q = Cp2T2+ V22/2.

State equation; P1= ρ1RT1; P2= ρ2RT2

Where P= pressure, V= velocity, ρ=density, T=temperature, m= mass flow rate, q=heat release rate per
unit mass and Cp= specific heat at constant pressure.

We need to evaluate V1, V2, P2, T2 and ρ2 using four independent equations. Combining continuity and
momentum equation,
2
 (ρ¿¿ 2 v ¿¿ 2)2 1 1 2
P2-P1 = ρ1V12 - ρ2V22 = ¿ ¿ - ¿ ¿, P2-P1 = ( - )m
ρ2 ρ1 ρ2

p 2−p 1
2
m =¿ = 1 1
( − )
ρ1 ρ 2

p 2−p 1
2
1
v1 = 2 1 1 ………………………………………………………1
ρ1 ( − )
ρ1 ρ 2

V1 P
M1 =
C1 √
, where, C1 = K 1 ¿ √ KR T 1
ρ1

Where M 1= Mach number, C= speed of sound

V 21 ( p ¿ ¿ 2− p1 )
2 1 ¿
M1 = P1 = 1 1 ………………………………………………2
K ρ1 ( − )K P1
ρ1 ρ1 ρ 2

p 2−p 1
2
1
Similarly, v = 2 1 1
2 …………………………………………….. 3
ρ2 ( − )
ρ1 ρ 2

V2
M2 =
C2

V 22 ( p ¿ ¿ 2− p1 )
2 1 ¿
M 2= P2 = 1 1 ………………………………………………4
K ρ2 ( − )K P2
ρ2 ρ1 ρ 2

Let us express q in terms of P, ρ, V, considering the gas to behave as perfect gas so

Cp
K= , Cp = KCva
Cv

R P KP
Cv = , P =ρRT, CpT = KCv ( )=
(K −1) ρR (K −1) ρ

V 22 V 21 K P 2 P1 1
q = Cp2T2- Cp1T1+ - = ( − ) + (V 22-V 21)……………………...…..5
2 2 (K −1) ρ2 ρ1 2

3
Combining equation1, 3 and 5

K P 2 P1 1 1 1
q= ( − ) + (P2-P1) ( + ) 6
(K −1) ρ2 ρ1 2 ρ 1 ρ2

Equation 6 is known as Rankine- Hugoniot relation. It is an important relation for deflagration and
detonation waves and can be used for flame and explosion phenomenon.

4.3.1 Properties of Hugoniot curve

Hugoniot curve is a graph showing variation of P2 against 1/ρ2 for constant heat release rate per unit
mass q, inlet pressure P1 and inlet density 1/ρ1.

Figure 2: Hugoniot curve

 The point (p1, 1/ρ1) in the plot is usually known as the origin of the Hugoniot curve designated as
‘O’.
 Two tangents passing through ‘O’ represents a family of solutions.
 For q=0 this curve passes through O’ representing the solution for simple normal shock wave
(OX & OY) referred as shock Hugoniot.
 The horizontal and vertical lines through O’ are constant pressure and specific volume lines.
4
  These lines divide the curve in to two regions X, and Y. Further, it is divided in to 5 sub regions
by two tangent points U and L.
 The tangent points in the upper region U and lower region L are called Upper Chapman
Jouguet point (C-J point) and lower C-J point.

4.3.2 Analysis of detonation and deflagration branches

V 21 ( p ¿ ¿ 2−p 1) ρ1
2
1 ¿
Let us call back the equation M 1 = P1 = 2 1 1 which can reveal behavior of M1 for
K ρ 1 ( − ) K P1
ρ1 ρ 1 ρ 2

regions X, Y and Z.

From figure 2,

 In region X, P2 is much greater than P1 and 1/ρ2 is much less than 1/ρ1 hence M 21≫ 1 hence,
supersonic flow prevails in this region. It is known as detonation region
 In region Y pressure P2<<P1 and 1/ ρ2 ≫ 1/ ρ1 so, Mach number is less than unity Hence,
subsonic flow prevails in this this region known as deflagration wave region.
 In region, Z the numerator of the equation positive and denominator is negative; hence, M 1 is
imaginary here. It is considered as physically impossible region.

4.3.3 Properties of Chapman Jouguet wave

Let us consider figure 2,

 In region I Pressure of burned gas P2> Pressure of C-J detonation wave (PU) -Strong detonation
observed as gas velocity relative to wave front is slowed from supersonic speed to subsonic, but
pressure and density increases significantly. From the equation, M1 → ∞ as P2 → ∞ and this will
be rarely observed in practice.
 In region II Pressure of burned gas P2< Pressure of C-J detonation wave (PU) weak detonation
likely to occur. It is observed that gas velocity relative to wave front is slowed
down. However, burned gas velocity is greater than speed of sound hence from the equation
weak detonation attains infinite wave velocity at isochoric condition, which is physically
unattainable. Wave velocity at CJ point attains a minimum value as straight line through will not
intersect detonation branch anywhere if the magnitude of its slope is less than that of tangent.
 Region III is unattainable in practice, hence shown in dotted line.
 Lower C-J point occurs in region IV corresponds to maximum wave velocity among all
deflagration. It is weak deflagration region because the gas velocity relative to the wave front is
5
 increased from lower subsonic velocity to higher subsonic velocity. In this region, P 2 lays
between P1 and PL while specific volume I/ρ2 is less than the specific volume at lower C-J point.
 In this region from equation, it is observed that zero propagation velocity is attained for weak
isobaric deflagration. Such a phenomenon likely to occur in most experimental
conditions.
 In region V the gas velocity relative to wave front must accelerated from subsonic to supersonic
hence this region known as strong deflagration region. Strong deflagration is never observed in
practice.

4.4 Laminar pre-mixed flame

Pre mixed flame a combustion wave in which fuel and oxidizers are well mixed before combustion takes
place at molecular level. Some of examples of premixed flame are laboratory Bunsen burner, domestic
burner, jet engine afterburner. Let us consider Bunsen burner as shown in figure below

Figure: 4.3 Bunsen burner

The fuel enters into the burner at its base and eject out from fuel orifice in the form of jet and the fuel jet
drags air along with it through air holes provided in the tube. Air and fuel mixes thoroughly in the tube
before they get burnt. If the flow velocity is considered to be laminar, a parabolic velocity profile can
be formed at the exit of the burner and conical flame will be established at the tube mouth.

6
The flame shape is governed by velocity profile and heat loss to the burner rim. Figure 4.4 below shows
luminous zone of the flame and it is a portion of the flame in which temperature is high and has several
radicals to emit radiation. The flame emits radiation bandwidth at the range of 3300- 4400 A (10-10m).
Some chemical reaction and its heat release occur below the luminous conical region. Below luminous
zone there is a dark zone within which unburned gases are heated to the critical temperature at which
reactions are initiated. In luminous zone much of the chemical reaction takes place with heat release. As
a result highest temperature attained in this zone. The color of the luminous zone depends on air-fuel
ratio. For hydrocarbon fuel if it is lean flame then, it appears blue because of complete combustion and
gas molecules get ionized.

a) b)

Fig 4.4 a) luminous and dark zones of simple laminar premixed flame of Bunsen burner

b) Blue flame color of hydrocarbon lean mixture fuel, which emits radiation

As the air mass fraction decreased beyond the stoichiometric ratio, the cone surface appears green and
further decrease in oxygen concentration, the color of the cone turns to deep violet. If the F/A mixture is
richer, an intense yellow flame can be seen it is due to the presence of solid carbon particles known as
soot.

7
Laminar flame need not be stationary as in Bunsen burner and it may propagate freely when initiated in
a tube containing combustible fuel-air mixture.

4.4.1 Structure of laminar pre-mixed flames

The flame structure can be characterized by temperature, heat release rate and species profiles. The
flame can be divided into three zones namely

i) Preheat Zone

ii) Reaction zone and

iii) Recombination Zone

Figure 4.5 1D structure of laminar pre-mixed flame of hydrocarbon fuel

Preheat zone is a flame zone at which certain chemical reaction takes place with negligible amount of
heat is released and fuel-air mixture is prepared to be burned in the subsequent reaction zone.

Reaction zone is a flame zone at which most of the chemical energy in the form of heat is released due
to chemical reaction and decomposition of fuel occurs in which intermediate species like H 2

8
,CH,O,H,OH,CO are consumed. The reaction zone is very thin as compared to the preheat zone.
Temperature gradient and concentration gradient of species are very large which make the flame to be
self-sustained.

Re-combination zone is one of the flame zones in which recombination reactions involving radicals
occur leading to formation of CO 2 and H 2O with almost no heat is release.

4.5 Theories of flame propagation and calculation of flame speed

Flame propagation refers to the propagation of the reaction zone or “combustion wave” through a
combustible mixture. When the transport of heat and active species (free radicals) have initiated
chemical reaction in the adjacent layer of the combustible mixture, the layer itself becomes the source of
heat and radicals and is then capable of initiating reaction in the next layer. A quantitative theory of
flame propagation must be based on the transfer of heat and mass from the reaction zone to the unburned
mixture.

There are several theories that attempt to predict pre-mixed laminar flame propagation speed:

1. Thermal theories: energy transfer to an unburned mixture is the controlling mechanism in flame
propagation

2. Diffusion theories: Mass transfer (particularly of chain carriers) is the controlling mechanism in
flame propagation

3. Comprehensive theories: combination of the two above models.

Form all the three thermal theories of flame propagation speed analysis is chosen for further study as it
is simple and easier to understand.

4.5.1 Thermal theories of laminar flame speed and thickness calculation

I. Flame speed

The main objective of this analysis is to derive a simple analytical expression for laminar burning or
flame velocity. Flame velocity depends on:

 fuel type
9
  fuel-oxidant mass ratio (equivalence ratio)

 initial temperature of combustible mixture

 pressure

 flow pattern

 geometry of system
Assumptions
Fick's law states that diffusion is
 1D, steady, in-viscid flow. proportional to both the surface area
 Flame is quite thin. and concentration difference and is
inversely proportional to the thickness
 Ignition temperature is very close to flame temperature.
of the membrane.
 No heat loss including radiation; adiabatic flame.
 Pressure difference across the flame is negligibly small.
 Binary diffusion, Fourier and Fick’s law are valid.
 Unity Lewis number.(Le=thermal diffusion rate(α)/ mass diffusion rate(D) =1; α=D)
 Constant transport properties (K, Cp μ, D ≈ constant)

The governing equation for simulating 1D premixed laminar flame is continuity, species and energy
conservation. No need of momentum equation as pressure assumed to be constant across the flame.

d ˙
Mass conservation;
dx
( ρ V x ) =0 → ṁ=(ρ V x )=constant 7

dT d2T 0
Energy equation; ρ V x C p =K 2 − ∑ h f ṁ i 8
dx dx

Global reaction mechanism: F + v (O) → (v+1) P

Where V x =flame speed along x direction and ρ=gas density

C p=specific h eat capacity

10
 dT
= temperature gradient along x direction
dx

K = thermal conductivity

h0f = enthalpy of formation

ṁ=mass flow rate per unit area

ṁi=mass flow rate Of i species per unit volume

The chemical reaction [F + v (O) → (v+1) P] states that 1 kg of fuel reacts with v kg of oxidizer to
produce (v+1) kg of products

The term ∑ h0f ṁi = ṁF ∆ H C is heat release due ¿ chemicalreaction

Where; ∆ H C =h eat of combustion

ṁ F =mass flow rate of flame Per unit volume

Now energy equation for preheat zone becomes;

dT d2T
ρ V x Cp =K −ṁ F ∆ H C 9
dx d x2

Boundary conditions for pre heat zone

dT
 x=−∞; T =T u ; =0
dx
dT
 x=+ ∞ ; T =T F ; =0
dx
Where; T u=Temperature of unburned fuel
T F =temperature of flame
 Reaction rate in preheat zone is negligibly small as temperature is very small

11
 Figure 4.6 Temperature and concentration profiles, schematically for a lean mixture

By neglecting reaction rate in the preheat zone the energy equation can be written as;

dT d2T
ρV x C p =K 10
dx d x2

Integrating equation of energy for pre-heat zone, we get temperature gradient at ignition point as;

dT ṁC p
= (T i−T u) 11
dx T i K

Where T i= temperature at ignition point

Boundary condition for reaction zone;

dT
 x=−∞; T =T u ; =0
dx
 x=x i ; T =T i ;

And energy equation for reaction zone can be written as;

d2T
k ¿ ṁF ∆ H C
d x2

Note that in reaction zone convection can be neglected as T i is almost equal to T F

dT ṁ ∆ H C dT
dT ¿) = F
dx K

12
It is a second order nonlinear differential equation hence, integrating above equation from T i to T F we
have;

T 0.5
dT 2 HC
[ ]
F

dx T = ∫ ṁ dT 12
i K T F i

Combining equation 11 and equation 12, we have,

TF 0.5
ṁC p
K
( T i−T u )=
2HC
[
∫ ṁ dT
K T F i
]
T 0.5
k 2 HC
[ ]
F

ṁ=¿ × ∫ ṁ dT 13
C p (T i−T u) K T F i

It is also known that ṁ=¿ ρu S L

Now, if the temperature difference (T i−T u ) is assumed approximately equal to 0.75 (T F −T u) then,
Expression for laminar flame burning speed S L becomes

T 0.5
4k 2 HC
[ ]
F

S L= × ∫ ṁ dT
ρu C p 3(T F −T u) K T F i

Average fuel burning rate per unit volume is given

TF
1
ṁ´ F = ∫ ṁ F dT 14
(T F −T u) T u

Then, burning velocity is given by

0.5
32 α
S L=
[
9 ρu
( v +1) ṁ´ F
] 15

II. Flame thickness

Let us define flame thickness by considering temperature profile of 1D pre-mixed laminar flame

13
 Figure 4.7 Flame thickness based of temperature profile

It is seen that temperature increases from un-burnt gas and its slope at inflexion point to attain maximum
(flame) temperature. So flame thickness can be defined as the ratio of maximum
temperature difference (T F −T u) to the temperature gradient at inflexion point.

(T F −T u)
δ L= 16
dT /dx i

Ignition temperature approximated as T i=0.75T F +0.25T u

Then the temperature gradient at inflexion point can be written as

dT 3˙mC p
= (T F −T u) 17
dx T i 4K

4k 1
Therefore the expression for flame thickness (δ L ¿ can be written as δ L = . Since ṁ = ρu S L and
3C p ṁ
4 α
δ L=
k 3 SL
α= hence
ρC p

4.6 Flame speed measurements

For a long time, there was no interest in flame speed measurements. Sufficient data and understanding
were thought to be at hand. However, as lean burn conditions became popular in spark ignition engines,
the flame speed of lean limits became important. Thus, interest has been rekindled in measurement
techniques. Flame velocity has been defined as the velocity at which the unburned gases move through
the combustion wave in a direction normal to the wave surface.

14
 Figure 8: Velocity and temperature variations through non-one-dimensional flame systems (Irvin
Glassman et al. 2008).

If, in an infinite plane flame, the flame is regarded as stationary and a particular flow tube of gas is
considered, the area of the flame enclosed by the tube does not depend on how the term “flame surface
or wave surface” in which the area is measured is defined. The areas of all parallel surfaces are the
same, whatever property (particularly temperature) is chosen to define the surface; and these areas are
all equal to each other and to that of the inner surface of the luminous part of the flame. The definition is
more difficult in any other geometric system. Consider, for example, an experiment in which gas is
supplied at the center of a sphere and flows radially outward in a laminar manner to a stationary
spherical flame. The inward movement of the flame is balanced by the outward flow of gas.

If the burning velocity is defined as the volume of unburned gas consumed per second divided by the
surface area of the flame, the result obtained will depend on the particular surface selected. The only
quantity that does remain constant in this system is the productur ρr A r, where ur is the velocity of flow at
the radius r, where the surface area is Ar , and the gas density is ρr . This product equalsm r , the mass
flowing through the layer at r per unit time, and must be constant for all values of r. Thus, ur varies with
r the distance from the center in the manner shown in Fig. above.

If an attempt is made to define burning velocity strictly for such a system, it is found that no definition
free from all possible objections can be formulated. Moreover, it is impossible to construct a definition
that will, of necessity, determine the same value as that found in an experiment using a plane flame.
15
The essential difficulties are as follow: (1) over no range of r values does the linear velocity of the gas
have even an approximately constant value and (2) in this ideal system, the temperature varies
continuously from the center of the sphere outward and approaches the flame surface asymptotically as r
approaches infinity.

In the figure 8u x, the velocity of gas flow at x for a plane flame, is plotted on the same scale against x,
the space coordinate measured normal to the flame front. It is assumed that over the main part of the
rapid temperature rise, ur and u x coincide. This correspondence is likely to be true if the curvature of the
flame is large compared with the flame thickness. The burning velocity is then, strictly speaking, the
value to which u x approaches asymptotically as x approaches -∞. However, because the temperature of
the unburned gas varies exponentially with x, the value of u x becomes effectively constant only a very
short distance from the flame. The value of ur on the low-temperature side of the spherical flame will
not at any point be as small as the limiting value of u x. In fact, the difference, although not zero, will
probably not be negligible for such flames. This value of ur could be determined using the formula:

ur =m̍ / ρr A r 18

Since the layer of interest is immediately on the unburned side of the flame, ρr will be close to ρu , the
density of the unburned gas, and m /ρ will be close to the volume flow rate of unburned gas. So, to
obtain, in practice, a value for burning velocity close to that for the plane flame, it is necessary to locate
and measure an area as far on the unburned side of the flame as possible.

The following methods have been most widely used to observe the flame:

a. The luminous part of the flame is observed, and the side of this zone, which is toward the
unburned gas, is used for measurement (direct photograph).
b. A shadowgraph picture is taken (derivative of density gradient).
c. A Schlieren picture is taken (density gradient).
d. Interferometry (a less frequently used method).

Various experimental configurations used for flame speeds may be classified under the following
methods:

1. Burner method

16
In this method premixed gases flow up a jacketed cylindrical tube long enough to ensure streamline flow
at the mouth. The gas burns at the mouth of the tube, and the shape of the Bunsen cone is recorded and
measured by various means and in various ways. When shaped nozzles are used instead of long tubes,
the flow is uniform instead of parabolic and the cone has straight edges. Because of the complicated
flame surface, the different procedures used for measuring the flame cone have led to different results.
The burning velocity is not constant over the cone. The velocity near the tube wall is lower because of
cooling by the walls. Thus, there are lower temperatures, which lead to lower reaction rates and,
consequently, lower flame speeds. The top of the cone is crowded owing to the large energy release;
therefore, reaction rates are too high.

It has been found that 30% of the internal portion of the cone gives a constant flame speed when related
to the proper velocity vector, thereby giving results comparable with other methods. Actually, if one
measures flame speed at each point, one will see that it varies along every point for each velocity vector,
so it is not really constant.

Experiments have led many investigators to use the Schlieren cone as the most suitable one for flame
speed evaluation. Many experimenters use the shadow cone because it is much simpler than the
Schlieren techniques. Moreover, because the shadow is on the
cooler side, it certainly gives more correct results than the visible cone. However, the flame cone can act
as a lens in shadow measurements, causing uncertainties to arise with respect to the proper cone size
(Irvin Glassman et al., 2008).

Figure 9: Velocity vectors in Bunsen core flame (Irvin Glassman et al. 2008).

17
Some investigators have concentrated on the central portion of the cone only, focusing on the volume
flow through tube radii corresponding to this portion.

S L=u u sinα . 19

Where, S L is flame speed

2. Cylindrical tube method

In this method, a gas mixture is placed in a horizontal tube opened at one end; then the mixture is ignited
at the open end of the tube. The rate of progress of the flame into the unburned gas is the flame speed.
The difficulty with this method is that, owing to buoyancy effects, the flame front is curved. Then the
question arises as to which flame area to use. The flame area is no longer a
geometric image of the tube; if it is hemispherical. Closer observation also reveals quenching at the wall.
Therefore, the unaffected center mixes with an affected peripheral area.

Because a pressure wave is established by the burning (recall that heating causes pressure change), this
pressure wave causes a velocity in the unburned gases, so one must account for this movement.
Therefore, since the flame is in a moving gas, this velocity must be subtracted from the measured value.
Moreover, friction effects downstream generate a greater pressure wave; therefore, length can have an
effect.

3. Soap bubble method

In an effort to eliminate wall effects, two spherical methods were developed. In the one discussed here,
the gas mixture is contained in a soap bubble and ignited at the center by a spark so that a spherical
flame spreads radially through the mixture. Because the gas is enclosed in a soap film, the pressure
remains constant. The growth of the flame front along a radius is followed by some photographic means.
Because, at any stage of the explosion, the burned gas behind the flame occupies a larger volume than it
did as unburned gas, the fresh gas into which the flame is burning moves outward. Then

amount of material

( )
that must go into increase v ¿ olume ¿ =velocity observed
flame
¿

S L=u r ( ρ f / ρ o ) 20

18
The great disadvantage is the large uncertainty in the temperature ratio T f / T o necessary to obtain ρ f / ρo.
Other disadvantages are the facts that (1) the method can only be used for fast flames to avoid the
convective effect of hot gases and (2) the method cannot work with dry mixtures.

4. Closed spherical bomb method

The bomb method is quite similar to the bubble method except that the constant volume condition
causes a variation in pressure. One must, therefore, follow the pressure simultaneously with the flame
front. As in the soap bubble method, only fast flames can be used because the adiabatic compression of
the unburned gases must be measured in order to calculate the flame speed.

The following expression has been derived for the flame speed (Flock et al. 1940).

R3−r 3 dp dr
[
S L= 1−
]
3 P γ u dr dt
21

Where R is the sphere radius and r is the radius of spherical flames at any moment. The fact that the
second term in the brackets is close to one makes it difficult to attain high accuracy.

5. Flat plate burner method

By placing either a porous metal disk or a series of small tubes (1mm or less in diameter) at the exit of
the larger flow tube, one can create suitable conditions for flat flames. The flame is usually ignited with
a high flow rate, and then the flow or composition is adjusted until the flame is flat. Next, the diameter
of the flame is measured, and the area is divided into the volume flow rate of unburned gas. If the
velocity emerging is greater than the flame speed, one obtains a cone due to the larger flame required. If
velocity is too slow, the flame tends to flash back and is quenched. In order to accurately define the
edges of the flame, an inert gas is usually flowed around the burners.

By controlling the rate of efflux of burned gases with a grid, a more stable flame is obtained.

19
 Figure 10: flat plate burner apparatus (Powling et al. 1949).

4.7 Stability limits of laminar flame

There are two types of stability criteria associated with laminar flames. The first is concerned with the
ability of the combustible fuel–oxidizer mixture to support flame propagation and is strongly related to
the chemical rates in the system. In this case a point can, be reached for a given limit mixture ratio in
which the rate of reaction and its subsequent heat release are not sufficient to sustain reaction and, thus,
propagation. This type of stability limit includes (1) flammability limits in which gas-phase losses of
heat from limit mixtures reduce the temperature, rate of heat release, and the heat feedback, so that the
flame is not permitted to propagate and (2) quenching distances in which the loss of heat to a wall and
radical quenching at the wall reduce the reaction rate so that it cannot sustain a flame in a confined
situation such as propagation in a tube. The other type of stability limit is associated with the mixture
flow and its relationship to the laminar flame itself. This stability limit, which includes the phenomena
of flashback, blow off, and the onset of turbulence, describes the limitations of stabilizing a laminar
flame in a real experimental situation (Irvin Glassman et al., 2008).

4.8 Gas Burner Design

Gas Burner is a device which enables a chemical reaction of fuel and oxidizer (usually Oxygen from air)
to produce heat in a controlled way such as wall hung boilers storage, water heater ,cookers, decorative
fireplaces, hot air generator, washer heater or dryer etc., for industrial application.

A burner design cannot be developed without insight on:

 Air / fuel ratio – atmospheric vs premix

 Modulation range
 Reaction chemistry influence
20
  Temperature effect (quenching of flame, external cooling or heating elements )

From this we see some of:

Reaction chemistry influence: It is possible to affect chemistry directly introducing catalytic

elements .It is possible to accelerate or delaying the completeness of the reactions affecting the
residential time inside a combustion chamber / HE Switching from laminar to turbulent fluid dynamics.

Temperature effect: It is possible to accelerate or delaying the completeness of the

reactions introducing or removing heat to the reacting flow ( e.g steel or ceramic rod into the flame).The
combustion chamber wall and/or the HE too close to the flame front, or any element that move/transfer
heat from the combustion area to the surrounding HAS a deep impact on the emissions. The weight of
conduction, convection and radiation changes according to the mode of working of the burner.

A burner may operate from blue flame mode to radiation mode

Figure 11: Burner operate with effect of temperature

4.8.1 Burner Types

A, Premix:

 Fan powered so that the fuel/air ratio can be carefully controlled.

 Run lean (≥20%) with NOX emissions < 45 mg/kWh
 Typically produce short intense blue flames
 Short reaction zones and the highest burning velocities hence the smallest residence times & high
efficiencies

21
 Figure 12: A, Premix type of burner B, Atmospheric type

B, Atmospheric:

 Most common type of domestic burner (tube arrays, blade assemblies), low cost manufacture
with little maintenance.
 Partially premixing (air entrained into gas stream before burner) to lower flame temperature.
 Run on a rich/air mix to form inner combustion zone, preventing thermal NOx with low O
concentration.
 Tend to give relatively large flame volumes giving longer residence times for production NOx to
occur

C, Bunsen burner:

This burner invented by Robert Bunsen who established premixed flame for the first time in history. It
develops a conical stationary flame. This was accomplished by having the premixed air and gas issue
from a long narrow tube or barrel under positive pressure before being lit. If the width and length of the
tube are properly selected, the flame will not propagate down the tube and the necessity of using a wire
safety screen is eliminated. A side benefit was that the burner also provided a hotter, more concentrated
flame for conventional laboratory use. . [Jones H.R.N. , Domestic gas burner design , British Gas]

22
 Figure 13: Bunsen’s original burner (1)

4.9 Flame Stabilization

We know that combustion wave travels at a speed of burning velocity the task of the designer is to
contain the flame inside the combustor and flame will be stabilized if premixed gas flows in a direction
opposite to the flame motion with the same velocity. However such flame can have natural stability if
positions can be shifted in an uncontrolled manner. Let us consider a Bunsen burner as shown in figure
14.

Figure 14: Bunsen burner

When the unburnt mixture velocity increased beyond the burning velocity for a particular F/A ratio, the
flame cone formed, the cone angle increases with increase of flow velocity and further increase of
velocity to certain threshold value, the flame gets lifted off and stabilized further downstream from the
burner rim. Further increase in flow velocity the lift off height increases until the flame moves away
from the domain of interest, this critical flow rate of mixture at which the flame blow off is termed as
the Blow-off limit. In contrast, if the flow velocity decreases gradually below the burning velocity for a

23
particular A/F ratio, the flame propagates in to the burner without being quenched, this flow rate of
mixture at which the flame flashes back into the burner is called as flashback limit. In premixed flame,
burner flashback must be avoided as it poses problem of safety hazard.

4.9.1 Flame stabilization by burner rim

We know that flame can be stabilized in the Bunsen burner even at higher flow velocities beyond the
burning velocity for particular A/F ratio, the actual effect for flame stabilization even at higher flow
velocity is due to heat loss and radical loss to burner rim,
which reduces the burning velocity and leads to flame stabilization. A laminar velocity profile can be
obtained at low Reynolds number.

a) Stable b) Flashback c) Blow-off

Figure 15: Flow velocity profile and burning velocity profile near the burner rim
The burning velocity is almost flat except at the rim where it decreases to zero; in case of stable
flame local flow velocity is almost same in magnitude but opposite in direction to the burning
velocity, when the flow velocity is less than the burning velocity the flame enters in to the
burner leading to flash back [Irvin Glassman Richard et al., 2006]

4.10 Flammability limits, flame quenching and quenching distance

A) Flammability limit

Fuel-oxidizers mixture ratio the flame cannot be self-sustained after the ignition source is removed. That
means flame can propagate only within range of fuel oxidizer ratio, which is called Limit mixture. The
leanest and richest mixture ratios that produce self-sustainable flame are known as lean and rich
flammability limits respectively. to determine flammability limits there is an experiment, a vertical
tube of 1.2 m length and 50 mm ID is recommended as per API standard as shown in figure 16.

24
 Figure 16: Flammability limit measuring instrument

The spark igniter is located at the bottom to ignite the mixture, the flammability limits of a mixture can
be determined by observing whether the flame can propagate from ignition
source upward or not. Generally, the mixture is considered flammable only if it travels
more than half of the tube, and the longer tube is preferred to judge the flame movement
with sufficient time. It can be seen from the above graph that the flammability limits are
broadened with increase in temperature, this is because of increase of reaction rates and leads to
enhancement of burning velocity.

Effect of Pressure on Limit Mixture; Pressure has significant effects on flammability limits.

Figure 17: Effect of Pressure on flammability limits.

25
From the above figure, Lean side is not much affected by pressure and flammability limit for rich
mixture becomes much wider with increase in pressure.

B) Flame Quenching: If flame need to be propagated, the energy released due to

reaction must maintain sufficient temperature so that self-sustained exothermic reaction can proceed
easily. If the passage way is too small, the heat transfer is quite high
which reduces the temperature and the reaction rate. Hence, there will be decrease in energy release rate
and temperature drops below self-ignition temperature leading to
flame extinction. This is known as flame quenching.

C) Quenching diameter: The critical diameter of a circular tube below which flame cannot propagate
rather gets quenched.

D) Quenching distance: The critical distance between two flat plates below which the
flame cannot propagate, and determines such parameters as the spacing in flame arrestors or the amount
of unburned fuel left in the walls of an engine cylinder. Here, a simple analysis is used to determine the
quenching distance. Let us consider a flame propagating into a channel with two walls separated by a
distance d o in a two-dimensional region with unity depth as illustrated in figure 18.

Figure 18: Left: Sketch of a premixed flame propagating in a channel separated by two walls
with distance,d o . Right: temperature profile.

To determine the Quenching distance we use energy balance as follow:

Energy generated by the flame:

^
Q̇ generation=V . Q̇' '' =δ L . d o 1. ṙ^ fuel . Q̇ 22
C

Energy loss via walls:

26
 T p−T w
Q̇ loss=2δ L .1 . k 23
do

The criterion for flame quenching is Q̇ loss ≥ Q̇ generation. By setting,Q̇ loss ¿ Q̇ generation
we have:
T p −T w ^
2 δ L . 1. k = δ L . d o 1. ṙ^ fuel . Q̇
do C

Solving for, d o :

2 k (T p−T w )
do=
√ ^
ṙ^ fuel . Q̇ C
24

Where:T p and T w are temperature of combustion product and temperature of the wall
ṙ^ fuel -rate of fuel consumption
^ -rate of heat of combustion
Q̇ C

K-thermal conductivity

δ L – Flame thickness

The above equation is quenching distance (d o ¿.

4.11 Combustion of gaseous fuel jets

Gaseous diffusion flame can be established easily in a Bunsen burner by closing the air vent or by
passing fuel and air in two parallel concentric streams, this is another configuration used very often for
flame studies in laboratories is opposed jet diffusion flame. Jet diffusion flames are encountered in gas
fired furnaces, cooking oven, incinerator, etc. The heating rate, efficiency and emission of diffusion
flame for a particular combustion device depends on the shape and size of jet diffusion flame, its
emission level, and temperature across flame

27
4.11.1 Physical description of gaseous fuel jet flame

Figure 19: a, general co-flow configurations of fuel jet flame b, Physical description of jet flame

The fuel diffuses radially outward while oxidizer diffuses radially inward, the fuel and oxidizer get
mixed at certain location where flame is being established once it is ignited, but there is region which is
unaffected by the mixing, which is known as potential core. At the downstream, more and more fuel
diffuses towards oxidizer stream and oxidizer burns the fuel, As a result no fuel can be found at the
downstream of the flame, because there is finite supply of fuel jet and infinite oxidizer supply. If there is
an ignition source, the fuel and oxidizer attain auto
ignition temperature and flame is established, at the interface of mixing fuel and oxidizer, the flame
surface is considered to be established at location where fuel and oxidizer meet in stoichiometric
proportion. In other words the flame surface corresponds to the location of points where the equivalence
ratio is equal to unity, the reaction zone occurs in an annular region inside the flame surface, and It can
be tested by inserting a paper in to the flame which will burn in annular shape. Only the shape of the
burning laminar fuel jet depends on the mixture strength. If in a concentric configuration the volumetric
flow rate of air flowing in the outer annulus is in excess of the stoichiometric amount required for the
volumetric flow rate of the inner fuel jet, the flame that develops takes a closed, elongated form. As
shown in figure an upper region of vertical flame contains sufficient quantity of hot gases due to that
buoyancy force the cone shape to the flame and these types of having upward conical flame is called as
over-ventilated flame. In this excess air is available in the surrounding for the complete combustion of
fuel, as a result the flame boundary converges towards the axis and takes the shape of closed conical
flame if the air is not sufficient for complete combustion, then the flame surface is expanded towards

28
outer wall resulting in an inverted conical flame as shown in fig below is known as under-ventilated
flame.

4.11.2 Burke-Schumann jet diffusion flame

When a jet of fuel is issued into a tube, the amount of oxidizer available for combustion is controlled by
the volumetric flow rate of the surrounding fluids. Unlike a jet issued into an infinite surrounding fluid,
the entrainment of oxidizer into the jet is limited.

Such a flame is sketched in figure 20. Where r fuel and r tube are the radii of the inner fuel jet and the outer
tube respectively. In this particular confined flame, the volumetric flow rates of the fuel and surrounding
fluid are fixed, while the oxygen content ( y o2) of the surrounding fluid is varied to create different flame
shapes, the shape of the jet flame depends on the oxidizer content in the co-flowing fluids between r fuel
and r tube .

Let us consider different situations for a general hydrocarbon/oxygen system such as:

Figure 20: Burke-Schumann diffusion flame

The content of oxygen in the surrounding fluids is

varied by adjusting the ratio

X N2 (= 3.76 for air), where xi denotes the mole fraction of

X O2

the i-th species in a chemical reaction, the surrounding fluids will be referred to as the oxidizer stream.

β γ β β γ
( )
C α H β O β + α + − ( O 2+3.76 N 2 ) → α CO2 + H 2 O+3.76 α + −
4 2 2 4 2( ) R1

The mass fraction of oxygen in the oxidizer stream is:

29
 MO
y o2= 2
25
M O +3.76 M N
2 2

The stoichiometric oxygen/fuel ratio (OFR st ) based on moles (volume) is:

ṅ o2 V̇ oxidizer β γ
OFR st = ( ) (
ṅfuel sto
=
V̇ fuel st ) (
= α+ −
4 2 ) 26

The oxygen/fuel ratio (OFR) based on molar (volumetric) flow rate is:

V̇ oxidizer
OFR= ( )(
ṅ o 2
ṅ fuel
= V̇ fuel
1+3.76
) 27

Different flame shapes are developed depending on the ratio OFR/OFR st as

follows:

1) When OFR/OFR st >1, the oxidizer stream supplies more oxygen than needed for stoichiometric
combustion. The flame is called “over ventilated” and it has a shape similar to a free jet flame, as

V̇ oxidizer
all the fuel will be consumed. In figure 20, the ratio is fixed, and over ventilated flames
V̇ fuel
is developed when y o2 > 0.66.
2) When OFR/OFR st =1, the oxidizer stream supplies just the right amount of oxygen for
stoichiometric combustion. The flame surface becomes parallel to the axial direction as seen in
Fig. with y o2 = 0.66.
3) WhenOFR/OFR st <1, the oxidizer stream supplies less oxygen than needed
for stoichiometric combustion. The flame is called “under ventilated” and it has
a shape similar to the mouth of a trumpet, as not all the fuel is consumed. In Fig., the ratio

V̇ oxidizer
is fixed and under-ventilated flames are developed when y o2 < 0.66.
V̇ fuel

Example1 Determine the flame shape of a methane Burke-Schumann diffusion

flame with air as the oxidizer stream. The volumetric flow rates are V̇ oxidizer = 23cc/s

and V̇ fuel = 5cc/s. The fuel and oxidizer streams have the same temperature and
pressure.
30
 Solution:

V̇ oxidizer 23
OFR= ( )(
ṅ o 2
ṅ fuel
= )
V̇ fuel = 5 =0.996
1+3.76 4.76

ṅ o2 β γ 4
OFR st = ( ) (
ṅfuel sto 4 2 )
= α + − = 1+ – 0 = 2
4

Since OFR/OFR st < 1, the flame is under ventilated.

Review question

Summary
We know that rapid exothermic reaction occurs at a particular zone accompanied by visible light, which
is known as flame zone or flame front. Generally the self-sustainable combustion zone moves at certain
velocity into unburnt fuel-air mixture is known as combustion wave. Flame can be defined as a spatial
domain in which rapid exothermic reaction occurs often-emitting light. When combustion flame moves
with sub sonic speed is termed as deflagration. When combustion flame moves with supersonic speed is
termed as detonation. Considering that the un-burnt gases flowing at a velocity exactly equal to its
propagation velocity oppose the propagating combustion wave, we will analyze this as steady1D
combustion wave using conservation equation. Hugoniot curve is a graph showing variation of P 2
against 1/ρ2 for constant heat release rate per unit mass q, inlet pressure P1 and inlet density 1/ρ1. Air and
fuel mixes thoroughly in the tube before they are burnt. If the flow velocity is considered laminar, a
parabolic velocity profile can be formed at the exit of the burner and conical flame will be established at
the tube mouth. Flame propagation refers to the propagation of the reaction zone or “combustion wave”
through a combustible mixture. Various experimental configurations used for flame speeds may be
classified under the following methods: burner method, cylindrical tube method, soap bubble method,
closed spherical bomb method and flat plate burner method. There are two types of stability criteria
associated with laminar flames. The first is concerned with the ability of the combustible fuel–oxidizer
mixture to support flame propagation and the second is associated with the mixture flow and its
relationship to the laminar flame itself. Gas Burner is a device which enables a chemical reaction of fuel
and oxidizer (usually Oxygen from air) to produce heat in a controlled way. Gaseous diffusion flame can
be established easily in a Bunsen burner by closing the air vent or by passing fuel and air in two parallel

31
concentric streams, this is another configuration used very often for flame studies in laboratories is
opposed jet diffusion flame.

Reference
1) Abramzon, B., Sirignano, W. A. Droplet Vaporization Model for Spray Combustion Calculations, Int.J. Heat
Mass Transfer, (1989).
2) Aggarwal, S. K., Peng, F. A Review of Droplet Dynamics and Vaporization Modeling For Engineering
Calculations, Journal Of Engineering For Gas Turbines And Power, Vol. 117, (1995).
3) Flock , E. S. , Marvin , C. S. Jr. , Caldwell , F. R. , and Roeder , C. H., NACA Rep. (1940).
4) Irvin Glassman Richard A. Yetter, “Combustion”, Fourth Edition (2008).
5) J. Warnatz, U. Maas, R.W. Dibble,“Combustion” Physical and Chemical Fundamentals, Modeling And
Simulation, Experiments, Pollutant Formation, 4th Edition ,(2006).
6) Jones H.R.N. , Domestic Gas Burner Design , British Gas (1995).
7) Powling , J. , Fuel, 25 ( 1949 ).
8) Sara-Mcallister Jyh-Yuanchen and A. Carlos Fernandez-Pello “Fundamentals of Combustion
Processes”, Fourth Edition (2011).

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