Guide To Instruments and Methods of Observation: Volume IV - Space-Based Observations

Guide to Instruments and Methods of
Observation
Volume IV – Space-based Observations
2018 edition
WEATHER CLIMATE WATER
WMO-No. 8
Guide to Instruments and Methods of
Observation
Volume IV – Space-based Observations
2018 edition
WMO-No. 8
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WMO-No. 8
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CONTENTS
Page
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Historical perspective. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Spatial and temporal scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 Complementary nature of space-based and surface-based measurements . . . . . . . . . . . 2
CHAPTER 2. PRINCIPLES OF EARTH OBSERVATION FROM SPACE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2.1 Orbits and Earth viewing from space. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.1.1 Satellite instrument field of view . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.1.2 Orbital period, geostationary orbit, observing cycle and repeat cycle. . . . . . . . . . 4
2.1.3 Orbital precession, Sun-synchronous orbits and drifting orbits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.1.4 Elliptical orbits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.1.5 Launchers and injection into orbit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.2 Principles of remote-sensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2.1 The electromagnetic spectrum and the ranges used for remote-sensing . . . . . . . 13
2.2.2 Basic laws of interaction between electromagnetic radiation and matter. . . . . . . 17
2.2.3 Observations in the atmospheric windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.2.3.1 Emerging radiation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.2.3.2 Measurements in the visible, near-infrared and short-wave
infrared range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.2.3.3 Measurements in the medium-wave infrared and thermal
infrared range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.2.3.4 Measurements in the microwave range. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.2.4 Observations in absorption bands. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.2.4.1 The radiative transfer equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.2.4.2 Profile retrieval. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.2.4.3 Limb sounding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.2.5 Active sensing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.2.5.1 Radio occultation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.2.5.2 Radar. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.2.5.3 Lidar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.3 Space and ground segments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.3.1 Space segment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.3.1.1 Platform services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.3.1.2 Navigation and positioning systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.3.1.3 Orientation and stabilization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.3.1.4 Housekeeping system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.3.1.5 Data transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.3.1.6 Data relay services. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.3.2 Ground segment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.3.2.1 Central station for satellite command and global data acquisition. . . . 43
2.3.2.2 Mission and operation control centres. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.3.2.3 Data processing and archiving centres. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.3.2.4 Data and products distribution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.3.2.5 User receiving stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.3.2.6 Product processing levels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
CHAPTER 3. REMOTE-SENSING INSTRUMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

3.1 Instrument basic characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.1.1 Scanning, swath and observing cycle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.1.2 Spectral range: radiometers and spectrometers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.1.3 Spatial resolution (instantaneous field of view, pixel, and the modulation
transfer function). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.1.4 Radiometric resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.2 Instrument classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.2.1 Moderate-resolution optical imager. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.2.2 High-resolution optical imager . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
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Page
3.2.3 Cross-nadir short-wave sounder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

3.2.4 Cross-nadir scanning infrared sounder. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.2.5 Microwave radiometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.2.6 Limb sounders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3.2.7 Global navigation satellite system radio-occultation sounders. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.2.8 Broadband radiometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3.2.9 Solar irradiance monitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.2.10 Lightning imagers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.2.11 Cloud radar and precipitation radar. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.2.12 Radar scatterometers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.2.13 Radar altimeters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.2.14 Imaging radar (synthetic aperture radar). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.2.15 Lidar-based instruments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.2.16 Gradiometers/accelerometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.2.17 Solar activity monitors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
3.2.18 Space environment monitors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
3.2.19 Magnetometers and electric field sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
CHAPTER 4. SATELLITE PROGRAMMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

4.1 Operational meteorological satellites. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
4.1.1 Satellite constellation in geostationary or highly elliptical orbit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
4.1.2 Satellite constellation in Sun-synchronous orbits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.2 Specialized atmospheric missions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4.2.1 Precipitation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4.2.2 Radio occultation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4.2.3 Atmospheric radiation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.2.4 Atmospheric chemistry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.2.5 Atmospheric dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
4.3 Missions on ocean and sea ice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
4.3.1 Ocean topography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.3.2 Ocean colour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.3.3 Sea-surface wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.3.4 Sea-surface salinity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104
4.3.5 Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
4.4 Land-observation missions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
4.4.1 Main operational or near-operational missions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
4.4.2 The Disaster Monitoring Constellation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
4.4.3 All-weather high-resolution monitoring (by synthetic aperture radar). . . . . . . . . 107
4.5 Missions on solid Earth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
4.5.1 Space geodesy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
4.5.2 Earth’s interior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
4.6 Missions on space weather. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
4.6.1 Solar activity monitoring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
4.6.2 Magnetosphere and ionosphere monitoring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
4.6.2.1 Observation of the magnetosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.6.2.2 Observation of the ionosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
4.6.2.3 Space environment observation from operational
meteorological satellites. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
CHAPTER 5. SPACE-BASED OBSERVATION OF GEOPHYSICAL VARIABLES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

5.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
5.1.1 Processing levels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
5.1.2 Product quality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
5.1.2.1 Atmospheric volumes (relevant to 3D observations) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
5.1.2.2 Horizontal resolution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .118
5.1.2.3 Vertical resolution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
5.1.2.4 Observing cycle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
CONTENTS vii
Page
5.1.2.5 Accuracy (RMS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

5.1.2.6 Timeliness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
5.1.3 Evaluation of satellite product quality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
5.2 Basic atmospheric 3D and 2D variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
5.2.1 Atmospheric temperature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
5.2.2 Specific humidity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
5.2.3 Wind (horizontal) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
5.2.4 Wind vector over the surface (horizontal). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
5.2.5 Height of the top of the planetary boundary layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
5.2.6 Height of the tropopause . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
5.2.7 Temperature of the tropopause. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
5.3 Cloud and precipitation variables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
5.3.1 Cloud-top temperature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
5.3.2 Cloud-top height. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
5.3.3 Cloud type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
5.3.4 Cloud cover. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
5.3.5 Cloud-base height. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
5.3.6 Cloud optical depth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
5.3.7 Cloud liquid water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
5.3.8 Cloud-droplet effective radius. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
5.3.9 Cloud ice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
5.3.10 Cloud-ice effective radius. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
5.3.11 Freezing-level height in clouds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
5.3.12 Melting-layer depth in clouds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
5.3.13 Precipitation (liquid or solid). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
5.3.14 Precipitation intensity at surface (liquid or solid) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
5.3.15 Accumulated precipitation (over 24 hours) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
5.3.16 Lightning detection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
5.4 Aerosol and radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
5.4.1 Aerosol optical depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
5.4.2 Aerosol concentration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
5.4.3 Aerosol effective radius. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
5.4.4 Aerosol type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
5.4.5 Volcanic ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
5.4.6 Downward solar irradiance at top of atmosphere. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
5.4.7 Upward spectral radiance at top of atmosphere. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
5.4.8 Upward long-wave irradiance at top of atmosphere. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
5.4.9 Upward short-wave irradiance at top of atmosphere. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
5.4.10 Short-wave cloud reflectance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
5.4.11 Downward long-wave irradiance at Earth’s surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
5.4.12 Downward short-wave irradiance at Earth’s surface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
5.4.13 Earth’s surface albedo. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
5.4.14 Earth’s surface short-wave bi-directional reflectance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
5.4.15 Upward long-wave irradiance at Earth’s surface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
5.4.16 Long-wave Earth-surface emissivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
5.4.17 Photosynthetically active radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
5.4.18 Fraction of absorbed photosynthetically active radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
5.5 Ocean and sea ice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
5.5.1 Ocean chlorophyll concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
5.5.2 Colour dissolved organic matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
5.5.3 Ocean suspended sediments concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
5.5.4 Ocean diffuse attenuation coefficient. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
5.5.5 Oil-spill cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
5.5.6 Sea-surface temperature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
5.5.7 Sea-surface salinity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .137
5.5.8 Ocean dynamic topography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
5.5.9 Coastal sea level (tide). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
5.5.10 Significant wave height. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
5.5.11 Dominant wave direction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
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5.5.12 Dominant wave period. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

5.5.13 Wave directional-energy frequency spectrum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
5.5.14 Sea-ice cover. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
5.5.15 Sea-ice thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
5.5.16 Sea-ice type. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
5.6 Land surface (including snow) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
5.6.1 Land surface temperature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
5.6.2 Soil moisture at surface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
5.6.3 Soil moisture (in the roots region). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
5.6.4 Fraction of vegetated land . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
5.6.5 Vegetation type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
5.6.6 Leaf area index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
5.6.7 Normalized difference vegetation index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
5.6.8 Fire fractional cover. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
5.6.9 Fire temperature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
5.6.10 Fire radiative power. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
5.6.11 Snow status (wet/dry). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
5.6.12 Snow cover. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
5.6.13 Snow water equivalent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
5.6.14 Soil type. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
5.6.15 Land cover. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
5.6.16 Land surface topography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
5.6.17 Glacier cover. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
5.6.18 Glacier topography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
5.7 Solid Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
5.7.1 Geoid. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
5.7.2 Crustal plates positioning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
5.7.3 Crustal motion (horizontal and vertical) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
5.7.4 Gravity field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
5.7.5 Gravity gradients. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
5.8 Atmospheric chemistry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
5.8.1 Ozone (O3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
5.8.2 Bromine monoxide (BrO). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
5.8.3 Acetylene (C 2H2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
5.8.4 Ethane (C 2H6). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
5.8.5 Trichlorofluoromethane (CFC–11 = Freon–11). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
5.8.6 Dichlorodifluoromethane (CFC–12 = Freon–12) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
5.8.7 Formaldehyde (CH2O = HCHO). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
5.8.8 Methane (CH4). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
5.8.9 Chlorine monoxide (ClO = hypochlorite). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
5.8.10 Chlorine nitrate (ClONO2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
5.8.11 Carbon monoxide (CO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
5.8.12 Carbon dioxide (CO2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
5.8.13 Carbonyl sulphide (COS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
5.8.14 Water vapour (H2O). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
5.8.15 Hydrogen chloride (HCl) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
5.8.16 HDO. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
5.8.17 Nitric acid (HNO3). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
5.8.18 Nitrous oxide (N2O). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
5.8.19 Nitrogen pentoxide (N2O5). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
5.8.20 Nitric oxide (NO). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
5.8.21 Nitrogen peroxide (NO2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
5.8.22 Hydroxyl radical (OH). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
5.8.23 Peroxyacetyl nitrate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
5.8.24 Polar stratospheric cloud occurrence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
5.8.25 Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
5.8.26 Sulphur dioxide (SO2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
5.9 Space weather . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
5.9.1 Ionospheric total electron content. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
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5.9.2 Electron density. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

5.9.3 Magnetic field. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .156
5.9.4 Electric field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Annex. Achievable quality of satellite products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
CHAPTER 6. CALIBRATION AND VALIDATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196

6.1 Instrument calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
6.1.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
6.1.2 Factors affecting calibration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
6.1.3 Pre-launch calibration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
6.1.4 On-board calibration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
6.1.5 Vicarious calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
6.1.6 Intercalibration by simultaneous observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
6.1.7 Bias adjustment of long-term data records. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
6.1.8 Using calibration information. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
6.1.9 Traceability of space-based measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
6.2 Product validation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
6.2.1 Factors to be accounted for in validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
6.2.2 Validation strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
6.2.3 Impact studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
CHAPTER 7. CROSS-CUTTING ISSUES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

7.1 Frequency protection issues. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
7.1.1 Overall frequency management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
7.1.2 Passive microwave radiometry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
7.1.3 Active microwave sensing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
7.1.4 Satellite operation and communication frequencies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
7.2 International coordination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
7.2.1 The Coordination Group for Meteorological Satellites. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
7.2.2 The Committee on Earth Observation Satellites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
7.3 Satellite mission planning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
7.3.1 Satellite programme life cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
7.3.2 Continuity and contingency planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
7.3.3 Long-term evolution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
On 1 April 1960, a new era started for meteorology with the launch of the Television and Infrared
Observation Satellite – 1 (TIROS‑1). Weather systems, which had only been depicted until then
by synoptic maps and aircraft observations, could be visualized at a glance. Their rapidly evolving
nature became more evident with geostationary imagery from the Applications Technology
Satellite – 1 (ATS‑1), launched on 6 December 1966. The term “nowcasting” emerged, becoming
the first application of meteorological satellites.
Initially, satellite data were nearly exclusively used for nowcasting. They were first applied to the
field of numerical weather prediction, starting with Nimbus‑3 (13 April 1969), by using data from
experimental instruments to derive vertical profiles of atmospheric temperature and humidity
and by deriving cloud-motion winds from geostationary image sequences.
The First Global Atmospheric Research Programme (GARP) Global Experiment (FGGE, 1979–
1980) was able to assemble, for the first time, a composite system of four geostationary satellites
and two near-polar satellites, which delivered global sounding and imaging coverage four times
a day and imagery at low and mid latitudes every half hour. It is important to note that since their
early days, in addition to supporting operational applications, meteorological satellites have
enabled advances in the understanding of atmospheric dynamics and climate.
Driven by the high economic value of earth resource exploration and vegetation cycle
monitoring, new satellite programmes emerged with a focus on land surface observation.
Landsat‑1, launched on 23 July 1972, led the first series of high-resolution land observation
satellites, and coverage from the Satellite pour l’Observation de la Terre (SPOT) series, beginning
on 22 February 1986 with SPOT‑1, provided imagery at a spatial resolution of 10 to 20 metres.
Exploration of the ocean began with the launch of SeaSat on 27 June 1978, which marked the
advent of all-weather microwave sensing, both active and passive. Almost simultaneously, on
24 October 1978, Nimbus‑7 used passive microwave sensing with the addition of ocean colour
monitoring. After the SeaSat altimetry, scatterometry and synthetic aperture radar imagery
missions, no active sensing mission was operated until the launch of the European Remote-
sensing Satellite – 1 (ERS‑1) on 17 July 1991. The retrieval of information on atmospheric radiation
and chemistry was initially explored by several Nimbus missions. A milestone for Earth radiation
study was the Earth Radiation Budget Satellite (ERBS), launched on 5 October 1984. For
atmospheric chemistry, a major milestone was the Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite (UARS),
launched on 12 September 1991.
1.2 SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL SCALES
The concept of the Global Observing System (GOS) was totally revised with the advent of
satellites, taking advantage of the complementary nature of surface-based and space-based
observations. The space-based component offers the unique opportunity of uninterrupted
global coverage and frequent observing cycles. A striking advantage is the capability of vertical
atmospheric sounding over the oceans, alleviating a great limitation of observations for global
numerical weather prediction. Over continental areas, observing networks are biased towards
populated areas, whereas the vast majority of land surfaces are relatively unpopulated and hence
undersampled; furthermore, some local observations available from the ground (for example,
cloud type) are hard to integrate spatially.
One important difference between satellite and surface measurements is the integration in
space and time. Satellite measurements integrate the incoming signal over an instantaneous
field of view determined by the need to collect sufficient radiant energy to provide the required
2 GUIDE TO INSTRUMENTS AND METHODS OF OBSERVATION - VOLUME IV
signal-to-noise ratio. Surface measurements are usually point-related, although, depending on

the observed variable, the measurement may be representative of a larger or smaller area. In
the time dimension, the situation is reversed: satellite measurements are nearly instantaneous
depending on the satellite motion or the time available to acquire a picture element (pixel) when
scanning an image; surface measurements usually integrate over a certain time interval in order
to average instantaneous fluctuations. These differences make it more difficult to compare or
combine satellite and surface measurements.
1.3 COMPLEMENTARY NATURE OF SPACE-BASED AND SURFACE-BASED

MEASUREMENTS
It is acknowledged that satellites are unable to perform all needed observations with the
required measurement quality. For certain geophysical variables, no remote-sensing principle
exists. For others, the required measurement quality is only achievable with ancillary information
from accurate surface-based observing systems. In addition, since satellite measurements
are often of indirect nature (the primary observed quantity being radiation), surface-based
measurements play a key role for the validation of satellite-derived products.
There are still areas where exclusively surface-based systems can provide measurements of
acceptable quality. However, even in those cases, satellites can be useful in spatially extending
local and sparse ground measurements. In particular, the practice of assimilation makes
it possible to transfer information across geophysical variables measured using different
techniques: this means that satellite observations may contribute to the knowledge of
geophysical variables even when not directly observed from satellite, provided that there is a
strong physical relationship between these variables. Synergistic use of surface-based and space-
based observations is fundamental to the WMO Integrated Global Observing System.
Note: Detailed descriptions of satellite programmes and instruments are available in the WMO online database of
space-based observation capabilities: http://w ww.wmo.int/oscar.
CHAPTER 2. PRINCIPLES OF EARTH OBSERVATION FROM SPACE
This chapter provides an overview of Earth observation from space, including its potential
benefits and limitations. It describes basic concepts of orbits and the characteristics of Earth
viewing from space. It also introduces the principles of remote-sensing.
2.1 ORBITS AND EARTH VIEWING FROM SPACE
The Earth can be observed from space from different orbits under various viewing conditions.
The following issues are considered in this section:
(a) Satellite instrument field of view;
(b) Orbital period, geostationary orbit, observing cycle and repeat cycle;
(c) Orbital precession, Sun-synchronous orbits and drifting orbits;
(d) Elliptical orbits;
(e) Launchers and injection into orbit.
2.1.1 Satellite instrument field of view
The greatest advantage of observing from a satellite platform, rather than from the ground or a
balloon, is the wide potential field of view (FOV). Satellite observing platforms usually orbit at
a minimum height of 400 km. Often, they orbit much higher, some as far as the geostationary
orbit (35 786 km). The FOV depends on the orbital height, the instrument configuration and the
intended application. Those may limit the useful range of zenith angles (ζ) under which the Earth
can be viewed. If the satellite FOV is characterized as the maximum ground distance potentially
viewed from satellite height under a given zenith angle, the relationship set out in Figure 2.1 can
be expressed as:
R
FOV = 2 R δ π 180 sin (ζ − δ ) = sin ζ (2.1)
H +R
where R = 6 371 km (Earth’s radius), H = orbital height in km, and δ = geocentric angle in degrees.
Table 2.1 presents values of the satellite FOV (in km) as a function of orbital height for typical
values of zenith angle ζ. The corresponding geocentric angle δ is also shown.
The potential satellite FOV may not be entirely covered by a single instrument. Either the
sensing principle or the technological features of an instrument may set an upper limit to its
FOV. For instance, radar altimeters can only operate in a nadir geometry. They therefore have
H
ζ
R δ
Figure 2.1. Field of view versus zenith angle ζ

Table 2.1. Potential satellite field of view and corresponding geocentric angle, as functions of
satellite height and zenith angle, under which the Earth’s spot is viewed
Zenith angle for various H = 400 km H = 600 km H = 800 km H = 35 786 km

applications FOV δ FOV δ FOV δ FOV δ
ζ = 90°
4 401 km 19.79° 5 326 km 23.95° 6 076 km 27.32° 18 082 km 81.31°
(horizon-to-horizon)
ζ = 85°
3 423 km 15.39° 4 322 km 19.43° 5 057 km 22.74° 16 978 km 76.34°
(telecommunications)
ζ = 70°
1 746 km 7.85° 2 405 km 10.82° 2 980 km 13.40° 13 752 km 61.84°
(qualitative use)
ζ = 60°
1 207 km 5.43° 1 707 km 7.68° 2 157 km 9.70° 11 671 km 52.48°
(quantitative use)
no proper FOV, except for the broadening of the beam due to diffraction. Very high-resolution
imagers usually have an FOV within a range of several tens of kilometres, as do synthetic aperture
radars (SARs).
The satellite motion enables the instrument to cover successive FOVs along the orbit. These
constitute a strip of observed Earth surface called a swath. The swath may be centred along the
sub-satellite track, or be parallel to it for side-looking instruments (for example, SARs). For several
purposes (steerable pointing for emergencies, stereoscopy in association with successive orbits,
and the like), certain instruments with limited swath may tilt the swath to the side of the track
within what is called a field of regard. The swath width is a cross-track component of the actual
FOV of the instrument. The swath is not defined for instruments in geostationary orbit.
2.1.2 Orbital period, geostationary orbit, observing cycle and repeat cycle
The orbital height H determines the orbital period T. The relationship is:
3
H 2
T = a (1 + ) (2.2)
R
where a = 84.47 min (T resulting in minutes).
The height, which corresponds to one sidereal day (23 h 56 min 04 s) is 35 786 km. A satellite
orbiting at this height is called geosynchronous. The orbit is called geostationary if the orbit lies
in the equatorial plane and is run eastward: the satellite appears steady compared to the Earth’s
surface on the nadir of the equatorial sub-satellite point.
For an inclined orbit with respect to the equatorial plane, the satellite will cross the Equator at
a certain longitude. After T minutes, there will be another equatorial crossing at a longitude
displaced westward by the number of degrees that corresponds to the Earth’s rotation during the
orbital period. The difference of longitude (or space distance) between two successive equatorial
crossings in the same phase (descending or ascending) is called decalage. Together with the
instrument swath, decalage determines the time needed for a full Earth surface observation
(observing coverage) (Figure 2.2).
If the instrument swath is at least as large as the decalage, the coverage provided by the two
contiguous orbits is continuous. Therefore, the time needed for global coverage (observing
cycle) depends on the ratio between instrument swath and decalage.
Table 2.2 shows the period and corresponding decalage for the orbital height examples
in Table 2.1. In addition, observing cycles corresponding to several instrument swaths are
presented. Those swaths are associated with qualitative and quantitative use; that is with 70° and
CHAPTER 2. PRINCIPLES OF EARTH OBSERVATION FROM SPACE 5
Swath
Decalage
Figure 2.2. Decalage between two successive orbits, and instrument swath
60° zenith angles, respectively. Observing time is halved for instruments capable of observation
during the day and night. The decalage and observing cycle are not quoted for H = 35 786 km
(geostationary altitude).
For a geostationary satellite, which continuously views the same area of the Earth’s surface, the
observing cycle is only determined by instrument characteristics and may take a few minutes
or less to complete, depending on the area scanned. Within the satellite’s area of coverage,
geostationary observation is perfectly suited for continuous monitoring. For example, such
monitoring is needed to detect instantaneous events like lightning strokes, or for high-frequency
temporal sampling of rapidly evolving situations, such as active convection. However, the
coverage excludes very high latitudes or any locations too far from the sub-satellite point.
Table 2.1 shows that δ = 81.31° is the maximum geocentric angle.
For a non-geostationary satellite, the orbit is said to have a repeat cycle if it overpasses the
same track exactly after a given number of revolutions. During the timespan of a repeat cycle,
the satellite track may shift from day to day, following a determined pattern that may exhibit
certain periodicities called sub-cycles. Some sub-cycles may be of interest because distinct areas,
relatively close to each other, are visited within short time intervals; other sub-cycles may be of
interest because the areas covered are spatially adjacent.
If the orbit is Sun-synchronous (see section 2.1.3), the existence of a repeat cycle means that a
whole number of revolutions can be completed in exactly a whole number of days. The orbital
period determines N, the number of orbits that the satellite runs in 24 h. This is normally not an
integer. In order to obtain a repeat cycle of m days, the orbital period is adjusted to ensure that
N multiplied by m is an integer. N can then be expressed in the following form, where n and ℓ
are, respectively, the quotient and remainder of the integer division of “N ∙ m” by m:
N = n +  m (2.3)
where n, ℓ and m are integers (ℓ < m).
Table 2.2. Period, decalage and observing cycle for the orbits indicated in Table 2.1
Orbital parameter H = 400 km H = 600 km H = 800 km H = 35 786 km

Period T 92.6 min 96.7 min 100.9 min 23 h 56 min 4 s
Decalage 2 570 km 2 690 km 2 800 km 0 km
Observing cycle for ζ = 70° (day only) 35 h 27 h 23 h From instrument
Observing cycle for ζ = 60° (day only) 51 h 38 h 31 h From instrument
Observing cycle for ζ = 70° (day and night) 18 h 13 h 11 h From instrument
Observing cycle for ζ = 60° (day and night) 26 h 19 h 16 h From instrument

Table 2.3. Repeat cycles and main sub-cycles for a number of orbits
Non-Sun-
Sun-synchronous orbits synchronous
orbit
909 km 705 km 820 km
832 km 791 km 1 336 km
Orbital height (e.g. Landsat (e.g. Landsat (e.g.
(e.g. SPOT) (e.g. Envisat) (e.g. JASON)a
1–3) 4–8) Metop)
Period 103.2 min 98.9 min 101.5 min 100.6 min 101.3 min 112.4 min
No. of orbits/day 13 + 17/18 14 + 9/16 14 + 5/26 14 + 11/35 14 + 6/29 12 + 7/10a
Cycle 18 days 16 days 26 days 35 days 29 days 10 daysa
Revolutions/cycle 251 233 369 501 413 127
Main sub-cycle(s) 1 day 7 days, 2 days 5 days 16 days, 3 days 5 days 3 daysa
Note:
a In the case of the Joint Altimetry Satellite Oceanography Network (JASON), which is not Sun-synchronous, the
figures refer to a day of 23 h 48 min in duration, that is, 0.99156 of the duration of a solar day.
Equation 2.3 also applies to non-Sun-synchronous orbits. However, in such cases, the repeat
cycle m is no longer expressed in solar days of 24 h but must account for a slight correction due
to the drift of the orbit. Table 2.3 provides examples of repeat cycles and main sub-cycles for a
number of orbits.
Decalage
Strip Strip Strip Strip Strip Strip Strip Strip Strip Strip Strip Strip Strip Strip Strip Strip Strip Strip Strip
19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 09 08 07 06 05 04 03 02 01
Orbit Orbit Day
02 01 01
Orbit Day
15 02
1 day sub-cycle Orbit Day
29 03
Orbit Day
43 04
Orbit Day
57 05
Orbit Day
71 06
Orbit Day
85 07
Orbit Day
99 08
Orbit Day
113 09
Orbit Day
127 10
Orbit Day
141 11
Orbit Day
155 12
Orbit Day
169 13
Orbit Day
183 14
Orbit Day
197 15
Orbit Day
211 16
Orbit Day
225 17
Orbit Day
239 18
Orbit Orbit Day
253 252 19
Figure 2.3. Schematic evolution of the orbital track of early Landsat over a repeat cycle
(N = 13 + 17/18, repeat cycle: 18 days, 251 revolutions/cycle)
An orbit with a repeat cycle is a necessary feature if a certain location needs to be viewed at
fixed intervals under identical conditions. This is true of altimetric measurements for geodetic
application, or of high-resolution land observation imagers, used to detect local variations.
Repeat cycles may be useful when the instrument swath is substantially narrower than the
decalage and global coverage cannot be achieved in a single day. In that case, the sequence of
coverage over successive days can be arranged to follow a certain logic if requested. That logic
might be to provide regular progression, or to avoid biases due to unsuitable sampling.
Figure 2.3 shows the pattern evolution of orbital passes for an orbit with a one-day sub-cycle
(such as for early Landsat). As Figure 2.3 shows, the one-day sub-cycle ensures that each day,
the covered strip is adjacent to the one that was observed on the previous day. The width of the
covered strip can be tuned to the instrument swath so as to avoid any gaps. The drawback is that,
after the first few daily visits over or close to the target area, the next sequence of visits occurs
only after the completion of the repeat cycle.
With the current Landsat, the temporal evolution of the orbit tracks during the repeat cycle
(16 days) results in two main sub-cycles, as shown in Figure 2.4. The two-day sub-cycle ensures a
shorter temporal gap, but the seven-day sub-cycle provides a closer geographical match.
Although the concept of repeat cycles and sub-cycles stems from the requirements placed on the
use of narrow-swath instruments, including those with nadir-only viewing, orbits with sub-cycles
may also be useful for relatively wide-swath instruments. For example, sounding instruments
may have a swath as wide as several thousand kilometres. (For example, the Advanced
Decalage
Strip Strip Strip Strip Strip Strip Strip Strip Strip Strip Strip Strip Strip Strip Strip Strip Strip
17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 09 08 07 06 05 04 03 02 01
Orbit Orbit Day
02 01 01
2 day sub-cycle Orbit Day
16 02
Orbit Day
31 03
Orbit Day
45 04
Orbit Day
60 05
Orbit Day
74 06
Orbit Day
7 day sub-cycle 89 07
Orbit Day
103 08
Orbit Day
118 09
Orbit Day
133 10
Orbit Day
147 11
Orbit 9 day sub-cycle Day
162 12
Orbit Day
176 13
Orbit Day
191 14
Orbit Day
205 15
Orbit Day
220 16
Orbit Orbit Day
235 234 17
Figure 2.4. Schematic evolution of the orbital track of current Landsat over a repeat cycle
(N = 14 + 9/16, repeat cycle: 16 days, 233 revolutions/cycle). Three sub-cycles are shown:
seven days (westbound), the main one, providing the closest observations in space; two days
(eastbound), for closer observations in time; and nine days (eastbound), of marginal interest,
the sum of the first two sub-cycles.
Decalage
30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 09 08 07 06 05 04 03 02 01
02 01
02 16 02
03 30 03
04 44 04
05 58 05
06 73 06
07 87 07
08 101 08
09 115 09
10 129 10
11 144 11
12 158 12
13 172 13
5 day sub-cycle
14 186 14
15 4 day sub-cycle 200 15
16 215 16
17 229 17
18 243 18
19 257 19
20 271 20
21 286 21
22 300 22
23 314 23
24 328 24
25 342 25
26 357 26
27 351 27
28 385 28
29 399 29
414 413
Figure 2.5. Schematic evolution of the orbital track of Metop (N = 14 + 6/29, repeat cycle:
29 days, 412 revolutions/cycle). Two sub-cycles are shown: five days (eastbound), the main
one, providing the closest observations in space; and four days (westbound), for marginally
closer observations in time.
Microwave Sounding Unit (AMSU) or the Infrared Atmospheric Sounding Interferometer (IASI)
have swaths of over 2 200 km). However, the quality of the products retrieved is higher when
closer to the nadir sub-track. Therefore, there is an interest in ensuring that the coverage provides
a fair blend of higher and lower quality data. Orbits for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA) satellites and Meteorological Operational (Metop) satellites have a five-
day sub-cycle, as shown in Figure 2.5 for Metop.
Repeat cycles and sub-cycles are convenient for several reasons, but a few drawbacks should also
be noted:
(a) If the instrument swath is too narrow with respect to the decalage and the number of
orbital passes during the repeat cycle, some areas will never be observed. An extreme case
is a nadir-only viewing instrument such as an altimeter.
(b) The day-to-day sequence of observations from a repeat-cycle orbit may introduce sampling
biases in the observations (a spurious wavelength corresponding to a repeat cycle or
sub-cycles).
(c) Maintenance of the repeat cycle/sub-cycles requires costly satellite orbit control systems.
Therefore, if all instruments on board have a sufficiently wide swath, a repeat cycle or sub-cycle is
generally not carried out.
North Pole
Equatorial
plane
Orbital plane
Altitude
Figure 2.6. Definition of inclined orbit
2.1.3 Orbital precession, Sun-synchronous orbits and drifting orbits
The orbital plane can lie in the Earth’s equatorial plane or be inclined by ε degrees (see
Figure 2.6).
For ε = 90°, the satellite follows a meridian line and the orbit is polar. This is very convenient for
observing the Earth’s surface pole-to-pole.
The gravity field acting on the satellite is perpendicular to the geopotential surface at satellite
altitude, which is slightly ellipsoid like the geoid. Where ε ≠ 90°, the effect of these forces is a
precession of the orbital plane around the polar axis. The precession rate α is computed as:
7
H −2
α = −10.02 cos ε (1 + ) ( degree day ) (2.4)
R
For a purely polar orbit (ε = 90°), the precession rate is thus zero. The orbital plane has an
invariant orientation with respect to the fixed stars. However, as the Earth rotates around
the Sun over one year, the illumination conditions of the surface, as viewed by the satellite,
change every day by 360/365 degrees; that is 59 min. An area viewed in daylight at noon on
day t0 will be viewed in dawn conditions on day t = t0 + 3 months (Figure 2.7, left panel). For
measurements in daylight, this would mean different observing conditions day after day, with
seasonally-dependent observation times. In particular, when the Earth–Sun direction becomes
perpendicular to the orbital plane, the illumination in dawn–dusk conditions makes many
measurements impossible.
The orbital inclination ε can be set in such a way that the precession rate exactly matches the
yearly revolution of the Earth around the Sun. By imposing the value α = 360/365 (degree/day) in
equation 2.4, it is found that the inclination ε 0 must satisfy:
7
H
cos ε 0 = −0.0988 (1 + ) 2 (2.5)
R
An orbit that satisfies that condition is called Sun-synchronous. The negative value of ε 0 indicates
that the orbit is retrograde with respect to the Earth’s rotation. The local solar time of the areas
overflown by the satellite at a given latitude is constant across the whole year (see Figure 2.7,
right panel). Table 2.4 presents the ε 0 values of a number of Sun-synchronous orbits as a function
of orbital height.
Table 2.4. Inclination values of Sun-synchronous orbits as a function of orbital height
400 km 600 km 800 km 1 000 km 1 200 km 1 400 km

97.02° 97.78° 98.60° 99.47° 100.41° 101.42°
Note that the deviation from the polar axis increases with orbital height. This is a drawback for
high Sun-synchronous orbits: the poles might not be observed unless the instrument swath is
wide enough. However, for relatively low orbital heights, the orbital plane is near-polar.
The most important feature of a Sun-synchronous orbit – the fixed local solar time – may be a
disadvantage for certain types of measurements. Diurnally-varying phenomena (for example,
convective clouds, precipitation, radiation budget, sea level affected by astronomical tides)
display biased sampling if observed from a Sun-synchronous satellite (that is, at a fixed local solar
time).
In general, satellites for operational meteorology, land observation and oceanography, with the
exception of geodetic-quality altimetry, use a Sun-synchronous orbit. Scientific missions focused
on processes affected by diurnal variation, which require unbiased sampling, may favour non-
Sun-synchronous (drifting) orbits.
2.1.4 Elliptical orbits
The previous sections are applicable to circular orbits, which are by far the most widely used in
Earth observation, particularly for Sun-synchronous and geostationary orbits. However, both
near-polar low Earth orbits (LEO) and geostationary Earth orbits (GEO) have several limitations.
A near-polar LEO satellite provides global but infrequent coverage. Even if the instrument
swath is as large as the decalage, thus providing contiguous coverage by consecutive orbits,
one satellite can cover the whole of the Earth’s surface twice a day at most (or even once a day
if sensing can be performed either in daylight only or only in night-time conditions). If more
frequent global coverage is needed, additional satellites in complementary orbital planes are
necessary (see Table 2.5).
It is clear from Table 2.5 that any observing cycle shorter than, for instance, three hours, would
be extremely demanding, as it would require a constellation of LEO satellites in coordinated
orbits.
Table 2.5. Number of LEO satellites needed to achieve a required observing cycle
(assumed height: H = 800 km)
Instrument Required observing cycle

Observing capability
swath 24 h 12 h 8h 6h 3h 2h 1h
Only in daylight 1 sat 2 sat 3 sat 4 sat 8 sat 12 sat 24 sat
2 800 km
Night and day 0.5 sat 1 sat 1.5 sat 2 sat 4 sat 6 sat 12 sat
Only in daylight 2 sat 4 sat 6 sat 8 sat 16 sat 24 sat 48 sat

1 400 km
Night and day 1 sat 2 sat 3 sat 4 sat 8 sat 12 sat 24 sat
06/ 18 LST 06/ 18 LST

Summer Summer
00/12 LST 12/00 LST

00/12 LST 12/00 LST
Autumn Spring Autumn Spring
Winter Winter
18/06 LST 18/06 LST
Polar orbit Sun-synchronous orbit
Figure 2.7. Left: Pure polar orbit with changing local solar time (LST) throughout the year;
right: Sun-synchronous orbit with fixed LST throughout the year
Figure 2.8. The Molniya orbit
The coverage improves substantially for high latitudes (see Figure 2.2). For example, coverage is
twice as frequent at 60° latitude than at the Equator. In polar regions, the frequency of coverage
becomes close to the orbital period T (~100 min) or sub-hourly with more satellites.
A shorter observing cycle may be obtained by leaving aside the Sun-synchronous feature and
adopting a lower inclination, but the coverage is then no longer global. Low-inclination orbits
are used for monitoring the intertropical zones.
The GEO orbit provides observations at a rate that is limited only by the instrument. However, a
constellation of about six satellites around the Equator is needed to cover all longitude sectors up
to a latitude of at least 55°; the highest latitudes cannot be covered.
Some of these limitations can be mitigated by adopting an elliptical orbit. On an elliptical orbit,
the satellite speed changes along the orbit; it is minimal around the apogee allowing more time
for acquiring measurements from the overflown area. Elliptical orbits are usually optimized for
specific purposes, particularly for space science, such as to collect in situ measurements up to
very high altitudes by physically passing through the ionosphere and plasmasphere.
One problem of elliptical orbits is that, since the argument of the perigee is affected by the
secular perturbation, the apogee occurs at latitudes that change with time. The secular
perturbation can be compensated for if the orbital inclination is ε = sin–1 (4/5)1/2 ≈ 63.4°. In this
case, the apogee region where the satellite dwells for most of the time is stable. In that position,
measurements can be taken very frequently, in a quasi-geostationary fashion.
Two orbits of this kind have been used for telecommunication satellites and are planned to be
used for Earth observation: Molniya (Figure 2.8), which has a 12 h period and an apogee at
39 800 km; and Tundra, which has a 24 h period and an apogee at 48 300 km. In the Molniya
orbit, the satellite is nearly geostationary for about 8 h of the 12 h period. In the Tundra orbit, it is
nearly geostationary for about 16 h of the 24 h period.
The Molniya and Tundra orbits only serve one hemisphere. In addition, the 8 h or 12 h quasi-
geostationary observing area is centred on a specific local solar time. If all latitudes above 60°
have to be covered 24 h a day, three Molniya satellites or two Tundra satellites are required. An
interesting variant is the three-apogee orbit with a 16 h period and an apogee at 43 500 km.
Table 2.6 presents the main features of Molniya and Tundra orbits. In the apogee position, which
is useful for frequent sampling, the height of the satellite exceeds GEO height.
Table 2.6. Main features of Molniya and Tundra orbits

(apogee and perigee heights can be slightly adapted to need)
Sats for
Coverage
Orbit type Inclination Period Apogee Perigee hemispheric
(from one satellite)
coverage
Molniya 63.4° 12 h ~39 800 km ~1 000 km Visible over 2 positions 3
for ~8 h
Tundra 63.4° 24 h ~48 300 km ~24 000 km Visible over 1 position 2

for ~16 h
2.1.5 Launchers and injection into orbit
Satellites are injected into orbit by a launcher, which has to perform the following functions:
(a) To host the satellite in the fairing, where vital functions for the satellite are ensured. When
in the fairing, the satellite is stowed in a compact configuration to minimize volume
occupancy and to be protected against the effects of acceleration.
(b) To bring the satellite to orbit. In order to minimize the total mass brought to high altitudes,
the launcher is generally structured by stages. The first stage, which is the heaviest since it
has to provide the maximum thrust for lift-off, is separated early. The fairing is released at an
appropriate altitude. A further one or two stages are fired and separated in sequence.
(c) To release the satellite. For satellites in LEO circular orbits, the launcher releases the satellite
directly on the final orbit. For elliptical orbits, the launcher releases the satellite at the
perigee and provides it with a last acceleration to acquire the energy corresponding to the
intended orbit.
When in orbit, the satellite deploys its solar panels and starts autonomous operations. One
of the operations is to reach final orbit by activating its propulsion system. In the case of a
geostationary orbit, the satellite is released at a perigee in an elliptical orbit whose apogee is
35 786 km, and is equipped with an apogee boost motor. The motor, which uses solid, hybrid
or more often, liquid propellant (a liquid apogee motor), is fired at the apogee to provide the
acceleration necessary to circularize the orbit (see Figure 2.9).
Apogee
Low Earth
orbit
Transfer
Earth orbit
Perigee
Final geostationary orbit
Figure 2.9. Achievement of GEO

Launching a satellite is a complicated and costly exercise. In order to optimize cost-effectiveness,

a launch is often shared by several satellites. In this case, the task of the last stage is extended to
release the various satellites at different times to separate the orbits. The respective platform pro-
pulsion systems will thereafter achieve the transfer to the final orbits.
Constellations of minisatellites, whose individual launches would be extremely uneconomical,
are a good example of the usefulness of multiple launches. One effective launching strategy is
known as the Walker Delta Pattern. The orbital inclination ε of all satellites must be the same.
Either the launcher releases the satellites at different altitudes, or the satellite propulsion systems
spread them into different altitudes. Therefore, each orbit will have a different precession rate,
according to equation 2.4, and the orbital phases will differentiate as time elapses. When the
orbits of all the satellites are appropriately spaced, the platform propulsion systems will bring
each of the satellites to the desired altitude H. Equation 2.4 shows that, in practice, the strategy
works well for relatively low inclinations and relatively low altitudes, otherwise the time needed
to deploy the constellation becomes too long. For example, the Constellation Observing System
for Meteorology, Ionosphere and Climate (COSMIC) (six satellites, H = 800 km, ε = 71°) took one
year to deploy.
2.2 PRINCIPLES OF REMOTE-SENSING
Earth observation from space is mainly performed by exploiting electromagnetic radiation. The
few exceptions are in situ measurements at platform level (of gravity field, magnetic field, electric
field and charged particle density in the solar wind). This section deals with remote-sensing of
the Earth and focuses on:
(a) The electromagnetic spectrum and the ranges used for remote-sensing;
(b) The basic laws of interaction between electromagnetic radiation and matter;
(c) Observations in the atmospheric windows;
(d) Observations in absorption bands;
(e) Limb sounding and radio occultation;
(f) Active sensing.
2.2.1 The electromagnetic spectrum and the ranges used for remote-sensing
The spectrum of electromagnetic radiation as observed from space (with nadir viewing) is shown
in Figure 2.10. The displayed range (0.2 μm to 3 cm (or 10 GHz)) includes all that is used for
remote-sensing from space. The variation in wavelength is due to the interposed atmosphere,
with transmissivity ranging from 1 (atmospheric window) to 0 (full opacity due to total
atmospheric absorption).
Transmittance
0.3 µm 1 µm 3 µm 10 µm 30 µm 100 µm 0.3 mm 1.0 mm 3.0 mm 1 cm 3 cm

≈ 1 000 GHz ≈ 300 GHz ≈ 100 GHz ≈ 30 GHz ≈ 10 GHz
Wavelength
Figure 2.10. Spectrum (transmissivity) of electromagnetic radiation as observed from space

with nadir viewing; range: 0.2 μm to 3 cm
Table 2.7. Bands of the electromagnetic spectrum exploited for remote-sensing
Wave number
Spectrum subdivision Wavelength λ Frequency ν = c/λ
ν* = 1 /λ
UV Ultraviolet 0.01–0.38 μm 26 320–1 000 000 cm–1
B Blue 0.436 μm 22 935 cm–1
G Green 0.546 µm 18 315 cm–1
R Red 0.700 μm 14 285 cm–1
VIS Visible 0.38–0.78 μm 12 820–26 320 cm–1
NIR Near infrared 0.78–1.30 μm 7 690–12 820 cm–1
VNIR Visible and near infrared (VIS + NIR) 0.38–1.3 μm 7 690–26 320 cm–1
SWIR Short-wave infrared 1.3–3.0 μm 3 330–7 690 cm–1
SW Short wave 0.2–4.0 μm 2 500–50 000 cm–1
LW Long wave 4–100 μm 100–2 500 cm–1
MWIR Medium-wave infrared 3.0–6.0 μm 1 665–3 330 cm–1
TIR Thermal infrared 6.0–15.0 μm 665–1 665 cm–1
IR Infrared (MWIR + TIR) 3–15 μm 665–3 330 cm–1
FIR Far infrared 15 μm–1 mm 10–665 cm–1 300–20 000 GHz
Sub-
Submillimetre wave (part of FIR) 0.1–1 mm 10–100 cm–1 300–3 000 GHz
mm
Mm Millimetre wave (part of MW) 1–10 mm 1–10 cm–1 30–300 GHz
MW Microwave 0.1–30 cm 0.033–10 cm–1 1–300 GHz
Table 2.7 presents definitions of the subdivisions of the spectrum that are generally accepted,
though not standardized. In addition to the commonly used wavelength λ and frequency ν, the
wave number ν*, mostly used in spectroscopy, is also quoted.
A finer subdivision of the MW range and nearby FIR, used for radar but also by extension, for
passive radiometry, is provided in Table 2.8.
The overall spectrum shown in Figure 2.10 comprises five distinct regions, each with rather
different features.
Table 2.8. Bands used in radar technology (according to the American Society for
Photogrammetry and Remote-sensing)
Band Frequency range Wavelength range

P 220–390 MHz 77–136 cm
UHF 300–1 000 MHz 30–100 cm
L 1–2 GHz 15–30 cm
S 2–4 GHz 7.5–15 cm
C 4–8 GHz 3.75–7.5 cm
X 8–12.5 GHz 2.4–3.75 cm
Ku 12.5–18 GHz 1.67–2.4 cm
K 18–26.5 GHz 1.1–1.67 cm
Ka 26.5–40 GHz 0.75–1.18 cm
V 40–75 GHz 4.0–7.5 mm
W 75–110 GHz 2.75–4.0 mm
CO2 CO O2 CH4 H2O–band H2O–cont N2 Molecular O3 Total gas

1
0.8
Transmittance
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Wavelength (µm)
Figure 2.11. Atmospheric spectrum in the range 0.4 to 4.0 μm. It includes several windows
and absorption bands from carbon monoxide (CO, about 2.3 μm), carbon dioxide (CO2, about
1.6, 2.1 and 2.8 μm), methane (CH4, about 2.3 and 3.4 μm), several oxygen bands (O2, mainly
about 0.77 μm), some nitrogen (N2) and ozone (O3) bands, and many important bands of
water vapour (H2O, mainly 0.94, 1.13, 1.37, 1.8 and 2.7 μm). Also shown is the molecular
continuum, which prevents using UV for Earth surface and low atmosphere
sensing from space.
In the UV region, atmospheric absorption is strong, mainly due to the major air constituents
(nitrogen (N2) and oxygen (O2)) and trace gases (the most important being ozone (O3)). The
Earth’s surface cannot be observed in that spectral region. The radiation source for remote-
sensing consists of reflected solar radiation.
The VIS, NIR and SWIR regions, from 0.4 to 3 μm and, in some cases, up to 4 μm, can be sensed
by means of reflected solar radiation. This range includes several transparent regions (windows)
and many absorption bands (see Figure 2.11).
In the MWIR and TIR regions, from 4 to 15 μm, the radiation source consists of the thermal
emission from the Earth’s surface and the atmosphere, which is mainly driven by water vapour
and carbon dioxide absorption/emission. These are important contributors to the greenhouse
effect. This thermal emission combined with the main atmospheric window enables the planet’s
thermal equilibrium to be maintained at agreeable values (see Figure 2.12).
Wavelength (µm)
16.67 12.50 10 8.33 7.14 6.25 5.56 5 4.55 4.17 3.85 3.57 3.33
300 CO 300
N2O
CH4
Brightness temperature (K)
280 280
H2O H2O
N2O
260 CO2 260
240 O3 240
220 220
CO2
600 800 1 000 1 200 1 400 1 600 1 800 2 000 2 200 2 400 2 600 2 800 3 000
Wave number (cm–1)
Figure 2.12. Atmospheric spectrum in the range 3.33 to 16.67 μm. The main atmospheric
windows are in the ranges 3.7 to 4.0 μm and 10 to 12 μm. There are large absorption bands
from water vapour (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2). Other species are: ozone (O3, about
9.7 μm), methane (CH4, about 7.7 μm), carbon monoxide (CO, about 4.6 μm) and
nitrous oxide (N2O, about 4.5 and 7.7 μm).
(A) Summer low latitude (D) Annual midlatitude (dry) with ozone
(B) Annual midlatitude (E) Annual midlatitude: nitrogen only
(C) Winter high latitude (F) Annual midlatitude: oxygen only
106
W W
W
104 W
W
W W
W
W W
O W
Zenith opacity (dB)
W W (A) W
W
O (B)
102
(C)
(D)
W
100
O
O O
O O
O (F)
(E)
10–2
O : Oxygen resonance
W : Water vapour resonance
(2) 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1 000
Frequency (GHz)
Figure 2.13. Atmospheric spectrum in the range 2 to 1 000 GHz. The dominant feature is the
water vapour continuum that grows in opacity as frequency increases into the FIR range. This
prevents viewing the Earth’s surface at high frequencies from space. Invasive lines of ozone
also dominate the spectrum. The most useful features are the oxygen bands (about 57, 118,
388, 424, 487 GHz and above), used to infer atmospheric temperature, and the water vapour
bands (about 22, 183, 325, 380, 448 GHz and above).
Source: Klein and Gasiewski (2000).
The next spectral region, the Far IR, ranges from 15 μm to 1 mm (or 300 GHz). It is fully opaque
because of the water vapour continuum. In that region, which is difficult to explore because of
the lack of efficient detection techniques, there are absorption lines of several important spe-
cies, such as hydroxil radical (OH), known as a “cleaner” of the atmosphere, and hydrogen
chloride (HCl), a reservoir species that releases ozone-aggressive chlorine. Hydroxil radical and
hydrogen chloride are only observable in the FIR (for example, about 120 μm ≈ 2 500 GHz and
480 μm ≈ 625 GHz, respectively).
In the MW range, from 1 to 300 GHz, the radiation source consists of the thermal emission from
the Earth’s surface and the atmosphere. The atmospheric spectrum, starting from 2 GHz and
extending to submillimetre frequencies up to 1 000 GHz, is shown in Figure 2.13.
In the portion of the MW range where the atmosphere is more transparent, (that is, at
frequencies below about 100 GHz), the wavelengths exceed 3 mm and so are much larger than
cloud drop size, except for precipitating clouds. Therefore, the MW range is used for observing
the Earth’s surface or atmospheric properties in nearly all weather conditions.
Active sensing is conditioned by technology and, in the case of MW, by radio-frequency

spectrum regulations. Radar makes use of MW, while lidar makes use of optical wavelengths
where suitable sources (crystals) are available. Table 2.9 presents a few commonly used radar
frequencies and lidar wavelengths. As a comparison, the table also lists frequencies used by
the global navigation satellite system (GNSS) and associated radio-occultation sensing of the
atmosphere (see the present volume, Chapter 3, 3.2.7).
Table 2.9. Spectrum utilization from active instruments (radar and lidar)
and radio occultation
Observation Instrument Frequency or wavelength

Radar Sea-surface wind Scatterometer C band (~5.3 GHz) or Ku band (~13.4 GHz)
Ocean Altimeter C band (~5.3 GHz) + Ku band (~13.6 GHz)

topography
Cloud and Rain radar, cloud Ku band (~13.6 GHz) and/or K a band (~35.5 GHz)
precipitation radar or W band (~94 GHz)
Imagery Synthetic aperture L band (~1.3 GHz) or C band (~5.4 GHz) or

radar X band (~9.6 GHz)
Lidar Clear-air wind Doppler lidar UV-lidar (355 nm)
Aerosol, cloud Backscatter lidar UV-lidar (355 nm), VNIR-lidar (532 + 1 064 nm)
top
Ice-sheet Altimeter VNIR-lidar (532 + 1 064 nm)

topography
Radio Atmospheric GNSS + Receiver L band: ~1 580 + ~1 250 + ~1 180 GHz (Global

occultation refraction in LEO Positioning System (GPS), Globalnaïa
Navigatsionnaïa Spoutnikovaïa Sistéma
(GLONASS) and Galileo)
2.2.2 Basic laws of interaction between electromagnetic radiation and matter
The macroscopic properties of a condensed body at thermodynamic equilibrium that is not

affected by chemical or nuclear reactions are summarized in terms of electromagnetic radiation
by three coefficients linked by the following equation:
ρ ( λ , T , ζ , ϕ ) + τ ( λ , T , ζ , ϕ ) + ε ( λ , T , ζ , ϕ ) = 1 (2.6)
In this equation, ρ(λ,T,ζ,φ) denotes reflectivity that is the ratio of the backscattered radiation
I(λ,T,ζ,φ) to the incident radiation I(λ); τ(λ,T,ζ,φ) denotes transmissivity, or the fraction of I(λ)
that crosses the body; and ε(λ,T,ζ,φ) is the fraction of I(λ) that is absorbed by the body – it is
called emissivity for reasons explained below. The three coefficients depend on the radiation
wavelength λ, the body temperature T, and the observing geometry ζ, φ (zenith and azimuth
angles, respectively).
A body that is not reflecting and is totally opaque to radiation on any wavelength (where
ρ = τ = 0, and thus ε = 1) is called a black body. It radiates at any temperature, T and over the full λ
or ν spectrum, according to Planck’s law:
2π hc 2 1 2πν 3 h
B (λ , T ) = or B(ν , T ) = (2.7)
hc hν
λ 5
c 2
e λ kT −1 e kT −1
where:
h = 6.6256 · 10 –34 J s (which is the Planck constant);
c = 2.99793 · 10 8 m s–1 (which is the speed of light in a vacuum); and
k = 1.38044 · 10 –23 J K–1 (which is the Boltzmann constant).
B(λ,T) (or B(ν,T)) is the radiative power per unit surface over the hemisphere per unit of
wavelength (or frequency). The power radiated per unit of solid angle is B/π. The Planck function
for temperatures of 6 000 K and 273.16 K, which are representative of the Sun and the Earth’s
surfaces respectively, is shown in Figure 2.14.
X
10
8 V
UV
B (λ,T) (10 X W m–2 sr –1 cm –1)

IR MW UHF VHF RADIO
6 i
s
4 i
2 b
l
0 e
–2
–4
–6
–8
–10
–12
100  0.1 µ 1 µ 10 µ 0.1 mm 1 mm 1 cm 10 cm 1m 10 m λ
Figure 2.14. The Planck function for T = 6 000 K, representative of the Sun (higher curve), and
T = 273.16 K, representative of the Earth (lower curve); X values in ordinate are to
the power of 10.
The power radiated over the full spectrum is:

∞
W (T ) = ∫0 B (λ , T ) ⋅ d λ = σ ⋅ T 4 Stefan-Boltzmann law (2.8)
where σ = 5.6681 · 10 W m K . –8 –2 –4
The two curves in Figure 2.14 illustrate that the Sun’s and Earth’s surfaces have very different
radiative powers. However, after scaling down the Sun curve by the square of the distance
between the Sun and Earth, the two integrated areas become comparable, which reflects the
Earth’s radiative balance. If the upper curve in the figure is scaled, it is easy to see that the solar
radiation on Earth is very small for λ > 4 μm, while Earth radiation is negligible for λ < 3 μm. There
are significant amounts of solar and Earth radiation in the narrow interval between 3 and 4 μm.
A major difference between the two curves in Figure 2.14, after scaling, is the wavelength λmax
where the maximum emission occurs. This is given by:
b
λmax = with b = 0.0028981 m K Wien law (2.9)
T
Because of the double-logarithmic scale in Figure 2.14, it is difficult to appreciate how sharp
the Planck function is around λmax. In the case of solar radiation (T = 6 000 K) the peak emission
occurs around λmax = 0.5 μm and most of that power lies in the 0.2–3.0 μm range. In the case of
terrestrial radiation (T = 273.16 K, that is, T = 0°C) the peak is around λmax = 10 μm and most of
the power lies in the 3–50 μm range.
Another interesting feature of the Planck function is that, when moving from λmax to shorter
wavelengths, radiative power dramatically decreases, whereas when moving to longer
wavelengths, the decrease is more gradual (approximately two thirds of power occurs at
wavelengths longer than λmax). For very long wavelengths, or low frequencies, such as those in
the MW range, where the argument of the exponential in the Planck function is hν/kT << 1, the
term ehν/kT becomes ≈ 1 + hν/kT and the Planck function thus reduces to:
2π k ν 2
T B(ν , T ) =
Rayleigh-Jeans law (2.10)
c2
Because of this relationship, radiation measurements in the MW range can be considered
as temperature measurements and can be expressed as a brightness temperature (T B) in
temperature units. While the total radiative power changes with temperature in proportion to T 4
according to the Stefan-Boltzmann law (equation 2.8), that power changes in a linear way in the
MW portion of the spectrum. Conversely, when moving towards shorter wavelengths, the Planck
function is increasingly dependent on temperature. Terrestrial radiation varies approximately

with T 5 in the main TIR window around 11 μm and with T 12 in the window around 3.7 μm. This
is an interesting feature for remote-sensing, since it means that sensitivity to high temperatures is
higher at 3.7 μm. Conversely, these shorter wavelengths are less sensitive to low temperatures.
For example:
(a) For a body at 220 K (such as a cloud top in the upper troposphere), the radiation at 11 μm is
~1 200 times greater than at 3.7 μm; but at 300 K (surface), it is only ~130 times;
(b) The sensitivity to temperature changes, (that is, (∂B/∂T)/B) is three times higher at 3.7 μm
than at 11 μm.
As a consequence, 3.7 μm is well suited for surface observations, is optimal for fire detection, and
is less useful for high clouds.
The relationship represented by equations 2.7–2.10 is only valid for a black body (ε = 1).
For a common body, the relationship can be established through the following conceptual
experiment. If a number of bodies in an isolated system only exchange radiation among
themselves, it could be assumed that, after a transient time, each of them would reach
thermodynamic equilibrium, where the radiation each absorbs according to its absorption
coefficient ε(λ,T) is equal to the power it radiates P(λ,T). That is, P(λ,T)/ε(λ,T) = constant.
Assuming that one of the bodies is a perfect black body, this yields:
P (λ , T ) = ε (λ , T ) ⋅ B (λ , T ) Kirchhoff principle (2.11)
This shows that the absorption coefficient introduced in equation 2.5 also controls the body’s
emission properties, hence the name emissivity. Equation 2.11 indicates two important
consequences:
(a) At any wavelength and temperature, a body cannot radiate more than a black body at the
same wavelength and temperature;
(b) A body can radiate only at wavelengths at which it can also absorb.
Emissivity ε is a function of wavelength and, to a lesser extent, temperature. For certain bodies,
ε may be constant over large portions of the spectrum. If it is constant over the whole spectrum,
the body is called grey. The shape of the radiated power P(λ,T) is then exactly like B(λ,T),
although it is damped by a factor ε. The Wien law (equation 2.9) applies unchanged. The Stefan-
Boltzmann law becomes W(T) = ε · σ · T 4.
The Kirchhoff principle also applies to gaseous materials. Therefore, spectral lines of atmospheric
gases are generally (but not always) relevant to both absorption and emission.
2.2.3 Observations in the atmospheric windows
2.2.3.1 Emerging radiation
Atmospheric windows are spectral regions where the atmosphere is nearly transparent. There is
no region where the atmosphere is fully transparent. All regions have some residual disturbance
from species that have a continuum, the most common of which is water vapour in the IR, MW
and, to some extent, the SW ranges. Another factor, particularly in SW, is scattering from dry air
molecules (mostly N2 and O2) and aerosols. Ultimately, the most transparent windows are:
(a) In the SW (Figure 2.11): 0.5–0.9 μm, 1.6–1.7 μm and 2.0–2.3 μm;
(b) In the IR (Figure 2.12): 3.5–4.0 μm and 10–12 μm;
(c) In the MW (Figure 2.13): 80–100 GHz, 25–50 GHz and below 20 GHz.

τ ( λ, T ) · I (λ) Ɛ ( λ, T ) · B ( λ, T ) ρ ( λ, T ) · I (λ)
τ ρ
I (λ, ϴ)
ρ
I (λ)
τ
Figure 2.15. The three components of irradiance in space
Equation 2.5 indicates that the coefficients ρ (reflectivity), τ (transmissivity) and ε (emissivity)
not only depend on radiation wavelength λ and body temperature T, but also on the geometric
condition (zenith angle ζ and azimuth angle φ) of the satellite platform with respect to the body.
In order to simplify the discussion, the following conditions are assumed: vertical viewing from
the satellite (Figure 2.15), flat surfaces and radiation towards the zenith (irradiance).
One component, τ(λ,T) · Iτ(λ), is transmitted radiation through the body. It can be found where
the body is not totally opaque and where there is a radiation source below it in the opposite
hemisphere compared to the satellite.
The component ε(λ,T) · B(λ,T) is emitted radiation, expressed through the Kirchhoff principle
(equation 2.11). It is always present unless the body is at absolute thermal zero. It is not present in
spectral regions, where the body does not absorb.
The component ρ(λ,T) · Iρ(λ,θ) is reflected radiation. It is found where there is a radiation

source in the same hemisphere as the satellite. Figure 2.15 indicates the Sun but, in the MW
range, where solar radiation is virtually zero, the full hemispheric sky radiates as a black body,
at temperature T = 2.725 K, where the maximum power occurs at λmax = 1.9 mm (160 GHz). The
notation Iρ(λ,θ) indicates that the power of the incoming radiation depends on the angle of
incidence θ. Normally for the Sun, Iρ(λ,θ) = S(λ) · cos ζ, where S(λ) denotes incoming power with
the Sun at its zenith.
Taking account of all components, the radiation reaching the instrument on the satellite can be
expressed as:
I ( λ , T ) = τ ( λ , T ) ⋅ Iτ ( λ ) + ε ( λ , T ) ⋅ B ( λ , T ) + ρ ( λ , T ) ⋅ I ρ ( λ , θ ) (2.12)
There is considerable variation along the spectrum, so that the significance of the measurement
is reasonably stable only within narrow bandwidths around a specific wavelength (channels).
However, some general information is also contained in a wider range of wavelengths
(VIS + NIR + SWIR; MWIR + TIR; MW).
2.2.3.2 Measurements in the visible, near-infrared and short-wave infrared range
In this range, there is no thermal emission from the Earth (B = 0). Focusing first on the Earth’s
surface (land and ocean), the transmitted radiation is zero, since there is no source below
the Earth’s surface. Also when considering that reflectivity is nearly independent of body
temperature, equation 2.12 reduces to:
Isw ( λ ) = ρ ( λ ) ⋅ S ( λ ) ⋅ cos ζ (2.13)
Since the solar spectrum and observing geometry are known, the information carried by a
measurement in a SW channel is uniquely associated to surface reflectivity. Many geophysical
variables (vegetation parameters, ocean colour, texture of land) may be estimated by measuring
reflectivity at several wavelengths. However, clouds are the objects that are most in evidence in
SW. Equation 2.13 is not strictly correct for a cloud surface, since radiation from the underlying
surface can transmit through them. However, this effect has a limited impact given:
(a) The total transmissivity through (downward and upward) the atmosphere;
(b) That the cloud is low;
(c) The originating radiation source (the Sun) is stronger than any surface below the cloud;
(d) The reflectivity of the underlying surface is low (except for sand desert, snow and ice);
(e) The reflectivity of clouds ρ is generally higher than any other terrestrial surface.
Therefore, equation 2.13 is an approximation applicable to most clouds, the exceptions being

thin clouds such as cirrus, especially on the bright background of sand deserts, ice and snow.
Using SW-reflected radiation for quantitative purposes is not an easy exercise, since reflectivity
is generally anisotropic. The simplest case occurs when the body, whatever the direction of the
incoming radiation, and for any azimuth, homogeneously redistributes the reflected radiation
from the zenith according to a cosine-law. This is called Lambertian reflection. Fortunately, most
Earth surfaces observed from space at relatively large scale appear rather flat and rough, so that
Lambertian diffusion may be a good approximation. In many cases, however, the body exhibits a
bidirectional reflectance distribution function that should be measured a priori by observations
under different viewing directions and for different directions of the incoming radiation. The final
computation of the irradiance towards space requires hemispheric integration.
Using SW for Earth observation in atmospheric windows requires spectral sampling at several
wavelengths (channels) since at any one wavelength, several bodies may have signatures, and
one body may have a signature at several wavelengths. A multichannel capability is therefore
necessary to distinguish and simultaneously retrieve the different properties of different bodies.
For instance, clouds and snow have identical reflectance in VIS at 0.65 μm, but very different
reflectance at 1.6 μm. In addition, channel bandwidths must be appropriate to their purpose. The
most stringent are for ocean colour (Δλ ≈ 10 nm), and then vegetation (Δλ ≈ 20 nm), whereas for
other surface features and for clouds, bandwidths of several tens of nanometres are sufficient.
Another feature that affects the quantitative use of VIS + NIR + SWIR is polarization: specular
reflection tends to be privileged, with damping of the vertical component of the electric field.
The Stokes vector, which in the SW range consists of three components (polarization in three
directions with phase differences of 120°), fully describes the electric field, and so provides
important information about the body’s properties. Multipolarization is important for the
observation of those bodies that do not have strong multispectral signatures. Typical examples
would be aerosols and cirrus clouds (elongated ice crystals).
2.2.3.3 Measurements in the medium-wave infrared and thermal infrared range
In the 4–15 μm range, solar radiation is virtually zero. On the Earth's surface (land and ocean),
transmitted radiation is also zero. Furthermore, considering that emissivity is nearly independent
from body temperature, equation 2.12 reduces to:
I IR ( λ , T ) = ε ( λ ) ⋅ B ( λ , T ) (2.14)
Equation 2.14 is also approximately valid for clouds, since the transmissivity of clouds in IR is
rather low (with the exception of thin cirrus).
The emissivity of most land surfaces, and certainly the ocean, is close to 1, with small variance.
Therefore the information acquired by a measurement in an IR channel is closely associated with
the Planck function (equation 2.7) or for a given wavelength, with the body’s temperature.
At a specified wavelength λ or for a narrow channel Δλ around λ, the Planck function

(equation 2.7) may be easily inverted to retrieve the temperature, T:
hc
T (λ ) = (2.15)
 2π hc 2 
λ k ln 1 + 5 
 λ B(λ ) 
However, T will not be the body’s true temperature unless ε = 1. If the body’s emissivity is known,
and the channel bandwidth Δλ is sufficiently narrow to enable ε to be considered as constant,
an emissivity correction can be applied to the measured quantity (by inverting B(λ,T) = IIR(λ,T)/
ε(λ)), and the body’s temperature can be measured. Otherwise, by inverting the measured
quantity B(λ,T) = IIR(λ,T), a temperature T BB (equivalent black-body temperature) is obtained
that is lower than the body’s true temperature.
For a large variety of bodies where ε is close to 1, radiance observation in a TIR atmospheric
window enables rather accurate temperature measurement. It is particularly accurate in the
case of the sea, whose emissivity is close to 0.98. However, emissivity is not the only effect that
needs to be corrected. As previously mentioned, the atmospheric windows are not perfectly
transparent. For instance, the main window in TIR, 10–12 μm, is contaminated by the water
vapour continuum, particularly on the long-wave side. One way to reduce this disturbance is
to split the window into two channels, generally 10.3–11.3 μm and 11.5–12.5 μm. Differential
absorption is then used to estimate a correction (total column water vapour can also be
estimated as a by-product).
As a result of those effects, equation 2.15 indicates a dependence of the retrieved temperature

on the wavelength (although as there is only one body temperature, that dependence should
not exist). The spread of values with wavelength implies how certain information might be
explained. For instance, by comparing T BB measured at 3.7 μm and 11 μm it is possible to explain
the difference in terms of different emissivity, or in terms of different contamination of the
measurement from clouds.
It is important to note that the 3.7 μm window behaves very differently in daylight and at night.
In daylight, it is strongly contaminated by reflected solar radiation, which needs to be subtracted
before using the channel for quantitative thermal emission estimates. As previously noted, the
3.7 μm window is much more sensitive to high temperatures than the 11 μm window. However,
the 3.7 μm window is of little use for low temperatures, such as those found in cloud tops in the
upper troposphere. The differential response to the temperatures of the 3.7 and 11 μm windows
can also be used for detecting fog at night.
As regards clouds, equation 2.14 is still approximately valid. However, with the exception of
very thick clouds (such as cumulus or nimbus-stratus), emissivity is substantially lower than
unity. Equivalent black-body temperature substantially underestimates true temperature,
and a correction must be applied to account for low emissivity. The usual method is to couple
the window channel with a channel that is strongly sensitive to water vapour. The difference
between the two T BB values indicates the cloud emissivity: the larger the difference, the lower the
emissivity.
The penetration of infrared radiation in clouds is very low. Measured temperature refers to the
top surface, and information about the interior of clouds is poor, especially for dense clouds.
However, the temperature of cloud tops that is in equilibrium with air temperature at the same
level is very important, because it indicates the altitude of the cloud in the troposphere, and
therefore the cloud type.
Information derived from black-body temperature about the cloud-top level is often inaccurate.
With thin clouds, such as thin cirrus, the background surface is much warmer than the air at
Bright V
i Stratocumulus Cirrus
s
i
b Arid soil Stratus
l
e Snow
Tilled soil
Cirrostratus
Cumulus
Sea
Infrared
Woody soil
Dark
Warm Cold
Figure 2.16. Scatterplot of VIS (0.65 μm) versus IR (11.5 μm), enabling the classification of
10 bodies. If projected onto one of either two axes, several clusters would be unresolved.
Source: Bizzarri and Tomassini (1976).
cloud level. As a result, surface radiation transmitted through the cloud adds to the cloud
emission, the cloud appears warmer, and the assigned level is underestimated. Conversely, thick
cirrus with high emissivity are observed as very cold, and may be confused with cumulonimbus.
In order to resolve such ambiguities, it is useful to plot VIS brightness and IR temperatures as
bi-dimensional histograms (Figure 2.16). By using only one band (the projection of the 2D
pattern on one axis), several clusters would be unresolved. By contrast, this example shows that
10 different objects can be identified through multi-band analysis. This is a simple example using
an old instrument (a very high resolution radiometer (VHRR)) and only two channels in VIS and
IR. Current multi-band analysis techniques can operate with many more channels.
2.2.3.4 Measurements in the microwave range
In the MW range, solar radiation is virtually zero, but there is a diffuse source of incoming
radiation: the sky. Transmitted radiance is zero with regard to the Earth's surface, including land
and sea. There are only two contributions: thermal emission and reflected radiation. Those are
controlled by emissivity and reflectivity coefficients which, since τ = 0, are linked by the condition
ε + ρ = 1 (that is, ρ = 1 – ε). By expressing radiative power in units of temperature according to the
Rayleigh-Jeans equation (2.10), observed brightness temperature, T B, can be rendered:
TB ( v ) = ε ( v ) ⋅ T + 1 − ε ( v )  ⋅ Tsky ( v ) (2.16)
Tsky(ν), sky brightness temperature, is composed of background cosmic radiation and the
contribution of precipitating clouds; it changes with frequency. In the main window and under
non-precipitating conditions, where ν ~ 40 GHz, Tsky(ν) may be ~140 K. Under heavy precipitation
conditions, Tsky may reach values as large as ~250 K.
The impact of Tsky(ν) strongly depends on the value of the emissivity, ε. Sea and land have
substantially different ε values.
The emissivity of the sea in the MW range is very low: ε ≈ 0.5. As a result, the two components in
equation 2.16 have equal weight. In the absence of precipitating clouds, Tsky is low and known:
the measurement can therefore be associated with sea-surface temperature. The optimal
frequency for sea-surface temperature is about 5 GHz (see Figure 2.17) where Tsky is much smaller
than that at 40 GHz. The measurement is rather accurate and is also applicable in all weather,
since the wavelength (λ = 6 cm) is much longer than any rain droplet. The 5 GHz sea-surface
signal intensity is representative of the temperature of a few millimetres of the deep-water
layer (sub-skin); that should be compared to a few tens of micrometres in the case of IR (skin
temperature). At higher frequencies, Tsky strongly increases, especially in the presence of heavy
precipitation. The high reflectivity value (1 – ε) is such that the observation is mainly an indicator
of precipitation.
Over land, emissivity is close to unity. The second component in equation 2.16 is therefore
ineffective, and precipitation is poorly detected. At higher frequencies (~90 GHz (λ = 3 mm)),
radiation welling up from the surface is scattered by large droplets, and even more so by ice
crystals in clouds. As a result, radiation reaching the satellite is decreased.
Polarization can also be used for measuring precipitation. Radiation reflected from the sea is
strongly polarized: when crossing a precipitating cloud, it undergoes depolarization that can
be measured to infer precipitation. The differential polarization can also be exploited over land,
since the emerging radiation scattered from droplets and ice crystals is polarized.
Observation under several polarizations may also be useful, regardless of the objective of
precipitation measurement. Differential polarization is sensitive to surface roughness – an effect
which must be taken into account when measuring sea-surface temperature. This can also be
used to infer wind speed over the sea, as indicated in Figure 2.17.
Figure 2.17 also indicates that MW radiation is sensitive to ocean salinity, but only at very low
frequencies, typically about 1.4 GHz (L band). The figure also shows that in order to measure
ocean salinity, it is necessary to account for sea-surface temperature and wind speed (or
roughness). Similarly to salinity, there is a water vapour absorption band that contaminates the
observation of temperature, wind and liquid cloud (precipitation). That band can also be used to
infer total column water vapour (precipitable water) over the sea. In summary, different variables
may have different signatures on various channels in the MW as well as the optical fields: multi-
channel analysis is therefore needed.
Salinity Wind speed
Liquid clouds
+
Water
Δ TB vapour
0
Δ Pi 10 20 30 40
Frequency GHz
– Sea-surface
temperature
Figure 2.17. Sensitivity (defined as ∆TB/∆Pi) of MW frequencies

to several geophysical variables (P)
Due to the totally different emissivity values of sea and land surfaces, the most obvious feature in
a MW image is the land/sea boundary. Since the emissivity of ice is close to unity, sea ice is also an
obvious observable in all weather conditions. MW images are particularly useful for geographical
regions that are often overcast. In cases where emissivity is close to unity over land, a decrease
in emissivity indicates the presence of water on the surface. This is because the emissivity of a
body is controlled by its dielectric constant: water on land is a salt solution, which increases
conductivity and thus decreases emissivity. This effect can be exploited to measure surface soil
moisture and snow properties.
Soil moisture measurements can be rather accurate on bare soil, but can decrease in accuracy as
vegetation increases. In order to penetrate vegetation, and to measure soil moisture at root level,
very low frequencies must be used, either in L or P band. At higher frequencies (above 10 GHz),
sensitivity to soil moisture is only significant if disturbance by vegetation is accounted for.
Two properties of snow are detectable in the MW range: surface melting conditions and, in the
case of shallow snowpack, water equivalent. In the latter case, relatively high frequencies are
preferred, as snow tends to be transparent at low frequencies. However, saturation can occur
at very high frequency signals in the upper layers of the snowpack. Several frequencies with
different penetration depths are therefore needed.
2.2.4 Observations in absorption bands
2.2.4.1 The radiative transfer equation
In an atmospheric absorption band, each layer of thickness dz absorbs radiation coming from
below and re-emits it. Assuming zero reflectivity of the atmosphere in IR, the atmospheric
transmittance from a height z to a satellite altitude H is given by:
H
− ε ( λ , z )⋅ N ( z )⋅dz
τ (λ , z ) = e ∫ z (2.17)
where N(z) is the concentration of the absorbing gas.
The radiative contribution of an atmospheric layer of thickness dz, at height z and associated with
a transmittance change of dτ (I,z), is: dI(λ,z) = B[λ,T(z)] · dτ(λ,z).
The radiation from the total atmospheric column to the satellite is:
1
I (λ ) = ∫τ (λ , z ) B[λ , T ( z )] ⋅ dτ (λ , z) (2.18)
s
where zs is the height of the Earth's surface.
A terrestrial contribution should be added, attenuated by the total atmospheric transmittance. In

addition, the weighting function can be defined as:
dτ (λ , z )
K (λ , z ) = (2.19)
dz
The combined radiation reaching the satellite is given by the radiative transfer equation:
H
I (λ ) = B (λ , Ts ) ⋅τ (λ , zs ) + ∫z s
B[λ , T ( z )] ⋅ K (λ , z ) ⋅ dz (2.20)
Figure 2.18 shows that the transmittance (equation 2.17) tends to 1 as height z increases (that
is, as the thickness of the atmospheric layer between height z and satellite altitude H decreases).
This is accompanied by a decrease in emissivity ε and a decrease in concentration N of the
absorbing gas. The weighting functions have peak values that correspond to the inflection point
of the transmittance function. A simple way to read equation 2.20 is that each atmospheric
layer of thickness dz contributes to the radiation reaching the satellite according both to its
temperature (through the Planck function), and also to its effectiveness to contribute, as
quantified by the weighting function. The weighting function depends on the concentration
of the absorbing gas and the strength of absorption/emission (ε). The shape is such that low
Km
Km 48
43
32
39
27 36
32
7
23
27
20 6
7 6
5 23
16 20
4
16 5
13 3
2 4
13
7 3
1 7 2
4
4 1
0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
 (λ, Z ) κ ( λ, Z )
Figure 2.18. Transmissivity (left) and corresponding weighting

functions (right) for seven channels in the CO2 14 μm band
atmospheric layers are penalized because of absorption by the upper layers, and high layers are
penalized because of their low concentration of the absorbing gas. The atmospheric layer that
exhibits the greatest change in transmittance is usually the layer that contributes the most.
2.2.4.2 Profile retrieval
The inversion of equation 2.20 is not a trivial matter. It is a Fredholm equation of the second kind,
for which the existence or the uniqueness of the solution are not mathematically guaranteed.
In the present case, the existence is granted by nature. To ensure uniqueness of the solution it is
necessary to add constraints to it, since the problem is ill-conditioned. Many methods have been
developed since profile sounding from space began. Some are statistical and linear, others are
physical and non-linear, while others are a combination of both.
The primary objective is to invert equation 2.20 in order to retrieve an atmospheric temperature

profile. This is only possible if the transmittance function is known in advance, which implies
working in the absorption bands of a gas that has a known and stable concentration profile.
In the IR range, CO2 has such a profile in the bands around 4.3 and 15 μm (see Figure 2.12).
As previously noted, the 4.3 μm band is more sensitive to high temperature, and is thus
representative of the lower troposphere. However, that band may be contaminated by radiation
from other species, and in daytime, the tail of the solar black-body curve (> 4 μm) cannot be
disregarded. The 15 μm band is spectrally more pure, but is somewhat contaminated by the
water vapour continuum. The transmittances therefore need to be corrected, either a priori by
using external information, or a posteriori, by iterating after the water vapour profile has been
retrieved.
The next step is to retrieve the water vapour profile. Once CO2 absorption band channels have
been used to retrieve the temperature profile, H2O absorption band channels are used. The
main band is centred around 6.3 μm, and responds well to high temperature (in the low- to
mid- troposphere). For climate monitoring, it is important to measure water vapour in the
upper troposphere. But that requires using an 18 μm band, which is technologically difficult to
construct due to a lack of efficient detectors in the FIR range.
It is not easy to retrieve a water vapour profile or, more generally, to retrieve the concentration
profile of an absorbing gas. The weighting functions of the absorbing gas peak at varying
altitudes in the atmosphere, depending on concentration and remote-sensing frequency.
In addition, retrieval is intrinsically inaccurate because the transmittance function to be inverted

(equation 2.17) defines the content of a thin layer at altitude z as the difference between the
respective content of two very thick layers: H to z and H to (z – Δz). In other words, a small
number is derived by calculating the difference between two large numbers.
Further difficulties arise where clouds are present. If the instantaneous field of view (IFOV)
is entirely filled by a cloud with uniform features, a profile may still be retrieved by the same
method, although it will only cover the atmosphere above the cloud. If only a fraction η of the
IFOV is filled by a cloud of emissivity εcloud, the transfer equation becomes:
I (λ ) = (1 − ε cloud ⋅η ) I clear (λ ) + ε cloud ⋅η ·I cloud (λ ) (2.21)
where εcloud · η is the effective cover.
Several methods deal with the effects of clouds. One starts the retrieval process by using the
channels with weighting functions that peak above the cloud-top level to achieve a first-guess
profile. The first guess is then iterated by changing effective cover values, until the measurements
in all other channels fit best. Another method compares a number of nearby IFOVs on the
assumption that the signals differ only because of the different fractional covers η, and then
extrapolates to zero η.
In any event, it is acknowledged that, when cloud cover in the IFOV exceeds approximately 20%,
no attempt should be made to retrieve profiles in IR. The IFOV of sounding instruments used to
be several tens of kilometres. Fortunately, that has now been reduced to the order of 10 km, so
that the probability of finding a substantial number of cloud-free IFOVs in a given area is much
higher.
The problem of clouds is greatly alleviated in the MW range, where sounding is possible for all
weather conditions except heavy rain. The species of well-known and constant concentration
used for temperature profile retrieval is O2, with absorption bands in the 50–70 GHz range and
at about 118 GHz (not yet used from a satellite). For water vapour, the 183 GHz band can be used
effectively. The 22 GHz band provides a weak signal that can provide total column-integrated
amount over the sea. There are other absorption bands for temperature and water vapour at
higher frequencies, but the radiative effect of the water vapour continuum makes it impossible to
observe the troposphere using those spectral bands.
The transfer equation in the MW range is essentially a simpler version of the IR equation (2.20):
instead of the Planck function (equation 2.7), it is possible to use the Rayleigh-Jeans
approximation with linear temperature dependence (equation 2.10).
The question may arise as to why the MW band is not exclusively used for temperature and
humidity sounding, as it performs in nearly all weather conditions. This is because vertical
resolution requires a high sensitivity to temperature variations (with height). Vertical resolution is
best in the 4.3 μm band, where the Planck function varies roughly in relation to T 12. In the 15 μm
band, there is less sensitivity because the Planck function varies in relation to T 5. In the MW
range, since B is a linear function of T (see equation 2.10), sensitivity (∂B/∂T)/B varies in relation
to T –1 (it decreases as temperature increases). One interesting feature of the various bands is
that, whereas the 4.3 μm band is well suited to the lower troposphere, and the 15 μm band is
well suited to the middle and high troposphere, the MW band at 57 GHz is better suited to the
stratosphere.
Vertical resolution is crucial to temperature and humidity sounding. Figure 2.18 shows an

example in which the weighting functions are rather broad. That implies that the degrees of
freedom (the number of independent pieces of information) are limited. Weighting functions
become narrower when the spectral resolution of the instrument improves. Figure 2.18 relates
to a radiometer with only seven channels and a low resolving power (λ/Δλ ≈ 100); its vertical
resolution is ~1.5–2 km in the mid-troposphere. Current sounding instruments (spectrometers)
have thousands of channels and a higher resolving power (λ/Δλ ≈ 1 000); their vertical resolution
is less than 1 km in the mid-troposphere. Further increasing the resolving power to λ/Δλ ≈ 10 000
would not improve the vertical resolution of temperature and humidity profiles, but would
enable single lines of trace gases to be observed for atmospheric chemistry purposes.
Current instruments for the MW range have already reached maximum vertical resolution
performance: it cannot improve beyond ~1.5 km in the mid-troposphere, and will be worse in the
lower troposphere because of strong contamination from the ground.
In the short-wave (SW) range (UV, VIS, NIR, SWIR) absorption band measurements are mostly
used for atmospheric chemistry through spectroscopic methods. The radiative transfer equation
is more complicated than equation 2.20. Instead of thermal radiation as described by Planck's
law, the more complex process of scattering is used. Retrieving geophysical variables relies on
modelling rather than explicit equations. As well as being used in atmospheric chemistry, the
analysis of absorption bands is used for other purposes (see the spectrum in Figure 2.11), such as
deriving:
(a) Atmospheric pressure at the Earth’s surface: this is derived from estimates of the total
column of oxygen in the band around 0.77 μm compared with nearby windows. It is one
of the very few approaches available to measure surface pressure from space. Accuracy is
limited by the scattering effect of aerosols, implying that the measurement also provides
information on aerosols.
(b) Cloud-top height: this is derived from a deficit that arises when the total column of
oxygen is measured; the deficit itself is the result of cloud masking the lower part of the
column. In principle, this is more accurate than calculating the cloud-top height from the
equivalent black-body temperature in IR, correcting for cloud emissivity, and transforming
temperature into height using a temperature profile.
(c) Lightning: a very narrow bandwidth channel at 0.774 μm is used. Strong absorption from
oxygen obscures the Earth's surface and enables flashes to be detected even in daylight.
The intensity and number of flashes in a given period over a given area are representative of
convection, and so serve as a proxy for precipitation. In addition, lightning activity causes
NOx to be generated in the atmosphere, and reflects the Earth’s electric field.
(d) Total column water vapour: the signal in one or more of the water vapour bands (about 0.94
or 1.37 μm) is compared with a signal from nearby windows. This can be more accurate
than using IR or MW profiling.
2.2.4.3 Limb sounding
Figure 2.18 shows how weighting functions become broader as height increases. This indicates
that the vertical resolution of temperature and humidity profiles using passive IR or MW
radiometry degrades with increasing altitude. The resolution obtained from using spectrometers
is currently considered adequate (~1 km) in the mid-troposphere; but it becomes marginal
(~2 km) at tropopause level, where much better resolution is required. In the stratosphere, the
vertical resolution degrades further and rapidly becomes unusable. Two techniques offer help:
limb sounding (including through occultation of the Sun, moon or stars) and radio occultation.
In cross-nadir sensing mode, vertical resolution is determined by the sharpness of the weighting
functions, which is in turn controlled by spectral resolution. In limb mode, vertical resolution
is determined by mechanical scanning, that is, by the instrument IFOV across the atmosphere
when viewed transversally in the Earth’s limb region (Figure 2.19). Vertical resolution depends on
the step change rate, which is tuned to the instrument viewing aperture and to the intensity of
available radiation. It is generally set to between one and three kilometres. Horizontal resolution
is relatively inaccurate, since the measurement is integrated over a large optical path, as shown
in Figure 2.19. The total optical path may be thousands of kilometres long, but the effective path,
once weighted by atmospheric density, extends to some 300–500 km around the tangent point.
The sources of radiation are solar radiation reflected from the atmosphere, or atmospheric
thermal radiation in the IR or MW ranges. In general, limb observations address not only
temperature and humidity profiles, but also trace gases for atmospheric chemistry purposes.
Platform
Line of sight
1
..
.
15
16
17
Atmospheric
layers
Earth
Figure 2.19. Geometry of limb scanning
In the SW range (UV, VIS, NIR, SWIR), the atmosphere can be scanned by directly pointing to
the Sun while the Sun is setting or rising (occultation). Observation is conducted by measuring
the damping of spectral lines in the solar spectrum. Sun occultation has the great advantage of
avoiding any mechanical movement of the instrument telescope, and any calibration. That is
because the spectra measured during occultation are compared to the solar spectrum measured
shortly before (or after) occultation under the same conditions. One disadvantage is that, at least
for polar-orbiting satellites, coverage is limited to high latitudes, where a satellite can observe
sunrise or sunset as it enters or leaves the night arc of its orbit. More extended coverage is
possible by using moon occultation, while all latitudes can be covered through occultation of the
stars. However, less radiation is available in those cases.
2.2.5 Active sensing
The sensing methods described above assume that the sources for remote-sensing are reflected
solar radiation and the Earth’s emitted thermal radiation (plus other minor sources, such as
background sky radiation in MW and the moon or stars in occultation). These natural sources
enable passive sensing, for which observation wavelengths are largely determined by natural
targets. In active sensing, the source is artificial and the sensing wavelength is not entirely driven
by the physical properties of the target. Instead, the wavelength can be chosen, while also
taking account of signal generation and propagation constraints. The following active sensing
principles are considered:
(a) Radio occultation (for high vertical resolution profiles of temperature and humidity);
(b) Radar (for altimetry, scatterometry, cloud and precipitation, and imagery);
(c) Lidar (for clouds and aerosols, air motion, altimetry, and atmospheric chemistry).
2.2.5.1 Radio occultation
Radio occultation is one of a number of limb-sounding techniques. It has a totally different

approach compared to passive radiometric techniques. An artificial source (in this case, the
signal from a navigation satellite: GPS, GLONASS, Galileo or Compass) is tracked by a receiver on
a satellite in LEO (Figure 2.20).
The change of propagation direction due to refraction by the crossed atmosphere (bending
angle α) is converted into a phase shift. The shift is accurately measured and then converted into
a refractivity profile during the occultation process, which lasts approximately 90 s.
GPS Tangent point
LEO
𝛼
GPS
a r
a LEO
Earth
600–1 000 km
a = an impact parameter
r = distance from centre of curvature to tangent point
Figure 2.20. Principle of radio-occultation sounding. During the setting or rising of the GPS
satellite over the horizon of the LEO satellite, the refraction induced by the crossed
atmosphere changes the direction of propagation by a bending angle α.
The refractivity is linked to the atmospheric variables as follows:
N = ( n − 1) ⋅106 = 77.6 ⋅ p T + 3.75 ⋅105 ⋅ pw T 2 (2.22)
where N is refractivity, n is refractive index, p is dry-air pressure, pw is water vapour partial

pressure, and T is temperature. The coefficients for p and pw are given in hPa, and in kelvin for T.
The phase shift is ultimately a time measurement, one of the most accurate measurements in
physics. The other measurement is the distance between satellites. Since time and distance are
fundamental metric quantities, radio occultation provides absolute measurements (not requiring
calibration): this is a very attractive feature in terms of climate monitoring. In fact, long-term
observations of radio occultation are considered a benchmark among methods of detecting
climate change.
Radio occultation data are difficult to process for two reasons: first, the position of the tangent
point (see Figure 2.20, right hand panel) moves during the profile measurements; and second,
pressure, temperature and humidity are not measured independently. Therefore, 4D assimilation
into a numerical weather prediction model is needed. It is less complex to retrieve temperatures
from the upper troposphere and stratosphere, since water vapour content is very low.
Temperature retrieval is similarly straightforward in the lower troposphere, where water vapour
is responsible for most variance.
The vertical resolution of radio occultation profiles in the upper troposphere and stratosphere,
(approximately 0.5–1.0 km) cannot be matched by cross-nadir viewing IR or MW measurements
(1.5–2 km). In addition, the frequencies used (L band: see Table 2.9) are insensitive to clouds,
even if precipitating. As a result, although essentially performed in limb mode, the measurement
can be extended down to the Earth's surface, in order to observe, for example, atmospheric
discontinuities such as the top of the planetary boundary layer. Furthermore, radio occultation is
one of the few methods that can infer surface pressure: this is done by correlating the height of
the tropopause and the air pressure at ground level.
In order to account for the signal rotation induced by the ionosphere, transmissions from
navigation satellites exploit at least two nearby frequencies. As by-products of the correction
process, information relevant to space weather is obtained, such as total electron content and
electron density profile.
2.2.5.2 Radar
Radars (radio detection and ranging) transmit pulsed signals to the object to be observed,
and collect the backscattered signal. In essence, radars measure distance (or range) and the
backscattered power resulting from the radar reflectivity or radar cross-section of the body.
The radar equation may be written in different forms. The easiest to understand is:
Pt ⋅ G 1
Ps = ⋅σ ⋅ ⋅ Aeff (2.23)
4π ⋅ r 2
4π ⋅ r 2
where Ps is the power backscattered to the antenna, P t is the power transmitted by the antenna,
G is the antenna gain, Aeff is the effective area of the radar receiving antenna, r is the distance, and
σ is the radar cross-section. Therefore:
P tG/4πr2 is the power hitting the target at distance r;

P tG/4πr2 · σ is the power reflected by the target;
P tG/4πr2 · σ/4πr2 is the fraction of (isotropically) reflected power reaching back the antenna.
The antenna gain may be expressed as G = 4π · Aeff/λ2 (a relation that derives directly from the
diffraction law). Expressing the effective area of the radar’s receiving antenna Aeff from this
alternative expression and inserting it into equation 2.23 yields:
Pt ⋅ G 2 ⋅ λ 2
Ps = ⋅ σ (2.24)
64π 3 ⋅ r 4
Different types of radar favour the measurement of either range accuracy (altimeters) or
reflectivity/cross-section accuracy (scatterometers). Radar for clouds and precipitation focus on
both range (for vertical profiling) and reflectivity. One feature that can be emphasized is image
resolution by synthetic aperture radar.
Radar altimetry
The main purpose of altimetry is to measure the sea level and to map it so as to determine ocean
dynamic topography. The radar characteristics are optimized to enhance range measurement
as much as possible. Sea level is measured in terms of the time taken for a radar pulse to reach
the sea surface and return to the satellite. Because sea level is computed as distance from the
satellite, the satellite needs to be located with extreme accuracy. One or more of the following
systems is used to ensure precise orbits:
(a) Laser tracking of the satellite by ground stations and laser-reflecting mirrors on the satellite;
(b) Radio positioning based on networks of ground transmitting-receiving stations and a

transponder on the satellite;
(c) A GPS receiver aboard the satellite.
One drawback of radar altimetry is that viewing must be limited to nadir-only; otherwise echoes
from surrounding areas interfere with time analysis. As a result, the observing cycle is very long.
Corrections to the signal are requested to account for: ionospheric rotation (the two frequencies
used are: ~13.6 GHz (main) and ~5.3 GHz (support)); and water vapour (a co-aligned MW
radiometer is used at ~23 GHz (main) and ~35 GHz and/or ~19 GHz (support)).
In addition to measuring the range, an altimeter also records and analyses fluctuations and
measures the intensity of the echo. The observations provided are:
(a) Significant wave height: derived from analysis of the spread in time of the collected echoes;
(b) Sea level: derived from filtering wave-related fluctuations and considering the
instantaneous satellite altitude with respect to the geoid;
(c) Wind speed: derived from analysis of the fluctuation of the intensity of the echoes;
(d) Improved knowledge of the geoid: derived from long-term statistics of observed sea levels;
(e) Total electron content: derived as a by-product of the correction for ionospheric rotation.
Radar scatterometry
Unlike radar altimetry, where the focus is on range measurement, radar scatterometry optimizes
the accuracy of the measured radar cross-section σ (see equation 2.24), which is often normalized
and called σ 0 (sigma-naught). While the ranging subsystem may be absent from the instrument,
calibration must be extremely accurate.
The radar cross-section is a function of the target’s dielectric property, the viewing geometry and
the incident radiation (wavelength, polarization). Scatterometers are mainly used to derive sea-
surface wind. The target is capillary waves, which are closely associated with wind stress. Sigma-
naught changes with wind speed, relative wind direction and sight line. By measuring σ 0 under
several azimuth angles, both speed and direction can be determined.
The relationship between σ 0 and wind is complicated: the practical solution is empirical or semi-
empirical. Furthermore, it is not a unique relationship in terms of direction: with two viewing
angles, several ambiguities remain (fewer ambiguities remain with three angles). When σ 0 values
are directly assimilated into a numerical weather prediction model that accounts for wave–
atmosphere interaction, ambiguities are solved by the model.
The differences between wind measurements taken with scatterometers and those taken with
passive MW radiometers can be summarized as follows: (i) passive MW generally provides
information on wind speed only; information on direction can only be acquired if several
radiometric channels are equipped with full polarization capability; (ii) information from
scatterometry is generally better quality, especially for low wind speeds (less than ~3 m/s);
however, for high speeds (more than ~20 m/s) passive MW may perform better.
Primarily designed for sea-surface wind, scatterometers provide several kinds of observation:
(a) Sea-surface wind in all weather conditions (C band) or nearly all weather conditions
(Ku band);
(b) Air pressure over the sea surface (achieved by applying geostrophic relations to wind
maps);
(c) Soil moisture in scarcely vegetated areas (using C band, and occasionally Ku band);
(d) Leaf area index or total biomass in dense vegetation (forest);
(e) Ice type (age, roughness) at the polar caps;
(f) Snow water equivalent (for which Ku band is preferred).
Cloud and precipitation radar
While the radar altimeter focuses on ranging and the radar scatterometer focuses on the radar
cross-section, cloud and precipitation radar emphasizes both. Ranging is necessary to measure
the vertical profile of cloud particles, while σ is required to infer the concentration and size of
reflecting particles. However, the accuracy required for ranging in order to obtain a precipitation
profile is of the order of 100 m, instead of 1 cm for altimetry.
For rain droplets, provided that their diameter D is less than λ/10 (that is, in Rayleigh-scattering
conditions), the radar cross-section is:
π5
σ= ⋅ K 2 ⋅ D6 where K is the dielectric constant (2.25)
λ4
The total backscattered radiation received by the radar is the sum of all reflectors of all diameters
in the IFOV. Assuming a Marshall-Palmer distribution (N0 · e–ΛD) for the particle diameters, total
reflectivity can be expressed as:
Dmax
π5
Z = ⋅ ∫ K 2 ⋅ N 0 ⋅ e− Λ D ⋅ D 6 ⋅ dD (valid for D  λ ) (2.26)
λ 4
0
Equations 2.25 and 2.26 are generally applicable to ground-based meteorological radar that use
S band (~10 cm) or C band (~5 cm). They are to be compared with D ~ 0.5 cm, which is typical of
precipitating clouds. Those frequencies are not used from space, as the corresponding IFOV on
the ground that has a reasonably-sized antenna is too coarse. Due to frequency regulations, the
frequencies that can be exploited by a spaceborne radar are ~14 GHz (~2 cm), ~35 GHz (~0.9 cm)
and ~94 GHz (~0.3 cm). Therefore, equations 2.25 and 2.26 are not fully applicable, but must be
corrected in a complex way to account for Mie scattering conditions.
Once the reflectivity Z is measured, there are several ways to convert Z into precipitation rate R.
First, it is necessary to infer the precipitation rate at the surface. That cannot be directly measured
from space, but must instead be derived from measured properties in the vertical column
associated with the precipitation profile.
Cloud and precipitation radar is the only technique that can provide measurements of the cloud
base, an important variable for aeronautical meteorology and for climate. The accuracy and
reliability of the measurement depends on the radar frequency; the radar must also penetrate the
full cloud thickness. From an operational viewpoint, cloud and precipitation radars have several
disadvantages, particularly their limited swath, which prevents frequent observing cycles. And
so, although passive MW imagery continues to be used as the basis for frequent precipitation
observation, the accuracy of precipitation data from passive MW radiometry still needs to be
improved. The continuing availability of at least one radar in space is necessary for “calibrating”
the system of passive MW radiometers, along the lines of the concept for the Global Precipitation
Measurement mission.
Synthetic aperture radar
In the MW range, spatial resolution is limited by diffraction. For a side-looking radar that views
θ° off nadir, at orbital height H, with an antenna diameter L, and assuming a flat surface, the
IFOV is:
H ⋅c
IFOV = 1.24 ⋅ (2.27)
cos θ ⋅ L ⋅ν
Table 2.10 shows the IFOV and L relationship for radar in several bands, assuming that
θ = 23° and H = 700 km (parameters of the SAR on SeaSat, Figure 2.21). It illustrates that the
requirements for IFOV = 1 km would be very difficult to meet, and requirements for IFOV = 100 m
or below would be impossible with a real-aperture antenna concept.
In the SAR concept (Figure 2.21) the antenna is elongated along the satellite motion. Its narrow
dimensions determine the swath and are parallel to the sub-satellite track. The longer side
determines the area where signals are to be analysed. The radar footprint corresponds to that
of a real-aperture antenna, while the situation is varied for the resolution elements in the field
(pixels). The pixels across the swath are at different distances from the satellite. The satellite
can locate them due to its ability to distinguish small-range changes. The echoes from the
pixels ahead of the sub-satellite cross-track line are affected by a positive Doppler shift (where
a frequency is higher than the one transmitted); the echoes from the pixels behind that line
undergo a negative Doppler shift. By capturing the moment of shift inversion, the pixels can be
assigned to a location along the satellite track.
SAR may be used in different operating modes, depending on the trade-off between resolution
and swath, and on the combination of transmitted and received polarizations. One operating
mode is designed for wave spectra. A small part of the image (a vignette) is sampled at intervals.
With Envisat, for example, the vignette is 5 km x 5 km at the best spatial resolution of 30 m, and
sampled at 100 km intervals along the track. The echoes in the vignette are analysed to plot the
power spectra, from which it is possible to determine the dominant wave direction, the dominant
wave length/period and power associated with significant wave height.
The list of SAR applications is long, although not all bands are suitable for all applications:
(a) Ocean circulation features (eddies) and waves (preferably L band);
(b) Ocean pollution and oil spills (preferably C band);
(c) Sea-ice cover and type (age) (any band);
(d) Land-ice cover (glaciers) (any band);
(e) Snow melting conditions and snow water equivalent (preferably X band);
(f) Surface soil moisture (preferably L band, especially for the areas around plant roots);
(g) Vegetation type (preferably C band) and total biomass (preferably P band);
(h) Land use and urbanization (preferably C band);
(i) Geological structure detection (preferably X band);
(j) Disaster monitoring and damage inventories (preferably X band);
(k) Ship traffic surveillance and military surveillance (preferably X band).
Other important applications are possible through interferometry because the phase control of
the SAR signal is extremely accurate. Signals from different orbits of the same satellite or different
satellites can be accurately co-registered in order to implement interferometry. This enables, for
instance, land surface topography to be obtained for an improved digital elevation model, and
iceberg heights to be measured.
By using interferometry between passes of the same satellite in an orbit with a repeat cycle, it
is possible to measure changes such as iceberg drift, variations of glacier cover and lake extent,
volcanic surface topography changes and bradyseisms, coastal erosion and urbanization.
Table 2.10. Examples of corresponding resolutions and antenna sizes

for typical frequencies used in SAR
L band C band X band

(~1.3 GHz) (~5.4 GHz) (~9.6 GHz)
IFOV for L = 1 m 220 km 60 km 30 km
Required L for IFOV = 1 km 220 m 52 m 30 m
Required L for IFOV = 100 m 2 200 m 520 m 300 m
Required L for IFOV = 10 m 22 000 m 5 200 m 3 000 m

Satellite track
7 450 m/sec
DAT DAT
DR δ AT ≥
2
6° cone
(1° cross-cone) Satellite ground track,
C
along track (AT) δR≥
SAR antenna or azimuth direction 2ß
800 km Rf
23°
Rn
Resolution element
Nadir
δR δ AT
Grazing
angle ψ
Cross track
or range direction (R)
Radar footprint
100 km Rf – Rn 𝜆R
ground swath (Wg) Wg = =
cos ψ DR sin ψ
Figure 2.21. Principle of SAR
2.2.5.3 Lidar
While the principle of lidar (light detection and ranging) is the same as that of radar, the
electromagnetic range is different: MW is used for radar, while SW is used for lidar. Most lidars
make use of wavelengths in the UV (for example, 355 nm), VIS (for example, 532 nm), NIR
(for example, 1 064 nm) or SWIR (for example, 1 550 nm) ranges; longer wavelengths (for
example, 10.6 μm) may also be used. The source is a laser (light amplification by stimulated
emission of radiation). It is extremely directional, but the large distance between the satellite and
the Earth means that significant electric power is needed and that large telescopes are required
to collect the backscattered signal. The use of lidar in space therefore presupposes considerable
resources. Although in principle, lidar could be used to scan an area for imaging purposes, lidar
systems in space have so far only been nadir-pointing or monodirectional. The following missions
are lidar-based:
(a) Backscatter lidar for aerosol and cloud-top height;
(b) Doppler lidar for wind profile in clear air;
(c) Lidar altimeter specifically for sea ice;
(d) Differential absorption lidar (DIAL) for atmospheric chemistry.
Backscatter lidar
Backscatter lidar primarily deals with the observation of aerosols. This implies the use of
wavelengths that are similar in size to very small aerosols (~1 μm). In order to capture more
aerosol properties (size, phase, absorption/scattering ratio, and ultimately, type), more concepts
have been developed. Some are based on the use of two wavelengths, while other are based on
high spectral resolution laser in order to distinguish Mie and Rayleigh scattering components. In
any case, a backscatter lidar is a very large instrument (the telescope may have ~1 m aperture).
The footprint may be as small as a few tens of metres, but more decorrelated echoes are included
to increase signal-to-noise ratio. Such echoes will help to ensure that the final resolution is in the
range of a few hundred metres. The vertical resolution determined by the lidar ranging system is
set to a few hundred metres.
Designed primarily for aerosols (the most demanding mission), the backscatter lidar enables
different kinds of observations to be made, including:
(a) Aerosol profile and aerosol properties (size, phase, absorption/scattering ratio, type);
(b) Cloud-top height (much more accurately than with passive NIR and IR techniques);
(c) Optical thickness of thin clouds (cirrus) and cloud base of semi-transparent clouds;
(d) Polar stratospheric clouds;
(e) Atmospheric discontinuities such as tropopause and top of the planetary boundary layer, as
revealed by the change of refractivity index.
Doppler lidar
Doppler lidar deals primarily with the observation of wind profiles, a key variable for weather
forecasting.
The current operational technique available for observing wind profile consists of tracking the
movement of clouds or water vapour patches in frequent images, either from geostationary
satellites, or from polar orbiting satellites in polar areas with frequent satellite overpasses.
This limits the opportunity to take measurements only at altitudes where tracers are present
(generally one layer, sometimes two). Hyperspectral IR sounding in GEO is expected soon: when
it becomes available, frequent water vapour profiles will be available, and water vapour patterns
will be tracked at several heights. However, vertical resolution and accuracy are expected to be
limited, and coverage will not include high latitudes.
Cloud-motion tracking is the only technique available for cloudy areas, while the Doppler lidar
enables tracking to be conducted in clear air. The tracer consists of eddies of the turbulent
atmosphere, of aerosols and of molecular scattering.
Exploitation of the Doppler shift due to the wind implies oblique viewing. The laser pulse
repetition frequency is such that the corresponding IFOV may be less than 100 m. However, as
with any radar or lidar, a number of decorrelated echoes need to be averaged to improve signal-
to-noise ratio: the final resolution is an IFOV as large as several tens of kilometres. Because of the
limited availability of electric power, the instrument has a limited duty cycle; for instance it may
sample at 200 km intervals along a line parallel to the sub-satellite track. The vertical resolution
of the wind data collected depends on the time sampling rate of the return echo. This is adjusted
for a vertical resolution of about 1 km in the mid-troposphere, less than 1 km in the planetary
boundary layer, and more than 1 km in the stratosphere. No technique based on cloud and water
vapour tracking from GEO can compete with this performance. The anticipated accuracy of the
wind horizontal component is less than 2 m/s.
A Doppler lidar is a very large instrument (the telescope may have a 1.5 m aperture). It requires a
dedicated satellite in an orbit lower than that usually used for meteorological satellites.
For wind lidar, coverage is a major limitation. Since one instrument only covers a line parallel
to the sub-satellite track, a constellation of satellites would be required to provide frequent
coverage. As long as the sustainability of such a constellation cannot be achieved, the baseline
system for wind profile will continue to be imagery and hyperspectral sounding from GEO, with
Doppler lidar providing support for calibration of the overall system.
Another difficulty with wind lidar is that measurement can only be along-sight (1D). That means
that, in order to retrieve the required 2D horizontal component, assimilation into a numerical
weather prediction model is necessary.
The Doppler lidar is primarily designed for wind, which is the most demanding mission. It
provides several kinds of observations, including wind profile in clear air or in the presence of
thin cirrus, aerosol profile (from echo intensity) and cloud-top height.
Lidar altimeter
Radar altimeters can provide measurements as accurate as a few centimetres. However, at above
20 km, their horizontal resolution is quite coarse. By implementing SAR processing of the along-
track signal, the resolution can be brought to ~300 m, which is still insufficient for accurately
detecting boundaries. Another limitation of radar altimeters is their unsuitability for observing
surfaces with high emissivity (and thus low reflectivity) in the MW range, such as land and ice.
Lidar does not have those limitations. The horizontal resolution can be a few tens of metres
and the vertical resolution less than 10 cm. That fine resolution makes it possible to capture the
border between sea water and polar ice and (after successive passes) to profile the height along-
track in order to map ice thickness.
In order to operate over the sea, even though reflectance in the VNIR range is very low, a lidar
altimeter must have a large telescope (aperture ~1 m). For improved cost-effectiveness, a sensor
using a second wavelength is usually added to observe the atmosphere (for example, 1 064 nm is
used for surface and 532 nm is used for atmosphere). In this case, a lidar altimeter operates as an
ordinary backscatter lidar.
As with any other altimeter, the lidar altimeter requires extremely accurate orbit determination,
since the basic ranging measurement provides the distance of the object from the satellite in
orbit. Precise orbit determination is achieved by a GPS receiver, and laser ranging from a network
of ground stations with an array of retroreflectors on the satellite.
Lidar altimeter applications include:
(a) Sea-ice thickness and polar cap topography;
(b) Sea level and ocean-dynamic topography;
(c) Contribution to improved knowledge of the geoid;
(d) Land-surface topography, including glaciers and lakes;
(e) Aerosol profile and aerosol properties;
(f) Cloud-top height, optical thickness of thin clouds and cloud base of semi-transparent
clouds;
(g) Polar stratospheric clouds;
(h) Atmospheric discontinuities such as tropopause and top of the planetary boundary layer.
Differential absorption lidar
The principle of differential absorption is to perform complementary observations of a target

species at an absorption peak and in a nearby atmospheric window. Using lidar for this purpose
is the only way to achieve high vertical resolution profiles in the planetary boundary layer, where
such resolution is most important. (The profile is also observed in higher layers, including the
stratosphere).
The conditions for DIAL to be applicable are: that the species is relatively abundant; that the
absorption line is strong and lies in a spectroscopically “clean” region; and that there is a nearby
“clean” atmospheric window. Examples of possible applications are:
(a) CO2 by exploiting lines at 1.57 μm in the 1.6–1.7 μm window or 2.05 μm in the 2.0–2.3 μm
window;
(b) H2O by exploiting lines at 935 nm, with windows on both sides;
(c) O3 by exploiting lines and windows in the 305–320 nm region.
Missions exploiting DIAL are only at the stage of proposal or feasibility study. Since the spectral
bandwidth (and thus the energy available for the observation) is very narrow and the reflector (a
gas) is very weak, the instrument has to be very large and overall measurement is technologically
challenging.
2.3 SPACE AND GROUND SEGMENTS
Earth observation from space implies a complex system composed of (i) a space segment to
perform observations, and (ii) a ground segment to manage the space segment and process
observation data.
2.3.1 Space segment
The space segment of a satellite system includes:
(a) The platform (also referred to as the bus);
(b) The instruments installed on board;
(c) The communication tools to receive commands and convey the instrument output to the
ground.
The size and/or mass of satellites for Earth observation can range over two orders of magnitude:
(a) Nanosat: < 10 kg (actually unlikely to be used for operational Earth observation);
(b) Microsat: 10–100 kg;
(c) Minisat: 100–500 kg;
(d) Smallsat: 500–1 000 kg;
(e) Mediumsat: 1–2 tons;
(f) Large facility: > 2 tons.

2.3.1.1 Platform services
The satellite platform hosts the instruments and provides several services:
(a) Power supply for instruments, telecommunications, and all other satellite subsystems;
(b) Navigation facilities for geographical referencing of observations;
(c) Attitude control for correct pointing of instruments and stabilization;
(d) Thermal control to keep the instruments within specified operating conditions;
(e) Housekeeping devices to monitor and control the status of all satellite subsystems;
(f) Propulsion for orbit keeping and, if needed, orbit change;
(g) Processing capability to administrate the various platform subsystems;
(h) Processing capability to handle instrument data and format data streams to be transmitted;
(i) Storage device for on-board global data recording;
(j) Communication facilities to receive commands from the ground;
(k) Communication facilities to transmit observational and housekeeping data to the ground;
(l) Other communication services, where the platform has a data relay function only.
2.3.1.2 Navigation and positioning systems
Navigation and positioning systems are necessary for geolocation of observed data, both during
viewing, and afterwards for ground processing. The following systems are used:
(a) Laser retroreflectors;
(b) GNSS receivers;
(c) Radio-positioning systems;
(d) Star trackers.
Laser retroreflectors
These are mirrors which tend to be corner cubes. They reflect laser beams sent to the satellite
by laser-equipped ground sites during positioning sessions. Laser retroreflectors are used on
many satellites for a posteriori precise orbit determination. This is achieved by post-processing
a number of measurements in night-time and clear sky only. The analysis involves a full network
of coordinated ground stations. The results are sparse and only available after a certain delay.
However, they are so accurate that they can be used for space geodesy applications.
Radio-positioning systems
These systems are specifically designed to support altimetry missions. They comprise radio links
between the satellite on the one hand, and ground transmitting and/or receiving stations on
the other. Positioning is performed in near real time and, with improved accuracy, after post-
processing. Two examples of such systems are:
(a) Doppler Orbitography and Radiopositioning Integrated by Satellite (DORIS), which

measures the Doppler shift of signals from ground stations;
(b) Precise Range and Range-rate Equipment (PRARE), which measures differential signals from
a network of ground stations.
GNSS receivers
These systems make use of the phase difference of signals from several satellites in the GNSS.
The GNSS includes the navigation satellite constellations of the United States of America (GPS),
the Russian Federation (GLONASS), the European Union (Galileo), and China (Compass, known
as Beidou in Chinese). A large number of satellites currently use GNSS receivers to support their
navigation. Positioning is performed in real time.
Star trackers
These are charge-coupled device imagers that track bright stars, recognize their pattern,
and send information to a satellite’s attitude control system. Star trackers provide continuous
monitoring of satellite attitude much more accurately than systems based on horizon-sensing.
This is necessary for instruments that require accurate pointing information (such as limb
sounders), both for active attitude control during flight and for subsequent instrument data
processing. An increasing number of satellites are now being equipped with star trackers.
2.3.1.3 Orientation and stabilization
The orientation and stabilization systems are primary platform features that determine
instrument pointing capability.
The side of the platform on which the sensors are placed should ideally be kept facing the Earth’s
surface, unless the satellite mission has a different purpose (such as monitoring the Sun). Since
the platform tends to keep a steady orientation in relation to the stars during its orbital motion, a
stabilization mechanism is required.
The stabilization mechanism known as spinning is most straightforward, as it is passive and

inertial. The spin axis tends to have a constant orientation in relation to the stars, and therefore
does not fulfil the Earth orientation requirement. For GEO satellites, if the spin axis is set parallel
to the Earth’s rotational axis, the Earth’s surface is scanned for a small amount of time (about 5%
of the satellite’s orbiting time) during each satellite rotation. For low orbiters, the orientation
of the spin axis may be set specifically to enable instruments to be pointed towards the Earth’s
surface for a fraction of time. In any event, spin stabilization is only suitable when an instrument’s
radiometric budget is sufficient to carry out the measurements for which the instrument was
designed, in spite of the small fraction of useful observing time. In addition, spin stabilization can
only be implemented for one instrument, or very few instruments, on one platform.
Three-axis stabilization is much more suitable for maintaining a constant orientation towards
the Earth and also supports more instruments on one platform. This allows for active control of
the satellite attitude with respect to rotations around: the axis perpendicular to the orbital plane
(pitch), the axis tangent to instantaneous motion in orbit (roll), and the nadir direction (yaw).
Active control is critical, because it implies accurate attitude determination (by, for
example, horizon detection, star trackers or GNSS receivers) and efficient actuators (such
as micropropulsion devices, gyros, very fine-angle change detectors and efficient control
electronics). A loss of active control is among the primary causes of mission failure. Active control
may affect data quality because of limited accuracy, particularly in the case of high-resolution
instruments and high orbits (GEO), and mechanical perturbation of instrument pointing
associated with turning on the actuators.
In addition to the main orientation and stabilization systems (spinning and three-axis control),
smart attitude control systems are also in use, especially with small satellites. For instance, the
gravity-gradient system uses a long boom that tends to the nadir direction, and thus keeps one
side of the platform pointing towards the Earth’s surface.
2.3.1.4 Housekeeping system
A basic trade-off for satellite design lies between the capabilities that are implemented on
board and those that can be achieved on the ground if sufficient information regarding on-
board features is available. Hardware implementation on board may be expensive, prone to
irrecoverable failure, and provide limited performance. Therefore, it is advisable to reserve
hardware implementation to cases where it is absolutely indispensable and reasonably safe.
Moreover, the housekeeping system provides all the ancillary information necessary to accurately
process data on the ground.
The housekeeping system manages both the platform (deformations, temperature of radiant
surfaces, attitude, status of power generators and all other subsystems) and the instruments
(status and temperatures of the various parts, control signals for electronics, etc.). In general,
instrument housekeeping is at least partially implemented inside the instrument itself.
The amount and completeness of housekeeping constitutes a discriminating factor for the
class of a satellite. Operational satellites are equipped with plenty of housekeeping devices for
subsystem monitoring and the possible activation of recovery manoeuvres, such as by switching
to redundant units. Housekeeping information is also a basic element of accurate instrument
calibration and data georeferencing.
Notwithstanding the importance of a good housekeeping system, there are limitations to the
accuracy of what can be achieved by such software processing. The residual errors of software
corrections or reconstructions may exceed what is allowed by the application. Therefore, certain
corrections need to rely on on-board hardware.
2.3.1.5 Data transmission
The platform must transmit to the ground the observation results from the various instruments.
Whatever the satellite height over the Earth’s surface, radio transmission to the Earth will have to
cross the ionosphere and plasmasphere, which block the propagation of electromagnetic waves
with frequencies lower than the critical plasma frequency (~25 MHz). Direct visibility is needed
between the transmitters and the receivers both on the satellite and the ground station.
The simplest method of collecting observed data from a satellite is by direct broadcast in real
time. For a LEO satellite, a ground station will acquire all the data that a satellite transmits when
passing within the acquisition range. The size of the acquisition range is the same as a satellite’s
FOV for zenith angle ζ = 90° (in principle), or ζ = 85° (with a reduced risk of interferences from
ground sources or occlusion from orography). Table 2.1 shows that, for a satellite height of
800 km for instance, the acquisition range is a circle with a diameter of 5 000 km (for ζ = 85° or
elevation = 5°).
Where the satellite velocity is in the region of 400 km/min and the satellite pass is centred over
the acquisition station, the acquisition session lasts 15 min at most, and is reduced to a few
minutes for peripheral passes.
This type of acquisition is the most convenient because it provides the observed data to the user
in real time for immediate processing. However, only data observed and transmitted during the
satellite pass inside the acquisition range can be acquired by the local receiving station. For GEO,
direct broadcast can be continuously received by a station located within the FOV.
An alternative way for a LEO satellite to receive data is to store the observed data on board and
transmit them on command, when the satellite overflies a central acquisition station. The central
station, also used to send commands to the satellite, has the same acquisition range as any local
station; if it is placed at a high latitude, it can collect data from many orbits. Table 2.4 shows that
most Sun-synchronous orbits pass less than 10° from the pole, so that a central station placed
at a latitude of, for instance, 80° will intercept all orbits and provide global data acquisition. The
store-and-dump acquisition method has the advantage of enabling data recovery for the whole
globe, but also has several drawbacks:
(a) Access to data is slower, since the delay includes the time needed to: run the whole orbit
(up to 100 min), receive at the central station (about 10 min), relay to the central processing
facility (about 10 min) and redistribute to the users (about 10 min). The total delay in the
availability of data is therefore 2–3 h.
(b) The satellite has to transmit the data accumulated in one orbit (about 100 min) during the
time it spends within the acquisition range of the central station (about 10 min). Therefore
data rate and bandwidth need to be one order of magnitude higher than for direct read-
out, which heavily impacts on the cost, size and complexity of the station. This acquisition
mode is suitable for a satellite operator but generally not suitable for an individual user.
(c) There are instruments with data rates so high that they cannot be fully stored on board:
selection of data to be stored may be needed, either by reducing the resolution or by prior
selection of frames (for example, the local area coverage (LAC) mode of NOAA Polar-
orbiting Operational Environmental Satellites (POES)).
If not acquired locally in real time, the data gathered in a central processing facility need to
be retransmitted to the users, generally after preprocessing. In the case of GEO satellites, a
transponder on the same satellite can be used for data retransmission to local user stations.
For LEO satellites, between the two extreme cases (direct read-out providing data over a limited
area in real time, or store-and-dump of global data with 2–3 hours’ delay), there are alternative or
complementary data recovery schemes, which can use:
(a) Several downlink stations spread over the globe, including, for instance, one near each
polar region; this reduces the length of time that data need to be stored on board the
spacecraft;
(b) A network of direct read-out stations spread over the globe; each one acquires data on
limited areas and retransmits them to data centres; this reduces the delay in the availability
of data to a few tens of minutes, but does not necessarily achieve global coverage; or
(c) A data relay satellite that receives data in real time from observing platforms and relays
them to a central processing facility; this reduces the delay in the availability of data to a few
minutes.
Data recovery timeliness is a critical issue for operational satellites; that is particularly the case
for meteorology, because of the coexisting requirements for timeliness and global coverage.
For research and development applications, the timeliness requirement is less stringent, and
the store-and-dump method tends to be used in conjunction with an effective archiving and
retrieving facility, which provides advanced data stewardship.
2.3.1.6 Data relay services
In addition to providing Earth observation data from a platform in orbit, satellites can support
other services, and so act as a telecommunications relay. The most common forms of such relays
are:
(a) Data collection from in situ platforms located on the ground, on aircraft, on balloons,
on buoys, on ships and even on migrating animals. The data collection platform (DCP)
may transmit all the time, at fixed intervals, or upon interrogation from the satellite.
Mobile platforms may be located from the satellite if in LEO. GEO satellites serve either
DCPs within their line of sight (regional) or DCPs carried on mobile platforms (ships,
aircraft, etc.) that migrate among the views of different GEO satellites (international).
(b) Search and rescue distress signals are detected from small pieces of transmitting equipment
carried by those in distress. The request for help is then relayed to one of the centres
of a worldwide search and rescue network. Search and rescue missions are conducted
cooperatively by several operational meteorological satellites in LEO and GEO. The service
from LEO is called the Search and Rescue Satellite-aided Tracking System (SARSAT), while
the GEO-based service is known as Geostationary Search and Rescue (GEOSAR).
(c) Relay of meteorological information from meteorological centres to end users as a

broadcast, or to selected centres within view of a GEO satellite. The central facility of the
system may perform the uplink or delegate it to auxiliary stations close to the information
production centre that are equipped to uplink the satellite.
2.3.2 Ground segment
The ground segment of a satellite system includes:
(a) The central station for satellite command and global data acquisition;
(b) Peripheral stations for data acquisition;
(c) Mission and operation control centres;
(d) Data processing and archiving centres;
(e) Data and product distribution systems.
2.3.2.1 Central station for satellite command and global data acquisition
This element of the ground segment may be generically termed the command and data
acquisition station (CDA). Typical tasks of a CDA are:
(a) To collect command sequences from the mission and operation control centre and uplink
commands to the satellite (for payload configuration, satellite configuration, orbit control,
etc.);
(b) To acquire satellite telemetry data (for attitude and orbit determination, satellite and
payload status, etc.) and immediately deliver it to the mission and operation control
centre(s);
(c) To acquire geophysical and ancillary data (housekeeping, calibration, etc.) and deliver it to
the data processing and archiving centres;
(d) To index the acquired data streams with accurate time and orbital elements.
It is possible to have only one CDA for geostationary satellites. For near-polar satellite systems,
it is possible to avoid blind orbits by placing the CDA at a very high latitude (such as Svalbard at
78°N). In order to improve the timeliness of the availability of observed data, auxiliary stations
may be used (such as an Antarctic station). For low-inclination orbits, a network of CDAs is
necessary, with one acting as the main CDA.
CDAs use S-band frequencies (about 2 100 MHz) to command the satellite. S band is nearly
insensitive to weather and less critical to pointing accuracy. For geophysical data acquisition,
the L band is used (about 1 700 MHz) if the data rate is below 10 Mbps; otherwise either the
X band is used (about 8 GHz) for data rates of up to some 100 Mbps; or the Ka band (about
26 GHz) is used for data rates of several hundreds of Mbps.
2.3.2.2 Mission and operation control centres
These elements may be generically termed the operation control centre (OCC). Their tasks are:
(a) To collect information on satellite, payload, and orbit status from the CDA and (in the case
of the orbit only) from other ranging stations;
(b) To collect requirements for elements including payload configuration and measurement
sequence planning from data processing and archiving centres, and from other users
entitled to input requirements into the mission plan;
(c) To analyse the information on satellite, payload, and orbit status, and on payload or mission
configuration requirements; to generate instrument performance monitoring reports; to
elaborate the operations plan and deliver commands to the CDA for uplinking the satellite;
(d) To provide data processing and archiving centres with ancillary information, which is
relevant for data processing and results from activities relating to operations, payload or
mission control (including accurate orbit determination, satellite attitude behaviour and
payload status).
Mission control centres are closely connected with users, application centres and scientific teams.
OCCs are closely connected with CDAs and the units responsible for satellite development.
OCCs also have full knowledge of satellite design features. The two centres are often co-located,
although this is not compulsory, and should preferably be secured by a back-up centre.
2.3.2.3 Data processing and archiving centres
These elements are responsible for:
(a) Acquiring geophysical, calibration and selected auxiliary data from CDAs;
(b) Acquiring auxiliary data on orbit, satellite and payload from OCCs;
(c) Monitoring instrument calibration and performing inter-calibration as appropriate;
(d) Generating and controlling the quality of various products;
(e) Archiving all products;
(f) Distributing a selection of products;
(g) Analysing mission status, payload status and requirements for mission planning;
(h) Delivering requirements for payload and mission control to OCCs.
Core products are normally generated by the satellite operator at a central facility. External
specialized centres may supplement those by processing other specific products.
Satellite data archiving requires the maintenance of high levels of hardware availability for data
ingest and storage, as well as discovery and retrieval services, with provision for long-term
data preservation over decades. Data must be associated with metadata that contain all the
information necessary to use and evaluate the data. Comprehensive, standardized metadata, and
standardized globally interoperable catalogue systems enable data discovery to be extended to a
worldwide scale within the WMO Information System.
2.3.2.4 Data and products distribution
Depending on data volumes and timeliness requirements, several methods of accessing data and
products are available:
(a) Direct read-out from the satellite (when available; particularly prevalent among LEO
satellites). This provides the best timeliness but presupposes the capability to receive raw
data on an appropriate receiving station and to preprocess that data with an adequate
software package.
(b) Near-real-time satellite retransmission of data after on-ground preprocessing or full

processing. For GEO satellites, retransmission may be performed through the same satellite.
Currently, retransmission is best achieved via commercial telecommunications satellite
channels, such as the GEONETCast system, which consists of three coordinated services:
EUMETCast (of the European Organization for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites),
CMACast (of the China Meteorological Administration), and GEONETCast-Americas (of
NOAA). Using this approach, onward dissemination services can be optimized within
the ground segment, while taking into account the various missions and product sources
available independently of the design constraints of any particular satellite.
(c) Near-real-time retransmission of data via specialized networks such as the WMO Global
Telecommunication System.
(d) Active FTP retrieval from data centres for off-line data, specifically from archives.
Data and product distribution may be subject to conditions, depending on the status and data
policy of the space agency running the programme (operational, research and development,
commercial) and what the programme will be used for. Access to data retransmission services is
generally controlled by encryption and subject to registration, even if no charges are levied.
2.3.2.5 User receiving stations
User stations are installed to make use of real-time or near-real-time data transmission from the
satellite. Depending on the satellite access modality and the user requirement, there may be:
(a) High-data-rate acquisition stations for full reception of the data available either by open
access or by agreement with the satellite owner;
(b) Low-data-rate acquisition stations for a data selection of either reduced volume or quality;
(c) Receiving terminals of commercial telecommunication satellites used for data dissemination
after preprocessing or processing in the data-processing and archiving centre.
Frequencies used by the high-data-rate acquisition stations are in the L band (about 1 700 MHz)
if the data rate is below approximately 5 Mbps; otherwise the X band (about 8 GHz) is used
for data rates of up to approximately 100 Mbps. The low-data-rate acquisition stations make
use of relatively low frequencies (L band: about 1 700 MHz for GEO, and very high frequency
(VHF): about 137 MHz for LEO) that can be used on mobile stations, such as ships. Commercial
telecommunication satellite terminals use Ku band (about 11 GHz) or C band (about 3.8 GHz).
2.3.2.6 Product processing levels
Satellite observations are retrieved from the raw data acquired from the instruments though a
processing chain. Different processing levels are usually referred to, the detailed definitions of
which depend on the instrument in question. Table 2.11 provides a generic description of these
processing levels.
Table 2.11. Generic description of processing levels (to be adapted to each instrument)
Level Description
Instrument and auxiliary data reconstructed from satellite raw data after removing
0
communications artefacts.
Instrument data 1a (for LEO) or 1.0 (for GEO): calibration and geolocation attached but
extracted, at full not applied.
1 original resolution, 1b (for LEO) or 1.5 (for GEO): calibration and geolocation applied.
with geolocation and
calibration information. 1c, 1d, etc: optional for specific instruments.
2 Geophysical product retrieved from a single instrument in the original projection.
Geophysical product retrieved from a single instrument, mapped on uniform space and time grid
3 scales, possibly on a multi-orbital (for LEO) or multi-temporal (for GEO) basis. Irreversible process
due to resampling.
4 Composite multi-sensor and/or multi-satellite products; or result of model analysis.
Level 0 data are processed from the raw data stream by removing communication artefacts (such
as synchronization frames and communication headers) and appending all necessary auxiliary
data, including housekeeping and station-added information on timing and tracking. Level 0
data should be archived permanently to enable reprocessing with an updated instrument model
(such as improved calibration or georeferencing).
Level 1a or 1.0 data consist of instrument files (counts) in the original instrument projection,
with an appended (but not applied) deformation matrix or algorithm for georeferencing and
calibration coefficients. The process from Level 0 to Level 1a/1.0 is fully reversible. Level 1a/1.0
data are normally permanently archived, although in principle they could be reproduced if
Level 0 data have been archived.
Level 1b or 1.5 data consist of calibrated, co-registered and geolocated data in physical units
(generally radiances), still in the original instrument projection. The process from Level 1a/1.0
to Level 1b/1.5 is not reversible because of truncation, discretization and resampling operations.
Although Level 1b/1.5 may in any case be reprocessed from Level 1a/1.0 or Level 0, the
processing effort is such that, in general, Level 1b/1.5 data are permanently archived.
Level 1c data are processed from the Level 1b data of certain instruments to enable end users
to make use of that data. The process may be fully reversible (for example, spectra from
interferograms by Fourier transform) but equally may not be (such as with apodized spectra). In
general, these data are permanently archived. For certain instruments, further Level 1 steps (1d,
1e, etc.) may be defined (the addition of a cloud flag, for instance).
Level 0 and Level 1 processing is performed by the satellite operator. Where there is a
direct readout, the satellite operator generally ensures the availability of Level 0 and Level 1
preprocessing software to local data users.
Level 2 products are generated from Level 1 data by applying algorithms that make limited use of
external information. Data quality information is appended. These products are generated in the
original instrument projection and tend to be permanently archived.
Level 3 products are generated by compositing a sequence of Level 2 products from successive
orbits (with LEO) or at successive times (with GEO). Possible gaps in the sequence may be filled
by interpolation. Due to the resampling operations implied by mapping on uniform space

and time grids, Level 3 is an irreversible process. Products are generated offline by the satellite
operators or by end users; they tend to be permanently archived.
Level 4 products are generated by blending data from different instruments on the same or
different satellites, either with other data sources, or by assimilation in a model. In Level 4
products, the contribution of a specific satellite instrument may be hardly recognizable.
CHAPTER 3. REMOTE-SENSING INSTRUMENTS
This chapter provides an overview of basic instrument concepts. It introduces the high-level
technical features of representative types of Earth observation instruments.
3.1 INSTRUMENT BASIC CHARACTERISTICS
A large variety of instruments and sensing principles are used in Earth observation. The key
instrument features introduced here are:
(a) Scanning, swath and observing cycle;

(b) Spectral range and resolution;
(c) Spatial resolution (IFOV, pixel, modulation transfer function (MTF));
(d) Radiometric resolution.
3.1.1 Scanning, swath and observing cycle
The most characteristic feature of an instrument is the way in which it scans the scene to acquire
the necessary observations. That depends on the type of orbit (low Earth orbit or geostationary
Earth orbit), on the platform attitude control (spinning, three-axis stabilized), and sometimes on
the specific type of measurement being taken. Only the most common scanning techniques will
be described in this chapter.
A driving requirement for scanning is whether the scene should be observed with continuity
(imagery) or can be sampled (sounding). A similar scanning mode may be used in both cases.
However, imagery requires continuous scene coverage, while sounding can accommodate
sampling with gaps.
In LEO spacecraft, a 2D Earth scene scanning can use satellite motion for an along-track
dimension. A cross-track scan can then be provided by a rotating scan mirror (Figure 3.1).
Rotation speed is synchronized with satellite motion so that the cross-track image lines come out
contiguously.
In the case of GEO, there is no satellite motion with respect to the Earth’s surface. The two
scanning dimensions must therefore be generated either by the instrument or by satellite
rotation. In Figure 3.2, it is assumed that the satellite is spin-stabilized: the west–east scan is
Chopper
In-flight calibration
(reference black body)
Scan mirror Relay mirrors
PbSe
45°
Filter
Cooling patch
Secondary Primary
mirror mirror
Figure 3.1. Typical scheme of a scanning radiometer in LEO

CHAPTER 3. REMOTE-SENSING INSTRUMENTS 49
Figure 3.2. Schematic scanning from a spin-stabilized GEO
provided by the satellite rotation, while the north–south scan is obtained by a step motor. For a
three-axis stabilized platform, the instrument must generate both west–east and north–south
scans.
The advent of array detectors has led to additional scanning possibilities. With LEO, a linear array
can be placed orthogonally to the satellite track, and can scan the scene without any mechanical
movement (pushbroom scanning). Under another scheme, the linear array can be placed parallel
to the track; cross-track mechanical scanning will then scan several lines in parallel (whiskbroom
scanning). With GEO, whiskbroom scanning is now the rule. For instance, SEVIRI on Meteosat
Second Generation scans three lines in parallel for the IR channels, and nine lines for the high-
resolution VIS channel.
A very convenient scanning mechanism for polarization-sensitive measurements is conical

scanning (Figure 3.3). In this geometry, the incidence angle is constant. Therefore the effect
of polarization does not change along the scan line (an arc). By contrast, the incidence angle
for cross-track scanning changes along the scan line, when moving from the nadir to the
image edge. This invariance of the polarization effect across the image is very important for
MW measurement in window channels, where radiation reflected from elements such as the
sea surface is strongly polarized. The measurement of the differential polarization constitutes
important information that would be very difficult to use if the incidence angle changed across
the scene. Another interesting feature of conical scanning is that the resolution remains constant
across the whole image.
A disadvantage of conical scanning is that, with the selected incidence angle, the field of view
does not normally reach the horizon. For example, the swath from an 800 km orbital height
is ~1 600 km for a typical zenith angle of 53°, which is optimal for enhancing differential
polarization information in MW. By contrast, the swath for a cross-track scanning instrument
is close to 3 000 km, assuming a ± 70° zenith angle range, as shown in the present volume,
Chapter 2, Table 2.1.
The swath is an important feature of an instrument in LEO since it determines the observing
cycle. Chapter 2, Table 2.2 of the present volume outlines that, for a Sun-synchronous orbit at
800 km, one instrument with a swath of at least 2 800 km provides one global coverage per day
for measurements operated in daytime only (for example, SW sensors), or two global coverages
per day for measurements operated day and night (for example, IR or MW sensors). MW conical
scanning instruments generally provide one global coverage per day.
Satellite orbit
Flight Aft view

direction
Fore view
Sub-satellite View from the top

point Aft view
Footprints
45°
Flight
Swath width direction
Fore view
Figure 3.3. Geometry of conical scanning
Estimating the observing cycle
The order of magnitude of the observing cycle (Δt, in days) for a given swath can be estimated
by a simple calculation. Considering the Equator’s length (~40 000 km), the number of orbits
per day (~14.2) and assuming that there is no significant overlap between adjacent swaths at the
Equator, the calculation is as follows:
(a) For day and night sensors (IR or MW) operating on both ascending and descending passes:
Δt = 1 400/swath (for example, for a MW conical scanner with 1 400 km swath: Δt = 1 day);
(b) For daytime-only sensors (SW) operating on only one pass per orbital period:
Δt = 2 800/swath (for example, for VIS land observation with 180 km swath: Δt = 16 days).
The concept of swath is not applicable for instruments with no cross-track scanning, such as
altimeters or cloud radars. Where that is the case, the cross-track sampling interval Δx at the
Equator replaces “swath” in the relationship above. It is also useful to estimate the global average
of this sampling interval. The interval is given by a slightly different relationship because of
shorter orbit spacing at higher latitudes:
(a) At an average cross-track sampling interval Δx, the typical time needed for global
coverage is:
(i) Δt = 900/Δx for day and night sensors (for example, the Environmental Satellite
(Envisat) Radar Altimeter – 2 (RA‑2): Δx = 26 km, Δt = 35 days);
(ii) Δt = 1 800/Δx for daytime only (for example, the NOAA Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet
(SBUV) instrument: Δx = 170 km, Δt = 11 days).
(b) Reciprocally, in a time interval Δt (for example, the orbit repeat cycle or a main sub-cycle)
the average cross-track sampling interval obtained is:
(i) Δx = 900/Δt for day and night sensors (for example, the JASON altimeter: Δt = 10 days,
Δx = 90 km);
(ii) Δx = 1 800/Δt for daytime only (for example, NOAA SBUV: Δt = 5 days, Δx = 360 km).
Limb sounders are generally considered as non-scanning instruments in the cross-track direction.
Assuming a cross-track sampling interval Δx = 300 km which is equal to the horizontal resolution
of the measurements, and taking into account the Michelson Interferometer for Passive
Atmospheric Sounding (MIPAS) that flew on the Envisat satellite as an example, the relationships
above yield the following observing cycle:
Δt ≈ 3 days for day and night sensors (for example, MIPAS on Envisat).
For instruments providing sparse but well-distributed observations, the coverage cycle or the
average sampling can be estimated by comparing the number of events and their resolution with
the Earth’s surface to be covered. In the example of radio occultation using GPS and GLONASS,
each satellite is able to provide about 1 000 observations per day, with a typical measurement
resolution of 300 km for a total Earth’s surface of 510 million km2. Therefore:
(a) Time required with one satellite providing 1 000 observations/day:

Δt = 510 000 000/300/300/1 000 = 5.7 days;
(b) Number of satellites required for an observing cycle Δt: N = 5.7/Δt (for example, for
Δt = 0.5 days, the number of satellites is close to 12).
Sun-, moon- or star-occultation instruments are an extreme case. Sun or moon occultation
provides very few measurements per day, and only at the high altitudes of the day/night
terminator in the case of the Sun, or at somewhat lower latitudes for the moon. Star occultation
may provide several tens of measurements per day (for example, 40 for the Envisat Global Ozone
Monitoring by Occultation of Stars (GOMOS)), evenly distributed by latitude.
3.1.2 Spectral range: radiometers and spectrometers
Another major characteristic feature of an instrument is the spectral range over which it operates.
As discussed in the present volume, Chapter 2, 2.2, the spectral range determines which of the
body’s properties can be observed including reflectance, temperature and dielectric properties.
Within the spectral range, there may be window regions and absorption bands, which mainly
address condensed or gaseous bodies, respectively.
A spectral range may be more or less narrow, depending on the effects to be enhanced, or on
the disrupting factors that need to be eliminated. The sub-divisions of a band or a window
covered by an instrument are called channels. The number of channels depends on the number
of pieces of independent information which have to be extracted from one band. If a limited
number of well-separated channels are sufficient for the purpose, the instrument may only
include those channels, and it is called a radiometer. If the information content rapidly changes
with the frequency along the spectral range to the extent that channels must be contiguous, the
instrument is called a spectrometer.
The technique adopted for channel separation, or for spectrometer subrange separation, is a
major characteristic of the instrument. There are essentially two possible ways to physically
separate two channels towards individual detectors (or detector arrays) and associated filter
systems. First, the beam could be focused on a field stop and split into two bands by a dichroic
mirror. The advantage is that co-registration is ensured, as the two channels look at the same
field of view (which could comprise an array of IFOVs). However, if the two wavelengths are too
close to each other (for example, a split window), a dichroic mirror cannot separate them sharply
enough. The second solution is to let the full beam produce the image in the focal plane and set
detectors (or detector arrays) with different filters (thus identifying different channels) in different
parts of the focal plane (in-field separation). It is a much simpler solution, but as each channel
looks at a different IFOV, co-registration problems can occur. Combined solutions are possible:
Figure 3.4 illustrates the solution implemented in the Meteosat Second Generation SEVIRI to
separate the eight IR channels. Each channel is viewed by three detectors. Current detector
arrays are much larger than they have been in the past, which makes in-field separation more
convenient.
7.3 µm
IFOV A
13.4 µm
Front-end optics with field stop

6.2 µm
IFOV B
9.7 µm
8.7 µm
IFOV C
12.0 µm
3.8 µm
IFOV D
10.8 µm
Figure 3.4. Channel separation scheme in SEVIRI on Meteosat Second Generation
Spectrometers provide continuous spectral sampling within the spectral range or in a number
of spectral subranges. (These subranges are sometimes called channels and should not be
confused with the channels of a radiometer). There are several types of spectrometer, the
simplest of which is the prism. Others include grating spectrometers and interferometers; the
most common interferometers are the Michelson and the Fabry-Pérot. Figure 3.5 shows the
scheme of a Michelson interferometer.
The spectral resolution of a spectrometer is an important feature. The resolution of a Michelson

interferometer is determined by the maximum length of the optical path difference (OPD)
between the rays reflected by the fixed and moving mirrors. Referring to the unapodized
resolution, the formula is:
∆ν = 1 OPDmax (3.1)
Fixed mirror
Beam
Input port 1 splitter
SCENE
Moving
mirror
Output port 1
Input port 2 Output port 2

Detector
Figure 3.5. Scheme of a Michelson interferometer emphasizing

the two input and output ports
For example, in IASI, an instrument mounted on the Metop satellite, the excursion of the moving
mirror is ± 2 cm. Therefore, OPDmax = 4 cm and Δν = 0.25 cm–1. If fine analysis of the spectrum is
needed (for instance, to detect trace gas lines), apodization that implies a factor ~2 is required.
The apodized resolution is therefore Δν = 0.5 cm–1.
For a grating spectrometer, the resolution is determined by the number of grooves, N, and the
chosen order of diffraction, m. The resolving power λ/Δλ is given by:
λ ∆λ = m ⋅ N (3.2)
For a Michelson interferometer, the spectral resolution is constant with a variable wavelength.
For a grating spectrometer, however, it is the resolving power that is constant, and the spectral
resolution that changes with wavelength. If a grating spectrometer is to cover a wide spectral
range, that range should be subdivided into subranges that use different orders of diffraction, m.
Resolving power may thus change based on subrange.
For a radiometer, the number of channels and their bandwidths play an equivalent role to
spectral resolution for a spectrometer.
3.1.3 Spatial resolution (instantaneous field of view, pixel, and the modulation
transfer function)
Colloquially, spatial resolution means the association of different features.
The IFOV is probably the closest to what is commonly meant by resolution. In optical instruments
(that is, SW and IR instruments), it is determined by the beamwidth of the optics and the size of
the detector. In MW it is determined by the size of the antenna.
In optical systems, the size of the IFOV is designed primarily on the basis of energy considerations
(see 3.1.4). The IFOV may be determined by the shape of the detector; and although that may be
square, the contour of an IFOV is not unduly sharp. In fact, the image of a point is a diffraction
figure called point spread function (Figure 3.6). The IFOV is the convolution of the point spread
function and the spatial response of the detector.
The energy entering the detector is also determined by the integration time between successive
signal readings. During image scanning, the position of the line of sight will change by an
amount called sampling distance. When plotted in a rasterized 2D pattern, a pixel (picture
element) appears as a series of rectangular elements. In the x‑direction, they correspond to
the sampling distance and in the y‑direction, to the satellite motion during the time distance
from one line to the next (or the step motion in the north–south direction from GEO). The pixel
is often confused with the resolution. That is because users can directly perceive the size of
Figure 3.6. Shape of the point spread function

the picture element, whereas the IFOV is an engineering parameter that the user cannot see.
Nevertheless, it is wrong to think that resolution can be improved by reducing the integration
time, since the integration time must be suitable to ensure an appropriate radiometric accuracy
(see 3.1.4).
There is a balance between the size of the IFOV and the size of the pixel. When using a “perfect”
imager, sampling is performed so that the sampling distance is equal to the IFOV size. That
means that the IFOVs are continuous and contiguous across the image. Otherwise the image
may be oversampled (pixel < IFOV, that is, there is overlap between successive IFOVs) or
undersampled (pixel > IFOV, that is, there are gaps between successive IFOVs). Oversampling
is useful to reduce aliasing effects (undue enhancement of high spatial frequencies because
of reflection from the border). Undersampling may be necessary when more energy must
be collected in order to ensure the required radiometric accuracy. Examples of relationships
between IFOV and pixel are:
(a) Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) – IFOV: 1.1 km; pixel: 1.1 km along-
track, 0.80 km along-scan (oversampled);
(b) SEVIRI – IFOV: 4.8 km; pixel: 3.0 km across-scan and along-scan (oversampled).
MTF is closely linked to the concept of IFOV and pixel. It is even more directly linked to the size
“L” of an instrument’s primary optics. The MTF represents the capability of the instrument to
correctly manage the response to amplitude variation at the scene. It is the ratio between the
observed amplitude, and the true signal amplitude from the scene, figured as sinusoidal. The
observed amplitude is damped due to factors such as the diffraction from the optical aperture,
the “window” introduced by the detector and smearing from integrating electronics. The effect
of integrating the radiation over the (squared) detector introduces a contribution to the MTF:
( )
MTFwindow ( f ) = sinc(π ⋅ IFOV ⋅ f ), with f = 1 ( 2 ∆ x ) km −1 and sinc y =
sin y
y
(3.3)
This shows that, for Δx = IFOV, MTF = sinc (π/2) = 2/π. Therefore, even for a “perfect” imager,
MTF is lower than unity. The value 2/π ≈ 0.64 corresponds to the area of a half sinusoid inscribed
in a square. The concept of MTF must be seen as closely associated with radiometric accuracy: it
specifies at which spatial wavelength two features are actually resolved if their radiation differs
by just the detectable minimum. Two features whose radiation differs by substantially more than
the detectable minimum can be resolved, even if they are substantially smaller. However, if they
are as small as IFOV/2, then MTF = 0, and they can in no way be resolved (f = 1/IFOV is called the
cut-off frequency).
It is interesting to note how MTFwindow changes at different spatial wavelengths measured in terms
of IFOV (where spatial wavelength is 2 Δx). Table 3.1 can be derived from equation 3.3:
Table 3.1. Variation of the MTFwindow function of the ratio Δx/IFOV
Δx/IFOV 1/2 2/3 1 2 3 4 5 6
MTFwindow 0 0.30 0.64 0.90 0.95 0.97 0.98 0.99
This shows that features as small as two thirds of the IFOV can be resolved, but only if their
radiances differ by more than three times the detectable minimum. It also shows that features
twice as large as the IFOV can be resolved if their radiance difference exceeds the minimum by
10%.The other major contribution to the MTF is diffraction. The relation is:
2  −1 f f f 
MTFdiffraction =cos ( ) − 1 − ( )2  (3.4)
π  fd fd f d 
where f = 1/(2 ϑ H) (with H = satellite height); ϑ = angular resolution (that is, IFOV/H); fd = L/
(λ H); L = aperture of the primary optics; and thus f/fd = λ/(2 ϑ L).
Diffraction is dominant when the wavelength λ is relatively large (as with microwaves), when the
optics aperture is relatively small, or when the satellite altitude is relatively large (as with GEO).
The value MTFdiffraction = 0.5 occurs for f/fd = 0.404, that is:
λ
ϑ = 1.24 (3.5)
L
which is the classical law of diffraction.
In summary, what is commonly meant by the term “resolution” involves at least three
parameters. Although they should be considered in context, each one is more closely associated
with a different perception:
(a) IFOV: not visible to the user; controls the radiometric budget of the image;
(b) Pixel: provides direct perception of the degree of detail in the image;
(c) MTF: by monitoring the amplitude restitution, provides the perception of contrast.
3.1.4 Radiometric resolution
Although scarcely visible to the user, radiometric resolution is a defining element of instrument
design. Scanning mechanisms, spectral resolution, spatial resolution, integration time and optics
apertures are all designed to fulfil radiometric resolution requirements. Radiometric resolution
is the minimum radiance difference necessary to distinguish two objects in two adjacent IFOVs.
The observed difference is a combination of the true radiance difference between two bodies
(signal) and the difference observed even when the contents of the IFOVs are identical (noise).
The signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is one way of expressing radiometric resolution.
Noise is a function of several factors, as set out in the radiometric performance formula:
2F
NESR = (3.6)
D * ⋅∆ν ⋅τ ⋅ π ⋅ t ⋅ ∆Ω
where:
NESR = noise equivalent spectral radiance (unit: W m–2 sr –1 (cm–1)–1, that is, per unit of wave
number);
F = f/L, F-number (f = system focal length, L = telescope aperture);
D* = detectivity (strongly depending on ν);
Δν = spectral resolution (expressed in terms of wave number ν = 1/λ);
τ = instrument transmissivity;
t = integration time;
ΔΩ = system throughput, given by the product of (π·L2/4) by (IFOV2/H2); where:
π·L2/4 = areal aperture of the telescope;
H = satellite altitude;
IFOV2/H2 = solid angle subtended by the IFOV.
In general, when defining I(ν) = spectral radiance at instrument input (unit: W m–2 sr –1 (cm–1)–1),
this leads to:
SNR = I (ν ) NESR (3.7)
For SW, the input radiance is the solar spectral radiance corrected for the incidence angle
and reflected according to body reflectivity (or albedo, if the body can be approximated as a
Lambertian diffuser). Equations 3.6 and 3.7 lead to:
SNR
∝ L (at a specific input radiance I (ν ) or albedo ρ ) (3.8)
IFOV ∆ν ⋅ t
That relationship explicitly links user-oriented parameters such as SNR, spectral resolution Δν,
IFOV and integration time t to the size of the primary optics L.
In the case of narrowband IR channels, radiometric resolution is usually quoted as:

NESR
NE∆T = (3.9)
dB / dT
where B = Planck function, and NEΔT = noise equivalent differential temperature at a specific
temperature T.
With NEΔT, the performance formula 3.6 can be rewritten as follows:

4H F
NE∆T ⋅ ∆ν ⋅ IFOV ⋅ t = ⋅ (3.10)
π ⋅ dB / dT L ⋅ D * ⋅τ
The left-hand side of formula 3.10 shows user-oriented parameters (radiometric, spectral,
horizontal and time resolutions), while the right-hand side shows instrument sizing parameters
(F‑number, optics aperture, detectivity and transmissivity). This formula is not valid in all
circumstances, but is instructive for a rough analysis in many instances. Cases where the formula
is not valid mainly occur when the detector itself constitutes the dominant noise source, or when
the detector response time is not short enough in comparison with the available integration
time. This is normally the case in the FIR range. But it may also be the case with shorter
wavelengths if, for instance, microbolometers or thermal detectors are used in order to operate at
room temperature. In other words, D*, which obviously depends on ν, may be heavily dependent
on the available integration time.
In the case of broadband channels, the concept of NESR, as expressed in equation 3.6, must be
redefined in terms of integrated noise over the full spectral range of each channel. In that case, it
is also possible to obtain a relationship similar to formula 3.10:
1
NE∆R ⋅ IFOV ⋅ t ∝ (3.11)
L
where NEΔR = noise equivalent differential radiance (unit: W m–2 sr –1).
The situation is different in the microwave range for two reasons. First, the need to limit the
antenna size means that diffraction law establishes a link between the IFOV and the optics
aperture L:
1.24 ⋅ H ⋅ c
IFOV = (3.12)
L ⋅ν *
where ν* = frequency = c/λ; and c = speed of light.
Thus, there is less latitude for trade-off parameters. Second, the detection mechanism is based
on comparing the scene temperature with the "system temperature", which increases with the
bandwidth. The final outcome is that the equivalent of equations 3.8, 3.10 and 3.11 in the MW
range is:
NE∆T ⋅ ∆ν * ⋅t = Tsys (3.13)
where Tsys = system temperature.
The system temperature depends on many technological factors, and increases sharply as
frequency increases. On the one hand, equation 3.13 shows that, in the case of MW, radiometric
resolution can only marginally be improved by increasing bandwidth and integration time,
since the benefit only grows with the square root. On the other hand, because of the diffraction-
limited regime, the usual way to increase SNR by increasing optics aperture is not applicable.
That is because, if the antenna diameter is increased, the IFOV is reduced commensurately (see
equation 3.12).
This short review highlights the direct impact of user and mission requirements on instrument
sizing. In addition, it shows how important it is to formulate requirements in a way that leaves
room for optimization, without necessarily compromising the overall required performance. For
instance with reference to equation 3.10, it is possible to draw a number of conclusions:
(a) For a given set of instrument parameters (L, F, τ and D*), some user-driven parameters
(NEΔT, Δν, IFOV and t) can be enhanced at the expense of others. In certain cases, this can
be done at the software level during data processing on the ground. However, if all user
requirements become more demanding and no compromises are made, a larger instrument
will be necessary.
(b) The effect of NEΔT, Δν and IFOV on instrument size is linear in relation to the optics
diameter L. The effect of t (the integration time, driven by the requirement to cover a given
area in a given time) is damped by the square root. Therefore, requirements for increased
coverage and/or more frequent observation have a lesser impact than requirements for
improved spatial, spectral and radiometric resolution.
(c) Increasing the optics aperture L has a significant impact on instrument size. Since it is very
difficult to implement optical systems with F‑number = f/L < 1, an increase in L implies an
increased focal length, and therefore a volumetric growth of overall instrument optics.
For example, a reduction in the IFOV from three to two kilometres would double the
instrument mass.
3.2 INSTRUMENT CLASSIFICATION
In this section, Earth observation instruments are classified according to their main technical
features. The following instrument types are considered:
(a) Moderate-resolution optical imager;
(b) High-resolution optical imager;
(c) Cross-nadir SW sounder;
(d) Cross-nadir scanning infrared sounder;
(e) Microwave-imaging radiometer or microwave-sounding radiometer;
(f) Limb sounder;
(g) Global navigation satellite system radio-occultation sounder;
(h) Broadband radiometer;
(i) Solar irradiance monitor;
(j) Lightning imager;
(k) Cloud radar and precipitation radar;
(l) Radar scatterometer;
(m) Radar altimeter;
(n) Imaging radar (synthetic aperture radar);
(o) Space lidar;

(p) Gravity sensor;
(q) Solar activity, solar wind or deep space monitor;
(r) Space environment monitor;
(s) Magnetosphere or ionosphere sounder.
Most instrument types are subdivided into more detailed categories. Examples are provided to
illustrate how instrumental features can be suited to particular applications. A comprehensive
list of satellite Earth observation instruments, with their detailed descriptions, is available
through the WMO online database of space-based capabilities, available from the WMO Space
Programme website.
3.2.1 Moderate-resolution optical imager
This instrument has the following main characteristics:
(a) Operates in the VIS, NIR, SWIR, MWIR and TIR bands (that is, from 0.4 to 15 µm);
(b) Discrete channels, from a few to several tens, separated by dichroics, filters or
spectrometers, with bandwidths from ~10 nm to ~1 µm;
(c) Imaging capability: continuous and contiguous sampling, with spatial resolution in the
order of one kilometre, covering a swath of several hundred to a few thousand kilometres;
(d) Scanning: generally cross-track, but sometimes multiangle, and sometimes under several
polarizations;
(e) Applicable in both LEO and GEO.
Depending on the spectral bands, number and bandwidth of channels, and radiometric
resolution, the application fields may include:
(a) Multi-purpose VIS/IR imagery for cloud analysis, aerosol load, sea-surface temperature, sea-
ice cover, land-surface radiative parameters, vegetation indexes, fires, and snow cover. The
extent of the spectral range is a critical instrument feature;
(b) Ocean-colour imagery, aerosol observation and vegetation classification. The number of
channels with narrow bandwidth in VIS and NIR is a critical instrument feature;
(c) Imagery with special viewing geometry, for the best observation of aerosol and cirrus,
accurate sea-surface temperature, land-surface radiative parameters including bidirectional
reflectance distribution function. The critical instrument features are the number of viewing
angles and, when available, polarizations.
Tables 3.2–3.6 describe three examples of multi-purpose VIS/IR imagers (AVHRR/3 in LEO,

MODIS in LEO and SEVIRI in GEO), one example of an ocean-colour imager (MERIS) and one
example of an imager with special viewing geometry (Polarization and Directionality of the
Earth’s Reflectances (POLDER)). MODIS is an experimental sensor and plays a particular role
as a wide scope multi-purpose VIS/IR imager. It is largely used to help define the specifications
of follow-on operational instruments. The main uses of its various groups of channels are
highlighted in Table 3.3.
Table 3.2. Example of multi-purpose VIS/IR imager operating in LEO:

AVHRR/3 on NOAA and Metop
AVHRR/3 Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer 3

Satellites NOAA-15, NOAA-16, NOAA-17, NOAA-18, NOAA-19, Metop-A, Metop‑B, Metop‑C
Mission Multi-purpose VIS/IR imagery for cloud analysis, aerosol load, sea-surface
temperature, sea-ice cover, land-surface radiative parameters, normalized
difference vegetation index, fires, snow cover, etc.
Main features 6 channels (channel 1.6 and 3.7 are alternative), balanced VIS, NIR, SWIR, MWIR
and TIR
Scanning technique Cross-track: 2 048 pixels of 800 m sub-satellite point (SSP) with a swath of
2 900 km
Along-track: six 1.1 km lines a second
Coverage/cycle Global coverage twice a day (LW channels) or once a day (SW channels)
Resolution (SSP) 1.1 km IFOV
Resources Mass: 33 kg
Power: 27 W
Data rate: 621.3 kbps
Central wavelength Spectral interval NEΔT or SNR at specified input spectral radiance
0.630 µm 0.58–0.68 µm 9 at 0.5% albedo
0.862 µm 0.725–1.00 µm 9 at 0.5% albedo
1.61 µm 1.58–1.64 µm 20 at 0.5% albedo
3.74 µm 3.55–3.93 µm 0.12 K at 300 K
10.80 µm 10.3–11.3 µm 0.12 K at 300 K
12.00 µm 11.5–12.5 µm 0.12 K at 300 K
Table 3.3. Example of multi-purpose VIS/IR imager operating in LEO:

MODIS on Earth Observation System (EOS)‑Terra and EOS‑Aqua
MODIS Moderate-resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer

Satellites EOS-Terra and EOS-Aqua
Mission Multi-purpose VIS/IR imagery for cloud analysis, aerosol properties, sea- and land-
surface temperature, sea-ice cover, ocean colour, land-surface radiative parameters,
vegetation indexes, fires, snow cover, total ozone, cloud motion winds in polar
regions, etc.
Main features 36-channel VIS, NIR, SWIR, MWIR and TIR spectroradiometer
Scanning Whiskbroom: a 19.7 km-wide strip of along-track is cross-track scanned every

technique 2.956 s. The strip includes 16 parallel lines sampled by 2 048 pixels of 1 000 m
SSP, or 32 parallel lines sampled by 4 096 pixels of 500 m SSP, or 64 parallel lines
sampled by 8 192 pixels of 250 m SSP, with a swath of 2 330 km.
Coverage/cycle Global coverage nearly twice a day (LW channels) or once a day (SW channels)
Resolution (SSP) IFOV: 250 m (two channels), 500 m (5 channels), 1 000 m (29 channels)

Power: 225 W
Data rate: 11 Mbps (daytime); 6.2 Mbps (average)
Central Spectral interval NEΔT or SNR at specified input IFOV at Primary use
wavelength spectral radiance SSP
0.645 µm 0.62–0.67 µm 128 at 21.8 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1 250 m Land/Cloud/
0.858 µm 0.841–0.876 µm 201 at 24.7 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1 250 m Aerosol
boundaries
0.469 µm 0.459–0.479 µm 243 at 35.3 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1 500 m Land/Cloud/

0.555 µm 0.545–0.565 µm 228 at 29.0 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1 500 m Aerosol properties
1.240 µm 1.230–1.250 µm 74 at 5.4 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1 500 m
1.640 µm 1.628–1.652 µm 275 at 7.3 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1 500 m
2.130 µm 2.105–2.155 µm 110 at 1.0 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1 500 m
0.418 µm 0.405–0.420 µm 880 at 44.9 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1 1 000 m Ocean colour,

0.443 µm 0.438–0.448 µm 838 at 41.9 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1 1 000 m Phytoplankton,
0.488 µm 0.483–0.493 µm 802 at 32.1 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1 1 000 m Biogeochemistry
0.531 µm 0.526–0.536 µm 754 at 27.9 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1 1 000 m
0.551 µm 0.546–0.556 µm 750 at 21.0 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1 1 000 m
0.667 µm 0.662–0.672 µm 910 at 9.5 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1 1 000 m
0.678 µm 0.673–0.683 µm 1 087 at 8.7 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1 1 000 m
0.748 µm 0.743–0.753 µm 586 at 10.2 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1 1 000 m
0.870 µm 0.862–0.877 µm 516 at 6.2 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1 1 000 m
0.905 µm 0.890–0.920 µm 167 at 10.0 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1 1 000 m Atmospheric

0.936 µm 0.931–0.941 µm 57 at 3.6 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1 1 000 m water vapour
0.940 µm 0.915–0.965 µm 250 at 15.0 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1 1 000 m
3.75 µm 3.660–3.840 µm 0.05 K at 0.45 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1 1 000 m Surface/Cloud

3.96 µm 3.929–3.989 µm 2.00 K at 2.38 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1 1 000 m temperature
3.96 µm 3.929–3.989 µm 0.07 K at 0.67 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1 1 000 m
4.06 µm 4.020–4.080 µm 0.07 K at 0.79 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1 1 000 m
4.47 µm 4.433–4.498 µm 0.25 K at 0.17 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1 1 000 m Atmospheric

1.375 µm 1.360–1.390 µm 150 at 6.0 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1 1 000 m Cirrus clouds,

6.77 µm 6.535–6.895 µm 0.25 K at 1.16 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1 1 000 m Water vapour
7.33 µm 7.175–7.475 µm 0.25 K at 2.18 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1 1 000 m
8.55 µm 8.400–8.700 µm 0.25 K at 9.58 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1 1 000 m Cloud properties
9.73 µm 9.580–9.880 µm 0.25 K at 3.69 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1 1 000 m Ozone
11.01 µm 10.780–11.280 µm 0.05 K at 9.55 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1 1 000 m Surface/Cloud

13.34 µm 13.185–13.485 µm 0.25 K at 4.52 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1 1 000 m Cloud-top

13.94 µm 13.785–14.085 µm 0.25 K at 3.11 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1 1 000 m
14.24 µm 14.085–14.385 µm 0.35 K at 2.08 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1 1 000 m
Table 3.4. Example of multi-purpose VIS/IR imager operating in GEO:

SEVIRI on Meteosat Second Generation
SEVIRI Spinning Enhanced Visible Infrared Imager

Satellites Meteosat-8, Meteosat-9, Meteosat-10, Meteosat-11
Mission Multi-purpose VIS/IR imagery for cloud analysis, aerosol load, sea-surface
temperature, land-surface radiative parameters, normalized difference vegetation
index, fires, snow cover, wind from cloud motion tracking, etc.
Main features 12 channels, balanced VIS, NIR, SWIR, MWIR and TIR
Scanning technique Mechanical

Spinning satellite
E–W continuous
S–N stepping
Coverage/cycle Full disk every 15 min

Limited areas in correspondingly shorter time intervals
Resolution (SSP) 4.8 km IFOV, 3 km sampling for 11 narrow channels

1.6 km IFOV, 1 km sampling for 1 broad VIS channel

Power: 150 W
Data rate: 3.26 Mbps
Central wavelength Spectral interval SNR or NEΔT at specified input radiance
(99% encircled energy)
Not applicable
(broad bandwidth 0.6–0.9 µm 4.3 at 1% albedo
channel)
0.635 µm 0.56–0.71 µm 10.1 at 1% albedo
0.81 µm 0.74–0.88 µm 7.28 at 1% albedo
1.64 µm 1.50–1.78 µm 3 at 1% albedo
3.92 µm 3.48–4.36 µm 0.35 K at 300 K
6.25 µm 5.35–7.15 µm 0.75 K at 250 K
7.35 µm 6.85–7.85 µm 0.75 K at 250 K
8.70 µm 8.30–9.10 µm 0.28 K at 300 K
9.66 µm 9.38–9.94 µm 1.50 K at 255 K
10.8 µm 9.80–11.8 µm 0.25 K at 300 K
12.0 µm 11.0–13.0 µm 0.37 K at 300 K
13.4 µm 12.4–14.4 µm 1.80 K at 270 K

Table 3.5. Example of ocean-colour imager operating in LEO: MERIS on Envisat
MERIS Medium Resolution Imaging Spectrometer

Satellite Envisat
Mission Ocean-colour imagery, aerosol properties, vegetation indexes, etc.
Main features 15 very narrow-bandwidth VIS and NIR channels
Scanning technique Pushbroom

3 700 pixel/line (split into 5 parallel optical systems)
Total swath: 1 150 km
Coverage/cycle Global coverage in 3 days in daylight
Resolution (SSP) Basic IFOV 300 m

Reduced resolution for global data recording: 1 200 m

Power: 175 W
Data rate: 24 Mbps
Central wavelength Bandwidth SNR at specified input spectral radiance
412.5 nm 10 nm 1 871 at 47.9 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1
442.5 nm 10 nm 1 650 at 41.9 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1
490 nm 10 nm 1 418 at 31.2 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1
510 nm 10 nm 1 222 at 23.7 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1
560 nm 10 nm 1 156 at 18.5 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1
620 nm 10 nm 863 at 12.0 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1
665 nm 10 nm 708 at 9.2 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1
681.25 nm 7.5 nm 589 at 8.3 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1
708.75 nm 10 nm 631 at 6.9 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1
753.75 nm 7.5 nm 486 at 5.6 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1
760.625 nm 3.75 nm 205 at 3.4 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1
778.75 nm 15 nm 628 at 4.9 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1
865 nm 20 nm 457at 3.2 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1
885 nm 10 nm 271 at 3.1 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1
900 nm 10 nm 211 at 2.4 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1

Table 3.6. Example of imager with special viewing geometry: POLDER on PARASOL
POLDER Polarization and Directionality of the Earth’s Reflectances

Satellite Polarization et anisotropie des réflectances au sommet de l'atmosphère,
couplées avec un satellite d'observation emportant un lidar (PARASOL)
Mission Imagery with special viewing geometry, for best observation of aerosol and
cirrus, land–surface radiative parameters including bidirectional reflectance
distribution function, etc.
Main features Bidirectional viewing

Multipolarization
9 narrow-bandwidth VIS and NIR channels
Scanning technique 242 x 274 charge-coupled device (CCD) arrays

Swath: 2 400 km
Each Earth’s spot viewed from more directions as satellite moves
Coverage/cycle Near-global coverage every day in daylight
Resolution (SSP) 6.5 km IFOV
Power: 50 W
Data rate: 883 kbps
Central wavelength Bandwidth No. of polarizations SNR at specified input
spectral radiance
443.5 nm 13.4 nm – 200 at 61.9 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1
490.9 nm 16.3 nm 3 200 at 63.2 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1
563.8 nm 15.4 nm – 200 at 58.1 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1
669.9 nm 15.1 nm – 200 at 48.7 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1
762.9 nm 10.9 nm 3 200 at 38.9 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1
762.7 nm 38.1 nm – 200 at 38.9 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1
863.7 nm 33.7 nm – 200 at 30.8 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1
907.1 nm 21.1 nm 3 200 at 27.5 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1
1 019.6 nm 17.1 nm – 200 at 22.6 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1
3.2.2 High-resolution optical imager
This instrument has the following main characteristics:
(a) Spatial resolution in the range of less than one metre to several tens of metres;
(b) Wavelengths in the VIS, NIR and SWIR bands (0.4 to 3 µm) with possible extension to MWIR
and TIR;
(c) Variable number of channels and bandwidths:
(i) Single channel (panchromatic) with around 400 nm bandwidth (for example,
500–900 nm);
(ii) 3–10 multispectral channels with around 100 nm bandwidth;
(iii) Continuous spectral range (hyperspectral); typically has 100 channels with around
10 nm bandwidth;
(d) Imaging capability: continuous and contiguous sampling, covering a swath ranging from a
few tens of kilometres to approximately 100 km, often addressable within a field of regard
of several hundreds of kilometres;
(e) Applicable in LEO. GEO is not excluded but not yet in use.
High-resolution optical imagers may perform a number of missions, depending on the spectral
bands, the number and bandwidth of channels, and steerable pointing capability. Those
missions include:
(a) Panchromatic imagers: surveillance, recognition, stereoscopy for digital elevation model,
etc. Critical instrument features are the resolution and the steerable pointing capability;
(b) Multispectral imagers: land observation for land use, land cover, ground water, vegetation
classification, disaster monitoring, etc. Critical instrument features are the number of
channels and the spectral coverage;
(c) Hyperspectral imagers: land observation, especially for vegetation process study, carbon
cycle, etc. Critical instrument features are the spectral resolution and the spectral coverage.
Tables 3.7–3.9 describe an example of a panchromatic imager (WV60), a multispectral imager

(ETM+) and a hyperspectral imager (Hyperion).
Table 3.7. Example of panchromatic high-resolution imager: WV60 on WorldView‑1
WV60 World View 60 camera

Satellite WorldView – 1
Mission Surveillance, recognition, stereoscopy for digital elevation model, etc.
Main features Panchromatic

Resolution: 0.5 m
Steering capability
60 cm telescope aperture
Scanning Pushbroom
technique 35 000 detector array
Swath: 17.6 km, addressable by tilting the satellite in a variety of
operating modes
Stereo capability both along-track and cross-orbits
Coverage/cycle Global coverage in 6 months in daylight

Global coverage in a few days (down to 3) by strategic pointing
Resolution (SSP) 0.50 m

Power: 250 W
Data rate: 800 Mbps
Table 3.8. Example of multispectral high-resolution imager: ETM+ on Landsat‑7
ETM+ Enhanced Thematic Mapper +

Satellite Landsat-7
Mission Land observation for land use, land cover, ground water, vegetation classification,
disaster monitoring, etc.
Main features 8 channels: 1 panchromatic, 6 VIS, NIR and SWIR, 1 TIR

Resolution: 15 m, 30 m and 60 m
Scanning technique Whiskbroom

6 000 pixel/line (narrowband)
12 000 pixel/line (panchromatic)
3 000 pixel/line (TIR)
Swath: 185 km
Coverage/cycle Global coverage in 16 days in daylight
Resolution (SSP) 30 m (6 narrowband channels), 15 m (panchromatic), 60 m (TIR)

Power: 590 W
Data rate: 150 Mbps
Central wavelength Spectral interval SNR at specified input spectral radiance or NEΔT
Low signal High signal
Panchromatic 0.50–0.90 µm 14 at 22.9 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1 80 at 156.3 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1
0.48 µm 0.45–0.52 µm 36 at 40 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1 130 at 190 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1
0.56 µm 0.53–0.61 µm 37 at 30 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1 167 at 193.7 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1
0.66 µm 0.63–0.69 µm 24 at 21.7 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1 127 at 149.6 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1
11.45 µm 10.4–12.5 µm 0.2 K at 300 K 0.2 K at 320 K
Table 3.9. Example of hyperspectral high-resolution imager: Hyperion on NMP EO‑1
Hyperion
Satellite New Millennium Program Earth Observing – 1 (NMP EO‑1)
Mission Land observation, especially for vegetation process study, carbon cycle, etc.
Main features VIS/NIR/SWIR grating spectrometer with 220 channels (hyperspectral) in

two groups, covering the ranges 0.4–1.0 µm and 0.9–2.5 µm respectively
Channel bandwidth: 10 nm
Resolution: 30 m
Scanning Pushbroom
technique 250 pixel/line
Swath: 7.5 km
Coverage/cycle Global coverage in one year in daylight
Resolution (SSP) 30 m
Power: 51 W
Data rate: 105 Mbps
3.2.3 Cross-nadir short-wave sounder
One example of a cross-nadir SW sounder is the TROPOspheric Monitoring Instrument

(TROPOMI) on the Sentinel-5 Precursor Satellite (S-5 P), which has the following main
characteristics:
(a) The nadir-viewing SW spectrometer of TROPOMI operates in the ultraviolet (UV), VIS, NIR
and SWIR bands (see Table 3.10). The polarization sensitivity of TROPOMI is reduced to less
than 0.5% with a polarization scrambler;
(b) Typical spectral resolutions of SW sounders are fractions of a nanometre (see Table 3.10);
(c) Spatial resolution is in the order of 10 km – for TROPOMI it is 7 km x 7 km;
(d) Horizontal sampling is not necessarily continuous and contiguous. However, for TROPOMI
it is contiguous, thus providing imaging capability;
(e) The scanning capabilities can be from nadir-only pointing to a swath of a few thousand
kilometres. In the case of TROPOMI, the swath is 2 600 km;
(f) It is applicable both in LEO and GEO.
Generally speaking cross-nadir SW sounders may be used in atmospheric chemistry for

monitoring a number of species. Which species are detectable is determined by the spectral
bands and necessitates sufficient spectral resolution. Good spatial resolution benefits sounding
because it increases the number of clear-sky views. Contiguous sampling is a priori less critical,
however, it has the great advantage of enabling imaging capabilities. Species that can be
retrieved, depending on spectral coverage, include:
(a) UV only: ozone profile;
(b) UV and VIS: ozone profile and total column or gross profile of a small number of other
species, such as BrO, NO2, OClO, SO2 and aerosol;
(c) UV, VIS and NIR: ozone profile and total column or gross profile of several other species,
such as BrO, ClO, H2O, HCHO, NO, NO2, NO3, O2, O4, OClO, SO2 and aerosol;
(d) UV, VIS, NIR and SWIR: ozone profile and total column or gross profile of many other
species, such as BrO, CH4, ClO, CO, CO2, H2O, HCHO, N2O, NO, NO2, NO3, O2, O4, OClO, SO2
and aerosol;
(e) NIR and SWIR, possibly complemented by MWIR and TIR: total column or gross profile of
selected species, such as CH4, CO, CO2, H2O and O2.
Tables 3.10 and 3.11 describe one example of spectral coverage from an instrument in LEO
(TROPOMI) and another from an instrument in GEO (UVN on Meteosat Third Generation).
Table 3.10. Example of cross-nadir SW sounder in LEO: TROPOMI instrument on S-5 P
The TROPOspheric Monitoring Instrument is a UV/VIS/NIR/SWIR

nadir viewing imaging spectrometer with a swath of about 2 600 km and high
TROPOMI
spatial resolution (7 km x 7 km at nadir). TROPOMI flies in loose formation
with the SUOMI-NPP meteorological satellite 13:30h equator crossing time.
Satellite S-5 P
Mission Atmospheric chemistry

Mandatory products: O3, SO2, HCHO, NO2, CO, CH4, cloud fraction/
pressure/optical depth, aerosol index and layer height
Optional products: surface UV, aerosol optical depth, H2O, CHOCHO,
BrO, OClO, HDO/H2O ratio
Main features Spectral range: UV/VIS/NIR/SWIR

Imaging capability with 8 bands; grating spectrometer with
polarization scrambler
Scanning Pushbroom scanner

technique Swath: 2 600 km; one scan line in 1 second
Coverage/cycle Cross-track mode providing global coverage every day in daylight
Resolution 7 km x 7 km at the SSP

Power: 170 W
Data rate: 140 Gbits per orbit
Spectral range Spectral resolution Spectral sampling Required signal-to- Radiometric
noise accuracy (%)
270–300 nm 0.48 nm 0.071 nm 100–8001,2 1.95
300–320 nm 0.49 nm 0.073 nm 90–7001 1.65
320–405 nm 0.54 nm 0.22 nm 800–10001 1.65
405–495 nm 0.54 nm 0.22 nm 800–10001 1.65
675–725 nm 0.38 nm 0.14 nm 100–5001,3 1.65
725–775 nm 0.38 nm 0.14 nm 100–5001,3 1.65
2305–2345 nm 0.25 nm 0.10 nm 100–120 4 1.55
2345–2385 nm 0.25 nm 0.10 nm 100–20 4 1.55
Notes on spectral channels of TROPOMI:

1
The minimum SNR is specified for a reference scene with a surface albedo of 2% and the sun in zenith.
2
The SNR for band 1 is specified for a ground pixel size of 21 x 28 km2.
3
The SNR for band 6 is specified for a ground pixel size of 7 x 7 km2.
4
The minimum SNR is specified for a reference scene with a surface albedo of 5% and solar zenith angle of 70°.
5
Values refer to absolute radiometric accuracy of the measured Earth spectral reflectance.
Table 3.11. Example of cross-nadir scanning SW sounder in GEO:

UVN on Meteosat Third Generation (MTG)
Ultraviolet, Visible and Near-infrared sounder,

UVN
also known as Sentinel 4
Satellites MTG-S1
MTG-S2
Mission Atmospheric chemistry

Tracked species: BrO, ClO, H2O, HCHO, NO, NO2, NO3, O2, O3, O 4, OClO, SO2 and
aerosol
Main features Spectral range: UV/VIS/NIR

Imaging capability: grating spectrometer covering 3 bands, 1 470 channels
Scanning Mechanical
technique 3-axis stabilized satellite
E–W continuous
S–N stepping
Coverage/cycle European area (lat. 30°N–65°N, long. 15°W–50°E) in 60 minutes (30 minutes is also
possible)
Resolution Defined at 45°N

0°: < 8 km in both N–S and E–W directions

Power: 100 W
Data rate: 25 Mbps
Spectral ranges No. of channels Spectral resolution SNR at specified input spectral radiance
305–400 nm 570 0.5 nm 200–1 400 at 40–120 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1
400–500 nm 600 0.5 nm 1 400 at 140 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1
755–775 nm 300 0.2 nm 1 200 at 60 W m–2 sr –1 µm–1
3.2.4 Cross-nadir scanning infrared sounder
These radiometers or spectrometers have the following main characteristics:
(a) Wavelengths in the MWIR and TIR bands (3–15 µm) with a possible extension to FIR (up to
50 µm) and auxiliary channels in the VIS/NIR bands;
(b) Spectral resolution in the order of 0.1 cm–1 (very high resolution), 0.5 cm–1 (hyperspectral)
or 10 cm–1 (radiometer);
(c) Spatial resolution in the order of 10 km;
(d) Horizontal sampling not necessarily continuous or contiguous;
(e) Scanning capability can be from nadir-only pointing to a swath of a few thousand
kilometres;
(f) Applicable both in LEO and GEO.
Depending on their spectral bands and resolution, cross-nadir scanning IR sounders may be
used for atmospheric temperature and humidity profiling, and/or in atmospheric chemistry for a
number of species:
(a) Radiometers provide coarse-vertical-resolution temperature and humidity profiles;

(b) Spectrometers provide high-vertical-resolution temperature and humidity profiles, coarse

ozone profiles, total column and gross profile of a small number of other species, such as
CH4, CO, CO2, HNO3, NO2, SO2 and aerosol;
(c) Very high-resolution spectrometers that are specifically for atmospheric chemistry provide
profiles or total columns of C 2H2, C 2H6, CFC‑11, CFC‑12, CH4, ClONO2, CO, CO2, COS, H2O,
HNO3, N2O, N2O5, NO, NO2, O3, PAN, SF6, SO2 and aerosol.
Tables 3.12–3.14 set out three examples: a radiometer in GEO (Sounder on Geostationary
Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES)); a hyperspectral sounder in LEO (IASI on Metop)
and a very high-resolution spectrometer in LEO (TES‑nadir on EOS‑Aura).
Table 3.12. Example of radiometric cross-nadir scanning

infrared sounder in GEO: Sounder on GOES
GOES Sounder
Satellites GOES-8, GOES-9, GOES-10, GOES-11, GOES-12, GOES‑13, GOES‑14, GOES‑15
Mission Coarse-vertical-resolution temperature and humidity profiles
Main features Radiometer: 18 narrow-bandwidth channels in MWIR/TIR + 1 VIS
Scanning Mechanical
technique Biaxial
3-axis stabilized satellite
Step-and-dwell
Coverage/cycle Full disk in 8 h

3 000 x 3 000 km2 in 42 minutes
1 000 x 1 000 km2 in 5 minutes
Resolution (SSP) 8.0 km

Power: 93 W
Data rate: 40 kbps
Wavelength Wave number Bandwidth SNR or NEΔT at specified input
14.71 µm 680 cm–1 13 cm–1 1.24 K at 290 K
14.37 µm 696 cm–1 13 cm–1 0.79 K at 290 K
14.06 µm 711 cm–1 13 cm–1 0.68 K at 290 K
13.64 µm 733 cm–1 16 cm–1 0.55 K at 290 K
13.37 µm 748 cm–1 16 cm–1 0.49 K at 290 K
12.66 µm 790 cm–1 30 cm–1 0.23 K at 290 K
12.02 µm 832 cm–1 50 cm–1 0.14 K at 290 K
11.03 µm 907 cm–1 50 cm–1 0.10 K at 290 K
9.71 µm 1 030 cm–1 25 cm–1 0.12 K at 290 K
7.43 µm 1 345 cm–1 55 cm–1 0.06 K at 290 K
7.02 µm 1 425 cm–1 80 cm–1 0.06 K at 290 K
6.51 µm 1 535 cm–1 60 cm–1 0.15 K at 290 K
4.57 µm 2 188 cm–1 23 cm–1 0.20 K at 290 K
4.52 µm 2 210 cm–1 23 cm–1 0.17 K at 290 K
4.45 µm 2 248 cm–1 23 cm–1 0.20 K at 290 K
4.13 µm 2 420 cm–1 40 cm–1 0.14 K at 290 K
3.98 µm 2 513 cm–1 40 cm–1 0.22 K at 290 K
3.74 µm 2 671 cm–1 100 cm–1 0.14 K at 290 K
0.70 µm Not applicable 0.05 µm 1 000 at 100% albedo
Table 3.13. Example of hyperspectral cross-nadir scanning

infrared sounder in LEO: IASI on Metop
IASI Infrared Atmospheric Sounding Interferometer

Satellites Metop-A, Metop-B, Metop-C
Mission High vertical-resolution temperature and humidity profile

Coarse ozone profile
Total column or gross profile of a number of other species, such as CH4, CO, CO2,
HNO3, NO2, SO2 and aerosol
Main features Spectrometer: spectral resolution 0.25 cm–1 (unapodized)

MWIR/TIR spectral range
Interferometer with 8 461 channels and a one-channel embedded TIR imager
Scanning technique Cross-track: 30 steps of 48 km SSP

Swath: 2 130 km
Along-track: one 48 km line every 8 seconds
Coverage/cycle Near-global coverage twice a day
Resolution (SSP) 4 x 12 km IFOV close to the centre of a 48 x 48 km2 cell

(average sampling distance: 24 km)

Power: 210 W
Data rate: 1.5 Mbps (after onboard processing)
Spectral range (µm) Spectral range (cm–1) Spectral resolution (unapodized) NEΔT at specified scene
temperature
8.26–15.50 µm 645–1210 cm–1 0.25 cm–1 0.2–0.3 K at 280 K
5.00–8.26 µm 1 210–2 000 cm–1 0.25 cm–1 0.2–0.5 K at 280 K
3.62–5.00 µm 2 000–2 760 cm–1 0.25 cm–1 0.5–2.0 K at 280 K
10.3–12.5 µm Not applicable Not applicable 0.8 K at 280 K
Table 3.14. Example of very high-resolution cross-nadir scanning

infrared sounder in LEO: TES‑nadir on EOS‑Aura
TES-nadir Tropospheric Emission Spectrometer – nadir scanning unit

Satellite EOS-Aura
Mission Atmospheric chemistry: profiles or total columns of C 2H2, C 2H6, CFC‑11, CFC‑12,
CH4, ClONO2, CO, CO2, COS, H2O, HNO3, N2O, N2O5, NO, NO2, O3, PAN, SF6, SO2
and aerosol
Main features Spectrometer

Spectral resolution: 0.059 cm–1 (unapodized)
MWIR/TIR spectral range
Imaging interferometer: four bands; 40 540 channels
Scanning technique Cross-track mode: array of 16 detectors with a 0.53 km2 x 0.53 km2 nadir footprint
moving in 10 steps to cover a 5.3 km2 x 8.5 km2 field of view that can be pointed
everywhere within a 45°-aperture cone or an 885 km swath.
The cross-nadir mode is alternative to the limb mode.
Coverage/cycle Cross-track mode: if used full time with strategic pointing, global coverage could
be obtained for cells of ~80 km wide in 16 days (the orbital repeat cycle)
Resolution (SSP) 0.53 km sampling

Power: 334 W
Data rate: 4.5 Mbps
Spectral range (µm) Spectral range (cm–1) Spectral resolution NEΔT at specified scene
(unapodized) temperature
11.11–15.38 µm 650–900 cm–1 0.059 cm–1 < 1 K at 280 K
8.70–12.20 µm 820–1 150 cm–1 0.059 cm–1 < 1 K at 280 K
5.13–9.09 µm 1 100–1 950 cm–1 0.059 cm–1 < 1 K at 280 K
3.28–5.26 µm 1 900–3 050 cm–1 0.059 cm–1 < 2 K at 280 K
3.2.5 Microwave radiometers
These radiometers have the following main characteristics:
(a) Frequencies from 1 to 3 000 GHz (wavelengths from 0.1 mm to 30 cm);
(b) Channel bandwidths from a few MHz to several GHz;
(c) Spatial resolution from a few kilometres to approximately 100 kilometres, determined by

antenna size and frequency;
(d) Horizontal sampling not necessarily continuous or contiguous;
(e) Scanning: cross-track (swath in the order of 2 000 km), conical (swath in the order of
1 500 km, possibly providing single or dual polarization) or nadir-only;
(f) Applicable in LEO.
Depending on their frequency, spatial resolution, and scanning mode, MW radiometers may
perform a number of missions:
(a) Multi-purpose MW imagery for precipitation, cloud liquid water and ice, precipitable
water, sea-surface temperature, sea-surface wind speed (and direction if multipolarization
is used), sea-ice cover, surface soil moisture, snow status, water equivalent, etc. Critical
instrument features are: the extension of the spectral range, from 19 GHz as a minimum
(possibly 10 GHz, or ideally 6–7 GHz) to at least 90 GHz; and conical scanning to make use
of differential polarization under conditions of a constant incidence angle;
(b) Nearly-all-weather temperature and humidity sounding, which is also relevant for
precipitation. Critical instrument features are the channels in absorption bands: O2 for
temperature (main frequency: 57 GHz) and H2O for humidity (main frequency: 183 GHz);
(c) Sea-surface salinity and volumetric soil moisture. One critical instrument feature is the
low frequency in the L band (main frequency: 1.4 GHz); this implies the use of very large
antennas (see Figure 3.7);
(d) Atmospheric correction in support of altimetry missions. Critical instrument features are
the frequency of the water-vapour 23 GHz band and its nearby windows; and the nadir
viewing, co-centred with an altimeter.
Tables 3.15–3.18 describe a multi-purpose radiometer (Advanced Microwave Scanning

Radiometer for Earth Observation (AMSR‑E)), a temperature and humidity sounder (the
Advanced Technology Microwave Sounder (ATMS)), a low-frequency radiometer (Microwave
Imaging Radiometer using Aperture Synthesis (MIRAS)) and a nadir-viewing radiometer
(Advanced Microwave Radiometer (AMR)).
Figure 3.7. Sketch view of Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity (SMOS) with MIRAS (left) and the
satélite de aplicaciones científicas – D (SAC‑D) with Aquarius (right). The Aquarius real
aperture antenna measures 2.5 m in diameter. The MIRAS synthetic aperture antenna is
inscribed in a circle that measures 4 m in diameter.
Table 3.15. Example of multi-purpose MW imager: AMSR‑E on EOS‑Aqua
AMSR-E Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer for EOS

Satellite EOS-Aqua
Mission Multi-purpose MW imagery for precipitation, cloud liquid water and ice,
precipitable water, sea-surface temperature, sea-surface wind speed, sea-ice cover,
surface soil moisture, snow status, water equivalent, etc.
Main features Spectral range: 6.9–89 GHz

6 frequencies, 12 channels, mostly windows
Conical scanning
Scanning Conical: 55° zenith angle

technique Swath: 1 450 km
Scan rate: 40 scan/min = 10 km/scan
Coverage/cycle Global coverage once a day
Resolution (SSP) Changes with frequency

Consistent with an antenna diameter of 1.6 m

Power: 350 W
Central frequency Bandwidth Polarizations NEΔT IFOV Pixel
(GHz) (MHz)
6.925 350 Vertical (V), Horizontal (H) 0.3 K 43 x 75 km 10 x 10 km
10.65 100 V, H 0.6 K 29 x 51 km 10 x 10 km
18.7 200 V, H 0.6 K 16 x 27 km 10 x 10 km
23.8 400 V, H 0.6 K 14 x 21 km 10 x 10 km
36.5 1 000 V, H 0.6 K 9 x 14 km 10 x 10 km
89.0 3 000 V, H 1.1 K 4 x 6 km 5 x 5 km

Table 3.16. Example of MW temperature/humidity sounder: ATMS on Suomi National Polar-

orbiting Partnership (NPP) and Joint Polar Satellite System (JPSS)
ATMS Advanced Technology Microwave Sounder

Satellites Suomi-NPP, JPSS-1 and JPSS-2
Mission Nearly-all-weather temperature and humidity sounding; also relevant for

precipitation
Main features Spectral range: 23–183 GHz

22 channels, including the 57 and 183 GHz bands
Cross-track scanning
Scanning technique Cross-track: 96 steps of 16 km SSP

Swath: 2 200 km
Along-track: one 16 km line every 8/3 seconds
Coverage/cycle Near-global coverage twice a day
Resolution (SSP) 16 km for channels at 165–183 GHz

32 km for channels at 50–90 GHz
75 km for channels at 23–32 GHz
Resources Mass: 75.4 kg

Power: 93 W
Data rate: 20 kbps
Central frequency (GHz) Bandwidth (MHz) Quasi-polarization NEΔT
23.800 270 Quasi-vertical (QV) 0.90 K
31.400 180 QV 0.90 K
50.300 180 Quasi-horizontal (QH) 1.20 K
51.760 400 QH 0.75 K
52.800 400 QH 0.75 K
53.596 ± 0.115 170 QH 0.75 K
54.400 400 QH 0.75 K
54.940 400 QH 0.75 K
55.500 330 QH 0.75 K
f0 = 57.290344 330 QH 0.75 K
f0 ± 0.217 78 QH 1.20 K
f0 ± 0.3222 ± 0.048 36 QH 1.20 K
f0 ± 0.3222 ± 0.022 16 QH 1.50 K
f0 ± 0.3222 ± 0.010 8 QH 2.40 K
f0 ± 0.3222 ± 0.0045 3 QH 3.60 K
89.5 5 000 QV 0.50 K
165.5 3 000 QH 0.60 K
183.31 ± 7.0 2 000 QH 0.80 K
183.31 ± 4.5 2 000 QH 0.80 K
183.31 ± 3.0 1 000 QH 0.80 K
183.31 ± 1.8 1 000 QH 0.80 K
183.31 ± 1.0 500 QH 0.90 K

Table 3.17. Example of L-band MW radiometer: MIRAS on SMOS
MIRAS Microwave Imaging Radiometer using Aperture Synthesis

Satellite Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity (SMOS)
Mission Sea-surface salinity, volumetric soil moisture
Main features Very large synthetic aperture antenna

Single L-band frequency (1.413 GHz)
Several polarimetric modes
Scanning Pushbroom: correlation interferometry is implemented among receiver

technique arrays deployed on the three arms of a Y-shaped antenna
Swath: 1 000 km
Coverage/ Global coverage in 3 days (soil moisture)

cycle Depending on the desired accuracy for salinity measurements, average
figures measured over a number of weeks may be needed
Resolution 50 km basic; may be degraded, depending on the desired accuracy for
(SSP) salinity measurements

Power: 511 W
Data rate: 89 kbps
Table 3.18. Example of non-scanning MW radiometer designed

to support altimetry: AMR on JASON
AMR Advanced Microwave Radiometer

Satellites JASON-2, JASON-3
Mission Atmospheric correction in support of the altimeters of JASON‑1 and JASON‑2
Main features 3 frequencies: 18.7 GHz, 23.8 GHz and 34 GHz
Scanning Nadir-only viewing, associated with the Poseidon‑3 and Poseidon‑3B radar
technique altimeters
Coverage/cycle Global coverage in 1 month for 30 km average spacing, or in 10 days for
100 km average spacing
Resolution 25 km
(SSP)
Power: 31 W
Data rate: 100 bps
3.2.6 Limb sounders
This family of instruments has the following main characteristics:
(a) Scanning of the Earth’s limb: this determines vertical resolution (in the range 1–3 km), the
observed atmospheric layer (in the range 10–80 km), and spatial resolution (about 300 km
along-view);
(b) Spectrometers using the UV/VIS/NIR/SWIR (200–3 000 nm) bands, the MWIR/TIR

(3–16 µm) bands, or the high-frequency range of MW (100–3 000 GHz);
(c) Spatial resolution, from a few tens of kilometres to a few hundreds of kilometres in the
transverse direction;
(d) Horizontal sampling, limited to one or a few azimuth directions;
(e) Applicable only in LEO.
Limb sounders can observe the high troposphere, stratosphere and mesosphere with high
vertical resolution, and are mainly used for atmospheric chemistry. Depending on their spectral
bands, limb sounders may track different species:
(a) SW spectrometers for a number of species, depending on the part of the spectrum covered;
for the full range (UV/VIS/NIR/SWIR), the main species are: BrO, CH4, ClO, CO, CO2, H2O,
HCHO, N2O, NO, NO2, NO3, O2, O3, O4, OClO, SO2 and aerosol;
(b) IR spectrometers for a number of species, depending on the part of the spectrum covered;
for the full range (MWIR/TIR), the main species are: C 2H2, C 2H6, CFCs (CCl4, CF4, F11, F12,
F22), CH4, ClONO2, CO, COF2, H2O, HNO3, HNO4, HOCl, N2O, N2O5, NO, NO2, O3, OCS, SF6
and aerosol;
(c) MW spectrometers for a number of species, depending on the part of the spectrum
covered; for the range 100–3 000 GHz, the main species are: BrO, ClO, CO, H2O, HCl, HCN,
HNO3, HO2, HOCl, N2O, O3, OH and SO2;
(d) Occultation sounders, tracking the Sun, the moon or the stars, for a number of species,
depending on the part of the spectrum covered; for the full range (UV/VIS/NIR/SWIR) the
main species are: H2O, NO2, NO3, O3, OClO and aerosol.
Table 3.19 shows an example of a limb sounder that uses SW occultation (Stratospheric Aerosol
and Gas Experiment (SAGE‑III) on the International Space Station (ISS) satellite).
Table 3.19. Example of limb sounder using SW in occultation: SAGE‑III on ISS
SAGE‑III ISS Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment – III for the ISS
Satellite International Space Station
Mission Atmospheric chemistry in the stratosphere

Tracked species: H2O, NO2, NO3, O3, OClO and aerosol
Main features UV/VIS/NIR/SWIR (290–1 550 nm)

9-band solar and lunar occultation grating spectrometer
Scanning Sun and moon tracking during occultation phase, 1 km step from
technique ~10 km to ~85 km
Coverage/cycle A few tens of events per day, limited to latitudes below ~52° (orbital
inclination of the ISS)
Resolution (SSP) 300 km (horizontal), 1–2 km (vertical)
Power: 80 W
Data rate: 115 kbps
3.2.7 Global navigation satellite system radio-occultation sounders
These instruments have the following main characteristics:
(a) GNSS receivers using at least two L-band frequencies around 1 180 GHz, 1 250 GHz and
1 580 GHz;
(b) Earth’s limb observation, from surface to satellite altitude during the occultation phase
of satellites from the GNSS constellations (such as GPS, GLONASS, Galileo and Compass/
Beidou);
(c) Directional antennas: aft-looking (for setting GNSS), forward-looking (for rising GNSS), and
toroidal (for navigation);
(d) Effective spatial resolution at around 300 km along the direction from the LEO satellite to
the occulting GNSS satellite; a few tens of kilometres in the transverse direction;
(e) Horizontal sampling limited by the daily number of occultation events: from 250 to
1 500 events by satellite, depending on the number of GNSS systems received, and on the
aft-looking/forward-looking tracking capability;
(f) Supported by a complex system of ground stations (see Figure 3.8);
(g) Applicable in LEO only.
Depending on their detailed features, GNSS radio-occultation sounders can provide different
types of information:
(a) The signal-sampling time interval determines the vertical resolution of temperature,
humidity and density profiles;
(b) Measurement sensitivity to the low atmospheric layers is determined by the size of the
occultation antennas and the time-sampling technique;
(c) The number of frequencies that are used affects the accuracy of two ionospheric
measurements: total electron content and electron density profile;
(d) The number of occultation events per day depends on the number of GNSS constellations
used (GPS, GLONASS, Galileo, Beidou), the number of receiving channels for simultaneous
tracking of further GNSS satellites, and the antenna accommodation feature: only aft-
looking, only forward-looking, or both.
Table 3.20 sets out the main features of an example of a radio-occultation sounder (GNSS
Receiver for Atmospheric Sounding (GRAS)).
GNSS transmitter
(used for tracking and
clock corrections)
GNSS transmitter
(used for tracking)
Paths used for LEO tracking

Paths used for clock corrections
Paths used for sounding
Occulted GNSS transmitter

(used for clock corrections and sounding)
Ground station
(used for tracking LEO receiver
and clock corrections)
Earth
GNSS transmitter
Atmosphere (used for tracking)
Ground station
(used for tracking)
GNSS transmitter
(used for tracking)
Figure 3.8. The overall system for radio occultation

Table 3.20. Example of radio-occultation sounder: GRAS on Metop
GRAS GNSS Receiver for Atmospheric Sounding

Mission High-vertical-resolution temperature, humidity and density profiles
Main features Measuring the phase delay due to refraction during occultation
between a navigation satellite and the LEO satellite
GNSS constellation: GPS
Frequencies: L1 = 1 575.42 MHz and L2 = 1 227.6 MHz
8 receiving channels: 4 for occultation, 8 for navigation
Scanning Limb scanning from 80 km to close-to-surface by time sampling

technique Azimuth: 90° sectors fore and aft
Coverage/cycle 1 constellation tracked

About 650 soundings/day
Average spacing 880 km
Global coverage (300 km spacing) in 8.5 days
Resolution (SSP) About 300 km horizontal, 0.5 km vertical
Power: 30 W
Data rate: 27 kbps
3.2.8 Broadband radiometers
(a) Wavelengths in the bands of total radiation emerging from the Earth and the atmosphere
(0.2–300 µm) as well as from the fraction represented by reflected solar radiation
(0.2–4.0 µm);
(b) One broadband channel, integrating over each of the two bands, and optional narrow-
bandwidth channels in VIS and/or TIR to collect information on clouds within the IFOV;
(c) Cross-track scanning with continuous and contiguous sampling, to cover a swath of a few
thousand kilometres with a spatial resolution of the order of 10 km;
(d) Applicable in LEO and GEO; observation from the L1 Lagrange libration point also is
possible.
Broadband radiometers are designed to measure the Earth radiation budget – upward LW and
SW irradiance at the top of the atmosphere (TOA). Accuracy depends on their detailed features:
(a) The greatest possible extension of the SW end of the spectrum into the UV range, and of
the LW end of the spectrum into the FIR range, with a maximally flat response inside those
ranges;
(b) Built-in multiviewing capability to convert radiance into irradiance;
(c) Supportive narrowband channels to collect information on clouds within the IFOV.
Tables 3.21 and 3.22 set out an example of a broadband radiometer in LEO (Clouds and the
Earth’s Radiant Energy System (CERES)) and one in GEO (Geostationary Earth Radiation Budget
(GERB)).
Table 3.21. Example of broadband radiometer in LEO:

CERES on the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM), EOS‑Terra/Aqua, Suomi‑NPP and
JPSS
CERES Clouds and the Earth’s Radiant Energy System

Satellites TRMM, EOS-Terra, EOS-Aqua, Suomi-NPP, JPSS‑1
Mission Earth radiation budget: upward LW and SW irradiance at TOA
Main features Two broadband channels and one narrowband channel

Either: two units, one for cross-track scanning, one for biaxial scanning for irradiance
computation
Or: one unit operating in alternative modes
Scanning Cross-track: 80 steps of 20 km SSP

technique Swath: 3 000 km; along-track: one 20 km line every 3 seconds
Biaxial scanning by rotating azimuth while cross-nadir scanning
Coverage/cycle Global coverage twice a day (IR and total radiance) or once a day (SW)
Resolution (SSP) 20 km
Resources Double unit configuration:

Mass: 114 kg
Power: 100 W
Data rate: 21 kbps
Channel Spectral interval Noise equivalent Absolute accuracy SNR

radiance
SW 0.3–5.0 µm 0.3 W m–2 sr –1 0.8 W m–2 sr –1 225
Total radiance 0.3–100 µm 0.3 W m–2 sr –1 0.6 W m–2 sr –1 750
Narrowband 8–12 µm 0.3 W m–2 sr –1 0.3 W m–2 sr –1 750
Table 3.22. Example of broadband radiometer in GEO:

GERB on Meteosat Second Generation
GERB Geostationary Earth Radiation Budget

Satellites Meteosat-8, Meteosat-9, Meteosat-10, Meteosat-11
Mission Earth radiation budget: upward LW and SW irradiance at TOA
Main features Two broadband channels
Scanning N–S direction: pushbroom by a linear array of 256 detectors

technique E–W provided by the spinning satellite
Integration over 5 minutes to comply with SNR requirements and over 15 minutes to
synchronize with SEVIRI
Coverage/cycle Full disk every 15 minutes
Power: 35 W
Channel Spectral interval Noise equivalent Absolute accuracy SNR
radiance
SW 0.32–4.0 µm 0.8 W m–2 sr –1 2.4 W m–2 sr –1 1 250
Total radiance 0.32–100 µm 0.15 W m–2 sr –1 0.4 W m–2 sr –1 400

3.2.9 Solar irradiance monitors
(a) Wavelengths in the solar radiation range 0.15–50 µm;
(b) Integration over the full range (total solar irradiance) and/or spectroscopy in the
0.15–3.00 µm range;
(c) Total solar irradiance is measured by absolute techniques, such as active cavity radiometers
pointing at the Sun;
(d) Applicable both in LEO and in GEO.
Solar irradiance monitors complement broadband radiometers in order to measure the Earth
radiation budget. They also contribute to solar activity monitoring for the purpose of space
weather observation. Detailed features that affect their performance are:
(a) Extending their sensitivity to within the solar radiation range;
(b) Their capability to provide spectral information in context in the UV/VIS/NIR/SWIR ranges.
Table 3.23 sets out the main features of an example of a solar irradiance monitor in LEO (Total
and Spectral Solar Irradiance Sensor (TSIS)).
Table 3.23. Example of solar irradiance monitor in LEO:

TSIS on JPSS – Free Flyer
TSIS Total and Spectral Solar Irradiance Sensor

Satellite JPSS-Free Flyer (to be confirmed)
Mission Solar irradiance monitoring (total and spectrally resolved)
Main features Assemblage of:

Four active cavity radiometers for total irradiance (total irradiance
monitor: range of 0.2–10 µm),
Prism spectrometer for spectral irradiance (spectral irradiance
monitor: range of 0.2–2.0 µm; spectral resolution: 0.25–33 nm)
Scanning Sun pointing during orbital movement; data sampled every two
technique minutes
Coverage/cycle 100 minutes: one measurement after integration on all data taken
during the diurnal orbit arc
Resolution (SSP) Not applicable (Sun pointing)
Resources Total irradiance monitor:

Mass 7.9 kg; power 14 W; data rate 0.53 kbps
Spectral irradiance monitor:
Mass 22 kg; power 25.3 W; data rate 4.84 kbps
3.2.10 Lightning imagers
(a) Detector matrix (CCD): continuous Earth observation in a very narrow O2 band at 777.4 nm;
(b) Measurement of flash rate and intensity in the IFOV;
(c) Spatial resolution of 5–10 km;

(d) Continuous and contiguous horizontal sampling; swath of several hundred kilometres from
LEO, and full disk from GEO;
(e) Applicable in LEO and GEO.
Lightning imagery is useful as a proxy for convective precipitation and turbulence, in order
to monitor the Earth's electric field, and as a proxy for NOx generation. Different sampling is
applicable from LEO and GEO:
(a) From LEO, the measurement is available for the interval during satellite motion in which one
Earth’s spot is visible within the field of view of the CCD matrix (about 90 seconds);
(b) From GEO, monitoring is continuous.
Tables 3.24 and 3.25 set out an example of a lightning imager in LEO (Lightning Imaging Sensor
(LIS)) and one in GEO (Geostationary Lightning Mapper (GLM)).
Table 3.24. Example of lightning imager in LEO: LIS on TRMM
LIS Lightning Imaging Sensor

Satellite Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM)
Mission Proxy for convective precipitation and turbulence

Proxy for NOx generation
Study of the Earth electric field
Main features CCD camera operating at 777.4 nm (O2) to count flashes and measure
their intensity
Scanning Pushbroom: matrix array of 128 x 128 detectors; swath of 600 km

technique Each Earth location is observed continuously (every 2 milliseconds)
for about 90 seconds
Coverage/cycle Intertropical coverage: several sequences of passes at ~100 min

intervals; longer gaps as latitude increases; more regular coverage at
15°N and 15°S
Power: 33 W
Data rate: 6 kbps
Table 3.25. Example of lightning imager in GEO: GLM on GOES
GLM Geostationary Lightning Mapper

Satellites GOES-R, GOES-S, GOES-T, GOES-U
Mission Proxy for convective precipitation and turbulence

Proxy for NOx generation
Study of the Earth electric field
Main features CCD camera operating at 777.4 nm (O2) to count flashes and measure
their intensity
Scanning Pushbroom: matrix array of 1 372 x 1 300 detectors; time resolution of

technique 2 milliseconds
Coverage/cycle Large fraction of the disk is continuously observed
Power: 110 W
Data rate: 77 Mbps
3.2.11 Cloud radar and precipitation radar
(a) Operating frequencies in Ku (~14 GHz), Ka (~35 GHz) or W (~94 GHz) bands;
(b) Pulse repetition rate that results in a vertical resolution of a few hundred metres;
(c) Spatial resolution of 2–5 km;
(d) Continuous and contiguous horizontal sampling; swath from nadir-only to several
hundreds of kilometres;
(e) Only applicable in LEO.
The operating frequency determines possible applications:
(a) Ku band is suitable for heavy rain (liquid, with droplets that may exceed 1 cm). Non-
precipitating clouds (droplets of less than 0.1 mm) are totally transparent, and light
precipitation can hardly be detected. At these relatively low frequencies, electronic
switching, which is necessary to avoid mechanical movements of large antennas, is
relatively easy. Relatively wide swaths (several hundreds of kilometres) can therefore be
implemented.
(b) Ka band is suitable for light rain (from stratiform clouds) and snowfall. Electronic switching
is still possible, and swaths of a few hundreds of kilometres can be implemented.
(c) W band is suitable for non-precipitating clouds (droplets of less than 0.1 mm). Several
studies have also reported that this can be applied to the observation of precipitating cloud
systems, specifically on the edges of precipitation or in cases of no precipitation, including
the eye of tropical cyclones.
Tables 3.26 and 3.27 set out an example of a dual-frequency (Ku and Ka) precipitation radar (DPR)
and an example of a W-band cloud radar (Cloud Profiling Radar (CPR) on CloudSat).
Table 3.26. Example of precipitation radar: DPR on the Global Precipitation Measurement
(GPM) Core Observatory
DPR Dual-frequency Precipitation Radar

Satellite GPM Core Observatory
Mission Vertical profile of heavy rain (liquid), light rain and snowfall
Main features Dual-frequency imaging radar

Frequencies: 13.6 GHz and 35.55 GHz
Sensitivity: 0.5 mm/h at 13.6 GHz; 0.2 mm/h at 35.55 GHz
Scanning Electronic scanning

technique Planar array of 148 elements
Swath: 245 km at 13.6 GHz; 125 km at 35.55 GHz
Coverage/cycle Nearly global in 5 days

High latitudes (> 65°) not covered
Resolution Horizontal: 5 km

(SSP) Vertical: 250 m (blind to the lowest ~150 m)

Power: 710 W
Data rate: 190 kbps
Table 3.27. Example of cloud radar: CPR on CloudSat
CPR Cloud Profiling Radar

Satellite CloudSat
Mission Vertical profile of non-precipitating cloud water (liquid and ice)
Main features Frequency: 94.05 GHz

Sensitivity: 30 dBZ
Scanning None. Along-track sampling at 2 km intervals

technique
Coverage/ Global coverage in 1 month for 30 km average spacing, or in 10 days for
cycle 100 km average spacing
Resolution Horizontal: 1.4 km (cross-track) x 3.5 km (along-track)

(SSP) Vertical: 500 m

Power: 270 W
Data rate: 15 kbps
3.2.12 Radar scatterometers
(a) Operating frequencies in C (~5 GHz) or Ku (~14 GHz) bands;
(b) Very accurate calibration in order to measure backscatter coefficients (σ 0) from sea capillary
waves;
(c) Spatial resolution: 10–50 km;
(d) Continuous and contiguous horizontal sampling; swath of approximately 1 000 km;
There are two concepts, mainly differing by the scanning principle (see Figure 3.9):
(a) Electronic scanning: side-looking, generally uses C band and provides three azimuth views
for differential σ 0. It is more accurate for low-intensity sea-surface wind and for soil moisture.
(b) Conical scanning: generally uses Ku band, with two beams and two polarizations. It
provides four azimuth views for differential σ 0.
Tables 3.28 and 3.29 describe radar scatterometers using pushbroom scanning (ASCAT) and
conical scanning (SeaWinds).
Fore beam Fore beam
Ground track
Left side Right side
SeaWinds
Outer beam
45°
Left side swath Right side swath
Mid beam Mid beam
135°
550 km
500 km Instantaneous
antenna footprint Inner beam
700 km
25 km 900 km
Nadir track
Aft beam Aft beam

Figure 3.9. Two concepts for multiviewing scatterometers. Left: six antennas for three σ = s
under azimuth angles, 45°, 90° and 135° respectively, on both the left and right side of the
sub-satellite track (Advanced Scatterometer (ASCAT) on Metop). Right: conical scanning of
an antenna with two beams and two polarizations, for σ = s under four azimuth angles for
areas in the inner circle (SeaWinds on QuikSCAT). The ASCAT concept leaves an uncovered
strip of ~700 km around the sub-satellite track. In the SeaWinds concept, there appears to be
no gap, but accuracy is poor in the inner part of the swath around the sub-satellite track.
Table 3.28. Example of pushbroom radar scatterometer: ASCAT on Metop
ASCAT Advanced Scatterometer

Mission Sea-surface wind vector; large-scale soil moisture
Main features C band (5.255 GHz)

Left and right side-looking
3 antennas on each side
Scanning Two 550 km swaths, separated by a 700 km along-track gap

technique 3 looks each pixel (45°, 90° and 135° azimuth)
Coverage/cycle Global coverage in 1.5 days
Resolution Best quality: 50 km

(SSP) Standard quality: 25 km
Basic sampling: 12.5 km

Power: 215 W
Data rate: 42 kbps
Table 3.29. Example of conical-scanning radar scatterometer: SeaWinds on QuikSCAT
SeaWinds
Satellite Quick Scatterometer (QuikSCAT) mission
Mission Sea-surface wind vector
Main features Ku band (13.4 GHz)

Conical scanning
2 beams
2 polarizations
Scanning Conical scanning: 2 beams to provide four views of each spot from
technique different angles
Swath: 1 800 km
Coverage/cycle Global coverage every day
Resolution Best quality: 50 km

(SSP) Standard quality: 25 km
Basic sampling: 12.5 km

Power: 220 W
Data rate: 40 kbps
3.2.13 Radar altimeters
(a) Operating frequencies in Ku band (~14 GHz), with auxiliary C band (~5 GHz), or Ka band
(~35 GHz);
(b) Very accurate ranging measurement between the satellite and the Earth’s surface;
(c) Spatial resolution in the range of 20 km;
(d) Exclusively nadir-pointing;
Radar altimeters generally operate in Ku band, using C band for correction of the signal rotation
induced by the ionosphere. They are linked to a nadir-pointing MW radiometer for water vapour
correction. Their accurate ranging is used for ocean topography: the echo spread provides
information on significant wave height, while the echo intensity provides information on wind
speed.
Depending on the detailed features of the instrument and of the satellite orbit, altimeters may be
optimized for different applications:
(a) Relatively high, non-Sun-synchronous orbit (for example, 1 336 km), where inclination

provides high stability to the orbit (for example, 66°); especially suited to solid Earth
(geoid) and ocean circulation;
(b) SAR-like processing of the return echoes to synthesize higher spatial resolution along the
sub-satellite track (see Figure 3.10);
(c) Parallel antennas to implement wide-swath altimetry by interferometry; particularly useful

for land use including on inland waters, such as lakes;
(d) Dual frequency (C and Ku bands), which provides information on the total electron content
between a satellite and the Earth's surface.
Figure 3.10. Enhancing along-track altimeter resolution by SAR-like signal processing
Table 3.30 sets out the main features of a radar altimeter with data of geodetic quality
(Poseidon‑3).
Table 3.30. Example of radar altimeter: Poseidon‑3 on JASON‑2
Poseidon-3 Solid-state radar altimeter – 3

Satellite JASON-2
Mission Ocean topography, the geoid, significant wave height, wind speed,
total electron content
Main features 2 frequencies: 5.3 GHz; 13.58 GHz
Scanning Nadir-only viewing

technique Sampling at 30 km intervals along track
Coverage/cycle Global coverage in 1 month for 30 km average spacing, or in 10 days

for 100 km average spacing
Resolution (SSP) 30 km IFOV
Power: 78 W
3.2.14 Imaging radar (synthetic aperture radar)
This wide range of instruments has the following main characteristics:
(a) Operating frequencies in P (~0.4 GHz), L (~1.3 GHz), S (~2.7 GHz), C (~5.3 GHz),

X (~9.6 GHz), or Ku (~17.2 GHz) bands. The L, C and X bands are most commonly used;
(b) Several combinations of polarizations in transmission and reception: HH, VV, VV/HH,
HH/HV and VV/VH;
(c) There is a trade-off between spatial resolution and swath: a 1–30 m resolution is associated
with a swath of 30–100 km; but a 100–1 000 m resolution is associated with a swath of
300–500 km;
(d) Side looking, generally on one side, maintaining high resolution within a field of regard of
several hundreds of kilometres;
(e) Applicable in LEO only.
Figure 3.11 illustrates the operating modes of one C-band SAR (Advanced Synthetic Aperture
Radar (ASAR)).
The operating frequency is a critical feature, optimized for the purposes for which an SAR is
designed:
(a) P band is most suited to biomass monitoring and hydrological mapping;
(b) L band is best suited to wave observation and volumetric soil moisture;
(c) S band is best suited to volumetric soil moisture;
(d) C band covers a wide range of applications: sea ice, wave parameters by spectral analysis
of image segments, surface soil moisture, snow parameters, glaciers, ground water, etc.
However, each individual parameter can be optimally observed at other frequencies;
(e) X band provides the best spatial resolution, and is therefore best suited to surveillance;
(f) Ka band is specifically suited to snow, which is transparent at lower frequencies;
(g) Interferometry of the signals from one SAR at different times or two SARs flying in tandem
enables the measurement of the digital elevation model and the detection of contour
changes (such as coastlines and lakes) and elevation (for example, volcano top surface).
irection
Flight d
485 km
100 km
Wave
VV or HH
405 km Alternating polarization < 30 m resolution
VV or VH or HH/HV 5 km x 5 km
Image vignettes
30 m resolution
Wide swath VV or HH
(PRI–GEC)
VV or HH < 30 m resolution
Global monitoring Up to 100 km swath
150 m resolution (PRI–GEC)
VV or HH
405 km swath width Up to 100 km swath
1 000 m resolution
405 km swath width
PRI = precision image GEC = geocoded image
Figure 3.11. Operating modes of ASAR on Envisat. In the global monitoring and wide swath
modes, the swath is 405 km and is linked to either a 1 000 m or 150 m resolution. In the
image and alternating polarization modes, a 100 km swath with a 30 m resolution can be
pointed to one of seven positions within a field of regard of 485 km. In the wave mode,
vignettes of 5 km x 5 km with 30 m resolution are sampled at every 100 km along track.
Table 3.31 records the main features of a C-band SAR (ASAR).
Table 3.31. Example of C-band SAR: ASAR on Envisat
ASAR Advanced Synthetic Aperture Radar

Satellite Envisat
Mission Sea ice, wave parameters by spectral analysis of image segments, surface soil
moisture, snow parameters, glaciers, ground water, etc.
Main features C-band SAR

Frequency: 5.331 GHz
Multipolarization and variable pointing/resolution
Scanning technique Side-looking; 15°–45° off-nadir

Swath: 100–405 km, depending on operation mode (see lower part of table)
Coverage/cycle Global coverage in 5 day in global monitoring mode (if used for 70% of the time)
Longer periods (up to 3 months) for other operation modes
Resolution (SSP) 30 m to 1 km, depending on operation mode (see lower part of the table)

Power: 1 400 W
Data rate: 100 Mbps
Operation mode Resolution Swath Field of regard Polarization
Stripmap 30 m 100 km 485 km HH or VV
ScanSAR alternating pol 30 m 100 km 485 km VV/HH, HH/HV, VV/VH
ScanSAR wide swath 150 m 405 km 405 km HH or VV
ScanSAR wide swath 150 m 405 km 405 km HH or VV
ScanSAR global monitoring 1 km 405 km 405 km HH or VV
Wave 30 m 5 x 5 km2 imagettes sampled at HH or VV

100 km intervals
3.2.15 Lidar-based instruments
This group of instruments has the following main characteristics:
(a) Operating wavelengths in the UV (for example, 355 nm), VIS (for example, 532 nm), NIR
(for example, 1 064 nm), or SWIR (for example, 1 600 nm) bands;
(b) Possible dual wavelength, two receivers (for Mie and Rayleigh scattering); polarimetry;
(c) Horizontal resolution within a 100 m range, often degraded by up to 50 km in order to
collect enough de-correlated samples;
(d) Vertical resolution within a 100 m range (approximately 10 cm for lidar altimeters);
(e) Non-scanning: either nadir-viewing or oblique.
A space lidar is a voluminous instrument that needs to be optimized for specific applications:
(a) Doppler lidars generally operate in UV, for both Mie and Rayleigh scattering, in order to
track aerosol and air molecules; oblique view is used to measure radial wind in clear air and
aerosol;
(b) Backscatter lidars operate at one (on UV) or two (VIS and NIR) wavelengths, often with
more polarizations; nadir view is used for obtaining aerosol profiles, cloud-top height and
atmospheric discontinuities, such as the height of the top of the planetary boundary layer
and of the tropopause;
(c) Lidar altimeters usually operate at two wavelengths (VIS and NIR); nadir view is used, as
is very high-vertical resolution (for sea-ice elevation) and horizontal resolution (for ice
boundaries);
(d) Differential absorption lidar operate at one wavelength centred on the absorption peak of
one trace gas, in UV, VIS, NIR or SWIR, and nearby windows; nadir view is used for high-
vertical-resolution observation of, for example, O3, H2O and CO2.
Tables 3.32–3.35 give details of a Doppler lidar (Atmospheric Laser Doppler Instrument
(ALADIN)), a backscatter lidar (Cloud-aerosol Lidar with Orthogonal Polarization (CALIOP)), a
lidar altimeter (Geoscience Laser Altimeter System (GLAS)) and a differential absorption lidar
(CO2 lidar).
Table 3.32. Example of Doppler lidar: ALADIN on ADM-Aeolus
ALADIN Atmospheric Laser Doppler Instrument

Satellite Atmospheric Dynamics Mission (ADM) – Aeolus
Mission Wind profile in clear air, aerosol profile, cloud-top height
Main features Single-wavelength (355 nm), side-looking; 35° off-nadir

High spectral resolution laser for distinguishing aerosol types
Scanning No scanning
technique Pulse echoes averaged over a 50 km field of view
Field of view sampled at 200 km intervals
Resolution Horizontal: 50 km field of view sampled at 200 km intervals

(SSP) Vertical: from 250 m in the planetary boundary layer to 2 km at ~20 km

Power: 840 W
Data rate: 11 kbps
Table 3.33. Example of backscatter lidar: CALIOP on CALIPSO
CALIOP Cloud–aerosol Lidar with Orthogonal Polarization

Satellite Cloud–aerosol Lidar and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observations
(CALIPSO)
Mission Aerosol profile, cloud-top height and atmospheric discontinuities

(height of the top of the planetary boundary layer and of the tropopause)
Main features Two wavelengths (532 and 1 064 nm)

Measurements at two orthogonal polarizations

technique Sampling at 330 m intervals along track
Near-continuous profiling
Resolution Horizontal: 70 m IFOV sampled at 333 m intervals along track

(SSP) Vertical: 30 m

Power: 124 W
Data rate: 332 kbps
Table 3.34. Example of lidar altimeter: GLAS on ICESat
GLAS Geoscience Laser Altimeter System

Satellite Ice, Cloud and Land Elevation Satellite (ICESat)
Mission Polar ice sheet thickness and topography, cloud-top height, aerosol
Main features Dual-wavelength lidar (532 and 1 064 nm)

technique Sampling at 170 m intervals along track
Near-continuous profiling
Coverage/ Global coverage in 183 days (orbit repeat cycle)

cycle Leaves cross-track 2.5 km gaps at 80° latitude (15 km at the Equator)
Resolution Horizontal: 66 m IFOV sampled at 170 m intervals along track

(SSP) Vertical: 10 cm surface, 200 m cloud top

Power: 300 W
Data rate: 450 bps
Table 3.35. Example of differential absorption lidar: CO2 lidar on ASCENDS
CO2 lidar
Satellite Active Sensing of CO2 Emissions over Nights, Days, and Seasons
(ASCENDS)
Mission Monitoring CO2 with unprecedented accuracy by using lidar
Main features Wavelength: 1.572 µm for CO2

Option for O2 at 1 260 or 765 nm also considered

technique
Coverage/cycle Global coverage in one month for 30 km average spacing, or in 10 days
for 100 km average spacing
Resolution Horizontal: 125 m

(SSP) Vertical: total column

Power: 920 W
Data rate: 1.9 Mbps
3.2.16 Gradiometers/accelerometers
Knowledge of the gravity field is crucial for modelling the solid Earth. Several space techniques
address this subject.
(a) The long-wave components of the gravity field are measured through radar or lidar
altimetry, or through precise orbitography (for example, with laser ranging, radio
positioning, GNSS, star tracking).
(b) SW components (anomalies and perturbations of the gravity field) are observed at satellite
altitude by accelerometers or gradiometers, in association with satellite-to-satellite ranging
systems. An accelerometer measures the variation of the gravity field along the satellite
trajectory. A gradiometer comprises a network of accelerometers, which measures the
gravity-gradient tensor. Satellite-to-satellite ranging systems are transmitter-receiver
systems, usually in K band (24 GHz) and Ka band (32 GHz). They are designed to accurately
measure the distance and its variations between satellites flying in coordinated orbits. The
same measurements are possible through the simultaneous reception of signals from tens
of GNSS satellites: that determines positioning changes highly accurately.
Tables 3.36 and 3.37 describe a gradiometer/accelerometer (Three-axis Electrostatic Gravity

Gradiometer (EGG)) and a satellite-to-satellite ranging system (High-accuracy Inter-satellite
Ranging System (HAIRS)).
Table 3.36. Example of accelerometer/gradiometer: EGG on GOCE
EGG Three-axis Electrostatic Gravity Gradiometer

Satellite Gravity Field and Steady-state Ocean Circulation Explorer (GOCE)
Mission Solid Earth

Observation of the Earth’s gravity field along the orbit
Main features Three pairs of 3-axis accelerometers, specially assembled to

measure the gravity-gradient tensor
Accuracy: 10 –12 m s–2
Resolution: 2 10 –12 m s–2 Hz–1/2
Table 3.37. Example of satellite-to-satellite ranging system:

HAIRS on Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE)
HAIRS High-accuracy Inter-satellite Ranging System

Satellites GRACE (2 satellites flying in tandem, 220 km apart)
Mission Solid Earth

Observation of the Earth’s gravity field along the orbit
Main features Dual-frequency ranging, in K band (24 GHz) and K a band (32 GHz)

Accuracy: 10 µm
3.2.17 Solar activity monitors
Solar activity is monitored either by remote-sensing or in situ in the solar wind, from deep space
and Earth’s orbit. Several measurement approaches are possible:
(a) Electromagnetic radiation: measured by radiometers, spectrometers and polarimeters for

γ‑rays (less than 0.001 nm), X‑ray (0.001–10 nm), extreme UV (10–120 nm),
UV (120–380 nm), VIS (380–780 nm) and longer wavelengths including radio waves (more
than 1 m);
(b) Energetic particles (electrons, protons, α‑particles, ions, cosmic rays, neutrons): the energy
range is generally broken down into high-, medium- and low-energy; the boundaries of
the ranges depend on the type of charged particle; measurements can be integrated over
the full energy range, or over partial ranges; spectroscopy within a range may also be
performed;
(c) Magnetic and electric fields, directly measured in the solar wind, and inferred in
the photosphere; those fields are inferred from measurements in the solar wind or
from spectroscopy of VIS solar images using the Zeeman effect, Doppler analysis or
multipolarization;
(d) Measurements can be performed by: integrating over the full solar disk; imaging the solar
disk; or imaging the corona only by occulting the disk (a coronagraph);
(e) A specific observation is that of solar irradiance, either total or spectrally resolved
(see 3.2.9).
An example of an instrument package for solar activity monitoring from the L1 Lagrange
libration point, the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO), is described in Table 3.38.
3.2.18 Space environment monitors
Space environment monitoring at platform level provides information used for monitoring and
making predictions about overall space weather conditions, as well as for platform safety. The
instrumentation generally includes:
(a) Charged particle detectors, designed for specific ranges of energy, either integrated or
spectrally resolved;
(b) Magnetometers and electrometers.
An example of an instrument package for in situ space environment monitoring, GGAK‑M, is

described in Table 3.39.
3.2.19 Magnetometers and electric field sensors
Magnetic and electric fields in the magnetosphere can be measured in situ as the satellite moves
along its orbit. If the orbit is highly eccentric, it crosses the magnetosphere at different altitudes,
thus providing 3D profiles. Gradients of the fields are better observed when more satellites are
flown together in coordinated orbits. Usual instruments are:
(a) Either scalar or vector magnetometers;
(b) Electron fluxometers (used to compute the electric field).
An example of an instrument package, Cluster, for 3D observation of the magnetosphere, which

uses four satellites, is described in Table 3.40.
Table 3.38. Example of solar activity monitoring package: SOHO instrumentation
SOHO instrumentation
Satellite Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO)
Mission Sun monitoring from the L1 Lagrange point
Main features Solar atmosphere remote-sensing instrument package:

Solar UV Measurement of Emitted Radiation (SUMER)
Coronal Diagnostic Spectrometer (CDS)
Extreme UV Imaging Telescope (EIT)
UV Coronagraph and Spectrometer (UVCS)
Large Angle and Spectrometric Coronagraph (LASCO)
Solar Wind Anisotropies (SWAN)
Solar wind “in situ particle” instrument package:
Charge, Element and Isotope Analysis System (CELIAS)
Comprehensive Suprathermal and Energetic Particle Analyzer
(COSTEP)
Energetic and Relativistic Nuclei and Electron Experiment (ERNE)
Helio-seismology instrument package (study of the Sun's interior):
Global Oscillations at Low Frequencies (GOLF)
Variability of Solar Irradiance and Gravity Oscillations (VIRGO)
Michelson Doppler Imager (MDI)
Scanning technique Sun pointing
Coverage/cycle Continuous from the L1 Lagrange point
Resources (of the Mass: 1 850 kg

satellite) Power: 1.5 kW
Data rate: 200 kbps
Table 3.39. Example of space environment monitoring package: GGAK‑M on Meteor‑M
GGAK-M Geophysical Monitoring System Complex

Satellites Meteor-M N1, Meteor-M N2, Meteor-M N2‑1, Meteor‑M N2‑2
Mission Space environment monitoring at platform level
Main features Spectrometer for Geoactive Measurements (MSGI‑MKA) package:

Electron fluxes in the energy range 0.1–15 keV (high-sensitivity
channel)
Ion (proton) fluxes in the energy range 0.1–15 keV (high-sensitivity
channel)
Electron fluxes in the energy range 0.1–15 keV (low-sensitivity
channel)
Monitoring of integral electron fluxes with a threshold energy of
40 keV
Radiation Monitoring System (KGI‑4C) package:
Total proton flux threshold energy of: 5, 15, 25, 30 and 40 MeV
Total electron flux threshold energy of: 0.17, 0.7, 1.7, 2.0 and 3.2 MeV
Proton fluxes with threshold energies of: 25 and 90 MeV
Power: 13.6 W
Data rate: 16 kbps
Table 3.40. Example of magnetosphere monitoring package: Cluster instrumentation
Cluster instrumentation
Satellites Cluster A, B, C and D (four satellites flying together in coordinated
orbits)
Mission Monitoring of the 3D magnetosphere
Main features Package of the following instruments:

Fluxgate Magnetometer (FGM)
Spatio-temporal Analysis of Field Fluctuations (STAFF)
Electric Fields and Waves (EFW)
Waves of High Frequency and Sounder for Probing of Density by
Relaxation (WHISPER)
Wide Band Data (WBD)
Digital Wave Processor (DWP)
Electron Drift Instrument (EDI)
Cluster Ion Spectrometry (CIS) experiment
Plasma Electron and Current Analyzer (PEACE)
Research with Adaptive Particle Imaging Detectors (RAPID)
Active Spacecraft Potential Control (ASPOC)
Scanning technique 4 satellites travelling across the magnetosphere in highly elliptical

orbits
Coverage/cycle Continuous; in situ along the orbit
Resources (of one Mass: 1 200 kg

satellite) Power: 224 W
CHAPTER 4. SATELLITE PROGRAMMES
The measurements described in the present volume, Chapter 2 are performed within satellite
programmes1 implemented by space agencies with either an operational mandate to serve
particular user communities, or a priority mandate for research and development. In addition to
the core meteorological constellations in geostationary and near-polar Sun-synchronous orbits,
these programmes include environmental missions focusing on specific atmospheric parameters,
ocean and ice, land observation, solid Earth or space weather. Many of these environmental
missions are designed and operated in a research or demonstration context, but some of them
have reached operational maturity, and contribute to the sustained observation of environmental
components, especially when they have been extended over time and/or they give way to an
operational follow-on. Further information on measurement principles and uncertainties for
geophysical variables can be found in the present volume, Chapter 5.
For each type of application, satellite missions may be seen as constituent parts of constellations
of spacecraft that, in many cases, will deliver their full benefit only when implemented in a
coordinated fashion, ensuring synergy among the different sensors. International coordination
among satellite operators is achieved within the Coordination Group for Meteorological
Satellites, the primary goal of which is to maintain the operational meteorological and
climate monitoring constellations, and the Committee on Earth Observation Satellites, which
has initiated “virtual constellations” with thematic objectives (ocean surface topography,
precipitation, atmospheric composition, land surface imaging, ocean surface vector wind, ocean
colour radiometry and sea-surface temperature).
The following mission categories are considered:
(a) Operational meteorological satellites;
(b) Specialized atmospheric missions;
(c) Missions on ocean and sea ice;
(d) Land-observation missions;
(e) Missions on solid Earth;
(f) Missions on space weather.
4.1 OPERATIONAL METEOROLOGICAL SATELLITES
The system of operational meteorological satellites constitutes the backbone of the space-based
GOS. It is split into two components, according to the orbital characteristics:
(a) Constellation in geostationary or highly elliptical orbit;
(b) Constellation in Sun-synchronous orbits.
4.1.1 Satellite constellation in geostationary or highly elliptical orbit
The geostationary orbit is particularly suited for operational meteorology because it enables very
frequent sampling (at sub-hourly or minute rates) as necessary for rapidly evolving phenomena
(daily weather) or detecting events such as lightning, as long as no very high spatial resolution is
required (order of 1 km). The primary observations from the geostationary orbit are:
1
Details on these programmes are available in the WMO online database on space-based capabilities, which is
updated on a regular basis.
CHAPTER 4. SATELLITE PROGRAMMES 95
(a) Cloud evolution (detection, cover, top height and temperature, type, water phase at cloud
top, particle size);
(b) Frequent profile of temperature and humidity to monitor atmospheric stability;
(c) Winds by tracking clouds and water-vapour patterns (including wind profile from water-
vapour profile tracking);
(d) Convective precipitation (in combination with MW data from LEO satellites and lightning
detection);
(e) Rapidly changing surface variables (sea-surface temperature in coastal zones, fires);
(f) Ozone and other trace gases affected by diurnal variation or arising from changing sources.
One drawback of the geostationary orbit is the poor visibility at high latitudes, beyond about
60° for quantitative measurements and 70° for qualitative. This limitation can be overcome
by using high-eccentricity inclined orbits (Molniya, Tundra or three-apogee orbits) instead of
the geostationary orbit (see the present volume, Chapter 2, 2.1.4). Additionally, the diffraction
limit due to the small angles subtended by the large distance poses challenges for very high-
resolution optical imagery and MW radiometry. MW observation for all-weather temperature
and humidity sounding and quantitative precipitation measurement from GEO should be
feasible by using high frequencies, as the technology becomes available.
The requirement for global non-polar frequent observations from the geostationary satellites
calls for six regularly-spaced spacecraft (Figure 4.1). In an operational constellation, backup
satellites are required to provide redundancy above this minimum.
Table 4.1 lists the operational programmes that agreed to contribute to the constellation of
meteorological geostationary satellites in 2012, and their nominal positions. Other positions may
be used on a temporary basis, for instance in contingency situations.
60°N
30°N
30°S
60°S
150°W 120°W 90°W 60°W 30°W 0 30°E 60°E 90°E 120°E 150°E
Figure 4.1. Coverage from six regularly-spaced geostationary satellites. The circles
subtend a geocentric angle of 60°, considered the practical limit for quantitative observations
(for qualitative use, images actually extend beyond). All latitudes between
55°S and 55°N are covered.
Table 4.1. Present and planned satellite programmes

of the operational meteorological system in GEO
Acronym Full name Responsible Nominal position(s)

GOES Geostationary Operational Environmental NOAA 75°W and 135°W
Satellite
Meteosat Meteorological Satellite EUMETSAT 0°
Electro/GOMS Electro/Geostationary Operational RosHydroMet 76°E, 14.5°W and

Meteorological Satellite 166°E
INSAT and Indian National Satellite and Kalpana ISRO 74°E and 93.5°E
Kalpana
FY‑2 and FY‑4 Feng‑Yun‑2 and follow-on Feng‑Yun‑4 CMA 86.5°E and 105°E
COMS and Communication, Oceanography and KMA 128.2°E or 116.2°E

GEO‑KOMPSAT Meteorology Satellite and follow-on
Geostationary Korea Multi-purpose Satellite
Himawari/ Himawari, including Multifunctional Transport Japan 140°E

MTSAT Satellite Meteorological
Agency
Note :
CMA = China Meteorological Administration
EUMETSAT = European Organization for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites
ISRO = Indian Space Research Organization
KMA = Korea Meteorological Administration
4.1.2 Satellite constellation in Sun-synchronous orbits
The Sun-synchronous orbit provides global coverage necessary for applications such as
global numerical weather prediction (NWP), polar meteorology, and climatology. For these
applications, very frequent sampling is less critical than global coverage and high accuracy. The
primary contributions from Sun-synchronous orbits are:
(a) Profile of temperature and humidity as primary input to NWP;
(b) Cloud observations at high latitudes complementing GEO;
(c) Precipitation observations by MW radiometry;
(d) Surface variables (sea and land surface temperatures, vegetation and soil-moisture
indexes);
(e) Ice cover, snow, hydrological variables;
(f) Surface radiative parameters (irradiance, albedo, photosynthetically active radiation,

fraction of absorbed photosynthetically active radiation);
(g) Ozone and other trace gases for environment and climate monitoring.
Additional advantages of Sun-synchronous and other low Earth orbits are the capability to
perform active sensing in the MW (radar) and optical (lidar) ranges and limb measurements of
the higher atmosphere. Global coverage at roughly four-hour intervals can be achieved by three
Sun-synchronous satellites in coordinated orbital planes crossing the equator at, for instance,
05:30, 09:30 and 13:30 local solar time, provided that the instrument swath is sufficiently wide
and the measurement can be performed by both day and night (see Figure 4.2). Table 4.2
lists the operational programmes contributing now or in the future to the constellation of
meteorological Sun-synchronous satellites as of 2012.
VIS/IR imagery with IR/MW sounding with Microwave radiometer with

cross-track scanning cross-track scanning conical scanning
– swath 2 900 km – swath 2 200 km – swath 1 700 km
Figure 4.2. Coverage from three Sun-synchronous satellites of height 833 km and equatorial
crossing time (ECT) regularly spaced at 05:30 d, 09:30 d and 13:30 a. For the purpose of this
schematic diagram, all satellites are assumed to cross the equator at 1200 universal
coordinated time (UTC). The figure refers to a time window of 3 h and 23 min (to capture two
full orbits of each satellite) centred on 1200 UTC. Three typical swaths are considered. Nearly
three-hour global coverage is provided for the VIS/IR imagery mission, whereas for the IR/
MW sounding mission coverage is nearly complete at latitudes above 30 degrees. For
microwave conical scanners, global coverage in three hours would require eight satellites.
Table 4.2. Present and planned satellite programmes

of the operational meteorological system in LEO
Acronym Full name Responsible Height Nominal ECT

NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric NOAA 833 km 13:30 a
Administration
Suomi-NPP Suomi National Polar-orbiting Partnership NOAA 833 km 13:30 a
JPSS Joint Polar Satellite System NOAA 833 km 13:30 a
DMSP Defense Meteorological Satellite Program DoD 833 km 05:30 d
Metop Meteorological Operational Satellite EUMETSAT 817 km 09:30 d
Metop‑SG Meteorological Operational Satellite – EUMETSAT 817 km 09:30 d

Second Generation
FY‑3 Feng‑Yun‑3 CMA 836 km 10:00 d and

14:00 a
Meteor‑M Meteor, series “M” RosHydroMet 830 km 09:30 d and

15:30 a
Meteor‑MP Meteor, series “MP” RosHydroMet 830 km 09:30 d and

15:30 a
4.2 SPECIALIZED ATMOSPHERIC MISSIONS
4.2.1 Precipitation
Precipitation is a basic meteorological variable, but its measurement requires the exploitation of
the microwave spectral range at a resolution consistent with the scale of the phenomenon and at
relatively low frequencies; this implies large instruments. Moreover, the relation between passive
MW sensing and precipitation is not explicit. Only total-column precipitation is measured, and
only in a few channels. The retrieval problem is strongly ill-conditioned and requires modelling
of the vertical cloud structure, which can only be observed by radar. TRMM (launched in 1997),
that carries associated passive and active MW sensors, has enabled algorithms to be developed
that allow much better use of passive measurements.
TRMM has enabled the concept of the GPM mission to be developed that is being implemented
in an international context. Its objective is to provide global coverage of precipitation
measurements at three-hour intervals. Since the baseline instrument is an MW conical scanning
radiometer with limited swath, the three-hour frequency requires eight satellites in regularly
distributed near-polar orbits (Figure 4.3). In addition to those “constellation satellites”, a “Core
Observatory” in inclined orbit equipped with precipitation radar enables all other measurements
from passive MW radiometers to be “calibrated” when constellation and core-satellite orbits
cross one another. Beyond the missions specifically tailored for precipitation observation, any
operational mission equipped with MW radiometers can contribute to the composite system.
4.2.2 Radio occultation
Radio occultation of GNSS satellites is a powerful technique for providing temperature and
humidity profiles with a vertical resolution that is unachievable by nadir-viewing instruments.
However, the implementation of operational systems is proceeding slowly. One difficulty is
that the payload, although of low mass, power and data rate (see, for instance, the description
of GRAS in the present volume, Chapter 3, 3.2.7, Table 3.23), places volumetric constraints
on the platform (two large antennas, say 0.5 m2 each, requiring unobstructed view fore
and aft). Another difficulty is that the technique requires a significant number of satellites in
different orbits.
Figure 4.3. Concept of the Global Precipitation Measurement mission

The radio occultation concept was demonstrated in space in 1995 by the Global Positioning
System/Meteorology (GPS/MET) on MicroLab‑1. Since then, establishing a constellation of
radio occultation receivers has been advocated, initially for climatological purposes to provide
“absolute” measurements that can be compared at any time intervals to detect climate
trends, then also for NWP high vertical resolution soundings and for the absolute reference
measurements correcting the biases of other sounding systems.
Radio occultation is an infrequent event. By exploiting one GNSS constellation and tracking
both rising and setting occultations, about 500 occultation events per day may be captured. In
addition to the long-standing GPS and GLONASS, a third constellation, Compass (named Beidou
in Chinese), is now operated by China, and a fourth constellation, Galileo, is being implemented
by the European Commission (EC) and the European Space Agency (ESA). The number of
occultations per day per satellite rises to 1 000 by exploiting two constellations and 1 500 with
three constellations if received in both fore and aft views. It has been estimated that, in order to
provide global coverage with an average sampling of 300 km every 12 h, it is necessary to deploy
at least 12 satellites on properly distributed orbital planes. One very effective approach is to
use clusters of small dedicated satellites placed in orbit by a single launch. COSMIC includes six
micro-satellites launched at once and thereafter separated into regularly-spaced orbits. Several
meteorological satellites are also carrying individual GNSS radio-occultation receivers.
4.2.3 Atmospheric radiation
A limitation of NWP and general circulation models is the representation of the radiative
processes in the atmosphere. Aerosols, cloud interior (particularly ice), radiation fluxes within
the 3D atmosphere in addition to TOA and the Earth surface, are their main factors. Some of
these variables require large observing instruments (lidar, cloud radar, etc.) that are not feasible
for multi-purpose operational meteorological satellites, thus the observation of atmospheric
radiation relies on a suite of instruments flown either in operational programmes or on dedicated
missions.
Atmospheric radiation was the first observation performed from space in October 1959 on
Explorer VII. At the time of the first TIROS flights the Earth’s planetary albedo was poorly known.
Instruments exploiting multi-viewing, multi-polarization and multi-spectral sensing have been
developed, the first one being the Polarization and Directionality of the Earth’s Reflectances
(POLDER) on the Advanced Earth Observing Satellite – 1 (ADEOS‑1; 1996–1997).
Observing atmospheric radiation requires contributing factors to be observed in parallel. Since

the radiation budget is a small difference between large quantities, errors of spatial and time
co-registration have a high impact on accuracy. Since it is impossible to embark all instruments
on a single platform, the concept of formation flying has been implemented, such as the A‑Train
(Figure 4.4). In this concept, several satellites are flying on nearly the same Sun-synchronous
orbit, at 705 km altitude, ECT ~13:30 ascending node, following each other along the same
ground track within a few seconds.
4.2.4 Atmospheric chemistry
Atmospheric chemistry has grown in importance over time. Attention was focused initially on
ozone monitoring, especially after the discovery of the ozone hole; then on the greenhouse effect
as a driver of global warming; and finally on air quality, for its impact on living conditions in the
biosphere. Depending on the objective, the instrumentation may be quite simple (such as for
total column of one or few species) or very complicated (such as for vertical profiles of families of
species).
The A-Train
Aqua
CloudSat
CALIPSO
Glory PARASOL
Aura OCO
Figure 4.4. The spread of equatorial crossing times across the satellites addressing
atmospheric radiation (Glory, PARASOL, CALIPSO, CloudSat and EOS‑Aqua) is about two
minutes. Note that there may be some changes in the satellites participating in the A‑Train;
for instance PARASOL was removed after five years, EOS‑Aura has been added, Glory failed at
launch, the Orbiting Carbon Observatory (OCO), lost at launch, will be replaced by OCO‑2,
and the Global Change Observation Mission for Water - 1 (GCOM‑W1) has been added.
It is noted that:
(a) On meteorological satellites, IR hyperspectral sounders primarily designed for temperature

and humidity sounding do contribute to atmospheric chemistry observation, but their
performance for chemistry is limited to total columns of a few greenhouse species. The SW
instruments are primarily designed for ozone and a few species in the UV and VIS ranges;
(b) Some atmospheric-chemistry missions are hosted on large multi-purpose facilities, or on

dedicated atmospheric-chemistry satellites.
The first comprehensive mission for atmospheric chemistry, the UARS, was exploiting limb
sounding. When launched in 1991 it was by far the largest Earth observation satellite ever in orbit
(mass at launch: 6 540 kg). Table 4.3 provides a list of satellites either substantially addressing, or
fully dedicated to, atmospheric chemistry.
The lack of limb sounding on future satellites jeopardizes the observation of the higher
atmosphere.
4.2.5 Atmospheric dynamics
The study of atmospheric dynamics involves missions measuring the 3D wind field, a difficult
issue since the wind per se does not have a signature in the electromagnetic spectrum.
Nevertheless, considerable effort has been devoted and continues to be devoted to the subject,
since wind is a primary observation for NWP and general circulation models.
Deriving wind characteristics from the motion of clouds or other atmospheric patterns has been
an early application of geostationary satellites. Still today, it is the operational practice providing
thousands of wind vectors every day. Tracking clouds or water vapour patterns, however,
determines the wind at one level only. The level depends on the tracer and is measured with
limited accuracy. For large areas, all tracers tend to be in the same altitude range, thus limiting
the vertical resolution in practice to one or two levels. With the future advent of hyperspectral
sounders in GEO, frequent water vapour profiles, with their patterns, will be available at
Table 4.3. Satellite programmes with strong or exclusive focus on atmospheric chemistry
Acronym Full name Responsible Measurements

Envisat Environmental Satellite ESA IR limb, SW nadir and limb,
UV/VIS star occultation
EOS‑Aura Earth Observation System – Aura NASA IR limb, IR nadir and limb,
UV/VIS nadir, MW limb
GOSAT Greenhouse Gas Observing JAXA NIR/SWIR/MWIR/TIR nadir

Satellite
Odin Odin SNSB UV/VIS/NIR limb, MW limb
OCO‑2 Orbiting Carbon Observatory NASA NIR/SWIR nadir
SCISAT Scientific Satellite CSA UV/VIS/NIR and SWIR/MWIR/TIR Sun

occultation
Sentinel‑4 Sentinel‑4 on Meteosat Third ESA, UV/VIS/NIR nadir

Generation EUMETSAT, EC
Sentinel‑5P Sentinel‑5 precursor ESA, EC UV/VIS/NIR/SWIR nadir
Sentinel‑5 Sentinel‑5 on Metop Second ESA, SW nadir

Generation EUMETSAT, EC
Note:
CSA = Canadian Space Agency
JAXA = Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency
MWIR = medium-wave infrared
NASA = National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NIR = near infrared
SNSB = Swedish National Space Board
SWIR = short-wave infrared
TIR = thermal infrared
additional heights, and a broad vertical resolution will be achieved in clear air. Atmospheric
motion winds are also derived over polar areas from polar-orbiting satellites, taking advantage of
the frequent overpasses.
Experiments have been conducted to demonstrate the tracking of atmospheric eddies, aerosol
and molecules by Doppler lidar, capable of very high vertical resolution in clear air. This is the
scope of the ADM – ALADIN.
Winds are also of interest in the stratosphere and mesosphere, where clouds and water vapour
have no characteristic pattern, and there are no turbulence eddies or dense aerosols either. The
technique applicable here is measurement of the Doppler shift of narrow lines in the oxygen
band around 760 nm. Demonstrated by UARS, the technique is exploited by the Thermosphere,
Ionosphere, Mesosphere Energetics and Dynamics mission (TIMED) with TIDI (TIMED Doppler
Interferometer).
4.3 MISSIONS ON OCEAN AND SEA ICE
Certain observations of ocean and sea ice have been provided by meteorological satellites since
the very beginning of the space era. VIS imagery, the very first application of meteorological
satellites, is capable of sea-ice mapping. IR imagery added the capability to measure sea-
surface temperature. MW imagery extended the observing capability to measure sea-surface
temperature and ice cover to all-weather conditions, and added the capability to sea-surface
wind speed. Radar scatterometry started in 1978. These observations of sea-surface temperature,
sea-surface wind, and ice cover are still provided by operational meteorological satellites. Further
measurements, including altimetry, ocean colour, salinity, and waves, are performed in the
framework of non-meteorological programmes, sometimes dedicated to ocean and sea ice.
Table 4.4 lists satellite programmes addressing ocean and sea ice.
Table 4.4. Satellite programmes addressing missions on ocean and sea ice
Acronym Full name Responsible Oceanographic missions

COMS Communication, Oceanography KMA Ocean colour from GEO
and Meteorology Satellite
Coriolis Coriolis DoD, NASA Surface wind by MW polarimetry
CryoSat Cryosphere Satellite ESA Radar altimetry for ice
Envisat Environmental Satellite ESA Ocean colour

Radar altimetry
EOS‑Aqua Earth Observation System – Aqua NASA Multi-purpose MW imagery

(large antenna)
Ocean colour
EOS‑Terra Earth Observation System – Terra NASA Ocean colour
FY‑3 Feng‑Yun-3 CMA Ocean colour

Surface wind by C- and Ku-band
scatterometer
GCOM‑C Global Change Observation JAXA Ocean colour

Mission for Climate
GCOM‑W Global Change Observation JAXA Multi-purpose MW imagery

Mission for Water (large antenna)
GEO‑KOMPSAT Geostationary Korea Multi- KMA Ocean colour from GEO

purpose Satellite
HY‑1 Hai Yang-1 NSOAS, CAST Ocean colour
HY‑2 Hai Yang-2 NSOAS, CAST Radar altimetry

Surface wind by Ku-band
scatterometer
ICESat Ice, Cloud and Land Elevation NASA Lidar altimetry for ice
Satellite
JASON Joint Altimetry Satellite NASA, CNES, Radar altimetry, geoid

Oceanography Network EUMETSAT,
NOAA
JPSS Joint Polar Satellite System NOAA Ocean colour
Meteor M/MP Meteor‑M and Meteor‑MP, flight RosHydroMet Ocean colour

N3 units N3 Surface wind by Ku-band
scatterometer
Metop and Meteorological Operational EUMETSAT Surface wind by C-band

Metop‑SG satellite and follow-on Metop scatterometer
Second Generation
OceanSat Satellite for the Ocean ISRO Ocean colour

Surface wind by Ku-band
scatterometer
SAC‑D/Aquarius Satélite de aplicaciones NASA, CONAE Ocean salinity (real-aperture

científicas – D antenna)
SARAL Satellite with Argos and Altika CNES, ISRO Radar altimetry
Acronym Full name Responsible Oceanographic missions

Sentinel‑3 Sentinel‑3 ESA, EC, Ocean colour
EUMETSAT Radar altimetry
SMOS Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity ESA Ocean salinity (synthetic
aperture antenna)
Suomi‑NPP Suomi National Polar-orbiting NASA, NOAA, Ocean colour

Partnership DoD
Note:
CAST = China Academy of Space Technology
CMA = China Meteorological Administration
CNES = National Centre for Space Studies (France)
CONAE = Argentina National Space Activity Commission
DoD = Department of Defense (United States)
NSOAS = National Satellite Ocean Application Service (China)
4.3.1 Ocean topography
Ocean surface topography is a primary mission for oceanography, since it provides insight into
the large-scale ocean circulation that is a major oceanographic feature and a basic component of
the climate system. Reconstruction of ocean topography also implies accurate determination of
the geoid, an insight into the solid Earth domain.
Radar altimetry is the only observing technique for ocean topography. Altimeters are carried by
different satellites, some multi-purpose platforms to provide global coverage, and some (since
the Topography Experiment – Poseidon in 1992–2006) dedicated satellites in specially stable
orbits to provide accurate reference measurements. Some altimeters are specifically designed
for polar-ice topography, in one case exploiting lidar for more accurate boundary detection and
vertical resolution (see Table 4.4).
4.3.2 Ocean colour
Ocean colour is a very informative observation to infer the state of health of the ocean, its
productivity and its capacity to interact with the atmosphere, as a CO2 sink, for example.
Therefore, it is a basic observation for operations in open ocean and in coastal zones, and for
climatology.
Several satellites address ocean colour observation. Some of them belong to the operational
meteorology framework; one is in GEO (see Table 4.4).
4.3.3 Sea-surface wind
Wind over the sea surface is a basic measurement for oceanography since it drives atmospheric
forcing, hence surface currents, and the intensity of air–sea interaction. Of course, it is also an
important geophysical variable for weather prediction, enabling derivation of surface pressure
that cannot be directly measured from space. Therefore, several wind-observing instruments are
part of the operational meteorological mission. Table 4.4 records the missions addressing sea-
surface winds that are able to provide both speed and direction (radar scatterometer either in the
C band operated in the pushbroom manner, which involves scanning a swath straight down, or
in the Ku band with conical scanning; and polarimetric MW passive radiometers). Other passive
MW radiometers, that can contribute to wind-speed observation, are mentioned only for multi-
purpose MW imagers with large antennas.
4.3.4 Sea-surface salinity
Salinity is a basic measurement for oceanography since, with temperature, it controls water
density, hence the vertical motion in the thermo-haline layer. Furthermore, it controls the ocean’s
ability to remove trace gases from the atmosphere. Measuring salinity from space is possible
only by low-frequency MW radiometry (L band around 1.4 GHz), which requires large antennas.
Missions addressing sea-surface salinity are based either on a synthetic-aperture antenna, or on a
real-aperture antenna (see Table 4.4).
4.3.5 Waves
The observation of waves is important for ocean operations, in the open ocean and even more
so in coastal zones. It is also important for coastal-zone climatology. Unfortunately, waves are
difficult to observe from space, since the direct measurement from the radar altimeter provides
only the significant wave height, and only along the satellite track. The altimeter missions are
listed in Table 4.4.
The 2D wave field can be observed by spectral analysis of SAR imagery. In principle, any vignette
from a SAR image could be processed to provide the dominant wave direction and period, as
well as the directional energy frequency spectrum. In practice, the vignettes are sampled at
intervals during the whole orbit, and stored on board since the associated data rate is rather low.
The Envisat ASAR performs this function in wave mode.
4.4 LAND-OBSERVATION MISSIONS
All imagery missions of the operational meteorological satellites provide information on several
geophysical variables characterizing land surface. Specifically:
(a) VIS/IR imaging instruments: land surface temperature, soil moisture indexes, several
vegetation indexes, several fire parameters, radiative parameters, ice and snow cover;
(b) MW imaging instruments: all-weather land surface temperature, surface-soil moisture,

several ice and snow parameters;
(c) Radar scatterometers: surface-soil moisture, total biomass, snow water equivalent.
However, the design of the instruments flown on operational meteorological satellites is driven
by the main objective of describing the surface–atmosphere interface processes, as necessary
(and sufficient) for weather analysis and prediction and by the need for the observed spatial-
temporal scales to be consistent with climate monitoring requirements. This section focuses
on satellite programmes addressing land applications as primary objectives, for geophysical
variables such as land cover and use, fraction of vegetated land, vegetation type, lake and glacier
cover, topography, small-scale soil moisture and snow parameters for hydrology.
These applications require spatial resolutions at the scale of metres or a few tens of metres,
which imply using optical bands (especially VIS) or imaging radar (SAR). Another application of
very high-resolution optical imagery or SAR is security, including disaster monitoring, control of
compliance with internationally agreed protocols for environmental protection, etc.
4.4.1 Main operational or near-operational missions
Land observation has been the second space application, after meteorology, to give rise to
operational programmes. The first land-observation satellite, initially named the Earth Resources
Technology Satellite, thereafter re-named Landsat‑1, was launched by NASA in July 1972. Since
Table 4.5. Land-observation satellite programmes designed for long-term continuity
Acronym Full name Responsible Programme objective/nature

Amazônia Amazônia INPE Vegetation monitoring
ASNARO Advanced Satellite with New System NEC, USEF Commercially-oriented

Architecture for Observation programme
CartoSat Satellite for Cartography ISRO Cartography update
CBERS China-Brazil Earth Resources Satellite CAST, INPE Earth resources search and
management
GeoEye GeoEye GeoEye Commercial programme
KANOPUS‑V KANOPUS Vulkan Roscosmos Vegetation monitoring
Landsat and Landsat and Landsat Data Continuity USGS, NASA Earth resources search and
LDCM Mission management
Resurs DK Resurs‑DK and Resurs‑P Roscosmos LEO, high-inclination

and P
Pléiades Pléiades CNES Land-use and hazard

management
ResourceSat Satellite for Earth Resources ISRO Earth resources search and
management
Sentinel‑2 Sentinel‑2 ESA, EC Vegetation monitoring
SPOT 4, 5 Satellite Pour l’Observation de la Terre CNES Earth resources search and
management
SPOT 6, 7 Satellite Pour l’Observation de la Terre SpotImage Commercially-oriented

programme
WorldView World View DigitalGlobe Commercial programme

Note:
INPE = National Institute for Space Research (Brazil)
NEC = Nippon Electric Company
USEF = Institute for Unmanned Space Experiment Free Flyer (Japan)
USGS = US Geological Survey
then, other space agencies have undertaken land-observation programmes, often in a fairly
operational way. Table 4.5 lists the programmes that have a demonstrated heritage of continuity
or are designed for long-term continuity.
4.4.2 The Disaster Monitoring Constellation
The Disaster Monitoring Constellation (DMC) initiative was originally promoted by the British
National Space Centre (BNSC). The principle of DMC (see Figure 4.5) was to have about five
satellites in the same orbit, separated by about 20 min, in such a way that the (narrow) swath
of the instruments of one satellite (~600 km) was contiguous with the next, thus ensuring
daily global coverage. The first DMC satellite was AlSat‑1, launched in November 2002. A
cluster of three satellites, UK‑DMC‑1, NigeriaSat‑1 and Bilten Satellite, was placed in orbit by a
single launch in September 2003. Over time, more partners joined the constellation, and the
instrumentation became more elaborate. Table 4.6 depicts the current situation, which includes
satellites not strictly part of the DMC, but close in objective, structure and instrumentation.
Table 4.6. Satellite programmes of the DMC and similar
Acronym Full name Agency/Country Instrument capability

AlSat Algeria Satellite CNTS, Algeria Multi-spectral and
panchromatic
BJ Beijing NRSCC, China Multi-spectral and

panchromatic
Deimos Deimos CDTI, Spain Multi-spectral
DubaiSat Dubai Satellite EIAST, United Multi-spectral and

Arab Emirates panchromatic
EnMAP Environmental Mapping and Analysis DLR, Germany Hyperspectral

Programme
FORMOSAT‑2 Formosa Satellite – 2 NSPO, Taiwan Multi-spectral and

Province of China panchromatic
HJ A, B Huan Jing A and B CAST, China Hyperspectral and

multispectral
Ingenio Ingenio (Spanish Earth Observation CDTI, Spain Multi-spectral and

(SEOSat) Satellite) panchromatic
KOMPSAT Korea Multi-purpose Satellite KARI, Republic of Multi-spectral and

Korea panchromatic
NigeriaSat Nigeria Satellite NASRDA, Nigeria Multi-spectral and

panchromatic
PRISMA Precursore Iperspettrale della Missione ASI, Italy Hyperspectral and

Applicativa panchromatic
RapidEye RapidEye (5 satellites) DLR, Germany Multi-spectral

(5 sats)
Rasat Earth observation satellite Tübitak-Uzay, Multi-spectral and

Turkey panchromatic
SSOT Sistema satelital para observación de la ACE, Chile Multi-spectral and

tierra panchromatic
SumbandilaSat Sumbandila Satellite SANSA, South Multi-spectral

Africa
THEOS Thailand Earth Observation System GISTDA, Thailand Multi-spectral and

panchromatic
TopSat TopSat BNSC, UK Multi-spectral and

panchromatic
UK‑DMC UK Disaster Monitoring Constellation BNSC, UK Multi-spectral
X‑Sat X Satellite NTU, Singapore Multi-spectral

Note:
ACE = Chilean Space Agency
ASI = Italian Space Agency
CDTI = Centre for the Development of Industrial Technology
CNTS = National Centre of Space Technology
DLR = German Aerospace Centre
EIAST = Emirates Institution for Advanced Science and Technology
GISTDA = Geo-informatics and Space Technology Development Agency
KARI = Korea Aerospace Research Institute
NASRDA = National Space Research and Development Agency
NRSCC = National Remote-sensing Centre of China
NSPO = National Space Organization
NTU = Nanyang Technological University
SANSA = South African National Space Agency
Figure 4.5. Concept of the DMC, based on five satellites dephased by about 20 min
4.4.3 All-weather high-resolution monitoring (by synthetic aperture radar)
All missions listed for land observation have a common limitation: observations are not available
in the presence of clouds. In most cases, night-time is also a limitation since most instruments
use only the VIS spectral range. In an emergency, when high resolution is needed, it is very
important to have an all-weather sensing capability, which can be provided only by SAR. Several
SAR missions are available, many of them being managed with a perspective for long-term
operational continuity.
The number of SARs in orbit is important, since SAR instruments have a narrow swath, whereas
their application to disaster monitoring requires frequent revisit times. In addition, the SAR
principle is applicable with a single frequency, whereas various features to be observed
have “signatures” at different frequencies. The SIR‑C/X‑SAR mission (Shuttle Imaging Radar
with Payload C/X‑SAR), flown twice on the US Space Shuttle in April and September 1994,
demonstrated the benefit of having simultaneous SAR imagery in the L, C and X bands (L and C
provided by NASA, X by DLR and ASI).
Table 4.7 lists all current and planned missions equipped with an SAR, grouped by frequency
band and responsible agency.
4.5 MISSIONS ON SOLID EARTH
Since the early days of space missions, satellites have been used to reconstruct the shape of the
geoid by means of various orbits of different heights, inclinations and eccentricity. The main
purpose was internal: to support mission analysis for orbiting satellites. As time passed and
technology has improved, the purpose has evolved towards the study of the Earth itself.
The satellite objectives for solid Earth are (see Figure 4.6 for definitions):
(a) To provide a very accurate determination of the geoid, which is the basis for several
associated applications, particularly conversion of altimeter measurements into sea level
and ocean topography. The most common technique uses radar altimetry from orbits of
relatively high altitude and high stability;
(b) To infer crustal dynamics by monitoring local site positions from satellites in well-known
and stable orbits; common techniques are laser ranging and ground-based GPS receivers;
Table 4.7. Current and planned SAR programmes
Acronym Full name Agency/Country Frequency band

ALOS Advanced Land Observing Satellite JAXA, Japan L band
SAOCOM‑1 Satélite argentino de observación con microondas CONAE, L band

– series 1 Argentina
SAOCOM‑2 Satélite argentino de observación con microondas CONAE, L band

– series 2 Argentina
HJ‑1C Huan Jing 1C CAST, China S band
Envisat Environmental Satellite ESA C band
RadarSat RadarSat CSA, Canada C band
RCM RadarSat Constellation Mission CSA, Canada C band
RISAT‑1 Radar Imaging Satellite – 1 ISRO, India C band
Sentinel‑1 Sentinel-1 ESA C band
CSG Constellation of Small Satellites for Mediterranean ASI, Italy X band

Basin Observation (COSMO) SkyMed Second
Generation
CSK COSMO-SkyMed ASI, Italy X band
KOMPSAT‑5 Korea Multi-purpose Satellite – 5 KARI, Republic of X band

Korea
Meteor M and Meteor‑M and Meteor‑MP RosHydroMet X band

MP
Paz (SEOSAR) Paz (Spanish Earth Observation SAR) CDTI, Spain X band
RISAT‑2 Radar Imaging Satellite – 2 ISRO, India X band
TerraSAR‑X TerraSAR‑X DLR, Germany X band
TanDEM‑X TanDEM‑X DLR, Germany X band
(c) To infer the dynamics of the outermost layers of the Earth (lithosphere, mantle, upper part
of the mesosphere); common techniques use measurements of the gravity field and its
anomalies by very low-orbiting satellites, and satellite-to-satellite tracking;
(d) To collect information on the inner parts of the globe (lower mesosphere, liquid core, solid
core) inferred through observation of the magnetosphere in satellite measurements of the
magnetic and electric fields.
This section considers two families of missions:
(a) Those referring to the geoid and crustal positioning and movements (space geodesy);
(b) Those referring to the lithosphere and inner layers (Earth interior).
Table 4.8 lists missions specific to solid Earth, for either geodesy or the interior.
4.5.1 Space geodesy
The primary technique for reconstructing the geoid (the equipotential surface which would
coincide exactly with the mean ocean equilibrium surface, if the oceans were at rest and
extended through the continents) is radar altimetry. Other information on the geoid stems from
the precise positioning systems on any satellite. Several of them are worthy of mention:
Lithosphere
Mantle
Mesosphere
Liquid core
Solid core
Figure 4.6. Stratification of the solid Earth
Table 4.8. Missions specific to solid Earth
Acronym Full name Responsible Sensing systems

STARLETTE Satellite de taille adaptée avec réflecteurs CNES Laser ranging
and Stella laser pour les études de la terre, and Stella
LAGEOS 1 Laser Geodynamics Satellite, 1 and 2 ASI, NASA Laser ranging

and 2
LARES Laser Relativity Satellite ASI Laser ranging
GOCE Gravity Field and Steady-state Ocean ESA Gradiometer, laser

Circulation Explorer ranging
GRACE Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment NASA, DLR, Accelerometer, laser
(2 sats) CNES ranging, satellite-to-
satellite ranging
CHAMP Challenging Mini-satellite Payload DLR Accelerometer, laser

ranging, magnetometer
Ørsted Ørsted DNSC, CNES, Magnetometers

NASA
SAC‑C Satélite de aplicaciones científicas – C CONAE Magnetometer
SWARM The Earth’s Magnetic Field and Environment ESA, CNES, CSA Accelerometer,
(3 sats) Explorers electric field sensor,
magnetometers
Note:
DNSC = Danish National Space Center
(a) Laser retro-reflectors, to accurately measure the distance and rate of change for the satellite
from the laser source on the ground;
(b) On-board transponder of signals from ground transmitting-receiving stations;
(c) Two-way and dual-frequency microwave tracking system for ground receiving stations;
(d) GNSS;
(e) Star trackers, utilized for satellite attitude control but also contributing to precise
orbitography.
The primary purpose of these systems is to support precise orbit determination as necessary for
certain instruments performing the satellite mission, the most sensitive of which are altimeters
and limb sounders. The benefit for the geodetic mission stems from the statistical analysis of the
data. In this section the focus is on the application with the opposite objective: to establish the
position of a ground station assuming that the orbit is well known. To this effect, an International
Terrestrial Reference System for space geodesy has been established to collect and analyse data
in a number of coordinated centres. The system includes a few satellites having space geodesy as
a unique objective. These are listed in Table 4.8.
4.5.2 Earth’s interior
The representation of the geoid is now fairly precise, despite its complexity. With the help of
mathematical models using spherical harmonics, the achieved accuracy is now in the range
of 1 cm or less. Figure 4.7 shows a current view of the geoid. It may be observed that, in this
representation, the Earth’s surface is not at all a regular ellipsoid, although the vertical range of
the geoid height is contained within 200 m. The regularity of the geoid is affected by undulations
of different wavelengths ranging from many thousands of kilometres to a few hundred. One
objective is to associate these anomalies with the Earth’s interior, first of all to the lithosphere
because of its relevance to volcanism and earthquakes.
Specific missions for studying the Earth’s interior exploit gravity and gravity-gradient
observations, representative of the external layers (lithosphere, mantle and upper mesosphere);
and magnetic and electric fields, significant for the internal layers (lower mesosphere, liquid core
and solid core) (see Figure 4.6). Table 4.8 lists missions on the Earth’s interior.
4.6 MISSIONS ON SPACE WEATHER
Although the term “space weather” is relatively recent, the relevant activities started with the
advent of the space era, if not before, because space weather has a strong impact on the safety
Earth’s gravity field anomalies (milligals)
–50 –40 –30 –20 –10 0 10 20 30 40 50
Figure 4.7. Three-dimensional visualization of geoid undulations.

(1 Gal = 0.01 m/s2 and 1 mGal ≈ 10 –6 g0)
of satellites in orbit and of man in space. Awareness and prediction of the space environment has
now become a prerequisite for the long-term sustainability of space activities. In addition, there
is increasing awareness of the impact of space weather on facilities on the Earth.
Space weather is characterized by electromagnetic bursts from the X to the radio bands, solar
energetic particle events, and perturbations in the solar wind density and speed, such as
interplanetary coronal mass ejections propagating plasma blobs. In particular, the solar wind
modulations compress and shape the magnetosphere, and this effect propagates lower down
to the thermosphere and ionosphere. Telecommunications and even power grids, pipelines and
other conducting networks on the Earth’s surface are affected (by geomagnetically induced
currents, for example). Rapid magnetic changes on the ground, that occur during geomagnetic
storms and are associated with space weather, can also be important for activities such as
geophysical mapping and hydrocarbon production. Correlations have been discovered between
travelling ionospheric disturbances and atmospheric gravity waves in the thermosphere.
Monitoring space weather implies two main aspects: monitoring the electromagnetic and
particle solar emission as well as the solar wind to characterize the modulation source (solar
activity), and monitoring the effects of this activity within the magnetosphere and down to the
Earth’s surface.
4.6.1 Solar activity monitoring
There have been space missions to understand solar physics since the early days of the space era,
either from deep space orbits or from Earth orbits.
Two “sentinels” of solar wind, the joint NASA/ESA SOHO mission and the NASA Advanced
Composition Explorer (ACE) mission, were launched in 1995 and 1998, respectively. SOHO and
ACE have been placed at the L1 Lagrangian point (at 1% of the Earth–Sun distance upstream
of the Earth). From that vantage point the two satellites measure solar wind and the associated
magnetic field approximately one hour before they reach the Earth. In 2006, in collaboration
with several European scientific institutes, NASA launched the Solar–Terrestrial Relations
Observatory, two satellites moving in the Earth’s orbit around the Sun, viewing the Sun from
changing positions to obtain a stereoscopic view of the dynamics of coronal mass ejection and, at
the same time, to measure the local features, at the satellite position, of the solar wind.
Several missions in Earth orbit are also carrying instruments dedicated to continuous monitoring
of solar activity. Table 4.9 lists the satellites monitoring solar activity from positions in deep space
or in Earth orbit. In addition, some geostationary meteorological satellites (GOES or FY‑4 series)
contribute or will contribute to solar monitoring.
4.6.2 Magnetosphere and ionosphere monitoring
Closer to the Earth (see Figure 4.8(a) and (b)), the thermosphere and ionosphere are the
layers where space weather is more turbulent. The main driver of the ionization state of the
ionosphere is solar electromagnetic radiation (extreme ultraviolet and ultraviolet) which, in
turn, is modulated by solar activity. The ionosphere is affected by waves, storms and travelling
disturbances. Through interaction with magnetic storms, energetic particles and electrical
currents can occur, which affect radio propagation. Mapping electron density in the ionospheric
"E-region" enables ionospheric conductivity and currents to be inferred. When associated with
magnetic field data, this information enables the internal component of the magnetic field (due
to the solid Earth) to be discriminated from external components. Small-scale irregularities and
eddies of the ionosphere can cause scattering of radio waves (scintillation), which affects the
reliability of radio links crossing the ionosphere.
4.6.2.1 Observation of the magnetosphere
Missions dedicated to the magnetosphere have a long-standing heritage. Two significant

current examples are the Time History of Events and Macroscale Interactions during Substorms
(THEMIS) and the Magnetospheric Multiscale mission (MMS).
THEMIS is a NASA mission launched in 2007. It consists of a constellation of five small satellites
in highly eccentric orbits, crossing the magnetosphere at several altitudes (see Figure 4.9), with
periods ranging from 0.8 to 4 days.
(a)
Exosphere (b)
600 km
Ionosphere 300 F2
Thermosphere F
300 km F F1
200
Height (km) E E
E
85 km 100 D
Mesosphere
45 km
Stratosphere 0
12 km
Troposphere Night Day
300 600 900 1 200 1 500 10 4
10 5
10
6
Temperature (K) Electron density (cm–3)
Figure 4.8. (a) Atmospheric stratification below and above the mesopause; (b) Layers of
denser electronic content. The densest layer is F2, present day and night.
Table 4.9. Missions specific to solar activity monitoring
Acronym Full name Responsible Orbit

ACE Advanced Composition Explorer NASA L1 Lagrange point
Aditya‑1 Aditya‑1 ISRO LEO, Sun-synchronous
DSCOVR Deep Space Climate Observatory NOAA, L1 Lagrange point

NASA
Hinode Hinode (former name: SOLAR‑B) JAXA LEO, Sun-synchronous
IRIS Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph NASA LEO, Sun-synchronous
Picard Picard CNES LEO, Sun-synchronous
PROBA 1 and 2 Project for On-board Autonomy 1 and 2 ESA LEO, Sun-synchronous
RHESSI Reuven Ramaty High Energy Solar NASA LEO, low-inclination

Spectroscopic Imager
SDO Solar Dynamics Observatory NASA Geosynchronous, low

inclination
SOHO Solar and Heliospheric Observatory ESA, NASA L1 Lagrange point
Solar Orbiter Solar Orbiter ESA, NASA Solar orbit


Solar Probe Solar Probe Plus NASA Solar orbit
Plus
STEREO Solar–Terrestrial Relations Observatory NASA Ecliptic plane

(2 sats)
TIMED Thermosphere, Ionosphere, Mesosphere NASA LEO, high-inclination

Energetics and Dynamics mission
WIND Comprehensive Solar Wind Laboratory for NASA L1 Lagrange point

Long-term Solar Wind Measurements
THEMIS measures the magnetic field, electric fields and charged particles in order to address the
physical processes in near-Earth space that initiate the violent eruptions of the aurora occurring
during substorms in the Earth's magnetosphere. The system also includes a number of ground
stations, to detect auroras and measure the surface magnetic field.
The MMS mission developed by NASA is based on a constellation of four satellites with highly
eccentric orbits spread across the magnetosphere, similarly to THEMIS (see Figure 4.10). Plasma
analysers, energetic particle detectors, magnetometers, and electric field instruments are used
to study the microphysics of magnetic reconnection, the ultimate driver of space weather.
Table 4.10 lists a number of missions specifically addressing the magnetosphere.
Section 4.5 describes a number of missions in lower orbit that also carry instruments relevant to
the magnetosphere:
(a) Ørsted: Fluxgate Vector Magnetometer and scalar Overhauser Magnetometer;
(b) SAC‑C: Magnetic Mapping Payload/Ørsted‑2 (MMC/Ørsted‑2);
(c) CHAMP: Magnetometer Instrument Assembly System;
(d) SWARM: Absolute Scalar Magnetometer, Vector Field Magnetometer and Electric Field
Instrument.
Figure 4.9. The orbits of the five THEMIS satellites in the magnetosphere. The white flash
represents the energy released by a magnetospheric substorm.
4.6.2.2 Observation of the ionosphere
With the advent of radio occultation sounding, the profile of the electron density across the
ionosphere has become the best measurable geophysical variable associated with space weather.
The signal from navigation satellites (GPS, GLONASS, Compass, Galileo) is affected by the
rotation of the electric field and the delay induced by the ionosphere. In order to correct for this
effect, at least two frequencies are used (now shifting to three): ~1 180 GHz, ~1 580 GHz and,
possibly, ~1 250 GHz. Differentiating the two (or three) signals yields information on:
(a) The total electron content;
(b) The electron density profile.
The total electron content, although integrated along-view, is measured for changing tangent
heights; it is therefore possible to reconstruct the vertical profile by tomography. Several radio
occultation payloads are being flown, on both multi-purpose satellites and dedicated facilities
(such as COSMIC).
Radar altimeters also provide total electron content observations by exploiting two frequencies,
generally ~13.5 GHz and ~5.3 GHz. The coverage is only at nadir and tomography is not possible;
however, since altimetry missions are often orbited at high altitude (1 336 km for JASON, for
example), the measurement includes the lower part of the plasmasphere (the layer above the
thermosphere, from ~1 000 to ~40 000 km altitude).
Total electron content can also be measured directly by phase-delay analysis of the two or three
frequencies transmitted by a GNSS satellite and received by a LEO satellite. In this case, total
electron content is observed along the path from the GNSS satellite (orbit altitude ~20 000 km)
to the LEO satellite (orbit altitude ~800 km), thus in the medium plasmasphere. The number of
available GNSS satellites is rather large: ~24 each for GPS and GLONASS systems, ~30 for Galileo,
~35 for Compass, with a total close to 110 and a fair global distribution.
Figure 4.10. The four MMS satellites flying in formation. Tetrahedral pattern is used to
capture the 3D structure of the encountered reconnection sites.
Table 4.10. Non-exhaustive list of missions orbiting inside the magnetosphere

Arctica‑M Arctica‑M RosHydroMet Molniya orbit
ARTEMIS Acceleration, Reconnection, NASA Lunar orbit

Turbulence, and
Electrodynamics of the Moon's
Interaction with the Sun
C/NOFS Communication/Navigation DoD, NASA LEO, low inclination

Outage Forecasting System
CASSIOPE Cascade SmallSat and CSA Highly elliptic, high inclination,

Ionospheric Polar Explorer relatively low altitude
Cluster Cluster ESA, NASA Highly elliptic, polar inclination,

(4 sats) tetrahedral formation flight
Geotail Geotail JAXA, NASA Extremely elliptic, low inclination,

crossing the moon orbit
IBEX Interstellar Boundary Explorer NASA Highly elliptic, low inclination
IMAGE (or Imager for Magnetopause-to- NASA High-eccentricity polar orbit

Explorer 78) Aurora Global Exploration
Ionozond Ionozond Roscosmos Four sats in Sun-synchronous orbit,

(5 sats) one in drifting orbit
MMS (4 sats) Magnetospheric Multiscale NASA Highly elliptic, low inclination,

mission tetrahedral formation flight
SAMPEX (or Solar Anomalous and NASA Polar orbit

Explorer 68) Magnetospheric Particle
Explorer
THEMIS Time History of Events and NASA Highly elliptic, low inclination, apogees
(5 sats) Macroscale Interactions at five different altitudes
during Substorms
TWINS Two Wide-angle Imaging NASA, United Molniya orbit

(2 sats) Neutral-atom Spectrometers States Air Force
VAP (2 sats) Van Allen Probe (formerly NASA Highly elliptic, low inclination, crossing
RBSP, Radiation Belt Storm the radiation belts
Probes mission)
4.6.2.3 Space environment observation from operational meteorological satellites
The constellations of operational meteorological satellites substantially contribute to space

weather monitoring. In many cases the focus is on the in situ detection of energetic particle
events, which are a threat to the on-board electronics and other subsystems sensitive to
corpuscular radiation. Magnetic and electric fields are also measured in many cases, as well
as solar activity. The orbits of meteorological satellites, however, do not meet all the needs of
space environment monitoring: for instance the 90 to 300 km height range cannot be covered
and Sun-synchronous orbits cannot capture the diurnal cycle, thus introducing a sampling bias.
Nonetheless, the long-term, continuous availability of a high number of meteorological satellites
constitutes a valuable contribution to space weather monitoring.
Table 4.11 presents the information available from operational meteorological satellite series
related to space weather. Radio occultation payloads (see section 4.2.2) are omitted.
Table 4.11. Operational meteorological missions carrying

instruments relevant to space weather
Satellite series Payload for in situ space environment monitoring

GOES 11 to 15 Space Environment Monitor (SEM): suite of instruments for charged particles, solar
X-ray and magnetic field
Solar X-ray Imager (SXI)
GOES R, S, T, U Space Environment In Situ Suite (SEISS) for charged particles in solar wind and cosmic rays
Extreme Ultraviolet Sensor/X-Ray Sensor Irradiance Sensors (EXIS)
Solar Ultraviolet Imager (SUVI)
Magnetometer (MAG)
Electro‑L GGAK‑E: Heliogeophysical Instrument Complex for charged particles of solar wind and
Electro‑M cosmic rays
FY‑2 SEM for charged particles of solar wind
FY‑4 SEM for charged particles of solar wind

Solar X‑EUV (SXEUV): imaging telescope for incoming X-rays and extreme UV from the
Sun
NOAA 15 to 19 SEM/2 for medium-energy and total-energy proton detection

Metop A, B
JPSS SEM for National Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System (SEM‑N):
including a spectrometer for precipitating electrons and ions, a spectrometer for
medium-energy particles, and omni-directional detectors for high-energy particles
DMSP F16 to Special Sensor Ion and Electron Scintillation Monitor (SSIES)
S20 Special Sensor Precipitating Electron and Ion Spectrometer (SSJ5)
Special Sensor Magnetometer (SSM)
Special Sensor Ultraviolet Limb Imager (SSULI)
Special Sensor Ultraviolet Spectrographic Imager (SSUSI)
Meteor‑M Geophysical Monitoring System Complex (GGAK‑M), including:

Spectrometer for Geoactive Measurements (MSGI‑MKA)
Radiation Monitoring System (KGI‑4C)
Meteor‑MP Geophysical Monitoring System Complex, improved after GGAK‑M (GGAK‑MP)
FY‑3 A, B SEM for charged particles of the solar wind
FY‑3 C to G Space Environment Suite (SES), including:

SEM, same as on FY‑3A and FY‑3B
Wide-Field Auroral Imager (WAI)
Ionospheric Photometer (IPM)
CHAPTER 5. SPACE-BASED OBSERVATION OF GEOPHYSICAL VARIABLES
5.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter offers an overview of the geophysical variables that can be observed from space and
of the performance that can be expected for their derivation. The performance is estimated by
taking into account the physical principle involved in each measurement technique and the state-
of-the-art instrument technology at the time of writing this document and in the foreseeable
future.
Assumptions are made to provide the most representative estimation in each case. The figures do
not necessarily represent the actual performance of a particular instrument, but are intended to
illustrate the relative performances of the various remote-sensing techniques.
5.1.1 Processing levels
For the purpose of the present Guide, the discussion is limited to geophysical variables that can
be retrieved by processing the output from a single instrument or a set of closely associated
instruments. Product derivation may involve complex algorithms, physical or statistical models,
and supporting information from external sources, either ancillary (necessary for processing)
or auxiliary (to help processing). The present chapter focuses on products that can be derived
with a limited amount of external information, where this external information only plays a
minor role compared with that of the satellite instrument output, and no significant bias can
be introduced by a model. For instance, modelling of the physical phenomenon controlling
the variable, radiative transfer models, and inversion retrieval models, are within the scope of
this chapter. Beyond the scope of this chapter, for example, are assimilations that merge several
measurements and background fields, that combine the physics of the phenomenon and the
dynamics of the model to the point where the satellite contribution to the output product is
barely recognizable, and that can be biased to the model being used.
This chapter will focus on Level 2 products, and some Level 3 and Level 4 products for which
there is a well-established and recognized methodology (see the processing levels defined in the
present volume, Chapter 2, 2.3.2.6, Table 2.11).
5.1.2 Product quality
For satellite imagery used directly for human interpretation, several quality criteria can be
considered; these include spatial resolution, geo-location accuracy, calibration stability across
consecutive images, and colour constancy in representing a given property within the observed
scene in the case of RGB composite imagery. These components of the image product quality are
not discussed further here.
In this chapter, the aim is to address the quality of quantitative products with numbers that can
be used in automatic procedures and numerical models. This evaluation can then be compared
with the requirements for the same products.
Product quality is specified here by:
(a) Atmospheric volume (for vertical profiles);
(b) Horizontal resolution (Δx);
(c) Vertical resolution (Δz) (for vertical profiles);
(d) Observing cycle (Δt);

(e) Accuracy (root mean square (RMS) error);
(f) Timeliness (δ).
5.1.2.1 Atmospheric volumes (relevant to 3D observations)
User requirements may differ according to the layer of the atmosphere being considered. The
figure below shows the definitions of the atmospheric volumes used in the WMO observation
requirements database.
While users’ requirements may change in a stepwise mode when moving along the vertical, the
quality of satellite-derived products changes with height in a smooth way, depending mainly
on the vertical gradient of the quantity, with better performance being achieved at steeper
gradients. A step change occurs when the required vertical resolution cannot be achieved
by cross-nadir scanning instruments and limb scanning becomes necessary. For the sake of
simplicity, different product performances are taken into account for the troposphere, the
stratosphere, and the total atmospheric column (where applicable). It is understood that quality
will softly degrade with increasing altitude in the troposphere, and the same in the stratosphere.
Product quality is only quoted above the height of 1 km; below 1 km the accuracy is too irregular
and difficult to estimate.
5.1.2.2 Horizontal resolution
The horizontal resolution (Δx) is the convolution of several features (sampling distance, degree
of independence of the information relative to nearby samples, the point spread function, etc.).
For simplicity, it is generally agreed to refer to the sampling distance between two successive
product values carrying independent information.
80 km 0.01 hPa
Mesosphere 64 km 0.1 hPa Mesosphere (M)
48 km 1 hPa
Higher stratosphere (HS)

32 km 10 hPa
Stratosphere
22 km 50 hPa Total column

Lower stratosphere (LS)
11 km 250 hPa
8 km 350 hPa Higher troposphere (HT)

Troposphere
5.5 km 500 hPa
Lower troposphere (LT)
0 km 1 000 hPa
Atmospheric volumes defined by users. The higher stratosphere and mesosphere (HS&M) go
together. The heights and pressures are qualitative, and refer to mid-latitudes/yearly
average. The planetary boundary layer is part of the lower troposphere.
CHAPTER 5. SPACE-BASED OBSERVATION OF GEOPHYSICAL VARIABLES 119
The horizontal resolution of the geophysical variable being measured is controlled by instrument
features (primarily the IFOV), the sampling distance, or pixel, and the modulation transfer
function) and by the processing scheme that may be designed to take account of interfering
effects (such as clouds in the IFOV). For example, if clouds prevent the measurement being
useful, it may be convenient to process pixel arrays searching or extrapolating for the less
contaminated measurement in the cell of size Δx. The number of pixels to be co-processed
depends on the spectral range used to perform the measurement (down to one for all-weather
microwaves, for example) and on the available spectral information (when more spectral
channels are available, a smaller cluster of pixels is needed). The extreme case is when a large
pixel array (32 x 32, for instance) is needed to characterize the geophysical variable (an example
is the inference of atmospheric motion vectors from the displacement of highly correlated cloudy
pixel arrays within two images at different times).
For parameters such as cloud cover or snow cover, a sufficient number of samples (pixels) in
the Δx · Δx cell is necessary to achieve the required accuracy. For cloud-disturbed surface
measurements of slowly-changing variables (such as snow) it may be necessary to apply a multi-
temporal analysis that waits for the clouds to move away (this would be a Level 3 product). It
is generally possible, within limits, to trade off horizontal resolution against accuracy during
product generation. Often, the product horizontal resolution is larger than a single pixel in order
to enhance the SNR to meet the product accuracy requirements.
For cross-nadir scanning instruments, the instrument IFOV or pixel size gets larger from the
sub-satellite point towards the swath edge; the product horizontal resolution performance must
therefore be averaged across the instrument swath.
For conical scanners, the along-scan resolution is constant, but the cross-scan resolution is
degraded by the cosine of the azimuth angle (the IFOV is nearly elliptical). The quadratic average
in the along- and across-scan directions must be considered, and account has to be taken of
the IFOV elongation in the along-scan direction due to the line-of-scan motion during the
measurement integration time. If a single antenna is used for several frequencies, the resolution
will change with frequency due to diffraction.
For limb sounding, the horizontal resolution is determined by the viewing geometry. The
atmospheric path may physically extend for a few thousand kilometres, but the effective path
(which accounts for higher atmospheric density around the tangent height) is around 300 km
along-view. Across the viewing direction, although the transversal IFOV may be much narrower
(tens of kilometres), the product resolution is determined by the number of azimuth views (in
most cases only one, fore or aft). For the sake of simplicity, the typical horizontal resolution of
limb measurements is taken as 300 km.
5.1.2.3 Vertical resolution
The vertical resolution (Δz) is also defined by referring to the vertical sampling distance between
two successive product values, carrying independent information.
The vertical resolution of the product depends on the sensing principle, the instrument spectral
range and the number of channels or spectral resolution. The weighting function may be more
or less broadened in the vertical depending on the spectral resolution and range (worse in
MW, better in the optical ranges). Moreover, the spectral channels may be narrow enough to
observe single lines of the absorbing/emitting gas, or a few lines or line bands. If several lines are
included in the channel, the weighting function will be broadened since it will average surface
emission between the lines (peaking in the lower atmosphere) and atmospheric emission in
the lines (peaking at higher altitudes). In general, resolving power λ/Δλ ≈ 100 enables broad-
resolution retrieval of temperature vertical profiles with roughly 2 km vertical resolution; λ/
Δλ ≈ 1 000 enables higher vertical resolution retrieval of temperature at about 1 km along with
total-column retrieval of trace gases; λ/Δλ ≈10 000 is needed for trace-gas profiles. The gas
density has a bearing on the achievable vertical resolution, so that with increasing altitude the
vertical measurement resolution degrades, becoming unacceptable in the medium and high
stratosphere.
It should be noted that the weighting function shifts to higher altitudes as the instrument
viewing angle shifts from nadir to swath edge. This is due to the longer path length through
the atmosphere with increasing view angle. The transmittance is an exponential function of
the number of absorbing molecules in the path of the escaping radiation; a more oblique angle
entails a greater likelihood of encountering more molecules in the upper atmosphere and hence
the weighting function moves up in altitude.
The vertical resolution depends on the sensitivity of the wavelength to temperature. IR sensitivity
to temperature is higher in the MWIR range (about 3–6 µm), thus the weighting functions are
narrower in the lower troposphere and very broad in the higher troposphere and stratosphere.
Short waves are less sensitive to temperature, so the vertical resolution is relatively homogeneous
with altitude. MW is relatively more sensitive to cold temperature and the vertical resolution is
relatively good in the stratosphere.
In the stratosphere and above, the vertical resolution achievable by cross-nadir scanning is poor.
Limb scanning offers better vertical resolution; it is performed by mechanical scanning along the
vertical (angular IFOV combined with the scan rate) and is in the range of 1 to 3 km (which is not
possible with cross-nadir scanning). The vertical resolution achieved by limb sounding degrades
with altitude, as the SNR degrades with decreasing gas concentration. Occultation instruments
(including radio occultation) have a vertical resolution that is determined by the sampling rate
during the occultation phase. During ground processing, an algorithm performs some vertical
integration as a trade-off against product accuracy.
5.1.2.4 Observing cycle
The observing cycle (Δt) is defined as the time required to achieve global coverage (for LEO) or
full disk coverage (for GEO). It is closely linked to the scanning capability of the instrument and
to the orbital features. The relationship between observing cycle and scanning mechanism has
been extensively discussed in the present volume, Chapter 3, 3.1.1. However, the instrument
observing cycle may not coincide with the product observing cycle since not all observations
taken during an instrument observing cycle may be useful for a given product. For example,
a clear-sky mapped product may exhibit too many gaps due to cloud-affected observations.
Thus the effective product observing cycle is a compromise between the minimum theoretical
observing cycle that will have many gaps, and multi-temporal analysis degrading the product
observing cycle but producing a more regular product field (generated by a Level 3 process).
The compromise takes into account the sensitivity of the spectral band to the disturbing factor
and the intrinsic time-variability of the desired geophysical parameter (which might not tolerate
delays entailed by multi-temporal analysis). In another example, multi-temporal analysis might
be necessary to collect enough signal when the required product accuracy cannot readily be
achieved.
For most meteorological variables the required observing cycle prevents multi-temporal analysis.
The solution is at system level, by establishing the number of satellites available to measure
the geophysical variable. A global observing cycle shorter than 12 h (for measurements in IR
and MW) or 24 h (for measurements involving SW) requires more satellites in regularly spaced
orbits. For a 3 h cycle, four satellites are needed, provided the instrument swath is as large as the
decalage (VIS/IR imagers, for example). For limited-swath instruments (such as MW radiometers
of the GPM mission) the 3 h cycle requires eight satellites.
The observing cycle may be shortened at the expense of global coverage by using low-
inclination orbits. The extreme limit is Δt < one orbital period for a quasi-equatorial orbit run
from east to west. Latitudes beyond the reach of the instrument swath will not be covered.
For satellites in GEO orbits, the observing cycle depends on the instrument refresh cycle. It may
be minutes if the observation is unaffected by clouds; otherwise multi-temporal analysis may be
needed. A constellation of six regularly-spaced GEO satellites provides coverage of all latitudes
below 55°, rising to 70° and above for longitudes close to that of the six GEO locations.
Instruments with only nadir-viewing (non-scanning) provide infrequent global coverage. Limb-
scanning instruments, including radio occultation, have a similar drawback (see the present
volume, Chapter 3, 3.1.1). For these instruments, the observing cycle is difficult to define.
5.1.2.5 Accuracy (RMS)
Accuracy is defined as the “closeness of the agreement between a measured quantity value and
a true quantity value of the measurand” (from the International Vocabulary of Metrology – Basic and
General Concepts and Associated Terms (VIM), Joint Committee for Guides in Metrology (JCGM)
200: 2012). The quantitative expression corresponding to the accuracy is the uncertainty (see
Volume I, Chapter 1, 1.6.2). It is the combined result of several instrument features: random
error, bias, sensitivity, precision, and the like. In the present volume (space-based observations),
the uncertainty is generally characterized by the root-mean-square (RMS) error range, namely
the RMS difference (observed – true values) of the measurement. The uncertainty of a satellite-
derived observation of a geophysical variable is driven by the physical principle linking the
satellite measurement to the observed variable, and in particular by the sensitivity of the
measurement to variations of this variable.
The radiometric resolution is thus a driving factor of the product uncertainty. It can be
characterized by the noise equivalent differential temperature, or the signal-to-noise ratio, or the
noise equivalent spectral radiance, as defined in the present volume, Chapter 3, 3.1.4. However,
the product uncertainty is also strongly affected by the retrieval algorithm and by the trade-off
with the other quality features (Δx, Δz and Δt). Furthermore, the nature of the target (intensity
of the emitted or scattered signal), the sensitivity of the sensing technique to the geophysical
variable, and the efficiency in filtering out disturbing factors (such as clouds) have a pronounced
impact on the final product uncertainty.
For a new instrument, evaluating the uncertainty requires sensitivity studies based on
complicated simulations.
In the present volume, product uncertainty is estimated from the heritage of past and current
instruments, and simulation of planned instruments. Some validation of satellite-derived product
accuracy (discussed in the present volume, Chapter 6) enters into estimates for past and current
instruments; for future instruments a theoretical calculation is performed.
5.1.2.6 Timeliness
Timeliness (δ) is defined as the time elapsed between the moment the observation is taken and
the availability of the product assuming routine operations. Timeliness depends on the satellite
transmission facilities, the availability of acquisition stations, the processing time required to
generate the product, and the overall data management.
In this Guide, the timeliness δ of the various products has not been evaluated because it is a
system feature that is not determined solely by the instrument.
5.1.3 Evaluation of satellite product quality
This chapter provides an overview of the satellite products that can potentially be retrieved from
current or planned instruments, for geophysical variables of the following eight themes:
(a) Basic atmospheric (3D and 2D) variables;
(b) Cloud and precipitation variables;
(c) Aerosols and radiation;
(d) Ocean and sea ice;

(e) Land surface (including snow);
(f) Solid Earth;
(g) Atmospheric chemistry;
(h) Space weather.
This list of observation products is limited to “elementary” geophysical variables; it does not
include products that can be derived from other products.
For each satellite product, the applicable remote sensing principles are indicated, together with
any observing conditions or limitations. The annex to the present chapter contains an evaluation
of the achievable quality in terms of RMS error,1 Δx, Δz and Δt, based on the characteristics
of state-of-the art instruments that are being developed at the time of writing this Guide, and
expected to be operational by 2020.
5.2 BASIC ATMOSPHERIC 3D AND 2D VARIABLES
Table 5.1 lists basic variables for weather prediction, including NWP, that are observable from
space.
Table 5.1. Geophysical variables considered under the theme

“Basic atmospheric (3D and 2D) variables”
Atmospheric Wind (horizontal) Height of the top of the Height of the

temperature planetary boundary layer tropopause
Specific humidity Wind vector over the Temperature of the tropopause

surface (horizontal)
Other basic variables such as atmospheric pressure, temperature and humidity at surface; and
wind vertical component are not included because they cannot be reliably measured from space
with current technology.
5.2.1 Atmospheric temperature
Definition: 3D field of the atmospheric temperature – Required from surface to top of atmosphere
(TOA) (layers: LT, HT, LS, HS&M) – Physical unit: kelvin (K) – Uncertainty unit: K.
Method 1: IR spectroscopy – Principle: IR emission from different atmospheric layers, selected

by using spectral intervals of different absorption strength in bands of CO2 (~4.3 and 15 µm).
Applicable in both LEO and GEO.
Method 2: MW/sub-mm radiometry – Principle: MW and sub-millimetre wave emission from

different atmospheric layers, selected by using spectral intervals of different absorption strength
in bands of O2 (~54, 118 and potentially 425 GHz). Applicable in both LEO and potentially GEO.
Method 3: GNSS (consisting of GPS and the Russian satellite navigation system, GLONASS) radio-
occultation – Principle: Atmospheric refraction of L-band signals from the global navigation
satellite system received by a LEO satellite during the occultation phase. Applicable only in LEO.
1
Note that RMS error used in this volume corresponds approximately to an expanded uncertainty with a coverage
factor of k = 1, while in the rest of this Guide a coverage factor of k = 2 is generally used (see Volume I, Chapter 1,
1.6.3.3 and the Evaluation of Measurement Data – Guide to the Expression of Uncertainty in Measurement (JCGM
100:2008)).
Method 4: Limb sounding – Principle: Emission by lines (in IR or MW) or line broadening (in SW)
as observed by high-resolution spectrometers intended for atmospheric chemistry operating in
the Earth's limb. Applicable only in LEO.
5.2.2 Specific humidity
Definition: 3D field of the specific humidity in the atmosphere – Required from surface to TOA
(layers: LT, HT, LS, HS&M) + total column – Physical units: g/kg for layers, kg/m2 for total column
– Uncertainty unit: % for layers, kg/m2 for total column.
Method 1: IR spectroscopy – Principle: IR emission from different atmospheric layers, selected

by using spectral intervals of different absorption strength in bands of H2O (~6 and potentially
~18 µm) with support of CO2 (~4.3 and 15 µm). Applicable in both LEO and GEO.
Method 2: MW/sub-mm radiometry – Principle: MW and sub-mm wave emission from different
atmospheric layers, selected by using spectral intervals of different absorption strength in bands
of H2O (183 and potentially 324, 380 GHz and others at higher frequencies) with necessary
support of O2 (~54, 118 and potentially 425 GHz). Applicable in LEO and potentially in GEO.
Method 3: GNSS radio-occultation – Principle: Atmospheric refraction of L-band signals from the
GNSS received by a LEO satellite during the occultation phase. Applicable only in LEO.
Method 4: DIAL – Principle: Backscattered radiation in an NIR water-vapour absorption band

(~935 nm for example) and a side window by DIAL. Applicable only in LEO.
Method 5: Limb sounding – Principle: Emission (in IR or MW/sub-mm), absorption (in Sun or star
occultation of SW) or scattering (in SW) by lines as observed by high-resolution spectrometers
intended for atmospheric chemistry operating in the Earth's limb. Applicable only in LEO.
Method 6: IR split window – Principle: By-product of the retrieval of surface temperatures from IR
images (split-windows such as 11 and 12 µm). Suitable only for total column. Applicable in both
LEO and GEO.
Method 7: MW imaging (23 GHz) – Principle: MW emission in a weak H2O band (~23 GHz),

associated with a nearby window (19 or 37 GHz). Suitable only for total column over the sea.
Applicable in LEO and potentially in GEO.
Method 8: NIR imaging (935 nm) – Principle: Differential reflectance between an NIR water-
vapour absorption band (~935 nm for example) and a side window by narrow-bandwidth
radiometers. Suitable only for total column. Applicable in both LEO and GEO.
5.2.3 Wind (horizontal)
Definition: 3D field of the horizontal vector component (2D) of the 3D wind vector – Required
from surface to TOA (layers: LT, HT, LS, HS&M) – Physical unit: m/s – Uncertainty unit: m/s
intended as vector error, in other words the module of the vector difference between the
observed vector and the true vector.
Method 1: Doppler lidar – Principle: Motion of atmospheric eddies "signed" by aerosol or

molecular scattering, tracked by means of Doppler lidar. Applicable only in LEO.
Method 2: VIS/IR image sequences – Principle: Motion of atmospheric cells of determined size
"signed" by clouds and water-vapour patches (and possibly ozone patches) recognized and
tracked in VIS/IR image sequences. Applicable in both LEO and GEO.
Method 3: IR imager-sounder – Principle: Motion of water-vapour patches tracked in frequent

sounding by IR imaging spectrometers operating in absorption bands of H2O (~6 µm) with
support of CO2 (~4.3 and 15 µm). Applicable in both LEO and GEO.
Method 4: Limb sounding – Principle: Doppler shift and broadening of spectral lines of O2, O3,
OH– observed by high-resolution VIS spectrometers operating in the Earth's limb. Applicable
only in LEO.
5.2.4 Wind vector over the surface (horizontal)
Definition: Horizontal vector component (2D) of the 3D wind vector, conventionally measured at
10 m height – Required over sea and land surface (all methods below apply over sea). Physical
unit: m/s – Uncertainty unit: m/s intended as vector error, namely the module of the vector
difference between the observed vector and the true vector.
Method 1: Radar scatterometry – Principle: Backscattered radiation from capillary waves by

medium-frequency radar (about 5 or 11 GHz). More viewing angles are used to determine
direction. Applicable only over the sea. Applicable only in LEO.
Method 2: Polarimetric MW radiometry – Principle: Emitted and scattered MW radiation

in atmospheric windows at several frequencies (10, 19, 37 GHz for example). Three Stokes
parameters to be measured (at least four polarizations, for example), preferably four (requiring
six polarizations). Applicable only over the sea. Applicable only in LEO.
Method 3: MW imagery – Principle: Emitted and scattered MW radiation in atmospheric windows

at several frequencies (such as 10, 19, 37 GHz). At least two polarizations needed. Applicable only
over the sea. Only speed measured. Applicable only in LEO.
Method 4: Radar altimetry – Principle: Backscattered radiation from sea surface by medium-
frequency radar (~13 GHz). Wind speed associated with echoes scattered from capillary waves.
Applicable only over the sea. Only speed measured. Only nadir. Applicable only in LEO.
5.2.5 Height of the top of the planetary boundary layer
Definition: Height of the surface separating the planetary boundary layer from the free
atmosphere – Physical unit: km – Uncertainty unit: km.
Method 1: Backscatter lidar – Principle: Backscattered radiation in UV, VIS or NIR by lidar.
Applicable only in LEO.
Method 2: From IR sounding – Principle: Derived from IR sounding of temperature and humidity.
Method 3: From GNSS sounding – Principle: Derived from GNSS radio-occultation sounding of
temperature and humidity. Applicable only in LEO.
5.2.6 Height of the tropopause
Definition: Height of the surface separating the troposphere from the stratosphere – Physical
unit: km – Uncertainty unit: km.
Two wavelengths preferred. Applicable only in LEO.
Method 2: From IR sounding – Principle: Derived from IR sounding of temperature. Applicable in

both LEO and GEO.
temperature. Applicable only in LEO.
5.2.7 Temperature of the tropopause
Definition: Atmospheric temperature at the height of the surface separating the troposphere from
the stratosphere – Physical unit: K – Uncertainty unit: K.
Method 1: From IR sounding – Principle: Derived from IR sounding of temperature. Applicable in

both LEO and GEO.
temperature. Applicable only in LEO.
Method 3: From limb sounding – Principle: Derived from limb sounding of temperature.
5.3 CLOUD AND PRECIPITATION VARIABLES
This theme includes the basic variables observable from space for actual weather analysis, and for
short-term prediction and nowcasting, as well as for hydrology. Table 5.2 lists these variables.

“Cloud and precipitation variables”
Cloud-top Cloud-base height Cloud ice Precipitation (liquid or solid)

temperature
Cloud-top height Cloud optical depth Cloud-ice effective radius Precipitation intensity at
surface (liquid or solid)
Cloud type Cloud liquid water Freezing-level height in Accumulated precipitation

clouds (over 24 h)
Cloud cover Cloud-droplet effective Melting-layer depth in Lightning detection

radius clouds
5.3.1 Cloud-top temperature
Definition: Temperature of upper surface of cloud – Physical unit: K – Uncertainty unit: K.
Method 1: IR radiometry – Principle: Derived from IR imagery in a number of channels including

“windows” and others (in water-vapour absorption bands) as necessary to evaluate cloud
emissivity. Applicable in both LEO and GEO.
Method 2: From IR sounding – Principle: Derived as a by-product of temperature/humidity

sounding retrieval from IR spectroscopy. The different brightness temperature at different
wavelengths sensitive to CO2 enables retrieval of cloud-top temperature within the sounded
IFOV. Applicable in both LEO and GEO.
5.3.2 Cloud-top height
Definition: Height of the upper surface of the cloud – Physical unit: km – Uncertainty unit: km.
Method 1: IR radiometry – Principle: Derived from cloud-top pressure converted to height and
temperature using a forecast temperature profile after viewing the cloud through an 11 and
13.4 µm channel pair (comparison with “window”, measures the columnar defect of CO2 above
cloud top). Applicable in both LEO and GEO.

sounding retrieval from IR spectroscopy. The different radiative transfer at different wavelengths
enables retrieval of cloud-top height within the sounded IFOV. Applicable in both LEO and GEO.
Method 3: Backscatter lidar – Principle: Backscattered radiation in UV, VIS or NIR by lidar. Two
wavelengths preferred. Applicable only in LEO.
Method 4: Cloud radar – Principle: Backscattered radiation in MW (~94 GHz) by radar. Applicable

only in LEO.
Method 5: A-band spectroscopy – Principle: Observed defect of columnar O2 above the cloud top
by spectroscopy of the 760 nm A-band and nearby “window”. Applicable in both LEO and GEO.
5.3.3 Cloud type
Definition: Comprehensive properties of the observed cloud. The list of types of interest is
predetermined – Uncertainty expressed as number of discriminated types (classes).
Method 1: VIS/IR radiometry – Principle: Multi-spectral analysis of cloud reflectance, top-surface

temperature, optical depth, emissivity, phase, drop size, over different backgrounds, observed
in a few discrete channels of relatively large bandwidths (5–10 cm–1). Applicable in both LEO
and GEO.
5.3.4 Cloud cover
Definition: 3D field of fraction of sky where clouds are detected. Required as a 3D field in the
troposphere (assumed height: 12 km) and also as a single layer (total column) to provide the total
cloud cover – Physical unit: % – Uncertainty unit: %.
Method 1: VIS/IR radiometry – Principle: Derived from cloud imagery in a few discrete channels
selected so as to detect all cloud types. The fractional cover refers to the number of cloudy pixels
in a given pixel array. Applicable in both LEO and GEO.

sounding retrieval from IR spectroscopy. The different radiative transfer at different wavelengths
enables retrieval of cloud fraction times cloud emissivity within the sounded IFOV. Applicable in
both LEO and GEO.
Method 3: Cloud radar – Principle: Backscattered radiation from cloud droplets observed by high-
frequency radar (~94 GHz). Applicable only in LEO.
5.3.5 Cloud-base height
Definition: Height of the bottom surface of the cloud – Physical unit: km – Uncertainty unit: km.
Method 1: Cloud radar – Principle: Derived as lower level of the backscattered radiation from
cloud droplets observed by high-frequency radar (~94 GHz). Applicable only in LEO.
5.3.6 Cloud optical depth
Definition: Effective depth of the cloud from the viewpoint of radiation propagation. The
definition is OD = e–K Δz. K is the extinction coefficient (km–1), Δz the optical path (km) between
the base and the top of the cloud. It depends on the wavelength but is usually referred to visible
radiation. Physical unit: dimensionless – Uncertainty unit: dimensionless.
Two wavelengths preferred. Applicable only in LEO.
Method 2: SW polarimetry – Principle: Scattered solar radiation in several narrowband channels

of UV, VIS, NIR and SWIR, some with polarimetric measurements to determine three Stokes
parameters. Applicable only in LEO.
Method 3: SW/thermal infrared (SW/TIR) radiometry – Principle: Scattered solar radiation in

several narrowband channels of VIS, NIR and SWIR, and emitted radiation in several window
channels of TIR. Applicable in both LEO and GEO.
5.3.7 Cloud liquid water
Definition: 3D field of atmospheric water in the liquid phase (precipitating or not). Required in the
troposphere (assumed height: 12 km) and for total column – Physical unit: g/kg for layers,
g/m2 for total column – Uncertainty unit: % for layers, g/m2 for total column.
Method 1: Cloud radar – Principle: Backscattered radiation from cloud droplets observed by high-
Method 2: Precipitation radar – Principle: Backscattered radiation from cloud droplets observed
by medium-frequency radar (dual-frequency preferred, 14 and 35 GHz). Applicable only in LEO.
Method 3: MW/sub-mm sounding – Principle: MW/sub-mm radiation in window channels

(typically, ~10, 19, 37, 90, 150 GHz) with dual polarization, and absorption bands (typically, ~54,
118, 183 GHz). Applicable in LEO and potentially in GEO.
5.3.8 Cloud-droplet effective radius
Definition: 3D field of the size distribution of liquid water droplets, assimilated to spheres of the
same volume. Required in the troposphere (assumed height: 12 km), and at the cloud-top surface
– Physical unit: µm – Uncertainty unit: µm.
Method 1: Cloud radar – Principle: Backscattered radiation from cloud droplets by high-frequency
radar (~94 GHz). Applicable only in LEO.
Method 2: Precipitation radar – Principle: Backscattered radiation from cloud droplets by

medium-frequency radar (dual-frequency preferred, 14 and 35 GHz). Applicable only in LEO.

118, 183 GHz). Actually, the cloud-droplet effective radius profile is retrieved with the help of an
associated NWP model, possibly cloud-resolving. Applicable in LEO and potentially in GEO.
Essentially limited to cloud top. Applicable only in LEO.

parameters. Essentially limited to cloud top. Applicable only in LEO.
Method 6: VIS/IR radiometry – Principle: Scattered solar radiation in several narrowband channels
of VIS, NIR, SWIR and MWIR. Also, differential emission in several channels of thermal infrared
(TIR, for cirrus clouds). Essentially limited to cloud top. Applicable in both LEO and GEO.
5.3.9 Cloud ice
Definition: 3D field of atmospheric water in the solid phase (precipitating or not). Required in the
troposphere (assumed height: 12 km) and for total column – Physical unit: g/kg for layers,
g/m2 for total column – Uncertainty unit: % for layers, g/m2 for total column.
Method 1: Cloud radar – Principle: Backscattered radiation from ice particles observed by high-
Method 2: Precipitation radar – Principle: Backscattered radiation from ice particles by medium-
frequency radar (dual-frequency preferred, 14 and 35 GHz). Applicable only in LEO.

(typically, ~37, 90, 150 GHz) with dual polarization, and absorption bands (typically, ~54, 118,
183, and potentially 380, 425 GHz). Actually, the cloud-ice profile is retrieved with the help of an
Method 4: Sub-mm imagery – Principle: Emitted and scattered radiation in MW atmospheric

windows (243, 664, 874 GHz) in dual polarization supported by channels in H2O absorption
bands (183, 325, 448 GHz). Suitable only for total column. Applicable only in LEO.
Method 5: FIR imagery – Principle: Emitted and scattered radiation in several atmospheric
windows of FIR (18.2, 24.4, 52, 87 µm) as compared to TIR (8.7, 11, 12 µm). Suitable only for total
column. Applicable only in LEO.
5.3.10 Cloud-ice effective radius
Definition: 3D field of the size distribution of ice particles, assimilated to spheres of the same
volume. Required in the troposphere (assumed height: 12 km), and at the cloud-top surface –
Physical unit: µm – Uncertainty unit: µm.
Method 1: Cloud radar – Principle: Backscattered radiation from ice particles by high-frequency
radar (~94 GHz). Applicable only in LEO.
Method 2: Precipitation radar – Principle: Backscattered radiation from ice particles by medium-

118, 183 GHz). Actually, the cloud-ice effective radius profile is retrieved with the help of an
Essentially limited to cloud top. Applicable only in LEO.

parameters. Essentially limited to cloud top. Applicable only in LEO.
Method 6: VIS/IR radiometry – Principle: Scattered solar radiation in several narrowband channels
of VIS, NIR, SWIR and MWIR. Also, differential emission in several channels of TIR (for cirrus
clouds). Essentially limited to cloud top. Applicable in both LEO and GEO.
5.3.11 Freezing-level height in clouds
Definition: Height of the atmospheric layer in cloud where liquid-solid states transform into each
other – Physical unit: km – Uncertainty unit: km.
Method 1: Precipitation radar – Principle: Backscattered radiation from cloud drops by medium-
Method 2: From MW/sub-mm sounding – Principle: Derived from MW and sub-mm wave
sounding of temperature. Applicable in LEO and potentially in GEO.
5.3.12 Melting-layer depth in clouds
Definition: Depth of the atmospheric layer in cloud where liquid-solid states transform into each
other – Physical unit: km – Uncertainty unit: km.
Method 2: From MW/sub-mm sounding – Principle: Derived from MW and sub-mm wave
sounding of temperature. Applicable in LEO and potentially in GEO.
5.3.13 Precipitation (liquid or solid)
Definition: 3D field of the vertical flux of precipitating water mass. Required in the troposphere
(assumed height: 12 km) – Physical unit: g · s–1 · m–2 (vertical flux of precipitating water mass) –
Uncertainty unit: %.
frequency radar (dual-frequency preferred, 14 and 35 GHz). Doppler capability also useful.

(typically, ~10, 19, 37, 90, 150 GHz) with dual polarization, and absorption bands (typically,
~54, 118, 183, 380, 425 GHz). Actually, the precipitation profile is retrieved with the help of an
associated NWP model, possibly cloud-resolving. Applicable in LEO and potentially in GEO
5.3.14 Precipitation intensity at surface (liquid or solid)
Definition: Intensity of precipitation reaching the ground – Physical unit: mm/h (if solid, mm/h of
liquid water after melting) – Uncertainty unit: mm/h. Since uncertainty changes with intensity, it
is necessary to specify a reference intensity. Assumed intensity: 5 mm/h.
frequency radar (dual-frequency preferred, 14 and 35 GHz). Doppler capability also useful.

118, 183, 380, 425 GHz). Actually, the precipitation rate at surface is retrieved from the profile
reconstructed with the help of an associated NWP model, possibly cloud-resolving. Applicable in
LEO and potentially in GEO.
Method 3: VIS/IR radiometry – Principle: Inferred from cloud imagery in a few discrete channels
selected so as to detect all cloud types, assisted by conceptual models, generally more responsive
to convective rain. Applicable in GEO.
Method 4: Fusion between MW from LEO and IR from GEO – Principle: Combined product of
LEO/MW-derived accurate/infrequent measurements with GEO/IR frequent images used either
to be “calibrated” by MW measurements or to enable dynamical interpolation between MW-
derived precipitation data. Requiring both LEO and GEO.
5.3.15 Accumulated precipitation (over 24 hours)
Definition: Integration of precipitation intensity reaching the ground in given time intervals. The
reference requirement refers to integration over 24 h – Physical unit: mm – Uncertainty unit: mm.
Method 1: From fusion between MW from LEO and IR from GEO – Principle: Derived by time
integration of frequent precipitation rate measured by merging MW precipitation rate data from
LEO with IR imagery from GEO. Requiring both LEO and GEO.
Method 2: From MW/sub-mm sounding – Principle: Derived by time integration of frequent

precipitation rate measured by MW/sub-mm sounders in GEO. Applicable in GEO (potentially).
5.3.16 Lightning detection
Definition: Mapping of lightning events as number of flashes in a given time interval over a given
area – Physical unit: counts – Uncertainty expressed as hit rate (HR) and false-alarm rate (FAR).
Method 1: Lightning mapping – Principle: Detection of flashes by a charge-coupled device

camera in a very narrow channel in a NIR oxygen absorption band (generally at 777.4 nm) for
operability also in daylight. The number of flashes in a given time over a given area, and their
intensity, are related to the maturity of the convective process in cloud. Applicable in both LEO
and GEO.
5.4 AEROSOL AND RADIATION
This theme comprises variables that affect the Earth radiation budget versus space, cloud–
radiation interaction, cloud formation, air quality and several characterizing factors of climate
and climate change. The variables observable from space are listed in Table 5.3.
Table 5.3. Geophysical variables considered under the theme “Aerosol and radiation”
Aerosol optical depth Upward spectral radiance at TOA Earth’s surface albedo
Aerosol concentration Upward LW irradiance at TOA Earth’s surface SW bi-directional

reflectance
Aerosol effective radius Upward SW irradiance at TOA Upward LW irradiance at Earth’s surface
Aerosol type SW cloud reflectance Long-wave Earth-surface emissivity
Volcanic ash Downward LW irradiance at Photosynthetically active radiation

Earth’s surface
Downward solar Downward SW irradiance at Fraction of absorbed photosynthetically

irradiance at TOA Earth’s surface active radiation
Further variables such as aerosol absorption optical depth, aerosol extinction coefficient, aerosol
single scattering albedo and aerosol phase function have not been considered since they are
closely linked to the selected ones (optical thickness, concentration, effective radius, and type),
which are more understandable to the general user.
5.4.1 Aerosol optical depth
Definition: Effective depth of the aerosol column from the viewpoint of radiation propagation.
The definition is OD = exp (–K Δz). K is the extinction coefficient (km–1), Δz the optical
path (km) between the Earth’s surface and TOA. It depends on the wavelength – Physical
unit: dimensionless – Uncertainty unit: dimensionless.

parameters. Also, multi-viewing at different incident angles. Applicable only in LEO.
Method 3: SW spectroscopy (cross-nadir) – Principle: Scattered radiation in UV, VIS, NIR and SWIR
observed cross-nadir with high spectral resolution. Applicable in both LEO and GEO.
Method 4: VIS/IR radiometry – Principle: Scattered solar radiation in several channels of VIS, NIR
and SWIR. Some information, relevant to absorbing aerosol, also available in thermal IR windows.
5.4.2 Aerosol concentration
Definition: 3D field of the mass mixing ratio of condensed particles in the atmosphere (other than
water) – Required from surface to TOA (layers: LT, HT, LS, HS&M) + total column – Physical units:
g/kg for layers, g/m2 for total column – Uncertainty unit: % for layers, g/m2 for total column.

Method 4: SW spectroscopy (limb) – Principle: Scattered radiation in UV, VIS, NIR and SWIR
observed in limb mode with high spectral resolution. Also, absorbed radiation from Sun or stars
during occultation. Applicable only in LEO.
and SWIR. Some information, relevant to absorbing aerosol, also available in thermal IR windows.
Suitable only for total column. Applicable in both LEO and GEO.
5.4.3 Aerosol effective radius
Definition: 3D field of the mean size of the aerosol particles, assimilated to spheres of the same
volume. Required in the troposphere (assumed height: 12 km) and as columnar average –
Physical unit: µm – Uncertainty unit: µm.

parameters. Also, multi-viewing at different incident angles. A priori information and intensive
modelling necessary. Applicable only in LEO.
observed cross-nadir with high spectral resolution. A priori information and intensive modelling
necessary. Applicable in both LEO and GEO.
5.4.4 Aerosol type
Definition: 3D field. Comprehensive properties of the aerosol being observed. The list of types
of interest is predetermined – Required in the troposphere (assumed height: 12 km) and as
columnar average – Uncertainty expressed as number of types that can actually be resolved
(classes).

parameters. Also, multi-viewing at different incident angles. A priori information and intensive
aerosol modelling absolutely necessary. Applicable only in LEO.
observed cross-nadir with high spectral resolution. A priori information and intensive aerosol
modelling absolutely necessary. Applicable in both LEO and GEO.
and SWIR. Some information also available in thermal IR windows. A priori information and
intensive aerosol modelling necessary. Suitable only for total column. Applicable in both LEO
and GEO.
5.4.5 Volcanic ash
Definition: 3D field of concentration of volcanic ash – Required from surface to TOA (layers: LT, HT,
LS, HS&M) + total column – Physical units: g/kg for layers, g/m2 for total column – Uncertainty
unit: % for layers, g/m2 for total column.

Method 4: SW spectroscopy (limb) – Principle: Scattered radiation in UV, VIS, NIR and SWIR
observed in limb mode with high spectral resolution. Also, absorbed radiation from Sun or stars
during occultation. Applicable only in LEO.
and SWIR. Some information also available in thermal IR windows. Suitable only for total column.
5.4.6 Downward solar irradiance at top of atmosphere
Definition: Flux density of the solar radiation at the top of the atmosphere – Physical unit: W/m2 –
Uncertainty unit: W/m2.
Method 1: Cavity radiometer – Principle: Trapping of total downward solar radiation at satellite
altitude into devices such as active cavities. Absolute measurement. Applicable in LEO, GEO, or
outer-space orbits, at the L1 Lagrange libration point, for instance.
5.4.7 Upward spectral radiance at top of atmosphere
Definition: Level 1 product. Spectral range 0.2–200 µm. Resolving power λ/∆λ = 1 000.

Uncertainty quoted as signal-to-noise ratio.
Method 1: Wide-range spectroscopy – Principle: Measurement of the radiation in the interval

0.2–200 µm emitted by the Earth–atmosphere system towards space. Several spectrometers are
needed to cover short wave and long wave. The objective is to monitor climate change by using
the spectrum as an absolute “signature”. Applicable only in LEO.
5.4.8 Upward long-wave irradiance at top of atmosphere
Definition: Flux density of terrestrial radiation emitted to space by the Earth’s surface, atmosphere
and clouds at the top of the atmosphere – Physical unit: W/m2 – Uncertainty unit: W/m2.
Method 1: Broadband radiometry – Principle: Measurement of the radiation in the interval

4–200 µm emitted by the Earth–atmosphere system towards space by means of detectors with as
flat a response in the interval as possible. Applicable in both LEO and GEO.
5.4.9 Upward short-wave irradiance at top of atmosphere
Definition: Flux density of terrestrial radiation reflected to space by the Earth’s surface,
atmosphere and clouds at the top of the atmosphere – Physical unit: W/m2 – Uncertainty unit: W/
m2 .

0.2–4.0 µm reflected by the Earth–atmosphere system towards space by means of detectors
with as flat response in the interval as possible. Information on bi-directional reflectance and
modelling are required in order to convert radiance into irradiance. Applicable in both LEO
and GEO.
5.4.10 Short-wave cloud reflectance
Definition: Reflectance of the solar radiation from clouds – Physical unit: % – Uncertainty unit: %.
Method 1: SW radiometry – Principle: Scattered solar radiation in several channels of VIS, NIR and
SWIR. Multi-viewing geometry useful. Applicable in both LEO and GEO.
5.4.11 Downward long-wave irradiance at Earth’s surface
Definition: Flux density of LW radiation from Sun, atmosphere and clouds to the Earth’s surface –
Physical unit: W/m2 – Uncertainty unit: W/m2.
Method 1: From IR/MW sounding – Principle: High-level product derived mostly from
atmospheric temperature and water-vapour profiles. Contributions also from cloud cover
profile, specifically cloud-base height. Atmospheric modelling necessary. Applicable in both LEO
and GEO.
5.4.12 Downward short-wave irradiance at Earth’s surface
Definition: Flux density of SW radiation from Sun, atmosphere and clouds to the Earth’s surface –
Physical unit: W/m2 – Uncertainty unit: W/m2.
Method 1: SW radiometry – Principle: High-level product derived from observation of scattered

solar radiation in several narrowband channels of VIS, NIR and SWIR to estimate attenuation
from clouds and aerosol. Multiple viewing and multi-polarization help. Applicable in both LEO
and GEO.
5.4.13 Earth’s surface albedo
Definition: Hemispherically integrated reflectance of the Earth’s surface in the range 0.4–0.7 µm
(or other specific SW ranges) – Physical unit: % – Uncertainty unit: %.
Method 1: Multi-view SW radiometry – Principle: High-level product after measuring scattered

solar radiation in several channels of VIS under several viewing angles and solar angles to
estimate anisotropy effects and improve radiative flux computations. Channels for atmospheric
corrections also included. Applicable only in LEO
Method 2: VIS radiometry – Principle: Measurement of scattered solar radiation in several

channels of VIS, including those for atmospheric corrections. Anisotropy effects for hemispheric
integration computed by modelling. Applicable in both LEO and GEO.
5.4.14 Earth’s surface short-wave bi-directional reflectance
Definition: Reflectance of the Earth’s surface as a function of the viewing angle and the
illumination conditions in the range 0.4–0.7 µm (or other specific SW ranges) – Physical unit: % –
Method 1: SW radiometry – Principle: Scattered solar radiation in several channels of VIS, NIR
and SWIR observed under several viewing angles and solar angles to estimate anisotropy effects
and improve radiative flux computations. Channels for atmospheric corrections also included.
5.4.15 Upward long-wave irradiance at Earth’s surface
Definition: Flux density of long-wave radiation emerging from the Earth’s surface – Physical
unit: W/m2 – Uncertainty unit: W/m2.

4–200 µm emitted by the Earth’s surface towards the atmosphere and ultimately to space.
Detectors are needed, with as flat response in the interval as possible. Atmospheric corrections,
mostly for water vapour and clouds, are necessary. Applicable in both LEO and GEO.
5.4.16 Long-wave Earth-surface emissivity
Definition: Emissivity of the Earth’s surface in the thermal IR, function of the wavelength – Physical
unit: % – Uncertainty unit: %.
Method 1: IR radiometry – Principle: Emitted radiation in several relatively narrowband IR window

channels, to determine equivalent black-body temperatures at several wavelengths. Applicable
in both LEO and GEO.
Method 2: IR spectroscopy – Principle: Multiple determination of equivalent black-body

temperatures in highest number of narrow windows through the IR spectrum. Applicable in both
LEO and GEO.
5.4.17 Photosynthetically active radiation
Definition: Flux density of downward photons of wavelength 0.4–0.7 µm at surface – Physical

unit: µ einstein · m–2 s–1 (1 einstein = 6 · 1023 photons); most frequently used: W/m2 – Uncertainty
unit: W/m2.
Method 1: VIS radiometry – Principle: High-level product similar to “downwelling short-wave

irradiance at Earth surface” except that it refers to the interval 0.4–0.7 µm used by vegetation for
photosynthesis. Applicable in both LEO and GEO.
5.4.18 Fraction of absorbed photosynthetically active radiation
Definition: Fraction of absorbed photosynthetically active radiation that is absorbed by vegetation

(land or marine) for photosynthesis processes (generally around the “red”) – Physical unit: % –
Method 1: VIS radiometry – Principle: Computed from the observed photosynthetically active
radiation and one measure in the “red” region (~670 nm). Applicable in both LEO and GEO.
5.5 OCEAN AND SEA ICE
This theme comprises variables that characterize the ocean surface, including waves and sea ice.
The variables observable from space are listed in Table 5.4.
Table 5.4. Geophysical variables considered under the theme “Ocean and sea ice”
Ocean chlorophyll Oil-spill cover Coastal sea level (tide) Wave directional-energy
concentration frequency spectrum
Colour dissolved organic Sea-surface temperature Significant wave height Sea-ice cover
matter
Ocean suspended Sea-surface salinity Dominant wave Sea-ice thickness

sediments concentration direction
Ocean diffuse attenuation Ocean dynamic Dominant wave period Sea-ice type
coefficient topography
Many variables have not been considered: underwater profiles of temperature and salinity
(impossible to measure from space), currents (derivable from ocean topography as for the
geostrophic component, otherwise impossible or too inaccurate), iceberg extension or height
(special case of ice cover and thickness), and ice drift (product of multi-temporal analysis).
5.5.1 Ocean chlorophyll concentration
Definition: Indicator of living phytoplankton biomass, extracted from ocean-colour observation.

Required in both open ocean and coastal zone – Physical unit: mg/m3 – Uncertainty unit: mg/m3
at a specific concentration (1 mg/m3, for example).
Method 1: VIS radiometry – Principle: Measurement of reflected solar radiation in several channels
(most significant: 442.5 nm, 490 nm, 560 nm, 665 nm, 681.25 nm). Spectral resolution of the
order of 2%. Applicable in both LEO and GEO.
5.5.2 Colour dissolved organic matter
Definition: Former name: “Yellow substance absorbance”. Variable extracted from ocean-colour
observation. Indicative of biomass undergoing decomposition processes. Required in both open
ocean and coastal zone – Physical unit: m–1 – Uncertainty unit: m–1 at a specific concentration
(such as 1 m–1).
(most significant: 412.5 nm). Spectral resolution of the order of 2%. Applicable in both LEO
and GEO.
5.5.3 Ocean suspended sediments concentration
Definition: Variable extracted from ocean-colour observation. Indicative of river outflow, re-
suspension or pollution of other-than-biological origin. Required in both open ocean and coastal
zone – Physical unit: g/m3 – Uncertainty unit: g/m3 at a specific concentration
(such as 2 g/m3).
(most significant: 510 nm, 560 nm, 620 nm). Spectral resolution of the order of 2%. Applicable in
both LEO and GEO.
5.5.4 Ocean diffuse attenuation coefficient
Definition: Former name: "Water clarity". Indicator of water turbidity and vertical processes in the
ocean, extracted from ocean-colour observation. Required in both open ocean and coastal zone
– Physical unit: m–1 – Uncertainty unit: m–1.
of the range 400–700 nm. Spectral resolution of the order of 2%. Applicable in both LEO
and GEO.
5.5.5 Oil-spill cover
Definition: The fraction of an ocean area polluted by hydrocarbons released from ships,
accidentally or deliberately. Oil spills are impacting on ocean-atmosphere exchanges. Required
in both open ocean and coastal zone – Physical unit: % – Uncertainty unit: %.
Method 1: VIS/NIR radiometry – Principle: Measurement of reflected solar radiation in several

channels of the range 400–1 000 nm. Spectral resolution of the order of 2%. Applicable in both
LEO and GEO.
Method 2: SW polarimetry – Principle: Scattered solar radiation in several narrowband channels of

VIS, NIR and SWIR, some with dual polarization. Applicable only in LEO.
Method 3: High-resolution optical imagery – Principle: Reflected solar radiation in VIS/NIR/SWIR

observed in several discrete channels of relatively narrow bandwidths (1%–5%). Applicable only
in LEO.
Method 4: SAR imagery – Principle: Backscattered MW radiation at frequencies of 1.3, 5 or 11 GHz

collected by SAR. Polarimetric capability is useful. Applicable only in LEO.
5.5.6 Sea-surface temperature
Definition: Temperature of the sea water at surface. The “bulk” temperature refers to the depth of
typically 2 m, the “skin” temperature refers to values within the upper 1 mm. – Physical unit: K –
Uncertainty unit: K.
Method 1: IR radiometry – Principle: Derived from IR imagery in multiple channels including

“windows” and others (in water-vapour absorption bands) as necessary to evaluate atmospheric
attenuation. Dual-view reduces the uncertainty of atmospheric correction. Applicable in both
LEO and GEO.
Method 2: IR spectroscopy – Principle: Derived from a high number of very narrow channels
through the IR spectrum, associated with other channels providing all the information needed
for atmospheric corrections. Applicable in both LEO and GEO.
Method 3: MW radiometry – Principle: Emitted and scattered MW radiation in atmospheric

windows at low to medium frequencies (5, 10 GHz, for example). More polarizations are needed,
to correct for roughness effects. Applicable only in LEO.
5.5.7 Sea-surface salinity
Definition: Salinity of sea water in the surface layer, which is the layer affected by turbulence
associated with wind stress, waves and diurnal solar heating cycle. (The layer is a few metres
deep but a microwave observation would be representative of the upper ~1 m). In the open
ocean the correct term should be “halinity” in order to make reference to the most common
anion, chlorine – Physical unit: practical salinity unit (PSU), close to 1‰, or 1 g of salt per 1 litre of
solution – Uncertainty unit: PSU.
Method 1: MW radiometry – Principle: Emitted and scattered MW radiation at low frequencies

(such as 1.4 GHz). More polarizations are needed, to correct for roughness effects. More channels
are desirable, to correct for temperature. Applicable only in LEO.
5.5.8 Ocean dynamic topography
Definition: Deviation of sea level from the geoid caused by ocean currents (after corrections for
tides and atmospheric pressure effects) – Physical unit: cm – Uncertainty unit: cm.
frequency radar (dual-frequency preferred, 13 and 3 or 5 GHz). Associated with two or three
channels of passive MW radiometry (23 and 37 and/or 19 GHz) needed for tropospheric path
correction from water vapour and ionosphere-induced rotation. Ocean topography is extracted
by filtering the fluctuation of wave heights out of the satellite-to-surface measured range.
5.5.9 Coastal sea level (tide)
Definition: Deviation of sea level from local references in coastal zones, caused by local currents
and tides (astronomical and wind-induced) – Physical unit: cm – Uncertainty unit: cm.
correction from water vapour and ionosphere-induced rotation. Sea level is extracted by filtering
the fluctuation of wave heights out of the satellite-to-surface measured range. Applicable only
in LEO.
5.5.10 Significant wave height
Definition: Average amplitude of the highest 30 of 100 waves – Physical unit: m – Uncertainty unit:
m.
frequency radar (dual-frequency preferred, 13 and 3 or 5 GHz). Wave height is linked to the
statistical dispersion of the radar-measured ranges. Applicable only in LEO.
Method 2: From SAR spectra – Principle: From spectral analysis of SAR images at frequencies of 1.3
or 5 GHz by processing spectrum power, wavelength and direction with the help of boundary
conditions. Applicable only in LEO.
5.5.11 Dominant wave direction
Definition: One feature of the ocean wave spectrum. It is the direction of the most energetic wave
in the spectrum – Physical unit: degrees – Uncertainty unit: degrees.
Method 1: From SAR spectra – Principle: From spectral analysis of SAR images at frequencies of
1.3, 5 or 11 GHz. Applicable only in LEO.
5.5.12 Dominant wave period
Definition: One feature of the ocean wave spectrum. It is the period of the most energetic wave in
the spectrum – Physical unit: s – Uncertainty unit: s.
5.5.13 Wave directional-energy frequency spectrum
Definition: 2D variable colloquially referred to as “wave spectrum”. Describes the wave

energy travelling in each direction and frequency band (such as 24 distinct azimuth sectors
each 15° wide, and 25 frequency bands) – Physical unit: m2 · Hz–1 · rad–1 – Uncertainty
unit: m2 · Hz–1 · rad–1.
5.5.14 Sea-ice cover
Definition: The fraction of an ocean area where ice is detected – Physical unit: % – Uncertainty
unit: %.
Method 1: VIS/IR radiometry – Principle: Reflected solar radiation in VIS/NIR/SWIR or emitted

radiation in MWIR/IR observed in a few discrete channels of relatively large bandwidths
(5%–10%). The fractional cover refers to the number of pixels classified as ice in a given pixel
array. Applicable in both LEO and GEO.

windows at medium-high frequencies (such as 37, 90 GHz). More polarizations are needed
(signal from sea is strongly polarized). The fractional cover refers to the number of pixels
classified as ice in a given pixel array. Applicable only in LEO.
Method 3: High-resolution optical imagery – Principle: Reflected solar radiation in VIS/NIR/

SWIR observed in several discrete channels. High-resolution is prioritized at the expense of the
observing cycle. Applicable only in LEO.

collected by synthetic aperture radar. The fractional cover refers to the number of pixels classified
as ice in a given array. Applicable only in LEO.
5.5.15 Sea-ice thickness
Definition: Thickness of the ice sheet. It is related to sea-ice elevation and ice density – Physical
unit: cm – Uncertainty unit: cm.
frequency radar (dual-frequency preferred, 13 and 3 or 5 GHz). Associated with two-channel
passive MW radiometry (23 and 37 GHz) needed for tropospheric path correction from water
vapour. Applicable only in LEO.
Method 2: Lidar altimetry – Principle: Backscattered VIS/NIR radiation by lidar. Two wavelengths
preferred, such as 532 and 1 064 nm. Applicable only in LEO.
Method 3: SAR interferometry – Principle: Backscattered MW radiation at frequencies of 1.3,

5 or 11 GHz collected by synthetic aperture radar. Height of observed surface determined by
interferometry between images from more passes. Applicable only in LEO.
5.5.16 Sea-ice type
Definition: Comprehensive properties (age, roughness, density, etc.) of the observed sea ice. The
list of types of interest is predetermined – Uncertainty expressed as number of discriminated
types (classes).
Method 1: Radar scatterometry – Principle: Backscattered radiation by medium-frequency radar

scatterometry (around 5 or 11 GHz). Calibrated radar reflectivity depends on roughness and
surface conductivity (linked to age). Applicable only in LEO.

windows at medium frequencies (such as 19, 37 GHz). Three Stokes parameters (in other words
at least four polarizations) desirable. Applicable only in LEO.

collected by synthetic aperture radar. Applicable only in LEO.
5.6 LAND SURFACE (INCLUDING SNOW)
This theme comprises variables that characterize the land surface, including vegetation, fire,
glaciers and snow. The variables observable from space are listed in Table 5.5.
A few variables have not been considered, such as groundwater (considered covered by soil
moisture, snow, glaciers; and land cover); river discharge (products are of too high a level);
subsoil temperature profile (impossible from space); snow and lake surface temperature;
permafrost (specific cases of surface temperature observation); coastlines (too obvious); biomass
(too generic).

“Land surface (including snow)”
Land surface temperature Leaf area index Snow status (wet/dry) Land surface topography
Soil moisture at surface Normalized difference Snow cover Glacier cover

vegetation index
Soil moisture Fire fractional cover Snow water equivalent Glacier topography
(in the roots region)
Fraction of vegetated land Fire temperature Soil type
Vegetation type Fire radiative power Land cover
5.6.1 Land surface temperature
Definition: Temperature of the apparent surface of land (bare soil or vegetation) – Physical unit: K
– Uncertainty unit: K.
Method 1: IR radiometry – Principle: Derived from IR imagery in multiple channels including

“windows” and others as needed to evaluate emissivity and atmospheric attenuation (from
water vapour). Dual-view reduces the uncertainty of atmospheric correction. Applicable in both
LEO and GEO.
Method 2: IR spectroscopy – Principle: Derived from a high number of very narrow window
channels through the IR spectrum, associated with other channels providing all the information
needed for atmospheric corrections. This enables emissivity to be estimated. Applicable in both
LEO and GEO.

windows at low to medium frequencies (such as 5, 10 GHz). More polarizations are needed to
correct for wetness effects. Applicable only in LEO.
5.6.2 Soil moisture at surface
Definition: Fractional content of water in a volume of wet soil. Surface layer (upper few
centimetres) – Physical unit: m3/m3 – Uncertainty unit: m3/m3.
Method 1: MW radiometry – Principle: Emitted MW radiation at low frequencies (1.4 and 2.7 GHz,
for example). Multiple polarizations needed, to correct for roughness effects. Multiple channels
desirable, to correct for temperature. Higher frequencies (5, 10 GHz) also useful, particularly for
bare soil. Applicable only in LEO.
Method 2: Radar scatterometry – Principle: Backscattered MW radiation at relatively low

frequencies (such as 5 GHz). The multiple viewing angle capability is exploited to correct for
roughness. Applicable only in LEO.

Method 4: VIS/IR radiometry – Principle: Several proxies are possible. Examples: damping of
reflectivity from VIS/NIR to SWIR; from apparent thermal inertia derived by measuring the delay
in land temperature rising in response to incoming solar radiation (valid for bare soil). Applicable
5.6.3 Soil moisture (in the roots region)
Definition: Subsoil 3D field of the fractional content of water in a volume of wet soil. Required
from surface down to ~3 m – Physical unit: m3/m3 – Uncertainty unit: m3/m3.
Method 1: L-band MW radiometry – Principle: Emitted MW radiation at low frequencies (such as

1.4 GHz). More polarizations are needed, to correct for roughness effects. Applicable only in LEO.
Method 2: L-band SAR imagery – Principle: Backscattered MW radiation at low frequency

(typically 1.3 GHz) collected by SAR. P band (~400 MHz) and S band (~2.7 GHz) are also possible.
5.6.4 Fraction of vegetated land
Definition: The fraction of a land area where vegetation is present – Physical unit: % – Uncertainty
unit: %.

observed in several discrete channels of relatively narrow bandwidths (1%–5%). Hyperspectral
(several hundred channels) possible. Applicable in LEO and potentially in GEO.

5.6.5 Vegetation type
Definition: Observed vegetal species or families. The list of types of interest is predetermined –
Uncertainty is expressed as number of identified types (classes).


5.6.6 Leaf area index
Definition: One half of the total projected green leaf fractional area in the plant canopy within
a given area. Representative of total biomass and health of vegetation – Physical unit: % –
Method 1: SW radiometry – Principle: Scattered solar radiation through VIS/NIR and deeply
into SWIR (up to 2.4 µm, for example). Several channels needed, relatively narrow (2%–3%).
Method 2: Radar scatterometry – Principle: Backscattered radiation by medium-frequency radar

scatterometry (about 5 or 11 GHz). Calibrated radar reflectivity depends on surface conductivity
(linked to biomass). Applicable only in LEO.

5.6.7 Normalized difference vegetation index
Definition: Difference between maximum (in NIR) and minimum (around the “red”) vegetation
reflectance, normalized to the summation. Representative of total biomass, supportive for
computing leaf area index if not directly measured – Physical unit: % – Uncertainty unit: %.
Method 1: VIS/NIR radiometry – Principle: Scattered solar radiation in VIS (“red”, minimum
reflectance from vegetation) and NIR (typically, 865 nm, high reflectance). Applicable in both
LEO and GEO.
Method 2: High-resolution optical imagery – Principle: Scattered solar radiation in VIS (“red”,
minimum reflectance from vegetation) and NIR (typically, 865 nm, high reflectance). Applicable
in LEO and potentially in GEO.
5.6.8 Fire fractional cover
Definition: The fraction of a land area where fire is present – Physical unit: % – Uncertainty unit: %.
Method 1: VIS/NIR radiometry – Principle: Reflected solar radiation in VIS/NIR/SWIR or emitted

radiation in MWIR/IR observed in a few discrete channels of relatively large bandwidths
(5%–10%). The fractional cover refers to the number of pixels classified as fire in a given pixel
array. Applicable in both LEO and GEO.

observed in several discrete channels. Useful post factum for damage inventory. High resolution
is prioritized at the expense of the observing cycle. Applicable only in LEO.

collected by SAR. The fractional cover refers to the number of pixels classified as fire in a given
array. Useful post factum for damage inventory. Applicable only in LEO.
5.6.9 Fire temperature
Definition: Temperature of the fire occurring within an area – Physical unit: K – Uncertainty unit: K.
Method 1: IR radiometry – Principle: Derived from IR imagery in a number of window channels.

MWIR (3.7 µm) most sensitive. Applicable in both LEO and GEO.
5.6.10 Fire radiative power
Definition: Power radiated by the fire occurring within an area – Physical unit: kW · m–2 –
Uncertainty unit: kW · m–2.
Method 1: IR radiometry – Principle: Derived from IR imagery in a number of window channels.

MWIR (3.7 µm) most sensitive. Applicable in both LEO and GEO.
5.6.11 Snow status (wet/dry)
Definition: Binary product (dry or melting/thawing) expressing the presence of liquid water in a
snow layer – Uncertainty expressed as HR and FAR when classifying the status as either wet or
dry.

windows at medium-high frequencies (such as 37, 90 GHz). More polarizations are needed. Since
wet snow can be confused with underlying soil, preventive snow detection (mask) is necessary.
Method 2: SAR imagery – Principle: Backscattered MW radiation collected by synthetic aperture

radar at relatively high frequencies, such as ~10 GHz (X band), possibly ~19 GHz (K band), since
dry snow tends to be transparent to SAR. More useful for change detection during thawing and
freezing cycles. Applicable only in LEO.
5.6.12 Snow cover
Definition: The fraction of a given area which is covered by snow – Physical unit: % – Uncertainty
unit: %.
Method 1: VIS/IR radiometry – Principle: Reflected solar radiation in VIS/NIR/SWIR or emitted

radiation in MWIR/IR observed in a few discrete channels of relatively large bandwidths (5%–
10%). The fractional cover refers to the number of pixels classified as snow in a given pixel array.
Alternatively, retrieval can be carried out at pixel level by exploiting the “defect” of brightness
due to mixed snow/no-snow in the pixel (“effective snow cover”). Applicable in both LEO
and GEO.

windows at medium-high frequencies (such as 37, 90 GHz). More polarizations are needed.
The fractional cover refers to the number of pixels classified as snow in a given pixel array. Snow
surface status (dry or wet) is also determined. Applicable only in LEO.
Method 3: High-resolution optical imagery – Principle: Reflected solar radiation in VIS/NIR/

SWIR observed in several discrete channels. High-resolution is prioritized at the expense of the
observing cycle. Applicable in LEO and potentially in GEO.
5.6.13 Snow water equivalent
Definition: Vertical depth of the water that would be obtained by melting a snow layer. The snow
depth may be inferred by exploiting auxiliary information on the density of the snow layer –
Physical unit: mm – Uncertainty unit: mm.

windows at medium-high frequencies (such as 37, 90 GHz), preferred because at low frequency
dry snow is transparent. More polarizations are needed. Applicable only in LEO.
Method 2: Radar scatterometry – Principle: Backscattered MW radiation at low-medium

frequencies (5, 13 GHz). Higher frequency preferred over dry snow. The multiple viewing angle
capability is exploited to correct for roughness. Applicable only in LEO.
Method 3: SAR imagery – Principle: Backscattered MW radiation collected by SAR at relatively

high frequencies (dry snow is transparent to SAR). An optimal frequency would be ~19 GHz
(Ku band). Lower frequencies can be used for monitoring changes by interferometry. Applicable
only in LEO.
5.6.14 Soil type
Definition: Observed soil composition or structure (acid, alkaline, rough, and the like). The list of
types of interest is predetermined – Uncertainty is expressed as number of discriminated types
(classes).


5.6.15 Land cover
Definition: Observed land utilization (urban, cultivated, desertic, etc.). The list of types of interest
is predetermined – Uncertainty expressed as the number of identified types (classes).


5.6.16 Land surface topography
Definition: Map of land surface heights – Physical unit: m – Uncertainty unit: m.
Method 1: High-resolution VIS stereoscopy – Principle: Reflected solar radiation in VIS observed
in one or more channels of relatively narrow bandwidths (1%–5%) from at least two viewing
directions, generally from successive orbits, so as to implement stereoscopy. Applicable only
in LEO.
Method 2: SAR interferometry – Principle: Backscattered MW radiation at frequencies of 1.3, 5

or 11 GHz collected by synthetic aperture radar. Interferometry from successive orbital passes.
Method 3: Radar altimetry – Principle: Backscattered radiation from land surface by medium-
correction from water vapour and ionosphere-induced rotation. Along-track SAR processing is
needed for acceptable resolution. Only nadir view. Applicable only in LEO.
Method 4: Lidar altimetry – Principle: Backscattered VIS/NIR radiation by lidar. Two wavelengths
preferred, such as 532 and 1 064 nm. Only nadir view. Applicable only in LEO.
5.6.17 Glacier cover
Definition: The fraction of a land area covered by permanent ice – Physical unit: % – Uncertainty
unit: %.
Method 1: High-resolution VIS stereoscopy – Principle: Reflected solar radiation in VIS/NIR/SWIR

observed in several discrete channels of relatively narrow bandwidths (1%–5%). Applicable in
LEO and potentially in GEO.

collected by synthetic aperture radar. Interferometry used to detect changes. Applicable only
in LEO.
5.6.18 Glacier topography
Definition: Map of the height of the glacier surface – Physical unit: cm – Uncertainty unit: cm.
Method 1: SAR interferometry – Principle: Backscattered MW radiation at frequencies of 1.3, 5

or 11 GHz collected by synthetic aperture radar. Interferometry from successive orbital passes.
5.7 SOLID EARTH
This theme comprises variables that characterize the solid Earth (space geodesy and Earth
interior). The variables observable from space are listed in Table 5.6.
Table 5.6. Geophysical variables considered under the theme “Solid Earth”
Geoid Crustal plates Crustal motion Gravity field Gravity gradients

positioning (horizontal and vertical)
5.7.1 Geoid
Definition: Equipotential surface which would coincide exactly with the mean ocean surface of
the Earth, if the oceans were in equilibrium, at rest, and extended through the continents (such
as with very narrow channels) – Physical unit: cm – Uncertainty unit: cm.
correction from water vapour and ionosphere-induced rotation. Highly stable orbits needed
(relatively high altitude, 50°–70° inclination and accurate repeat cycle). Multi-orbital analysis
enables transient perturbations to be filtered out of waves, ocean currents and tides. Applicable
only in LEO.
Method 2: Gravity-field observation – Principle: Observation of the gravity field at satellite altitude
by accelerometers, gradiometers, satellite–satellite tracking (coupled satellites or with GPS
satellites). Low orbits are used, changing during mission time. Applicable only in LEO.
5.7.2 Crustal plates positioning
Definition: Basis for monitoring the evolution of the lithosphere dynamics – Physical unit: cm –
Uncertainty unit: cm.
Method 1: Laser ranging – Principle: Accurate measurement of the satellite–ground distance by

pointing the satellite using a surface-based laser that collects the light reflected by cube-corner
mirrors covering the surface of the satellite. A worldwide network can provide both precision
orbitography and the position of the crustal plates supporting the laser ranging stations.
Method 2: GPS receiver – Principle: Statistical analysis of the position of a surface-based GPS
receiver localized by the constellations of navigation satellites (GPS, GLONASS, Compass,
Galileo). Applicable only in LEO.
5.7.3 Crustal motion (horizontal and vertical)
Definition: Changes over time of the position and height of the Earth’s plates. Indicative of the
lithosphere dynamics, thus useful for earthquake prediction – Physical unit: mm/y – Uncertainty
unit: mm/y.
Method 1: Laser ranging – Principle: Analysis of changes in crustal plate positioning, accurately
measured by satellite-ground distance through a surface-based laser that collects the light
reflected by cube-corner mirrors covering the surface of the satellite. A worldwide network of
laser-ranging stations enables this analysis to be performed. Applicable only in LEO.
Method 2: GPS receiver – Principle: Analysis of changes in crustal plate positioning, accurately
measured by surface-based GPS receivers localized by the constellations of navigation satellites
(GPS, GLONASS, Compass, Galileo). Applicable only in LEO.
5.7.4 Gravity field
Definition: 3D field, actually measured in situ at orbital height. Indicative of the statics and
dynamics of the lithosphere and the mantle – Physical unit: mGal (1 Gal = 0.01 m/s2,
so 1 mGal ≈ 10 –6 g0 . “Gal” stands for Galileo) – Uncertainty unit: mGal.
Method 1: Gradiometry – Principle: Appropriate network of accelerometers sensitive to anomalies

in the gravity field crossed by the satellite during its motion in orbit. Applicable only in LEO.
Method 2: Satellite-to-satellite tracking – Principle: Continuous monitoring of the distance

between satellites in coordinated orbits, for example by means of K-band radar or lidar.
5.7.5 Gravity gradients
Definition: 3D field, actually measured in situ at orbital height. Indicative of fine details of the
statics and dynamics of the lithosphere and the mantle – Physical unit: E, Eötvös
(1 E = 1 mGal/10 km) – Uncertainty unit: E.
Method 1: Gradiometry – Principle: Appropriate network of accelerometers sensitive to anomalies

of the gravity field crossed by the satellite during its motion in orbit. Applicable only in LEO.
Method 2: Satellite-to-satellite tracking – Principle: Continuous monitoring of the distance

between satellites in coordinated orbits by means of K-band radar or lidar, for example.
5.8 ATMOSPHERIC CHEMISTRY
This theme deals with species that impact the ozone cycle, and/or provoke the greenhouse effect
and/or affect air quality. The species observable from space and which are so far the subject of
explicit requirements are listed in Table 5.7.
Table 5.7. Geophysical variables considered under the theme “Atmospheric chemistry”
Peroxyacetyl
O3 C2H2 CFC–11 CH2O ClO CO COS HCl HNO3 N2O5 NO2 SF6
nitrate
Polar stratospheric
BrO C2H6 CFC–12 CH4 ClONO2 CO2 H2O HDO N2O NO OH SO2
cloud occurrence
5.8.1 Ozone (O3)
Definition: 3D field of dry-air mole fraction of O3. Required from surface to TOA (layers: LT, HT, LS,
HS&M) + total column – Physical unit: nmol/mol for layers, Dobson unit (DU) for total column
(1 DU = 2.69 · 1020 molecules/m2) – Uncertainty unit: nmol/mol for layers, DU for total column.
Method 1: SW spectroscopy (cross-nadir) – Principle: Scattered radiation in UV and VIS observed

with high spectral resolution in several bands by cross-nadir spectrometers. Applicable in both
LEO and GEO.
Method 2: IR spectroscopy (cross-nadir) – Principle: Emitted radiation in TIR (~9.7 µm) observed

with medium-high spectral resolution by cross-nadir spectrometers. Applicable in both LEO
and GEO.
Method 3: SW spectroscopy (limb) – Principle: Scattered radiation in UV and VIS observed in limb
mode with high spectral resolution. Also, missing lines from the spectrum of the Sun, moon or
stars during occultation. Applicable only in LEO.
Method 4: IR spectroscopy (limb) – Principle: Emitted radiation in TIR (~9.7 µm) observed with
high spectral resolution by limb-sounding spectrometers. Applicable only in LEO.
Method 5: MW/sub-mm spectroscopy (limb) – Principle: Emitted radiation in MW/sub-mm

(such as ~240, 300 and 500 GHz) observed with high spectral resolution by limb-sounding
spectrometers. Applicable only in LEO.
Method 6: DIAL – Principle: Backscattered radiation in a UV, VIS or TIR ozone-absorption band
and a side window by differential absorption lidar. Applicable only in LEO.
5.8.2 Bromine monoxide (BrO)
Definition: 3D field of dry-air mole fraction of BrO. Required from surface to TOA (layers: LT, HT,
LS, HS&M) – Physical unit: nmol/mol – Uncertainty unit: nmol/mol.
Method 1: UV spectroscopy (cross-nadir) – Principle: Scattered radiation in UV observed with high

spectral resolution in the 300 nm region by cross-nadir spectrometers. Applicable in both LEO
and GEO.
Method 2: UV spectroscopy (limb) – Principle: Scattered radiation in UV (300 nm region)

observed in limb mode with high spectral resolution. Also, missing lines from the spectrum of
the Sun, moon or stars during occultation. Applicable only in LEO.

(such as ~640 GHz) observed with high spectral resolution by limb-sounding spectrometers.
5.8.3 Acetylene (C2H2)
Definition: 3D field of dry-air mole fraction of C 2H2. Required in the troposphere (layers: LT, HT) –
Physical unit: nmol/mol – Uncertainty unit: nmol/mol.
Method 1: TIR spectroscopy (cross-nadir) – Principle: Emitted radiation in TIR (~7.5 and 13.7 µm)
observed with high spectral resolution by cross-nadir spectrometers. Applicable in both LEO
and GEO.
5.8.4 Ethane (C2H6)
Definition: 3D field of dry-air mole fraction of C 2H6. Required in the troposphere (layers: LT, HT) –
Method 1: TIR spectroscopy (cross-nadir) – Principle: Emitted radiation in TIR (~3.3 and 12 µm)
and GEO.
5.8.5 Trichlorofluoromethane (CFC–11 = Freon–11)
Definition: 3D field of dry-air mole fraction of CFC–11. Required from surface to TOA (layers: LT,
HT, LS, HS&M) – Physical unit: nmol/mol – Uncertainty unit: nmol/mol.
observed with medium-high spectral resolution by cross-nadir spectrometers. Applicable in both
LEO and GEO.
Method 2: TIR spectroscopy (limb) – Principle: Emitted radiation in TIR (~9.2 and 11.7 µm)
observed with medium-high spectral resolution by limb-sounding spectrometers. Applicable
only in LEO.
5.8.6 Dichlorodifluoromethane (CFC–12 = Freon–12)
Definition: 3D field of dry-air mole fraction of CFC–12. Required from surface to TOA (layers: LT,
LEO and GEO.
observed with medium-high spectral resolution by limb-sounding spectrometers. Applicable
only in LEO.
5.8.7 Formaldehyde (CH2O = HCHO)
Definition: 3D field of dry-air mole fraction of CH2O. Required in the troposphere (layers: LT, HT)
+ total column – Physical unit: nmol/mol for layers, units of 1.3 · 1015 molecules/cm2 for total
column – Uncertainty unit: nmol/mol for layers, 1.3 · 1015 cm–2 for total column.
Method 1: UV spectroscopy (cross-nadir) – Principle: Scattered radiation in UV (~350 nm)

and GEO.
5.8.8 Methane (CH4)
Definition: 3D field of dry-air mole fraction of CH4. Required from surface to TOA (layers: LT, HT,
LS, HS&M) + total column – Physical unit: nmol/mol for layers, units of 1.3 · 1015 molecules/
cm2 for total column – Uncertainty unit: nmol/mol for layers, 1.3 · 1015 molecules/cm2 for total
column.
Method 1: SWIR spectroscopy (cross-nadir) – Principle: Scattered radiation in SWIR (~2.3 µm)

and GEO.
Method 2: TIR spectroscopy (cross-nadir) – Principle: Emitted radiation in TIR (~3.4, 4.3 and
7.7 µm) observed with medium-high spectral resolution by cross-nadir spectrometers.
Method 3: SWIR spectroscopy (limb) – Principle: Scattered radiation in SWIR (~2.3 µm) observed
in limb mode with high spectral resolution. Also, missing lines from the spectrum of the Sun,
moon or stars during occultation. Applicable only in LEO.
Method 4: TIR spectroscopy (limb) – Principle: Emitted radiation in TIR (~3.4, 4.3 and 7.7 µm)
observed with high spectral resolution by limb-sounding spectrometers. Applicable only in LEO.
5.8.9 Chlorine monoxide (ClO = hypochlorite)
Definition: 3D field of dry-air mole fraction of ClO. Required from surface to TOA (layers: LT, HT,
LS, HS&M) – Physical unit: nmol/mo – Uncertainty unit: nmol/mol.
Method 1: UV spectroscopy (cross-nadir) – Principle: Scattered radiation in UV observed with high

spectral resolution in the 300 nm region by cross-nadir spectrometers. Applicable in both LEO
and GEO.
Method 2: UV spectroscopy (limb) – Principle: Scattered radiation in UV (300 nm region)


5.8.10 Chlorine nitrate (ClONO2)
Definition: 3D field of dry-air mole fraction of ClONO2. Required from mid-troposphere to TOA
(layers: HT, LS, HS&M) – Physical unit: nmol/mol – Uncertainty unit: nmol/mol.
12.5 µm) observed with high spectral resolution by cross-nadir spectrometers. Applicable in both
LEO and GEO.
Method 2: TIR spectroscopy (limb) – Principle: Emitted radiation in TIR (~5.7, 7.7 and 12.5 µm)
5.8.11 Carbon monoxide (CO)
Definition: 3D field of dry-air mole fraction of CO. Required from surface to low
stratosphere (layers: LT, HT, LS) + total column – Physical unit: nmol/mol for layers, units
of 1.3 · 1015 molecules/cm2 for total column – Uncertainty unit: nmol/mol for layers,
1.3 · 1015 molecules/cm2 for total column.

and GEO.
Method 2: TIR spectroscopy (cross-nadir) – Principle: Emitted radiation in TIR (~4.6 µm) observed
and GEO.
Method 4: TIR spectroscopy (limb) – Principle: Emitted radiation in TIR (~4.6 µm) observed with
5.8.12 Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Definition: 3D field of dry-air mole fraction of CO2. Required from surface to TOA (layers: LT, HT,
LS, HS&M) + total column – Physical unit: nmol/mol for layers, units of
1.3 · 1015 molecules/cm2 for total column – Uncertainty unit: nmol/mol for layers,
1.3 · 1015 molecules/cm2 for total column.
Method 1: SWIR spectroscopy (cross-nadir) – Principle: Scattered radiation in SWIR (~1.6 and
LEO and GEO.
Method 2: TIR spectroscopy (cross-nadir) – Principle: Emitted radiation in TIR (~4.3 and 15 µm)
LEO and GEO.
Method 3: SWIR spectroscopy (limb) – Principle: Scattered radiation in SWIR (~1.6 and 2.1 µm)
Method 4: TIR spectroscopy (limb) – Principle: Emitted radiation in TIR (~4.3 and 15 µm) observed
with high spectral resolution by limb-sounding spectrometers. Applicable only in LEO.
Method 5: DIAL – Principle: Backscattered radiation in a CO2 absorption band and a side window
by differential absorption lidar. Several bands are available, around 1.6 and 2.0 µm, for example.
Only total column feasible. Integration over large area and long time necessary to achieve the
required uncertainty (~0.3%). Applicable only in LEO.
5.8.13 Carbonyl sulphide (COS)
Definition: 3D field of dry-air mole fraction of COS. Required from surface to low stratosphere
(layers: LT, HT, LS) – Physical unit: nmol/mol – Uncertainty unit: nmol/mol.
and GEO.
5.8.14 Water vapour (H2O)
Definition: 3D field of dry-air mole fraction of H2O (intended as a chemical species relevant for
atmospheric chemistry). Required from surface to TOA (layers: LT, HT, LS, HS&M) – Physical
unit: nmol/mol – Uncertainty unit: nmol/mol.
Method 1: SW spectroscopy (cross-nadir) – Principle: Scattered radiation in VIS, NIR and SWIR
observed with high spectral resolution in several bands by cross-nadir spectrometers. Applicable

and GEO.
Method 3: Far IR spectroscopy (cross-nadir) – Principle: Emitted radiation in FIR (~18 µm)

LEO and GEO.
Method 4: GNSS radio-occultation – Principle: Atmospheric refraction of L-band signals from the
GNSS received by a LEO satellite during the occultation phase. Applicable only in LEO.
Method 5: SW spectroscopy (limb) – Principle: Scattered radiation in VIS, NIR and SWIR observed
Method 7: MW/sub-mm spectroscopy (limb) – Principle: Emitted radiation in several bands of the
MW/sub-mm range observed with high spectral resolution by limb-sounding spectrometers.
Method 8: DIAL – Principle: Backscattered radiation in a UV, VIS or TIR absorption band and a side
window by differential absorption lidar. Applicable only in LEO.
5.8.15 Hydrogen chloride (HCl)
Definition: 3D field of dry-air mole fraction of HCl. Required from mid-troposphere to TOA (layers:

5.8.16 HDO
Definition: 3D field of dry-air mole fraction of HDO = water vapour (with one hydrogen nucleus
replaced by its deuterium isotope). Required from low stratosphere to TOA (layers: LS and
HS&M) – Physical unit: nmol/mol – Uncertainty unit: nmol/mol.

(such as ~1 000 GHz) observed with high spectral resolution by limb-sounding spectrometers.
5.8.17 Nitric acid (HNO3)
Definition: 3D field of dry-air mole fraction of HNO3. Required from surface to TOA (layers: LT,
HT, LS, HS&M) + total column – Physical unit: nmol/mol for layers, units of 1.3 · 1015 molecules/
cm2 for total column – Uncertainty unit: nmol/mol for layers, 1.3 · 1015 molecules/cm2 for total
column.
Method 1: IR spectroscopy (cross-nadir) – Principle: Emitted radiation in TIR (~5.9, 7.6 and
LEO and GEO.
Method 2: IR spectroscopy (limb) – Principle: Emitted radiation in TIR (~5.9, 7.6 and 11.3 µm)

5.8.18 Nitrous oxide (N2O)
Definition: 3D field of dry-air mole fraction of N2O. Required from surface to TOA (layers: LT, HT,

and GEO.
LEO and GEO.
Method 5: MW/sub-mm spectroscopy (limb) – Principle: Emitted radiation in MW/sub-mm (such

as ~300 and 500 GHz) observed with high spectral resolution by limb-sounding spectrometers.
5.8.19 Nitrogen pentoxide (N2O5)
Definition: 3D field of dry-air mole fraction of N2O5. Required in the troposphere (layers: LT, HT) –
and GEO.
5.8.20 Nitric oxide (NO)
Definition: 3D field of dry-air mole fraction of NO. Required from surface to TOA (layers: LT, HT,
Method 1: SW spectroscopy (cross-nadir) – Principle: Scattered radiation in UV (~250 nm)

and GEO.

with high spectral resolution by cross-nadir spectrometers. Applicable in both LEO and GEO.
Method 3: SW spectroscopy (limb) – Principle: Scattered radiation in UV (~250 nm) observed in

limb mode with high spectral resolution. Also, missing lines from the spectrum of the Sun, moon
or stars during occultation. Applicable only in LEO.
5.8.21 Nitrogen peroxide (NO2)
Definition: 3D field of dry-air mole fraction of NO2. Required from surface to TOA (layers: LT, HT,
LS, HS&M) + total column – Physical unit: nmol/mol for layers, units of 1.3 · 1015 molecules/cm2
for total column – Uncertainty unit: nmol/mol for layers, 1.3 · 1015 cm–2 for total column.

with high spectral resolution in several bands by cross-nadir spectrometers. Applicable in both
LEO and GEO.

mode with high spectral resolution. Also, missing lines from the spectrum of the Sun, moon or
stars during occultation. Applicable only in LEO.
5.8.22 Hydroxyl radical (OH)
Definition: 3D field of dry-air mole fraction of OH. Required from surface to TOA (layers: LT, HT,
Method 1: Sub-mm spectroscopy (limb) – Principle: Emitted radiation in sub-mm (~2 500 GHz)

Method 2: FIR spectroscopy (limb) – Principle: Emitted radiation in the Far IR (several lines in the
range 28–182 µm, best at ~84 µm) observed with high spectral resolution by limb-sounding
spectrometers. Applicable only in LEO.
5.8.23 Peroxyacetyl nitrate
Definition: 3D field of dry-air mole fraction of peroxyacetyl nitrate. Required in the troposphere
(layers: LT, HT) – Physical unit: nmol/mol – Uncertainty unit: nmol/mol.
12.5 µm) observed with high spectral resolution by cross-nadir spectrometers. Applicable only
in LEO.
5.8.24 Polar stratospheric cloud occurrence
Definition: 3D field of polar stratospheric cloud occurrence. Required in the lower stratosphere
(layer: LS) – Uncertainty expressed as hit rate (HR) and false-alarm rate (FAR).

with moderate spectral resolution by cross-nadir spectrometers. Applicable in both LEO
and GEO.
mode with moderate spectral resolution. Applicable only in LEO.
Method 3: IR spectroscopy (limb) – Principle: Emitted radiation in TIR observed with moderate
spectral resolution by limb-sounding spectrometers. Applicable only in LEO.
5.8.25 Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6)
Definition: 3D field of dry-air mole fraction of SF6. Required from low stratosphere to TOA (layers:
LS and HS&M) – Physical unit: nmol/mol – Uncertainty unit: nmol/mol.
Method 1: TIR spectroscopy (cross-nadir) – Principle: Emitted radiation in TIR (~10.5 µm) observed
Method 2: TIR spectroscopy (limb) – Principle: Emitted radiation in TIR (~10.5 µm) observed with
5.8.26 Sulphur dioxide (SO2)
Definition: 3D field of dry-air mole fraction of SO2. Required from surface to lower
stratosphere (layers: LT, HT, LS) + total column – Physical unit: nmol/mol for layers, units of
1.3 · 1015 molecules/cm2 for total column – Uncertainty unit: nmol/mol for layers, 1.3 · 1015 cm–2
for total column.
Method 1: UV spectroscopy (cross-nadir) – Principle: Scattered radiation in UV (~350 nm)

and GEO.
LEO and GEO.
5.9 SPACE WEATHER
This theme comprises variables that characterize space weather. The variables relevant to this
theme are classified below according to three categories:
(a) Solar processes monitoring (Table 5.8);
(b) Sun–Earth interplanetary space, dominated by the solar wind (Table 5.9);
(c) Earth proximity: the magnetosphere and ionosphere (Table 5.10).
Table 5.8. Satellite observations relevant to solar processes monitoring
Variable Details Physical unit

Solar gamma rays, Integrated flux density W · m –2
X-rays, EUV, UV, VIS Flux spectrum W · m–2 · nm–1

Flux image W · m–2 · arcsec–2
Solar Ca II-K image K-line of Ca-II (393.4 nm) W · m–2 · arcsec–2
Solar H-alpha image Hydrogen-alpha transition (656.3 nm) W · m–2 · arcsec–2
Solar Lyman-alpha Hydrogen Lyman-alpha transition (121.6 nm) W · m–2 · arcsec–2

image
Solar Lyman-alpha flux Hydrogen Lyman-alpha transition (121.6 nm) W · m–2 · nm–1
Solar magnetic field Magnetic field at the solar surface nT

(photosphere)
Solar radio flux Radio flux integrated over the solar disk W · m–2 · Hz–1
spectrum
Solar radio flux image Radio flux received from the solar disk W · m–2 · Hz–1 · arcsec–2
Solar velocity fields 3D map of plasma velocity in the photosphere m · s–1 · arcsec–2
Solar electric field Map of the electric field in the photosphere mV · m–1 · arcsec–2
Solar corona image Image of the corona surrounding the Sun W · m–2 · arcsec–2
Table 5.9. Satellite observations relevant

to Sun–Earth interplanetary space and solar wind

Electrons, protons, neutrons, Integrated flux density particles · m–2 · s–1
alpha-particles Differential directional flux particles · m–2 · s–1 · sr–1 · eV–1
Integral directional flux particles · m–2 · s–1 · sr–1
Heavy ions [2(He) < Z ≤ 26(Fe)] Angular flux energy and mass particles · m–2 · s–1 · sr–1
spectrum (MeV/nucleon)–1
Integral directional flux particles · m–2 · s–1 · sr–1
Cosmic rays Neutron flux neutron · m–2 · s–1
Gamma rays, X-rays, EUV, UV, VIS, Flux W · m–2

NIR, SWIR Flux spectrum W · m–2 · nm–1
Sky image W · m–2 · arcsec–2
Radio waves Integrated flux density W · m–2 · Hz–1
Heliospheric image Image of the solar wind W · m–2 · arcsec–2

environment
Interplanetary magnetic field Magnetic field in the solar wind nT
Solar wind density Density of the solar wind plasma particles · cm–3
Solar wind temperature Temperature of solar wind plasma K
Solar wind velocity Velocity of the solar wind plasma km · s–1
Table 5.10. Satellite observations specific to the magnetosphere and ionosphere

Ionospheric plasma velocity Velocity of bulk plasma or electrons, a function of km · s–1
altitude
Ionospheric scintillation Random fluctuations of radio waves and refractive dimensionless

index
Ionospheric total electron Number of electrons between two points Total electron
content content units
(TECU)
Electron density 3D distribution of the electron density in the electrons · m–3

ionosphere
Magnetic field Magnetic field in the Earth environment nT

(magnetosphere)
Electric field Magnitude and direction of the Earth’s electric field mV · m
Electrostatic charge Accumulated electric charge on a satellite platform pA · cm–2
Radiation dose rate 3D field of the dose rate of energetic particles mSv · h–1
In the following sections, some details are given for a few variables that are relevant to the
ionosphere and magnetosphere.
5.9.1 Ionospheric total electron content
Definition: Number of electrons along a path between two points. Observed under different
viewing angles so as to generate vertical profiles by tomography. Required in the ionosphere and
plasmasphere – Physical unit: electrons/m2; practical unit: TECU = 1016 electrons/m2 – Uncertainty
unit: %.
Method 1: GNSS radio-occultation – Principle: Differential refraction between two frequencies

(~1.2 and 1.6 GHz) transmitted by a navigation satellite and received by a LEO satellite during
the occultation phase. Path-integrated content observed at changing tangent heights so as to
provide vertical profile. Applicable only in LEO.
Method 2: Radar altimetry – Principle: Differential phase delay between signals from dual-
frequency radar altimeter (~13 GHz and ~3 or 5 GHz). Phase rotation measurement, primarily
needed to correct the altimeter ranging measurement, is also used to infer the column-integrated
total electron content. Applicable only in LEO.
Method 3: GPS–LEO signal phase delay – Principle: Differential phase delay between signals
from two-frequency GPS transmitters (~1.2 and 1.6 GHz) and a receiver in LEO using GPS for
navigation. In principle, any satellite equipped with a GPS navigation system is suitable. The
information refers to the topside ionosphere and plasmasphere, namely the layer between the
satellite altitude and the GPS altitude (~20 000 km). Applicable only in LEO.
5.9.2 Electron density
Definition: 3D distribution of the electron density. Required in the ionosphere and plasmasphere –
Physical unit: electrons/m3 – Uncertainty unit: %.
Method 1: GNSS radio-occultation – Principle: Differential refraction between two frequencies

(~1.2 and 1.6 GHz) transmitted by a navigation satellite and received by a LEO satellite during the
occultation phase. Derived by tomography of the total electron content. Applicable only in LEO.
5.9.3 Magnetic field
Definition: Magnitude and direction of the Earth’s magnetic field. Indicative of the degree of
geomagnetic disturbance within the magnetosphere, and also in the Earth’s interior. Required in
the magnetosphere – Physical unit: nT (1 tesla = 10 4 gauss) – Uncertainty: nT.
Method 1: Magnetometry – Principle: more magnetometers for in situ measurement along the
orbit as the satellite moves. Applicable in LEO, in GEO and in highly elliptical orbits.
5.9.4 Electric field
Definition: Magnitude and direction of the Earth’s electric field. Required in the ionosphere –
Physical unit: mV · m–1 – Uncertainty: mV · m–1.
Method 1: Ion drift – Principle: Measurement of magnitude and direction of the incoming ion
flux. The electric field is derived from the relationship between electric field, measured ion drift
velocity and measured magnetic field strength. In situ measurement along the orbit as the
satellite moves. Applicable in LEO and in highly elliptical orbits.
ANNEX. ACHIEVABLE QUALITY OF SATELLITE PRODUCTS
This annex indicates the achievable quality in terms of RMS error,1 horizontal resolution (Δx),
vertical resolution (Δz) and observing cycle (Δt), with assumptions made on the number of
satellites needed for the quoted observing cycle Δt, and the main possible observing conditions
or limitations. These quality estimates are based on the characteristics of state-of-the art
instruments that are being developed at the time of writing this Guide, and expected to be
operational by 2020. This estimate is made for each applicable remote-sensing principle for
geophysical variables of the eight following themes:
(a) Basic atmospheric 3D and 2D variables;
(b) Cloud and precipitation variables;
(c) Aerosols and radiation;
(d) Ocean and sea ice;
(e) Land surface (including snow);
(f) Solid Earth;
(g) Atmospheric chemistry;
(h) Space weather.
1. BASIC ATMOSPHERIC 3D AND 2D VARIABLES
Table 5.A.1. Geophysical variables considered under the theme

“Basic atmospheric 3D and 2D variables”
Atmospheric Wind (horizontal) Height of the top of the Height of the

temperature planetary boundary layer tropopause
Specific humidity Wind vector over the Temperature of the tropopause

surface (horizontal)
1
Note that RMS error used in the present volume corresponds approximately to an expanded uncertainty with a
coverage factor of k = 1, while in the rest of this Guide a coverage factor of k = 2 is generally used (see Volume 1,
Chapter 1, 1.6.3.3 and the Evaluation of Measurement Data – Guide to the Expression of Uncertainty in Measurement
(JCGM 100:2008).
Table 5.A.1.1. Estimated potential quality of product “Atmospheric temperature” (by 2020)
Uncertainty Δx Δz Δt Number
Layer Orbit Technique Conditions
(RMS) (km) (km) (h) of sats
Troposphere LEO IR spectroscopy 1K 20 1 4 3 Clear-air
(at ~500 hPa)
GEO IR spectroscopy 1K 20 1 0.5 6 Clear-air
LEO MW/sub-mm 1.5 K 30 1.5 4 3 Nearly all

radiometry weather
GEO MW/sub-mm 1.5 K 30 1.7 0.5 6 Nearly all

radiometry weather
LEO GNSS radio- 1K 300 0.5 12 12 All weather

occultation
Stratosphere LEO IR spectroscopy 3K 20 3 4 3 –

(at ~30 hPa)
GEO IR spectroscopy 4K 20 4 0.5 6 –
LEO MW/sub-mm 4K 30 4 4 3 –
radiometry
GEO MW/sub-mm 4K 30 4 0.5 6 –

radiometry
LEO GNSS radio- 2K 300 1 12 12 –

occultation
LEO Limb sounding 2K 300 2 72 1 –

Table 5.A.1.2. Estimated potential quality of product “Specific humidity” (by 2020)
Troposphere LEO IR spectroscopy 10% 20 1.5 4 3 Clear-air
(at ~500 hPa)
GEO IR spectroscopy 10% 20 2 0.5 6 Clear-air
LEO MW/sub-mm 15% 30 2.5 4 3 Nearly all

radiometry weather
GEO MW/sub-mm 15% 30 2.5 0.5 6 Nearly all

radiometry weather
LEO GNSS radio- 10% 300 0.5 12 12 All weather

occultation
LEO DIAL (non- 2% 50 0.3 360 1 Clear-air

scanning)
Stratosphere LEO IR spectroscopy 15% 20 4 4 3 –

(at ~30 hPa)
GEO IR spectroscopy 20% 20 5 0.5 6 –
LEO MW/sub-mm 30% 30 5 4 3 –

radiometry
GEO MW/sub-mm 30% 30 5 0.5 6 –

radiometry
LEO GNSS radio- 20% 300 5 12 12 –

occultation
LEO DIAL (non- 10% 50 2 360 1 –

scanning)
LEO Limb sounding 20% 300 2 72 1 –
Total column LEO From IR sounding 2 kg · m–2 20 – 4 3 Clear-air
GEO From IR sounding 2 kg · m–2 20 – 0.5 6 Clear-air
LEO From MW 3 kg · m–2 30 – 4 3 All weather

sounding
GEO From MW 3 kg · m–2 30 – 0.5 6 All weather

sounding
LEO From DIAL 1 kg · m–2 50 – 360 1 Clear-air

(non-scanning)
LEO IR split-window 4 kg · m–2 1 – 4 3 Clear-air
GEO IR split-window 4 kg · m–2 4 – 0.1 6 Clear-air
LEO MW imaging 2 kg · m–2 20 – 3 8 (GPM)a All weather,

(23 GHz) sea
LEO NIR imaging 3 kg · m–2 8 – 8 3 Clear-air,

(935 nm) daylight
GEO NIR imaging 3 kg · m–2 16 – 0.25 6 Clear-air,

(935 nm) daylight
Note:
a Contributing to the GPM mission.
Table 5.A.1.3. Estimated potential quality of product “Wind (horizontal)” (by 2020)
Troposphere LEO Doppler lidar 1 m · s–1 50 0.5 180 1 Clear-air
(at ~500 hPa) (non-scanning)
LEO VIS/IR image 6 m · s–1 15 6 4 3 Need for

sequences tracers, polar
regions
GEO VIS/IR image 5 m · s–1 50 6 1 6 Need for

sequences tracers
LEO IR imager- 5 m · s–1 160 2 4 3 Clear-air,

sounder polar regions
GEO IR imager- 4 m · s–1 160 2 1 6 Clear-air

sounder
Stratosphere LEO Doppler lidar 4 m · s–1 50 2 180 1 Non-scanning

LEO Doppler shift 5 m · s–1 300 2 72 1 Daylight

(limb mode)
Table 5.A.1.4. Estimated potential quality of product

“Wind vector over the surface (horizontal)” (by 2020)
Radar
LEO 2 m · s–1 20 – 12 3 Over sea, all weather
scatterometer
Polarimetric MW
LEO 3 m · s–1 10 – 8 3 Over sea, all weather
radiometry
Surface
Over sea, all weather,
LEO MW imagery 3 m · s–1 10 – 8 3
speed only
Radar altimetry Over sea, all weather,

LEO 3 m · s–1 100 – 120 2
(non-scanning) speed only

“Height of the top of the planetary boundary layer” (by 2020)
Backscatter lidar
LEO 0.1 km 50 – 360 1 Clear-air
(non-scanning)
LEO From IR sounding 0.5 km 20 – 4 3 Clear-air

N/A
GEO From IR sounding 0.5 km 20 – 0.5 6 Clear-air
From GNSS
LEO 0.3 km 300 – 12 12 All weather
sounding

“Height of the tropopause” (by 2020)
Backscatter lidar
LEO 0.1 km 50 – 360 1 Clear-air
(non-scanning)
N/A LEO From IR sounding 2 km 20 – 4 3 Clear-air
GEO From IR sounding 2 km 20 – 0.5 6 Clear-air
LEO From GNSS sounding 0.5 km 300 – 12 12 All weather

“Temperature of the tropopause” (by 2020)
LEO From IR sounding 2K 20 – 4 3 Clear-air
GEO From IR sounding 2.5 K 20 – 0.5 6 Clear-air

N/A
LEO From GNSS sounding 1K 300 – 12 12 All weather
LEO From limb sounding 1.5 K 300 – 72 1 Clear-air
2. CLOUD AND PRECIPITATION VARIABLES

“Cloud and precipitation variables”
Cloud-top Cloud-base height Cloud ice Precipitation (liquid or solid)

temperature
Cloud-top height Cloud optical depth Cloud-ice effective radius Precipitation intensity at
surface (liquid or solid)
Cloud type Cloud liquid water Freezing-level height in Accumulated precipitation

clouds (over 24 h)
Cloud cover Cloud-droplet effective Melting-layer depth in Lightning detection

radius clouds
Table 5.A.2.1. Estimated potential quality of product “Cloud-top temperature” (by 2020)
LEO IR radiometry 2K 1 – 4 3 –
GEO IR radiometry 2K 4 – 0.1 6 –

N/A
LEO From IR sounding 0.5 K 20 – 4 3 Within sounded IFOV
GEO From IR sounding 1K 20 – 0.5 6 Within sounded IFOV

Table 5.A.2.2. Estimated potential quality of product “Cloud-top height” (by 2020)
LEO IR radiometry 0.5 km 1 – 4 3 –
GEO IR radiometry 0.5 km 4 – 0.1 6 –
LEO From IR sounding 0.3 km 20 – 4 3 Within sounded IFOV
GEO From IR sounding 0.3 km 20 – 0.5 6 Within sounded IFOV
Backscatter lidar
LEO 0.1 km 50 – 360 1 Multi-orbit
N/A (non-scanning)
Cloud radar
LEO 0.3 km 50 – 360 1 Multi-orbit
(non-scanning)
A-band
LEO 0.3 km 4 – 8 3 Daylight
spectroscopy
A-band
GEO 0.3 km 8 – 0.25 6 Daylight
spectroscopy
Table 5.A.2.3. Estimated potential quality of product “Cloud type” (by 2020)
Degraded at night
LEO VIS/IR radiometry 10 classes 4 – 4 3
(no VIS)
N/A
Degraded at night
GEO VIS/IR radiometry 8 classes 12 – 0.1 1
(no VIS)
Table 5.A.2.4. Estimated potential quality of product “Cloud cover” (by 2020)
Troposphere LEO From IR sounding 10% 10 6 4 3 Within sounded
IFOV
GEO From IR sounding 10% 10 6 0.1 6 Within sounded

IFOV
LEO Cloud radar 10% 250 1 720 1 Multi-orbit

(non-scanning)
Total column LEO VIS/IR radiometry 3% 5 – 4 3 Degraded at

night (no VIS)
GEO VIS/IR radiometry 3% 30 – 0.1 6 Degraded at

night (no VIS)
LEO From IR sounding 10% 10 – 4 3 Within sounded

IFOV
GEO From IR sounding 10% 10 – 0.1 6 Within sounded

IFOV
Table 5.A.2.5. Estimated potential quality of product “Cloud-base height” (by 2020)
Cloud radar
N/A LEO 0.3 km 50 – 360 1 Multi-orbit
(non-scanning)
Table 5.A.2.6. Estimated potential quality of product “Cloud optical depth” (by 2020)
Backscatter lidar
LEO 0.1 50 – 360 1 Multi-orbit
(non-scanning)
Total column LEO SW polarimetry 0.5 20 – 48 1 Daylight
LEO SW/TIR radiometry 2 4 – 8 3 –
GEO SW/TIR radiometry 2 12 – 0.1 6 –
Table 5.A.2.7. Estimated potential quality of product “Cloud liquid water” (by 2020)
Troposphere LEO Cloud radar 10% 50 0.3 360 1 Multi-orbit
(non-scanning)
LEO Precipitation 20% 5 0.5 120 1 Precipitating

radar clouds
LEO MW/sub-mm 40% 20 3 3 8 –

sounding (GPM)
GEO MW/sub-mm 60% 30 4 0.5 6 –

sounding
Total column LEO Cloud radar 100 g · m–2 50 – 360 1 Multi-orbit

(non-scanning)
LEO Precipitation 200 g · m–2 5 – 120 1 Precipitating

radar clouds
LEO MW/sub-mm 200 g · m–2 20 – 3 8 –

sounding (GPM)
GEO MW/sub-mm 300 g · m–2 30 – 0.5 6 –

sounding

“Cloud-droplet effective radius” (by 2020)
Troposphere LEO Cloud radar 3 µm 50 0.3 360 1 Non-precipitating
(non-scanning) clouds
LEO Precipitation 10 µm 5 0.3 120 1 Precipitating

radar clouds
LEO MW/sub-mm 30 µm 20 3 3 8 Heavily

sounding (GPM) model-aided
GEO MW/sub-mm 30 µm 30 3 0.5 6 Heavily

sounding model-aided
Cloud top LEO Cloud radar 3 µm 50 – 360 1 Multi-orbit

(non-scanning)
LEO MW/sub-mm 10 µm 20 – 3 8 –
sounding (GPM)
GEO MW/sub-mm 10 µm 30 – 0.5 6 –

sounding
LEO Backscatter lidar 0.2 µm 50 – 360 1 Multi-orbit

(non-scanning)
LEO SW polarimetry 1 µm 10 – 48 1 Daylight
LEO VIS/IR radiometry 2 µm 1 – 4 3 Degraded at night

(no VIS)
GEO VIS/IR radiometry 2 µm 4 – 0.1 6 Degraded at night

(no VIS)
Table 5.A.2.9. Estimated potential quality of product “Cloud ice” (by 2020)
Troposphere LEO Cloud radar 10% 50 0.3 360 1 Non-precipitating
LEO Precipitation 20% 5 0.3 120 1 Precipitating clouds

radar
LEO MW/sub-mm 50% 20 3 3 8 (GPM) Heavily

GEO MW/sub-mm 50% 30 3 0.5 6 Heavily

Total column LEO Cloud radar 20 g · m–2 50 – 360 1 Non-precipitating

LEO Precipitation 20 g · m–2 5 – 120 1 Precipitating clouds

radar
LEO MW/sub-mm 40 g · m–2 20 – 3 8 (GPM) Model-aided

sounding
GEO MW/sub-mm 40 g · m–2 30 – 0.5 6 Model-aided

sounding
LEO Sub-mm 20 g · m–2 10 – 24 1 –

imagery
LEO FIR imagery 20 g · m–2 10 – 24 1 –


“Cloud-ice effective radius” (by 2020)
Troposphere LEO Cloud radar 3 µm 50 0.3 360 1 Non-precipitating
LEO Precipitation 10 µm 5 0.3 120 1 Precipitating

radar clouds
LEO MW/sub-mm 30 µm 20 3 3 8 Heavily

sounding (GPM) model-aided
GEO MW/sub-mm 30 µm 30 3 0.5 6 Heavily

Cloud top LEO Cloud radar 3 µm 50 – 360 1 Multi-orbit

(non-scanning)
LEO MW/sub-mm 10 µm 20 – 3 8 –
sounding (GPM)
GEO MW/sub-mm 10 µm 30 – 0.5 6 –

sounding
LEO Backscatter lidar 0.2 µm 50 – 360 1 Multi-orbit

(non-scanning)
LEO SW polarimetry 1 µm 10 – 48 1 Daylight
LEO VIS/IR radiometry 4 µm 1 – 4 3 Degraded at night

(no VIS)
GEO VIS/IR radiometry 4 µm 4 – 0.1 6 Degraded at night

(no VIS)

“Freezing-level height in clouds” (by 2020)
LEO Precipitation radar 0.3 km 5 – 120 1 –
N/A LEO MW/sub-mm sounding 1.5 km 30 – 4 3 –
GEO MW/sub-mm sounding 1.5 km 30 – 0.5 6 –

“Melting-layer depth in clouds” (by 2020)
LEO Precipitation radar 0.3 km 5 – 120 1 –
N/A LEO MW/sub-mm sounding 1.5 km 30 – 4 3 –
GEO MW/sub-mm sounding 1.5 km 30 – 0.5 6 –


“Precipitation (liquid or solid)” (by 2020)
LEO Precipitation radar 10% 5 0.3 120 1 –
MW/sub-mm Heavily
LEO 30% 20 3 3 8 (GPM)
Troposphere sounding model-aided
MW/sub-mm Heavily
GEO 30% 30 3 0.5 6

“Precipitation intensity at surface (liquid or solid)” (by 2020)
LEO Precipitation radar 0.5 mm h–1 5 – 120 1 –
Heavily
LEO MW/sub-mm sounding 1 mm h–1 10 – 3 8 (GPM)
model-aided
Heavily
GEO MW/sub-mm sounding 1.5 mm h–1 10 – 0.5 6
Surface model-aided
Convection
GEO VIS/IR radiometry 5 mm h–1 10 – 0.1 6
only
Product from
GEO LEO/MW + GEO/IR fusion 2.5 mm h–1 10 – 0.1 6
data-fusion

“Accumulated precipitation (over 24 hours)” (by 2020)
LEO/MW + Product from
GEO 5 mm 10 – 3 3 (LEO) + 6 (GEO)
GEO/IR fusion data-fusion
Surface
MW/sub-mm Heavily
GEO 2 mm 10 – 3 6
Table 5.A.2.16. Estimated potential quality of product “Lightning detection” (by 2020)
LEO Lightning mapping 0.10/0.95 FAR/HR 5 – 12 3 –
N/A
GEO Lightning mapping 0.15/0.90 FAR/HR 10 – 0.01 6 –
3. AEROSOL AND RADIATION
Table 5.A.3. Geophysical variables considered under the theme “Aerosol and radiation”
Aerosol optical depth Upward spectral radiance at TOA Earth’s surface albedo
Aerosol concentration Upward LW irradiance at TOA Earth’s-surface SW bi-directional

reflectance
Aerosol effective radius Upward SW irradiance at TOA Upward LW irradiance at Earth’s surface
Aerosol type SW cloud reflectance Long-wave Earth-surface emissivity
Volcanic ash Downward LW irradiance at Photosynthetically active radiation

Earth’s surface
Downward solar Downward SW irradiance at Fraction of absorbed photosynthetically

irradiance at TOA Earth’s surface active radiation
Table 5.A.3.1. Estimated potential quality of product “Aerosol optical depth” (by 2020)
LEO Backscatter lidar 0.01 50 – 360 1 Clear-air
(non-scanning)
LEO SW polarimetry 0.03 20 – 48 1 Clear-air, daylight
LEO SW spectroscopy 0.04 20 – 8 3 Clear-air, daylight
Total
column
GEO SW spectroscopy 0.04 20 – 1 6 Clear-air, daylight
LEO VIS/IR radiometry 0.05 5 – 8 3 Clear-air, daylight
GEO VIS/IR radiometry 0.05 2 – 0.1 6 Clear-air, daylight

Table 5.A.3.2. Estimated potential quality of product “Aerosol concentration” (by 2020)
Troposphere LEO Backscatter lidar 1% 50 0.1 360 1 Clear-air
LEO SW polarimetry 5% 20 3 48 1 Clear-air, daylight
LEO SW spectroscopy 5% 20 3 8 3 Clear-air, daylight

(cross-nadir)
GEO SW spectroscopy 10% 20 3 1 6 Clear-air, daylight

(cross-nadir)
Stratosphere LEO Backscatter lidar 2% 50 0.5 360 1 –

LEO SW polarimetry 20% 20 7 48 1 Daylight
LEO SW spectroscopy 20% 20 8 8 3 Daylight

(cross-nadir)
GEO SW spectroscopy 20% 20 10 1 6 Daylight

(cross-nadir)
LEO SW spectroscopy 10% 300 2 144 1 Daylight

(limb)
Total column LEO Backscatter lidar 0.1 g · m–2 50 – 360 1 Clear-air

(non-scanning)
LEO SW polarimetry 0.4 g · m–2 20 – 48 1 Clear-air, daylight
LEO SW spectroscopy 1 g · m–2 20 – 8 3 Clear-air, daylight
GEO SW spectroscopy 1 g · m–2 20 – 1 6 Clear-air, daylight
LEO VIS/IR radiometry 4 g · m–2 4 – 8 3 Clear-air, daylight
GEO VIS/IR radiometry 4 g · m–2 8 – 0.1 6 Clear-air, daylight
Table 5.A.3.3. Estimated potential quality of product “Aerosol effective radius” (by 2020)
Troposphere LEO Backscatter lidar 0.2 µm 50 0.3 360 1 Clear-air
(non-scanning)
LEO SW polarimetry 0.5 µm 20 3 48 1 Clear-air, daylight,

model-aided
LEO SW spectroscopy 1 µm 20 3 8 3 Clear-air, daylight,

model-aided
GEO SW spectroscopy 1 µm 20 3 1 6 Clear-air, daylight,

model-aided
Total LEO Backscatter lidar 0.1 µm 50 – 360 1 Clear-air

column (non-scanning)
LEO SW polarimetry 0.3 µm 20 – 48 1 Clear-air, daylight,

model-aided
LEO SW spectroscopy 0.5 µm 20 – 8 3 Clear-air, daylight,

model-aided
GEO SW spectroscopy 0.5 µm 20 – 1 6 Clear-air, daylight,

model-aided
Table 5.A.3.4. Estimated potential quality of product “Aerosol type” (by 2020)
Troposphere LEO Backscatter lidar 6 classes 50 0.3 360 1 Clear-air
(non-scanning)
LEO SW polarimetry 4 classes 20 3 48 1 Clear-air, daylight,

model-aided
LEO SW spectroscopy 4 classes 20 3 8 3 Clear-air, daylight,

model-aided
GEO SW spectroscopy 4 classes 20 3 1 6 Clear-air, daylight,

model-aided
Total LEO Backscatter lidar 6 classes 50 – 360 1 Clear-air

LEO SW polarimetry 4 classes 20 – 48 1 Clear-air, daylight,

model-aided
LEO SW spectroscopy 4 classes 20 – 8 3 Clear-air, daylight,

model-aided
GEO SW spectroscopy 4 classes 20 – 1 6 Clear-air, daylight,

model-aided
LEO VIS/IR radiometry 2 classes 4 – 8 3 Clear-air, daylight,

model-aided
GEO VIS/IR radiometry 2 classes 8 – 0.1 6 Clear-air, daylight,

model-aided
Table 5.A.3.5. Estimated potential quality of product “Volcanic ash” (by 2020)
Troposphere LEO Backscatter lidar 1% 50 0.1 360 1 Clear-air
(non-scanning)

(cross-nadir)

(cross-nadir)
Stratosphere LEO Backscatter lidar 2% 50 0.5 360 1 Clear-air

(non-scanning)

(cross-nadir)

(cross-nadir)
LEO SW spectroscopy 10% 300 2 144 1 –

(limb)
Total LEO Backscatter lidar 0.5 g · m–2 50 – 360 1 Clear-air

LEO SW polarimetry 2 g · m–2 20 – 48 1 Clear-air, daylight
LEO SW spectroscopy 4 g · m–2 20 – 8 3 Clear-air, daylight
GEO SW spectroscopy 4 g · m–2 20 – 1 6 Clear-air, daylight
LEO VIS/IR radiometry 10 g · m–2 4 – 8 3 Clear-air, over sea
GEO VIS/IR radiometry 10 g · m–2 8 – 0.1 6 Clear-air, over sea

“Downward solar irradiance at TOA” (by 2020)
Multi-orbit
TOA LEO Cavity radiometer 0.2 W · m–2 N/A – 24 1
integration
TOA GEO Cavity radiometer 0.15 W · m–2 N/A – 24 6 Daily integration

“Upward spectral radiance at TOA” (by 2020)
(unit) (km) (km) (h) of sats
50 – 720 1 Non-scanning
TOA LEO SW+LW spectroscopy 100 SNR
10 – 168 1 Limited swath

“Upward long-wave irradiance at TOA” (by 2020)
LEO Broadband radiometry 4 W · m–2 20 – 4 3 –
TOA
GEO Broadband radiometry 4 W · m–2 30 – 0.25 6 –

“Upward short-wave irradiance at TOA” (by 2020)
LEO Broadband radiometry 10 W · m–2 20 – 4 3 Model-aided
TOA
GEO Broadband radiometry 15 W · m–2 30 – 0.25 6 Model-aided

“Short-wave cloud reflectance” (by 2020)
LEO SW radiometry 5% 4 – 4 3 –
TOA
GEO SW radiometry 7% 8 – 0.1 6 –

“Downward LW irradiance at Earth’s surface” (by 2020)
LEO From IR/MW sounding 10 W · m–2 20 – 4 3 Model-aided
Surface
GEO From IR/MW sounding 10 W · m–2 20 – 0.5 6 Model-aided

“Downward SW irradiance at Earth’s surface” (by 2020)
Clear-air,
LEO SW radiometry 20 W · m–2 4 – 4 3
model-aided
Surface
Clear-air,
GEO SW radiometry 30 W · m–2 8 – 0.1 6
model-aided
Table 5.A.3.13. Estimated potential quality of product “Earth’s surface albedo” (by 2020)
Multi-view SW Clear-air,
LEO 1% 10 – 168 1
radiometry model-aided
Clear-air, heavily
Surface LEO VIS radiometry 3% 4 – 168 3
model-aided
Clear-air, heavily
GEO VIS radiometry 5% 8 – 72 6
model-aided

“Earth’s-surface SW bi-directional reflectance” (by 2020)
Surface LEO Multi-view SW radiometry 3% 8 – 168 1 Clear-air

“Upward long-wave irradiance at Earth’s surface” (by 2020)
Clear-air,
LEO Broadband radiometry 15 W · m–2 20 – 4 3
model-aided
Surface
Clear-air,
GEO Broadband radiometry 15 W · m–2 30 – 0.25 6
model-aided

“Long-wave Earth-surface emissivity” (by 2020)
LEO IR radiometry 3% 4 – 168 3 Clear-air
GEO IR radiometry 6% 12 – 72 6 Clear-air

Surface
LEO IR spectroscopy 1% 10 – 168 3 Clear-air
GEO IR spectroscopy 1% 10 – 72 6 Clear-air

“Photosynthetically active radiation” (by 2020)
Clear-air,
LEO VIS radiometry 10 W · m–2 4 – 4 3
model-aided
Surface
Clear-air,
GEO VIS radiometry 10 W · m–2 8 – 0.1 6
model-aided
Table 5.A.3.18. Estimated potential quality of product “Fraction of absorbed

photosynthetically active radiation” (by 2020)
Clear-air,
LEO VIS radiometry 10% 4 – 4 3
model-aided
Surface
Clear-air,
GEO VIS radiometry 10% 8 – 0.1 6
model-aided
4. OCEAN AND SEA ICE
Table 5.A.4. Geophysical variables considered under the theme “Ocean and sea ice”
Ocean chlorophyll Oil-spill cover Coastal sea level (tide) Wave directional-energy
concentration frequency spectrum
Colour dissolved organic Sea-surface temperature Significant wave height Sea-ice cover
matter
Ocean suspended Sea-surface salinity Dominant wave Sea-ice thickness

sediments concentration direction
Ocean diffuse attenuation Ocean dynamic Dominant wave period Sea-ice type
coefficient topography

“Ocean chlorophyll concentration” (by 2020)
Clear-air, daylight,
LEO VIS radiometry 0.1 mg · m–3 4 – 8 3
model-aided
Surface
GEO VIS radiometry 0.2 mg · m–3 8 – 0.25 6
model-aided

“Colour dissolved organic matter” (by 2020)
LEO VIS radiometry 0.01 m–1 4 – 8 3
model-aided
Surface
GEO VIS radiometry 0.02 m–1 8 – 0.25 6
model-aided

“Ocean suspended sediments concentration” (by 2020)
LEO VIS radiometry 0.05 g · m–3 4 – 8 3
model-aided
Surface
GEO VIS radiometry 0.1 g · m–3 8 – 0.25 6
model-aided

“Ocean diffuse attenuation coefficient” (by 2020)
LEO VIS radiometry 0.5 m–1 4 – 8 3
model-aided
Surface
GEO VIS radiometry 1 m–1 8 – 0.25 6
model-aided
Table 5.A.4.5. Estimated potential quality of product “Oil-spill cover” (by 2020)
LEO VIS/NIR radiometry 15% 4 – 8 3 Clear-air, daylight
GEO VIS/NIR radiometry 15% 8 – 0.25 6 Clear-air, daylight
LEO SW polarimetry 10% 20 – 48 1 Clear-air, daylight

Surface
High-resolution
LEO 20% 0.3 – 168 4 Clear-air, daylight
optical imagery
LEO SAR imagery 5% 1 – 360 2 All weather
Table 5.A.4.6. Estimated potential quality of product “Sea-surface temperature” (by 2020)
LEO IR radiometry 0.4 K 8 – 4 3 Clear-air
GEO IR radiometry 0.8 K 24 – 0.1 6 Clear-air
Surface LEO IR spectroscopy 0.3 K 20 – 4 3 Clear-air
GEO IR spectroscopy 0.5 K 20 – 0.25 6 Clear-air
LEO MW radiometry 1K 50 – 8 3 All weather
Table 5.A.4.7. Estimated potential quality of product “Sea-surface salinity” (by 2020)
L-band MW All weather, space-
Surface LEO 0.3 PSU 200 – 240 1
radiometry time integrated

“Ocean dynamic topography” (by 2020)
Radar altimetry
Surface LEO 3 cm 50 – 240 2 All weather
(non-scanning)
Table 5.A.4.9. Estimated potential quality of product “Coastal sea level (tide)” (by 2020)
Radar altimetry
Surface LEO 3 cm 50 – 240 2 All weather
(non-scanning)

“Significant wave height” (by 2020)
Radar altimetry
LEO 0.1 m 50 – 240 2 All weather
Surface (non-scanning)
LEO From SAR spectra 0.5 m 50 – 240 2 All weather

“Dominant wave direction” (by 2020)
Surface LEO From SAR spectra 10 degrees 50 – 240 2 All weather

“Dominant wave period” (by 2020)
Surface LEO From SAR spectra 10 s 50 – 240 2 All weather

“Wave directional-energy frequency spectrum” (by 2020)
Surface LEO From SAR spectra 0.1 m2 · Hz–1 · rad–1 50 – 240 2 All weather
Table 5.A.4.14. Estimated potential quality of product “Sea-ice cover” (by 2020)
LEO VIS/IR radiometry 10% 5 – 48 3 Clear-air
GEO VIS/IR radiometry 20% 15 – 6 6 Clear-air
LEO MW radiometry 20% 20 – 3 8 (GPM) All weather

Surface
High-resolution
LEO 5% 1 – 168 4 Clear-air, daylight
optical imagery
Table 5.A.4.15. Estimated potential quality of product “Sea-ice thickness” (by 2020)
Radar altimetry
LEO 25 cm 30 – 720 1 All weather
(non-scanning)
Surface Lidar altimetry

LEO 10 cm 30 – 720 1 Clear-air
(non-scanning)
LEO SAR interferometry 100 cm 1 – 360 2 All weather
Table 5.A.4.16. Estimated potential quality of product “Sea-ice type” (by 2020)
LEO Radar scatterometry 5 classes 20 – 12 3 All weather
Surface LEO MW radiometry 3 classes 10 – 3 8 (GPM) All weather
LEO SAR imagery 4 classes 1 – 360 2 All weather
5. LAND SURFACE (INCLUDING SNOW)

“Land surface (including snow)”
Land surface temperature Leaf area index Snow status (wet/dry) Land surface topography
Soil moisture at surface Normalized difference Snow cover Glacier cover

vegetation index
Soil moisture Fire fractional cover Snow water equivalent Glacier topography
(in the roots region)
Fraction of vegetated land Fire temperature Soil type
Vegetation type Fire radiative power Land cover


“Land surface temperature” (by 2020)
(RMS) (km) (km) (km) of sats
LEO IR radiometry 2K 8 – 4 3 Clear-air
GEO IR radiometry 4K 24 – 0.1 6 Clear-air
Surface LEO IR spectroscopy 1K 20 – 4 3 Clear-air
GEO IR spectroscopy 1K 20 – 0.25 6 Clear-air
LEO MW radiometry 1K 50 – 8 3 All weather
Table 5.A.5.2. Estimated potential quality of product “Soil moisture at surface” (by 2020)
All weather,
LEO MW radiometry 0.05 m3 · m–3 30 – 8 3
vegetation-sensitive
All weather,
LEO Radar scatterometry 0.05 m3 · m–3 20 – 36 1
All weather,
Surface LEO SAR imagery 0.1 m3 · m–3 0.1 – 360 2
Clear-air,
LEO VIS/IR radiometry 0.5 m3 · m–3 4 – 4 3
Clear-air,
GEO VIS/IR radiometry 0.5 m3 · m–3 12 – 0.1 6

“Soil moisture (in the roots region)” (by 2020)
L-band MW All weather,
LEO 0.05 m3 · m–3 50 0.0001 72 1
radiometry model-aided
Surface
L-band SAR All weather,
LEO 0.1 m3 · m–3 0.1 0.0001 1 440 1
imagery model-aided

“Fraction of vegetated land” (by 2020)
High-resolution
Surface optical imagery

Table 5.A.5.5. Estimated potential quality of product “Vegetated type” (by 2020)
High-resolution
LEO 20 classes 0.1 – 2 160 4 Clear-air, daylight
LEO SAR imagery 10 classes 0.2 – 2 160 2 All weather
Table 5.A.5.6. Estimated potential quality of product “Leaf area index” (by 2020)
LEO SW radiometry 10% 2 – 168 3 Clear-air, daylight
GEO SW radiometry 10% 4 – 72 6 Clear-air, daylight

Surface LEO Radar scatterometry 30% 20 – 12 3 All weather
High-resolution
optical imagery

“Normalized difference vegetation index” (by 2020)
LEO VIS/NIR radiometry 5% 2 – 168 3 Clear-air, daylight
GEO VIS/NIR radiometry 5% 4 – 72 6 Clear-air, daylight

Surface
High-resolution
optical imagery
Table 5.A.5.8. Estimated potential quality of product “Fire fractional cover” (by 2020)
Degraded at night
LEO VIS/IR radiometry 12% 4 – 4 3
(no VIS)
Degraded at night
GEO VIS/IR radiometry 25% 12 – 0.1 6
Surface (no VIS)
High-resolution
optical imagery
LEO SAR imagery 10% 0.1 – 360 2 All weather
Table 5.A.5.9. Estimated potential quality of product “Fire temperature” (by 2020)
LEO IR radiometry 10 K 2 – 4 3 Clear-air
Surface
GEO IR radiometry 20 K 6 – 0.1 6 Clear-air
Table 5.A.5.10. Estimated potential quality of product “Fire radiative power” (by 2020)
LEO IR radiometry 10 kW · m–2 2 – 4 3 Clear-air
Surface
GEO IR radiometry 20 kW · m–2 6 – 0.1 6 Clear-air
Table 5.A.5.11. Estimated potential quality of product “Snow status (wet/dry)” (by 2020)
LEO MW radiometry 0.15/0.90 FAR/HR 10 – 3 8 (GPM) All weather
Surface
LEO SAR imagery 0.25/0.80 FAR/HR 1 – 360 2 All weather
Table 5.A.5.12. Estimated potential quality of product “Snow cover” (by 2020)
LEO VIS/IR radiometry 10% 5 – 48 3 Clear-air
GEO VIS/IR radiometry 10% 10 – 6 6 Clear-air

Surface LEO MW radiometry 20% 20 – 3 8 (GPM) All weather
High-resolution
optical imagery
Table 5.A.5.13. Estimated potential quality of product “Snow water equivalent” (by 2020)
LEO MW radiometry 20 mm 10 – 8 3 All weather
Surface LEO Radar scatterometry 20 mm 20 – 12 3 All weather
LEO SAR imagery 30 mm 0.1 – 360 2 All weather
Table 5.A.5.14. Estimated potential quality of product “Soil type” (by 2020)
High-resolution
Table 5.A.5.15. Estimated potential quality of product “Land cover” (by 2020)
High-resolution


“Land surface topography” (by 2020)
High-resolution Clear-air,
LEO 2m 0.01 – 8 760 4
VIS stereoscopy daylight
LEO SAR interferometry 1m 0.01 – 8 760 2 All weather

Surface Radar altimetry
LEO 0.2 m 0.2 – 43 800 1 All weather
(non-scanning)
Lidar altimetry
LEO 0.1 m 0.1 – 43 800 1 Clear-air
(non-scanning)
Table 5.A.5.17. Estimated potential quality of product “Glacier cover” (by 2020)
High-resolution Clear-air,
LEO 10% 0.01 – 8 760 4
Surface optical imagery daylight
LEO SAR imagery 10% 0.01 – 8 760 2 All weather
Table 5.A.5.18. Estimated potential quality of product “Glacier topography” (by 2020)
Surface LEO SAR interferometry 100 cm 0.01 – 8 760 2 All weather
6. SOLID EARTH
Table 5.A.6. Geophysical variables considered under the theme “Solid Earth”
Geoid Crustal plates Crustal motion Gravity field Gravity gradients

positioning (horizontal and vertical)
Table 5.A.6.1. Estimated potential quality of product “Geoid” (by 2020)
Radar altimetry All weather,
LEO 10 cm 500 – 8 760 2
(non-scanning) model-aided
Surface
All weather, heavily
LEO Gravity field 1 cm 100 – 17 520 1
model-aided

“Crustal plates positioning” (by 2020)
LEO Laser ranging 2 cm 500 – 8 760 5 Night time, clear-air
Surface
LEO GPS receiver 2 cm 100 – 8 760 24 All weather

“Crustal motion (horizontal and vertical)” (by 2020)
LEO Laser ranging 2 mm · y–1 500 – 8 760 5 Night time, clear-air
Surface
LEO GPS receiver 2 mm · y–1 100 – 8 760 24 All weather
Table 5.A.6.4. Estimated potential quality of product “Gravity field” (by 2020)
Orbit to change
LEO Gradiometry 2 mGal 300 – 8 760 1
Orbit during mission
height Orbit to change
LEO Sat–sat ranging 2 mGal 300 – 8 760 2
during mission
Table 5.A.6.5. Estimated potential quality of product “Gravity gradients” (by 2020)
Orbit to change
LEO Gradiometry 0.1 E 300 – 8 760 1
Orbit during mission
height Orbit to change
LEO Sat–sat ranging 0.1 E 300 – 8 760 2
during mission
7. ATMOSPHERIC CHEMISTRY
Table 5.A.7. Geophysical variables considered under the theme “Atmospheric chemistry”
Peroxyacetyl
O3 C 2H2 CFC–11 CH2O ClO CO COS HCl HNO3 N2O5 NO2 SF6
nitrate
Polar stratospheric
BrO C 2H6 CFC–12 CH4 ClONO2 CO2 H2O HDO N2O NO OH SO2
cloud occurrence
Table 5.A.7.1. Estimated potential quality of product “O3” (by 2020)
Troposphere LEO SW spectroscopy 10 nmol mol–1 20 3 8 3 Clear-air,
(at ~500 hPa) (cross-nadir) daylight
GEO SW spectroscopy 15 nmol mol–1 20 4 1 6 Clear-air,

(cross-nadir) daylight
LEO IR spectroscopy 10 nmol mol–1 20 3 4 3 Clear-air

(cross-nadir)
GEO IR spectroscopy 15 nmol mol–1 20 4 0.5 6 Clear-air

(cross-nadir)
LEO DIAL (non- 3 nmol mol–1 50 0.5 360 1 Clear-air

scanning)
Stratosphere LEO SW spectroscopy 20 nmol mol–1 20 5 8 3 Daylight

(at ~30 hPa) (cross-nadir)
GEO SW spectroscopy 30 nmol mol–1 20 6 1 6 Daylight

(cross-nadir)
LEO IR spectroscopy 20 nmol mol–1 20 6 4 3 –

(cross-nadir)
GEO IR spectroscopy 30 nmol mol–1 20 8 0.5 6 –

(cross-nadir)
LEO SW spectroscopy 10 nmol mol–1 300 2 144 1 Daylight

(limb)
LEO IR spectroscopy 10 nmol mol–1 300 2 72 1 –

(limb)
LEO Sub-mm 10 nmol mol–1 300 2 72 1 –

spectroscopy (limb)
LEO DIAL (non- 5 nmol mol–1 50 1 360 1 –

scanning)
Total column LEO SW spectroscopy 6 DU 20 – 8 3 Clear-air,

daylight
GEO SW spectroscopy 9 DU 20 – 1 6 Clear-air,

daylight
LEO IR spectroscopy 12 DU 20 – 4 3 Clear-air
GEO IR spectroscopy 15 DU 20 – 0.5 6 Clear-air

Table 5.A.7.2. Estimated potential quality of product “BrO” (by 2020)
Troposphere LEO UV spectroscopy 40 nmol · mol–1 50 5 8 3 Clear-air,
GEO UV spectroscopy 40 nmol · mol–1 50 6 1 6 Clear-air,

Stratosphere LEO UV spectroscopy 50 nmol · mol–1 50 8 8 3 Daylight

GEO UV spectroscopy 50 nmol · mol–1 50 10 1 6 Daylight

(cross-nadir)
LEO UV spectroscopy 30 nmol · mol–1 300 2 144 1 Daylight

(limb)
LEO Sub-mm 20 nmol · mol–1 300 2 72 1 –

spectroscopy (limb)
Table 5.A.7.3. Estimated potential quality of product “C2H2 ” (by 2020)
TIR spectroscopy
LEO 30 nmol · mol–1 50 3 4 3 Clear-air
Troposphere (cross-nadir)
(at ~500 hPa) TIR spectroscopy
GEO 50 nmol · mol–1 50 4 0.5 6 Clear-air
(cross-nadir)
Table 5.A.7.4. Estimated potential quality of product “C2H6” (by 2020)
TIR spectroscopy
(cross-nadir)
Table 5.A.7.5. Estimated potential quality of product “CFC–11” (by 2020)
Troposphere LEO IR spectroscopy 10 nmol · mol–1 50 4 4 3 Clear-air
GEO IR spectroscopy 15 nmol · mol–1 50 5 0.5 6 Clear-air

(cross-nadir)
Stratosphere LEO IR spectroscopy 15 nmol · mol–1 50 6 4 3 –

GEO IR spectroscopy 20 nmol · mol–1 50 8 0.5 6 –

(cross-nadir)
LEO IR spectroscopy 10 nmol · mol–1 300 2 72 1 –

(limb)
Table 5.A.7.6. Estimated potential quality of product “CFC–12” (by 2020)

(cross-nadir)


(cross-nadir)

(limb)
Table 5.A.7.7. Estimated potential quality of product “CH2O” (by 2020)

Total column LEO UV spectroscopy 1.5 · 1.3 · 1015 cm–2 20 – 8 3 Clear-air,

daylight
GEO UV spectroscopy 2 · 1.3 · 1015 cm–2 20 – 1 1 Clear-air,

daylight
Table 5.A.7.8. Estimated potential quality of product “CH4” (by 2020)
Troposphere LEO SWIR spectroscopy 10 nmol · mol–1 50 4 8 3 Clear-air,
GEO SWIR spectroscopy 15 nmol · mol–1 50 5 0.5 6 Clear-air,

LEO TIR spectroscopy 15 nmol · mol–1 50 3 4 3 Clear-air

(cross-nadir)
GEO TIR spectroscopy 20 nmol · mol–1 50 4 0.25 6 Clear-air

(cross-nadir)
Stratosphere LEO SWIR spectroscopy 30 nmol · mol–1 50 6 8 3 Daylight

GEO SWIR spectroscopy 40 nmol · mol–1 50 7 0.5 6 Daylight

(cross-nadir)
LEO TIR spectroscopy 30 nmol · mol–1 50 6 4 3 –

(cross-nadir)
GEO TIR spectroscopy 40 nmol · mol–1 50 10 0.25 6 –

(cross-nadir)
LEO SWIR spectroscopy 10 nmol · mol–1 300 2 144 1 Daylight

(limb)

(limb)
Total column LEO SWIR spectroscopy 2 · 1.3 · 1015 cm–2 20 – 8 3 Clear-air,

daylight
GEO SWIR spectroscopy 3 · 1.3 · 1015 cm–2 20 – 1 6 Clear-air,

daylight
LEO TIR spectroscopy 4 · 1.3 · 1015 cm–2 20 – 4 3 Clear-air
GEO TIR spectroscopy 5 · 1.3 · 1015 cm–2 20 – 0.5 6 Clear-air
Table 5.A.7.9. Estimated potential quality of product “ClO” (by 2020)



(cross-nadir)
LEO UV spectroscopy 30 nmol · mol–1 300 2 144 1 Daylight

(limb)
LEO Sub-mm spectroscopy 30 nmol · mol–1 300 2 72 1 –

(limb)
Table 5.A.7.10. Estimated potential quality of product “ClONO2 ” (by 2020)

(cross-nadir)


(cross-nadir)

(limb)
Table 5.A.7.11. Estimated potential quality of product “CO” (by 2020)


(cross-nadir)

(cross-nadir)


(cross-nadir)

(cross-nadir)

(cross-nadir)

(limb)

(limb)

daylight
GEO SWIR spectroscopy 5 · 1.3 · 1015 cm–2 20 – 1 1 Clear-air,

daylight

Table 5.A.7.12. Estimated potential quality of product “CO2 ” (by 2020)


(cross-nadir)

(cross-nadir)
Stratosphere LEO SWIR spectroscopy 20 nmol · mol–1 100 3 8 3 Clear-air,



(cross-nadir)

(cross-nadir)

(limb)

(limb)

daylight
GEO SWIR spectroscopy 1.5 · 1.3 · 1015 cm–2 50 – 1 6 Clear-air,

daylight
GEO TIR spectroscopy 2.5 · 1.3 · 1015 cm–2 50 – 0.5 6 Clear-air
LEO DIAL (non- 0.3 · 1.3 · 1015 cm–2 500 – 8 760 1 Clear-air

scanning)
Table 5.A.7.13. Estimated potential quality of product “COS” (by 2020)
Troposphere LEO TIR spectroscopy 10 nmol · mol–1 50 3 4 3 Clear-air

(cross-nadir)
Stratosphere LEO TIR spectroscopy 30 nmol · mol–1 50 5 4 3 –


(cross-nadir)

(limb)
Table 5.A.7.14. Estimated potential quality of product “H2O” (by 2020)
Troposphere LEO SW spectroscopy 5 nmol · mol–1 10 3 8 3 Clear-air,
GEO SW spectroscopy 6 nmol · mol–1 10 4 0.5 6 Clear-air,

LEO TIR spectroscopy 7 nmol · mol–1 10 1.5 4 3 Clear-air

(cross-nadir)

(cross-nadir)
LEO FIR spectroscopy 5 nmol · mol–1 10 2 168 1 Clear-air
LEO GNSS radio- 10 nmol · mol–1 300 0.5 12 12 All

occultation weather
LEO DIAL (non-scanning) 2 nmol · mol–1 50 0.5 360 1 Clear-air
Stratosphere LEO SW spectroscopy 15 nmol · mol–1 10 5 8 3 Daylight

GEO SW spectroscopy 20 nmol · mol–1 10 6 0.5 6 Daylight

(cross-nadir)

(cross-nadir)

(cross-nadir)
LEO FIR spectroscopy 10 nmol · mol–1 10 4 168 1 –
LEO GNSS radio- 20 nmol · mol–1 300 1 12 12 –

occultation
LEO SW spectroscopy 10 nmol · mol–1 300 2 144 1 Daylight

(limb)

(limb)

spectroscopy (limb)
LEO DIAL (non-scanning) 7 nmol · mol–1 50 1 360 1 –
Table 5.A.7.15. Estimated potential quality of product “HCl” (by 2020)
Stratosphere Sub-mm
LEO 30 nmol · mol–1 300 2 72 1 –
(at ~30 hPa) spectroscopy (limb)
Table 5.A.7.16. Estimated potential quality of product “HDO” (by 2020)
Stratosphere Sub-mm
LEO 15 nmol · mol–1 300 2 72 1 –
(at ~30 hPa) spectroscopy (limb)
Table 5.A.7.17. Estimated potential quality of product “HNO3” (by 2020)

(cross-nadir)


(cross-nadir)

(limb)

spectroscopy (limb)
Total column LEO IR spectroscopy 3 · 1.3 · 1015 cm–2 20 – 4 3 Clear-air
GEO IR spectroscopy 5 · 1.3 · 1015 cm–2 20 – 0.5 6 Clear-air
Table 5.A.7.18. Estimated potential quality of product “N2O” (by 2020)


(cross-nadir)

(cross-nadir)


(cross-nadir)

(cross-nadir)

(cross-nadir)

(limb)

(limb)

spectroscopy (limb)
Table 5.A.7.19. Estimated potential quality of product “N2O5” (by 2020)
TIR spectroscopy
(cross-nadir)
Table 5.A.7.20. Estimated potential quality of product “NO” (by 2020)
GEO SW spectroscopy 30 nmol · mol–1 50 4 1 6 Clear-air,

LEO IR spectroscopy 20 nmol · mol–1 50 3 4 3 Clear-air

(cross-nadir)

(cross-nadir)

GEO SW spectroscopy 60 nmol · mol–1 50 8 1 6 Daylight

(cross-nadir)

(cross-nadir)

(cross-nadir)

(limb)

(limb)
Table 5.A.7.21. Estimated potential quality of product “NO2 ” (by 2020)
GEO SW spectroscopy 30 nmol · mol–1 50 4 1 6 Clear-air,


(cross-nadir)

(cross-nadir)

GEO SW spectroscopy 60 nmol · mol–1 50 8 1 6 Daylight

(cross-nadir)

(cross-nadir)

(cross-nadir)

(limb)

(limb)
Total column LEO SW spectroscopy 2 · 1.3 · 1015 cm–2 20 – 8 3 Clear-air,

daylight
GEO SW spectroscopy 2 · 1.3 · 1015 cm–2 20 – 1 6 Clear-air,

daylight
LEO IR spectroscopy 3 · 1.3 · 1015 cm–2 20 – 4 3 Clear-air
GEO IR spectroscopy 3 · 1.3 · 1015 cm–2 20 – 0.5 6 Clear-air
Table 5.A.7.22. Estimated potential quality of product “OH” (by 2020)
Sub-mm spectroscopy
LEO 30 nmol · mol–1 300 2 72 1 –
Stratosphere (limb)
(at ~30 hPa) FIR spectroscopy
LEO 20 nmol · mol–1 300 2 72 1 –
(limb)
Table 5.A.7.23. Estimated potential quality of product “Peroxyacetyl nitrate” (by 2020)
TIR spectroscopy
(cross-nadir)

“Polar stratospheric cloud occurrence” (by 2020)
SW spectroscopy 0.30/0.80
LEO 50 4 8 3 Daylight
(cross-nadir) FAR/HR
SW spectroscopy 0.40/0.70
GEO 50 4 8 6 Daylight
(cross-nadir) FAR/HR
Stratosphere SW spectroscopy 0.20/0.85

LEO 300 2 144 1 Daylight
(at ~30 hPa) (limb) FAR/HR
IR spectroscopy 0.25/0.80
LEO 300 2 72 1 –
(limb) FAR/HR
Backscatter lidar 0.10/0.95

LEO 50 0.1 360 1 –
(nadir-viewing) FAR/HR
Table 5.A.7.25. Estimated potential quality of product “SF6” (by 2020)
TIR spectroscopy
LEO 25 nmol · mol–1 50 6 4 3 –
(cross-nadir)
Stratosphere TIR spectroscopy

GEO 30 nmol · mol–1 50 8 0.25 6 –
TIR spectroscopy
LEO 15 nmol · mol–1 300 2 72 1 –
(limb)
Table 5.A.7.26. Estimated potential quality of product “SO2 ” (by 2020)


(cross-nadir)

(cross-nadir)


(cross-nadir)

(cross-nadir)

(cross-nadir)
Total column LEO UV spectroscopy 1.5 · 1.3 · 1015 cm–2 20 – 8 3 Clear-air,

daylight
GEO UV spectroscopy 2 · 1.3 · 1015 cm–2 20 – 1 1 Clear-air,

daylight
LEO TIR spectroscopy 2.5 · 1.3 · 1015 cm–2 20 – 4 3 Clear-air
8. SPACE WEATHER
Table 5.A.8. Selected variables from the theme “Space weather”

addressing the magnetosphere and ionosphere
Ionospheric total electron content Electron density Magnetic field Electric field

“Ionospheric total electron content” (by 2020)
GNSS radio- 90–800 km
LEO 5% 300 3 12 12
occultation altitude
Radar altimetry 90–1 300 km

Ionosphere LEO 10% 100 200 120 2
(non-scanning) altitude
GPS–LEO signal 1 000–20 000 km

LEO 20% 300 4 000 12 12
phase delay altitude
Table 5.A.8.2. Estimated potential quality of product “Electron density” (by 2020)
90–800 km
Ionosphere LEO GNSS radio-occultation 10% 300 10 12 12
altitude
Table 5.A.8.3. Estimated potential quality of product “Magnetic field” (by 2020)
Limited to
LEO Magnetometry 0.3 nT 100 – 240 1
satellite orbit
Magnetosphere
Limited to
GEO Magnetometry 1 nT 100 – 0.25 6
satellite orbit
Table 5.A.8.4. Estimated potential quality of product “Electric field” (by 2020)
Limited to
LEO Ion drift 10 mV·m–1 100 – 240 1
satellite orbit
Magnetosphere
Limited to
GEO Ion drift 10 mV·m–1 100 – 0.25 6
satellite orbit
CHAPTER 6. CALIBRATION AND VALIDATION
6.1 INSTRUMENT CALIBRATION
6.1.1 Introduction
Calibration is the process of quantitatively defining the satellite instrument response to known,
controlled signal inputs.1 The calibration information is contained in a calibration formula
or in calibration coefficients that are then used to convert the instrument output (measured
in “counts”, or, previously, “analogue signals”) into physical units (for example, radiance
values). Instrument calibration is critical for any higher-level data processing, especially for
deriving quantitative products or when data from different instruments need to be merged
(such as for composite imagery). For climate applications, the requirement for accurate
calibration is particularly stringent 2 since detection of small trends over long periods requires
the ability to compare different instruments flown on different satellites at different times.
Building homogeneous climate data records is contingent on very stable calibration and error
characterization.
The following considerations apply to passive and active instruments alike.
Five calibration domains should be generally considered: radiometric, spectral, spatial, temporal,
and polarization. A complete calibration record should include estimates of uncertainties in
calibration parameters. Satellite instrument calibration should take into account all phases of an
instrument’s lifetime: from design and pre-launch phases to post-launch and on-orbit operations.
The intercalibration of instruments against a common reference instrument allows for

consistency among satellite measurements at a given point in time. By comparing model-
simulated and observed satellite radiances in data assimilation schemes, major numerical
weather prediction (NWP) centres can also help determine relative biases between instruments.
Calibration to absolute standards is, nevertheless, necessary to allow traceability of errors and to
detect any long-term drift over time unambiguously.
Calibration using well-characterized, stable Earth targets (called vicarious calibration) is

a fallback when a satellite instrument cannot be directly traceable to an agreed reference
standard,3 for example due to the absence of a reliable on-board calibration device. Data records
from past instruments can be “recalibrated” retrospectively, if additional information on the state
of these instruments becomes available, for example through comparison with reprocessed,
well-known historical time series.
6.1.2 Factors affecting calibration
The response of an instrument to signal input, that is, the relationship between the irradiance
the instrument is exposed to and the numerical value assigned to the measurement (in physical
units, for example, W m–2) depends on several elements, such as:
(a) The viewing geometry, shielding effects, stray light, and antenna pattern;
(b) Detector sensitivity and ageing;
(c) Filter optics, as well as the possible contamination and stability of the filter;
1
From the Committee on Earth Observation Satellites (CEOS) Working Group on Calibration and Validation.
(The terms defined in the present volume differ in some instances from those defined in JCGM, 2012.)
2
See, for example, Ohring (2007).
3
For guidance on reference standards, see, for example, Fox (2010).
CHAPTER 6. CALIBRATION AND VALIDATION 197
(d) The temperature of all parts of the instrument, including the front-end optics, detector and
back-end electronics (focal plane electronics, preamplifier, etc.);
(e) The signal-processing system (gain, analogue-to-digital converter, etc.).
All of these elements help to determine the spectral response function and the point spread
function that characterize the instrument from a radiometric and geometric viewpoint,
respectively. They must be modelled before launch and monitored in flight by a set of on-board
internal measurements (the housekeeping system). The instrument model and the housekeeping
system are useful for understanding the status of the instrument and its trend as well as for
predicting and correcting biases. However, it is generally not possible to analytically describe the
exact variation of the instrument response resulting from these factors. Reference measurements
are mandatory to characterize the actual calibration.
6.1.3 Pre-launch calibration
The pre-launch calibration of an instrument is performed in the laboratory, by using accurately

known radiation sources under controlled conditions. Simulating all possible instrument states
and stress factors before launch is very important because it is the only way to accurately
characterize and model the instrument before it is exposed to the harsh orbital environment.
Housekeeping systems and instruments need to be robust enough to withstand physical stress
incurred during the launch, commissioning and exploitation phases. Housekeeping data, in
combination with post-launch calibration information, will then allow operators to infer the
calibration status of the instrument in orbit and to resolve on-orbit anomalies.
6.1.4 On-board calibration
On-board calibration involves monitoring the instrument performance (and stability) while
in orbit. It is performed using reference targets (such as black bodies in the infrared, solar
diffusers, and lamp line sources in short wave) for passive instruments, or by internal calibration
systems (such as gain monitors) for active instruments. Some heritage instruments have been in
operation without adequate means of on-board calibration, such as the AVHRR, which provides
long-term observations in the visible and near-infrared regions. Other means of calibration
(for example, vicarious, intercalibration) need to be used for characterizing such instruments.
The accuracy of in-flight instrument calibration is a function of the stability of the on-board
calibration systems throughout the instrument’s lifetime. Therefore, the calibration itself must be
regularly checked by intercalibration against highly accurate references.
In the case of infrared instruments, if the radiometer detectors are assumed to have linear
response, the output voltage is given as:
V = α R + V0
where R is the input radiance, α is the radiometer responsivity and V0 is the system offset.
Calibration consists of determining α and V0, which is accomplished by exposing the radiometer
to at least two reference targets with significantly different brightness temperatures.
For infrared and microwave instruments, one reference target is deep space, at a temperature
of 2.725 K. Direct viewing of deep space is not always possible for instruments on a satellite
platform. For instance, pushbroom instruments constantly pointing to the Earth’s surface need
to be equipped with a sub-reflector to supply the deep space view at intervals. A second target
is usually a well-characterized source with temperature in the medium to upper dynamic range,
often a black body, which is ideally traceable to the International System of Units (SI), that is, to a
radiance scale provided by a national metrology institute.
If the instrument response is not linear across the dynamic range, this needs to be accounted
for in the pre-launch instrument characterization, for example by using a quadratic function,
or through linearization in different parts of the dynamic range and the possible addition of a
second black body kept at a different temperature.
For ultraviolet, visible and near-infrared instruments, on-board calibration is more challenging
since it is affected by many factors. At the low-signal extreme, deep space is a useful reference,
provided that disrupting effects (for example, reflections from other parts of the satellite) are
avoided. At the high-signal end, an absolute source is generally replaced by solar diffusers that
provide a relatively stable reference. The moon also may be used as a reference target, with the
advantage that it can be viewed without an attenuator; however, it must be used in conjunction
with an accurate model of the moon’s brightness. Neither the solar diffuser nor the moon
provides an absolute calibration. Another system often used is a bench of lamp line sources of
well-controlled intensity. Spectrally-dependent polarization effects induced by the reflecting
surfaces of the instrument optics also need to be taken into account.
Another problem with on-board calibration is that often the instrument structure does not allow
illumination of the full primary optics with reference sources. For example, a spin-stabilized
radiometer in geostationary Earth orbit uses an internal black body requiring a model of the
contributions of the telescope and foreoptics to the background radiation. Often, the reference
source only illuminates a fraction of the total instrument optics and, therefore, is more used for
stability monitoring than for absolute calibration.
6.1.5 Vicarious calibration
On-board calibration can be complemented by stable ground targets used as references in a

process termed vicarious calibration. The target needs to be well characterized in order to infer
the emitted or reflected radiance towards space. The combined effects of the viewing geometry
and, in short wave, the bidirectional reflectance distribution function of the surface and
atmosphere must be taken into account. The radiative transfer through the atmosphere between
the satellite and the ground reference source must be accurately known at the time of the satellite
overpass. In a cloud-free case, the SW spectrum is particularly affected by aerosols, whereas the
long-wave spectrum is particularly influenced by the presence of water vapour.
Vicarious calibration can involve different kinds of targets: polar ice fields as a black body for
microwave radiometers; snow fields, sunglint, homogeneous desert areas, and deep convective
cloud tops for the upper end of the visible dynamic range; cloud-free ocean surface for dark
targets in the visible spectrum; cube-corner reflectors for synthetic aperture radars; the rainforest
as a black body for radar scatterometers; etc. Calibration field sites equipped with in situ
observations are used for the calibration of high spatial resolution space-based instruments.
During initial payload commissioning or at regular intervals, aircraft overflights of a target area
synchronous with the satellite overpass offer additional vicarious calibration data.
6.1.6 Intercalibration by simultaneous observations
The intercalibration of satellite instruments involves relating the measurements of one instrument
to those of another. This is done for the dual purposes of:
(a) Providing vicarious calibration to instruments that have no or a defective internal

calibration device (intercalibration being performed against a high-quality, well-calibrated
instrument serving as a reference);
(b) Merging the data from several instruments to generate consistent time-series.
The intercalibration of instruments operated during the same period requires careful collocation
wherein instrument outputs are compared when the instruments are viewing the same Earth
scenes, at the same times and from the same viewing angles. As part of the International
Satellite Cloud Climatology Project of the World Climate Research Programme, simultaneous
observations from collocations between GEO imagers and an LEO reference imager have been
performed on a monthly basis for almost 30 years as a means to normalize GEO satellite imagery.
More recently, the Global Space-based Inter-calibration System (GSICS) has developed an
operational methodology for such intercalibrations, specifically for simultaneous collocated
observations. The methodology considers the trade-off between accurate spatial–temporal

co-registration of the instruments and the frequency of such events, and takes into account the
corrections to be applied for:
(a) Different viewing geometries (with regard to both the instrument scan angle and the solar
position);
(b) Different atmospheric states in the line of sight, including aerosols and clouds;
(c) Different spectral response functions.
It should be noted that simultaneous observations between two Sun-synchronous satellites can
only occur at the intersections of their orbital planes, which are always located at a given local
solar time and at a given, generally high north or south, latitude.4
6.1.7 Bias adjustment of long-term data records
An alternative approach for instrument intercalibration, which is less demanding in computation

and applicable a posteriori to long data series, is to simply compare the statistical distribution
of overlapping time-series of two satellite instrument data records without imposing individual
matches of individual scenes. Using this approach, it is possible to identify the relative bias
between the two data records. The observed bias is analysed so that the different conditions of
observation (for example, different local solar times) are accounted for, leaving the remaining
bias as the part that is actually due to the difference in instrument calibration. One successful
example of this approach is the intercalibration of the nine microwave sounding units on board
the early National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration satellites, representing a 26‑year
record of global tropospheric temperatures.
6.1.8 Using calibration information
The type of calibration information available depends on the processing level and on the
instrument considered. Each instrument has its own operating mode and calibration cycle, which
includes regular measurements of calibration targets each time a certain number of observations
are performed. For instance, the table in this section indicates the calibration cycles of the
AMSU‑A, the Microwave Humidity Sounder (MHS) and the High-resolution Infrared Sounder 4
(HIRS/4).
Examples of observation/calibration cycles
AMSU-A MHS HIRS/4

Number of Earth views 1 line of 30 pixels 1 line of 90 pixels 38 lines of 56 pixels
Number of warm 2 (~300 K) 4 (~273 K) 48 (~290 K)

target views
Number of cold 2 (deep space ~2.73 K) 4 (deep space ~2.73 K) 56 (deep space ~2.73 K)
target views
Overall duration of 8 s 8/3 s 256 s

the cycle
An important step in the pre-processing from Level 0 to Level 1b data (see the present volume,
Chapter 2, 2.3.2.6) is to extract the calibration information in the form of warm/cold view counts
and then to compute the resulting calibration coefficients in accordance with the calibration
4
For a 98° inclination, the crossing latitude is above 70° when the ECT of the two orbits differ by less than 8 h, and
only drops significantly when the ECT difference increases towards 12 h.
model (such as a linear or quadratic calibration function, or a lookup table) defined by the
satellite operator for that particular instrument. This provides the operational calibration for that
instrument.
For applications requiring high accuracy and consistency among different instrument data
records, a correction can be applied on top of the operational calibration to take into account
the latest results of the intercalibration activities. Such corrections are provided by GSICS. The
corrected calibration coefficients may be included in the Level 1.b/Level 1.5 data formats as
additional calibration information.
6.1.9 Traceability of space-based measurements
While intercalibration can ensure consistency between satellite instruments, it does not
necessarily provide traceability to SI unless a reference instrument in orbit is SI-traceable. There
are major challenges to achieving SI traceability in orbit as most sensors degrade physically
during and after launch. Achieving SI traceability poses instrument design challenges and
remains a research topic for all but a few measurement types.
The Climate Absolute Radiance and Refractivity Observatory mission proposed by the United
States National Research Council consists of a highly accurate infrared interferometer with
a high-emissivity reference black body using multiple phase-change cells for SI-traceable
thermometer calibration, an ultraviolet, visible and near-infrared spectrometer calibrated by
Sun and moon views, a cryogenically cooled active cavity radiometer, and radio occultation
measurements. This suite of instruments is intended to provide fully traceable measurements of
the entire Earth-emitted and ‑reflected solar spectrum. Implementing and maintaining such a
mission would provide an anchor point in support of the calibration and traceability of the whole
fleet of operational radiometers.
For measurement traceability, one should take advantage of instruments that do not depend on
radiometric calibration, such as radio occultation and Sun or star occultation sensors (see the
present volume, Chapter 2, 2.2.4.3 and 2.2.5.1).
6.2 PRODUCT VALIDATION
6.2.1 Factors to be accounted for in validation
Validation is the process of assessing, by independent means, the quality of the data products
derived from satellite instrument measurements. 5 Product validation should be performed
by product developers, downstream of instrument calibration, and should be documented in
instrument-specific product validation plans. Guidelines for documenting product quality are
provided in the Quality Assurance Framework for Earth Observation (Fox, 2010).
Geophysical products are generated from satellite data (often radiance measurements) by
applying an algorithm that is either physically or empirically based. Comparing the retrieved
products and their trends with in situ observations or model outputs is an important part of
the process to assess and document the reliability of given retrieval algorithms and define their
domain of applicability.
If a particular trend is detected, it may relate to the instrument’s performance; a careful analysis
of the satellite instrument’s calibration and environmental data must be performed before any
empirical correction can be applied.
For many products, validation is a complex problem since the comparison between products
derived from satellite measurements and independent reference products often from in situ
measurements is subject to several errors: (i) an inherent satellite-derived product error, (ii) the
5
From the CEOS Working Group on Calibration and Validation.
error in the reference data, and (iii) the error introduced by the comparison methodology, often
due to non-collocation in time and space. In general, different measurement techniques measure
different things: a satellite observation usually refers to a relatively large area (the instantaneous
field of view) and nearly-instantaneous measurements (within milliseconds); ground (in situ)
measurements are generally very local and integrated over a relatively long time. Surface-
based remote-sensing usually provides information representative of the atmospheric column.
Comparison of the different types of measurements requires downscaling or upscaling methods
that can introduce spatially or temporally dependent errors.
A validation assessment model can be used to improve comparisons by understanding and

accounting for these differences and to better appreciate the advantages and disadvantages
of different validation approaches. Validation campaigns run by satellite operators are usually
accompanied by such an assessment model.
It should be noted that for certain satellite products, independent validation measurements may
not exist, and validation can only be performed by evaluating the impact of the product when
used in an application (for example, when assimilated in an NWP model).
6.2.2 Validation strategies
The validation of satellite-derived products should follow defined best-practice and variable-
dependent protocols, such as those developed by the CEOS Working Group on Calibration and
Validation. The validation of satellite-derived parameters and products can be carried out using
the following sources:
(a) Surface-based in situ measurements;
(b) Surface-based remote-sensing measurements;
(c) Model comparison and assimilation;
(d) Other satellite-derived or blended products of a similar type.
To use such validation sources, it is essential that:
(a) Measurement errors be well known;
(b) Temporal and spatial sampling follow best-practice protocols;
(c) Sampling be representative of the typical application-dependent environment (for

example, climatic zones, marine regimes, atmospheric regions, land-cover types).
For example, to support validated generation of combined sea-surface temperature

satellite products, the Group for High Resolution Sea Surface Temperature has developed a
comprehensive validation strategy,6 which includes detailed descriptions of protocols, strategies
to harmonize validation concepts for different satellite sensors contributing to sea-surface
temperature measurements, needs for in situ (buoy) measurements as in situ data sources, and
metrics to monitor product quality.
6.2.3 Impact studies
Experience shows that the results of direct validation are less significant for some satellite-
derived products than for others. Since validation tests combine the effects of different error
sources (satellite product, ground measurement, comparison method), the error due to the
6
https://w ww.ghrsst.org/products-and-services/product-validation/.
satellite product itself may be difficult to single out. For certain geophysical variables, ground
measurements may be rather inaccurate. For others, the comparison method may depend too
much on the observation environment.
One option for evaluating a product for a particular application is thus to assess its impact on
the application skill. In this case, the evaluation reflects the quality of the product combined
with the ability of the application to use it. For example, NWP models showed marginal impact
for a couple of decades from atmospheric temperature–humidity soundings; this changed to a
significant positive impact only when direct radiance assimilation was introduced. An opposite
example is the assimilation of cloud-motion winds, which exhibited a strong positive impact at
first, although the initial validation exercises were disappointing.
In summary, validation requires rigorous analysis of all error sources and of all steps in the
comparison method. If the analysis shows that the error of the satellite product cannot be singled
out, performing an impact study is a remaining validation mechanism.
CHAPTER 7. CROSS-CUTTING ISSUES
7.1 FREQUENCY PROTECTION ISSUES
7.1.1 Overall frequency management
A critical issue for sustaining space-based Earth observations is whether the radio-frequency
spectrum in the microwave range (1 to 300 GHz and above) remains available. This is important
for:
(a) Passive observations of the Earth surface (in atmospheric windows) and atmospheric gases
in absorption bands;
(b) Active observations with radar (altimeters, scatterometers, synthetic aperture radars);
(c) Communications necessary for data downloading and satellite control.
The use of the radio-frequency spectrum is coordinated at the global level by the International
Telecommunication Union (ITU). Radio Regulations are adopted by ITU Members at the
World Radiocommunication Conferences (WRC) every four years. ITU regulates the allocation
of radio-frequency bands to the different applications known as services, such as fixed and
mobile telecommunications, broadband mobile applications, radio navigation, ground-based
radars, short-range devices and electronic news gathering. Earth observation applications are
identified by ITU as two particular services: the Earth exploration-satellite service (EESS) and
Meteorological satellite (Metsat) service. While some bands are allocated to a service on an
exclusive basis, most bands are allocated to several services with certain conditions (such as the
limitation of the number, the emitting power and the geographical distribution of sources) that
aim at avoiding harmful interference.
With the rapid expansion of the telecommunication sector and its increasing spectrum needs,
the protection of frequencies required for EESS and Metsat has become very critical. Concerns
include:
(a) Interference from uncontrolled emissions within exclusive EESS or Metsat bands, or to out-
of-band emissions from nearby frequency bands;
(b) Sharing bands under conditions that are not stringent enough to guarantee reliable
protection;
(c) The desire of other services to expand to bands formerly allocated to EESS or Metsat;
(d) The need of EESS or Metsat to use new bands arising due to the evolving remote-sensing
technology (for example, microwave above 300 GHz), growing data rates or expanding
telecommunication bandwidths.
In addressing these issues, it should be noted that frequencies used for passive measurements
cannot be selected in any part of the spectrum: they are determined by the physics and must
correspond to either absorption peaks of atmospheric components or window channels.
Natural emissions are extremely weak compared to most artificial sources, and hence are easily
corrupted. Therefore, passive radiometric bands must be considered as a natural heritage to be
preserved.
7.1.2 Passive microwave radiometry
The spectral microwave range used for Earth observation stretches from ~1.4 GHz (for example,
for ocean salinity) to ~2 500 GHz and beyond. The most critical issues are for frequencies below
300 GHz. The use of frequencies above ~300 GHz is still emerging; moreover, since the water
vapour continuum prevents viewing the lower troposphere, most of the instruments operating
at those frequencies are designed for atmospheric chemistry and exploit limb viewing, which
makes them less prone to interferences from ground sources. The ITU has identified a limited
number of bands allocated to EESS, of which active uses are either prohibited or limited. As the
radio-frequency spectrum becomes more crowded and users have a need for higher data rates,
there is increasing pressure on higher frequencies, leading the ITU to share EESS bands with
active services. Only a few narrowbands are assigned to EESS on an exclusive basis ensuring
reliable legal protection. This has the following effects:
(a) The position of the allocated microwave channels often does not coincide with the
sensitivity peak for the needed geophysical variable or with a spectral area free of
contamination from other effects;
(b) The protected bandwidth may be so narrow that the signal-to-noise ratio is poor; this
may force consideration of an unprotected band where a wider bandwidth is available,
accepting the risk of interference.
Unfortunately, the pressure from other users of the spectrum, including commercial and mobile
services, is continuously increasing; specialized groups from WMO, the Coordination Group for
Meteorological Satellites, and space agencies must continuously monitor the situation at each
update of the ITU Regulations.
7.1.3 Active microwave sensing
The problem of frequency protection also holds for active sensing (altimeters, scatterometers
or synthetic aperture radars). For some applications of radar backscattering, like precipitation
measurement, the sensing frequency has to be chosen in relation with the target properties. In
other cases, like altimetry or synthetic aperture radar imagery, it is not very selective and there is
some flexibility to find a frequency allocation in any of the L, S, C, X, Ku, K, Ka, V or W bands (see
the present volume, Chapter 2, Table 2.8 for definitions).
7.1.4 Satellite operation and communication frequencies
Frequency allocation for satellite–ground communications is another critical issue. As this

involves active usage, the ITU Regulations are very restrictive in terms of allowed frequency,
bandwidth and emitted power. The consequences are:
(a) Higher cost for a ground receiving station that works with low signals;
(b) Higher cost because the insufficient bandwidth available in one band for the data rate to
be handled forces relocation to higher-frequency bands that require more challenging
technology and antenna pointing;
(c) Ultimately, more difficulty to secure a frequency, particularly for real-time transmission;
fewer frequencies are available, and sometimes this provokes interferences between
satellites of the same family that are in orbit simultaneously.
In any event, frequency protection is difficult to guarantee, and users are experiencing problems,
especially in industrialized areas. The table in this section provides the frequency bands allocated
to data transmission to and from meteorological satellites (from WMO/ITU, 2008). It also takes
into account the band 7 850–7 900 MHz, which was added at WRC‑12.
CHAPTER 7. CROSS-CUTTING ISSUES 205
Frequency bands for use by meteorological satellites for data transmission
Frequency band (MHz) Metsat allocations

137–138 Primary for space-to-Earth direction
400.15–401 Primary for space-to-Earth direction
401–403 Primary for Earth-to-space direction
460–470 Secondary for space-to-Earth direction
1 670–1 710 Primary for space-to-Earth direction
7 450–7 550 Primary for space-to-Earth direction, geostationary satellites only
7 750–7 900 Primary for space-to-Earth direction, non-geostationary satellites only
8 025–8 400 Primary for space-to-Earth direction for Earth exploration-satellitesa
8 175–8 215 Primary for Earth-to-space direction
18 000–18 300 Primary for space-to-Earth direction in Region 2,b geostationary satellites only
18 100–18 400 Primary for space-to-Earth direction in Regions 1 and 3,b geostationary

satellites only
25 500–27 000 Primary for space-to-Earth direction for Earth exploration-satellitesa

Notes:
a Since Metsat is a sub-class of the Earth exploration-satellite service, Earth exploration-satellite service allocations
(as an example: 25 500–27 000 MHz) can also be used for the operation of Metsat applications.
b Regions 1, 2 and 3 refer to the ITU radiocommunication Regions.
7.2 INTERNATIONAL COORDINATION
7.2.1 The Coordination Group for Meteorological Satellites
Focusing on long-term sustained missions, the Coordination Group for Meteorological

Satellites (CGMS), in accordance with an agreed baseline, coordinates satellite constellations
in geostationary and low Earth orbit in support of WMO and co-sponsored programmes.
Established in 1972 with a focus on weather monitoring by geostationary satellites for weather
forecasting, CGMS initially defined common standards for low-resolution image dissemination
in weather facsimile format and for the International Data Collection System to support mobile
stations viewed by the different satellites. The scope of CGMS was extended in 1992 to polar-
orbiting meteorological satellites, and CGMS is now increasingly addressing key climate
observations. The agreed baseline describes the missions to be maintained on a long-term basis;
it serves as a reference for the intended contributions of the participating members to GOS in
response to the WMO Vision for the GOS in 2025. CGMS defines technical standards or best
practices to ensure interoperability across the global system. It has developed contingency plans
which provide a framework for action in case of satellite outage or other unexpected difficulties
in fully implementing the agreed baseline.
The Coordination Group for Meteorological Satellites operates through working groups
dedicated to: (i) satellite systems and telecommunications, (ii) satellite products, (iii) continuity
and contingency planning, and (iv) global data dissemination. Together with WMO, CGMS
launched major collaboration initiatives including the Global Space-based Inter-calibration
System (GSICS), the Sustained and Coordinated Processing of Environmental Satellite Data for
Climate Monitoring project (SCOPE-CM), and the Virtual Laboratory for Education and Training
in Satellite Meteorology. CGMS works in partnership with several international science groups,
is active on a continuous basis, and helps to organize working group meetings at two-year
intervals, including for:
(a) The International TIROS Operational Vertical Sounder (TOVS) Working Group;
(b) The International Winds Working Group;

(c) The International Precipitation Working Group;
(d) The International Radio Occultation Working Group.
7.2.2 The Committee on Earth Observation Satellites
The Committee on Earth Observation Satellites (CEOS) was established in 1984 by the Group
of Seven (most industrialized countries of the world). Unlike CGMS, CEOS first focused on land
observation satellites (initially Landsat, then also the Satellite pour l’Observation de la Terre
(SPOT) and the Indian Remote-sensing Satellite (IRS)), and specifically on new technologies
such as synthetic aperture radars. Later, the scope of CEOS was extended to all Earth observation
programmes but with less emphasis on meteorology until a new interest arose for climate issues.
An important activity since its establishment has been calibration and validation through the
Working Group on Calibration and Validation. Other CEOS working groups are the Working
Group on Information Systems and Services, the Working Group on Capacity Building and Data
Democracy, and the new CEOS/CGMS Working Group on Climate.
The coordination activity of CEOS is now articulated around the concept of constellations, to
share experience in the development of algorithms, standardize data products and formats,
exchange information regarding the calibration and validation of measurements, facilitate
the timely exchange of and access to data products from existing and planned missions, and
facilitate the planning of new missions. There are currently seven virtual constellations:
(a) Atmospheric composition;
(b) Land surface imaging;
(c) Ocean surface topography;
(d) Precipitation;
(e) Ocean colour radiometry;
(f) Ocean surface vector wind;
(g) Sea-surface temperature.
7.3 SATELLITE MISSION PLANNING
7.3.1 Satellite programme life cycle
In the early days of satellite meteorology, the life cycle of a satellite mission was only a few years.
Mission definition, satellite design, system development and science demonstration happened in
one or two years each; the exploitation period was short and the ground segment often under-
dimensioned.
Nowadays, an operational programme (for example, for meteorological purposes) generally

proceeds with the following phases:
Phase 0: Definition of user requirements, involving the user community, and of

mission requirements, that is, identification of the possible techniques to fulfil the user
requirements. This lasts about three to four years;
Phase A: Feasibility assessment at system level (including a preliminary definition of the

ground segment) and of critical instruments (possibly including instrument simulations),
and rough order-of-magnitude cost estimation. The duration is about two years;
Phase B: Preliminary design, preparatory activities (including airborne campaigns) and

detailed cost estimation. This takes about another two years;
Phase C: Detailed design and development and testing of all systems (including the ground
segment) and subsystems. This phase is the longest, requiring about five years;
Phase D: Integration of all subsystems, testing of the whole satellite and launch campaign.
This is often accomplished in one year.
Adding some time for the decision-making and approval processes, and for in-orbit
commissioning, the duration of the development phase is of the order of 15 years.
Phase E: The exploitation phase is generally aimed at 15 years for an operational

programme including a series of three or four satellites, with some overlap for contingency
purposes (the typical lifetime of a low Earth orbit satellite is five years, and seven years for a
geostationary Earth orbit (GEO) satellite). The duration of a satellite generation is a trade-
off between the need for a long series to offset the development cost and the user learning
curve, and the need to develop a new generation of satellite instruments to benefit from
state-of-the-art technology.
The organization of a space programme involves many participants: the applications community,
scientific institutes, space agencies focused on research and development, industry, and
governments with their industrial policy and budget constraints. In the case of Earth observation
programmes with worldwide scope, there must be as much coordination as possible with
international partners, which may further complicate the decision-making process.
7.3.2 Continuity and contingency planning
The continuity of space-based observations has been a critical requirement for the
meteorological satellite constellation in geostationary orbit ever since nowcasting and severe
weather forecasting, including tropical cyclone warning, began relying on satellite monitoring.
The operational continuity of GEO imagery entails round-the-clock operation, high availability,
near-real-time data dissemination, and long-term continuity guaranteed by a robust programme
that includes provisions for in-orbit backup. When the polar-orbiting constellation was
established, and numerical weather prediction models were increasingly relying on satellite
sounding (infrared, microwave and radio-occultation) and other key satellite observations such
as ocean surface winds, a similar requirement for operational continuity was applied to the
morning and afternoon satellites that became the core meteorological constellation in polar
orbit. A baseline configuration of the operational space-based observing system was defined and
undertaken by the satellite operators contributing to WMO programmes.
While satellite operators committed to give their best efforts to maintain the geostationary
and polar Sun-synchronous constellations, CGMS developed a Global Contingency Plan (see
section 7.2.1 and box below) providing a technical and legal framework for contingency
measures to be taken on a “help your neighbour” basis in case of deficiency of one of the
elements of the operational configuration.
For geostationary satellites, contingency support can be provided if the number of satellites is
sufficiently high and their nominal positions are appropriately spaced along the Equator (see,
for instance, the present volume, Chapter 4, Figure 4.1). Moving a satellite from one longitude
to another requires little fuel if implemented at a slow pace. As per the contingency plan, several
satellites are maintained in backup positions and it is possible to relocate a satellite to fill a gap
through a manoeuvre lasting a few days or weeks depending on the urgency and the fuel
available on board. Several examples have taken place: a spare Meteosat satellite was moved
to cover the West Atlantic Ocean when the Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite
(GOES) system suffered a launch delay in the early 1990s; a spare GOES satellite filled the gap in
the Western Pacific Ocean during the transition from the Geostationary Meteorological Satellite
(GMS) to the Multifunctional Transport Satellite (MTSAT) in the early 2000s; and in the last
two decades the Indian Ocean position has been covered on occasions by GOES and Meteosat
satellites.
For Sun-synchronous satellites, contingency is more complicated. Changing the orbital plane
of a satellite requires a very large amount of fuel and is not envisaged apart from the natural
drift of the orbital plane due to precession or orbit-keeping manoeuvres to correct this drift. The
contingency plan therefore focuses on the availability of backup satellites in each orbital plane
along with regular spacing of the equatorial crossing times of these planes.
When WMO adopted its Vision for the GOS in 2025, the scope of the operational space-based
observing system was extended to climate monitoring, reflecting both the requirement to
monitor the climate on a continuing basis and the maturity of space-based systems evolving
from research and development to an operational status. In response, a new baseline was
subsequently defined and adopted by CGMS that incorporates a number of climate-oriented
missions. Continuity is as crucial for climate monitoring as for operational weather forecasting;
however, the requirements are different because climate monitoring involves different
timescales. First, near-real-time availability and short-term gaps in a daily cycle are not driving
requirements. Second, major importance is attached to long-term continuity and stability of
measurements throughout decades. The Global Climate Observing System (GCOS) Climate
Monitoring Principles require systematic overlap between all consecutive satellites to allow for
intercalibration and traceability. Stability and traceability could also be achieved by maintaining
one highly secured reference mission, with in-orbit backup, that serves as a calibration reference
standard for all the others (as discussed in the present volume, Chapter 6, 6.1.9). Such a provision
should be a major element in the definition of the Architecture for Climate Monitoring from
Space.
CGMS continuity and contingency planning

The CGMS baseline defines (i) a geostationary constellation comprising six satellites
nominally located at fixed longitudes (135°W, 75°W, 0°, 76°E, 105°E, 140°E) and
performing a set of agreed missions, (ii) a core meteorological constellation in
polar Sun-synchronous orbit performing imagery and sounding, and (iii) different
constellations dedicated to additional missions in either Sun-synchronous or
inclined low Earth orbits. The CGMS Working Group on Operational Continuity and
Contingency Planning keeps under review the implementation of the baseline, the
availability of in-orbit backups and the risks of interruption of key missions.
The Coordination Group for Meteorological Satellites has adopted a Global
Contingency Plan which includes guidelines to ensure continuity, for example, in terms
of in-orbit backup and re-launch policy, sets criteria for entering into contingency
mode and identifies actions to be taken in such contingency situations. In particular,
the Global Contingency Plan defines a generic procedure for relocating a spare
geostationary satellite to take over from a failing satellite, which is referred to as
the “help your neighbour” strategy. This global plan is supplemented by bilateral
contingency agreements between geostationary satellite operators. On several
occasions, over the past three decades, such contingency relocations have been
essential to preserve the continuity of vital operational missions.
7.3.3 Long-term evolution
The evolving user requirements for satellite data and the dramatic progress of space and remote-
sensing technology call for continuous improvements to satellite systems and instrumentation.
At the same time, the strong pressure on resources stresses the need to seek an optimization
of the global effort to assure the availability of a comprehensive observing system and avoid
unnecessary redundancy beyond the required margins for robustness. Optimization is also
needed in the development, validation and sustained processing of derived products, and
requires data sharing, interoperability and quality assurance. Global coordination under the
auspices of WMO aims at ensuring such optimization under the overall context of the WMO
Integrated Global Observing System, building on the Rolling Review of Requirements, the
high-level guidance provided by the Vision for the GOS, the Statement of Guidance in each
application area, and the Implementation Plan for the Evolution of Global Observing Systems
which consolidates the recommendations addressed to agents implementing observing systems.
A notable initiative is also the Architecture for Climate Monitoring from Space, promoted by
WMO, CEOS and CGMS, which aims to provide an end-to-end response from the space-based
observing system to the climate monitoring requirements.
REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
Bizzarri, B. 1982: Satellite data for numerical weather prediction. Rivista di Meteorologia Aeronautica,
42(4):369–382.
———, 1986: Basic principles of remote sensing. Proceedings of the Course on Satellite Meteorology and its
Extension to Agriculture (Erice, ed.). EUMETSAT, EUM P03, pp. 1–10.
Bizzarri, B. and C. Tomassini, 1976: Retrieval of information from high-resolution images. Proceedings
of the Symposium on Meteorological Observations from Space, Committee on Space Research,
Philadelphia, pp. 140–144.
Chander, G., T.J. Hewison, N. Fox, X. Wu, X. Xiong and W.J. Blackwell, 2013: Overview of intercalibration of
satellite instruments. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, 51(3):1056–1080.
Committee on Earth Observation Satellites: Mission, Instruments and Measurements database online
(available from http://database.eohandbook.com, updated yearly).
Datla, R.V., J.P. Rice, K.R. Lykke, C. Johnson, J.J. Butler and X. Xiong, 2009: Best Practice Guidelines for
Pre-launch Characterization and Calibration of Instruments for Passive Optical Remote Sensing.
NIST IR 7637, National Institute of Standards and Technology.
European Space Agency: Sharing Earth Observation Resources (available from https://directory.eoportal
.org/web/eoportal/satellite-missions, updated at intervals).
Fox, N., 2010: QA4EO – A Quality Assurance Framework for Earth Observation: A guide to “reference standards”
in support of Quality Assurance requirements of GEO (M.C. Greening, ed.). QA4EO-QAEO-GEN-
DQK-003, Group on Earth Observations (available from http://www.qa4eo.org/docs/QA4EO
-QAEO - GEN-DQK- 003 _v4.0.pdf).
Joint Committee for Guides in Metrology, 2012: International vocabulary of metrology – Basic and general
concepts and associated terms (VIM). JCGM 200:2012.
Klein, M. and A.J. Gasiewski, 2000: Nadir sensitivity of passive millimeter and submillimeter wave
channels to clear air temperature and water vapor variations. Journal of Geophysical Research,
105(D13):17481–17511.
Kramer, H.J., 2002: Observation of the Earth and its Environment – Survey of Missions and Sensors, Springer (CD-
ROM inclusive of survey on airborne sensors and campaigns).
Ohring, G. (ed.), 2007: Achieving Satellite Instrument Calibration for Climate Change (ASIC3). Report of a
workshop organized by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National
Institute of Standards and Technology, National Aeronautics and Space Administration,
National Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System-integrated Program Office,
and Space Dynamics Laboratory of Utah State University, 16–18 May 2006. Landsdowne, VA.
Parkinson, C.L., A. Ward and M.D. King (eds.), 2006: Earth Science Reference Handbook. NASA Goddard
Space Flight Center.
Tobin, D.C., H.E. Revercomb, R.O. Knuteson, F.A. Best, W.L. Smith, N.N. Ciganovich, R.G. Dedecker,
S. Dutcher, S.D. Ellington, R.K. Garcia, H.B. Howell, D.D. LaPorte, S.A. Mango, T.S. Pagano,
J.K. Taylor, P. van Delst, K.H. Vinson and M.W. Werner, 2006a: Radiometric and spectral
validation of Atmospheric Infrared Sounder observations with the aircraft-based Scanning
High-Resolution Interferometer Sounder. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres,
111(D09S02).
Tobin, D.C., H.E. Revercomb, C.C. Moeller and T.S. Pagano, 2006b: Use of Atmospheric Infrared Sounder
high-spectral resolution spectra to assess the calibration of Moderate Resolution Imaging
Spectroradiometer on EOS Aqua. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 111(D09S05).
World Meteorological Organization, 2001: Applications with Meteorological Satellites (W.P. Menzel). SAT-28
(WMO/TD-No. 1078). Geneva.
———, 2014: Observing Systems Capability Analysis and Review (OSCAR) database and tool (available from
http://www.wmo-sat.info/oscar/, regularly updated).
World Meteorological Organization/International Telecommunication Union, 2008: Handbook on Use of
Radio Spectrum for Meteorology: Weather, Water and Climate Monitoring and Prediction. Geneva.
For more information, please contact:
World Meteorological Organization

7 bis, avenue de la Paix – P.O. Box 2300 – CH 1211 Geneva 2 – Switzerland
Communication and Public Affairs Office

Tel.: +41 (0) 22 730 83 14/15 – Fax: +41 (0) 22 730 80 27
Email: cpa@wmo.int
public.wmo.int
JN 181782

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Guide to Instruments and Methods of

© World Meteorological Organization, 2018

Chair, Publications Board

CHAPTER 2. PRINCIPLES OF EARTH OBSERVATION FROM SPACE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  3

CHAPTER 3. REMOTE-SENSING INSTRUMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  48

3.2.3 Cross-nadir short-wave sounder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

CHAPTER 4. SATELLITE PROGRAMMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  94

CHAPTER 5. SPACE-BASED OBSERVATION OF GEOPHYSICAL VARIABLES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  117

5.1.2.5 Accuracy (RMS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

5.5.12 Dominant wave period. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

5.9.2 Electron density. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

CHAPTER 6. CALIBRATION AND VALIDATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  196

CHAPTER 7. CROSS-CUTTING ISSUES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  203

REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  210

1.1 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

1.2 SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL SCALES

signal-to-noise ratio. Surface measurements are usually point-related, although, depending on

1.3 COMPLEMENTARY NATURE OF SPACE-BASED AND SURFACE-BASED

2.1 ORBITS AND EARTH VIEWING FROM SPACE

(a) Satellite instrument field of view;

(c) Orbital precession, Sun-synchronous orbits and drifting orbits;

(d) Elliptical orbits;

(e) Launchers and injection into orbit.

2.1.1 Satellite instrument field of view

Figure 2.1. Field of view versus zenith angle ζ

Zenith angle for various H = 400 km H = 600 km H = 800 km H = 35 786 km

Orbital parameter H = 400 km H = 600 km H = 800 km H = 35 786 km

Decalage 2 570 km 2 690 km 2 800 km 0 km

Observing cycle for ζ = 70° (day only) 35 h 27 h 23 h From instrument

Observing cycle for ζ = 60° (day only) 51 h 38 h 31 h From instrument

Observing cycle for ζ = 70° (day and night) 18 h 13 h 11 h From instrument

Observing cycle for ζ = 60° (day and night) 26 h 19 h 16 h From instrument

No. of orbits/day 13 + 17/18 14 + 9/16 14 + 5/26 14 + 11/35 14 + 6/29 12 + 7/10a

Cycle 18 days 16 days 26 days 35 days 29 days 10 daysa

Revolutions/cycle 251 233 369 501 413 127

Figure 2.6. Definition of inclined orbit

2.1.3 Orbital precession, Sun-synchronous orbits and drifting orbits

Table 2.4. Inclination values of Sun-synchronous orbits as a function of orbital height

400 km 600 km 800 km 1 000 km 1 200 km 1 400 km

2.1.4 Elliptical orbits

Instrument Required observing cycle

Only in daylight 2 sat 4 sat 6 sat 8 sat 16 sat 24 sat 48 sat

06/ 18 LST 06/ 18 LST

00/12 LST 12/00 LST

Figure 2.8. The Molniya orbit

Table 2.6. Main features of Molniya and Tundra orbits

Tundra 63.4° 24 h ~48 300 km ~24 000 km Visible over 1 position 2

2.1.5 Launchers and injection into orbit

Final geostationary orbit

Figure 2.9. Achievement of GEO

Launching a satellite is a complicated and costly exercise. In order to optimize cost-effectiveness,

2.2 PRINCIPLES OF REMOTE-SENSING

(c) Observations in the atmospheric windows;

(d) Observations in absorption bands;

(e) Limb sounding and radio occultation;

(f) Active sensing.

0.3 µm 1 µm 3 µm 10 µm 30 µm 100 µm 0.3 mm 1.0 mm 3.0 mm 1 cm 3 cm

Figure 2.10. Spectrum (transmissivity) of electromagnetic radiation as observed from space

Table 2.7. Bands of the electromagnetic spectrum exploited for remote-sensing

B Blue 0.436 μm 22 935 cm–1

G Green 0.546 µm 18 315 cm–1

R Red 0.700 μm 14 285 cm–1

VIS Visible 0.38–0.78 μm 12 820–26 320 cm–1

CHAPTER 2. PRINCIPLES OF EARTH OBSERVATION FROM SPACE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

CHAPTER 3. REMOTE-SENSING INSTRUMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

3.2.3 Cross-nadir short-wave sounder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

CHAPTER 4. SATELLITE PROGRAMMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

CHAPTER 5. SPACE-BASED OBSERVATION OF GEOPHYSICAL VARIABLES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

5.1.2.5 Accuracy (RMS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

5.5.12 Dominant wave period. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

5.9.2 Electron density. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

CHAPTER 6. CALIBRATION AND VALIDATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196

CHAPTER 7. CROSS-CUTTING ISSUES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210