designs

Review
Classification and Selection of Cellular Materials in
Mechanical Design: Engineering and
Biomimetic Approaches
Dhruv Bhate 1, *, Clint A. Penick 2 , Lara A. Ferry 3 and Christine Lee 4
1 The Polytechnic School, Ira A. Fulton Schools of Engineering, Arizona State University, Mesa,
AZ 85212-6300, USA
2 The Biomimicry Center, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287-3505, USA; clint.penick@asu.edu
3 New College of Interdisciplinary Arts and Sciences, School of Mathematical & Natural Sciences,
Arizona State University, Glendale, AZ 85306-4908, USA; lara.ferry@asu.edu
4 Herberger Institute of Design and Arts, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287-2102, USA;
christinelee@asu.edu
* Correspondence: dhruv.bhate@asu.edu; Tel.: +1-480-727-1332




Received: 24 December 2018; Accepted: 13 March 2019; Published: 19 March 2019


Abstract: Recent developments in design and manufacturing have greatly expanded the design
space for functional part production by enabling control of structural details at small scales to
inform behavior at the whole-structure level. This can be achieved with cellular materials, such as
honeycombs, foams and lattices. Designing structures with cellular materials involves answering an
important question: What is the optimum unit cell for the application of interest? There is currently
no classification framework that describes the spectrum of cellular materials, and no methodology
to guide the designer in selecting among the infinite list of possibilities. In this paper, we first
review traditional engineering methods currently in use for selecting cellular materials in design.
We then develop a classification scheme for the different types of cellular materials, dividing them
into three levels of design decisions: tessellation, element type and connectivity. We demonstrate
how a biomimetic approach helps a designer make decisions at all three levels. The scope of this
paper is limited to the structural domain, but the methodology developed here can be extended to
the design of components in thermal, fluid, optical and other areas. A deeper purpose of this paper is
to demonstrate how traditional methods in design can be combined with a biomimetic approach.

Keywords: cellular materials; biomimicry; biomimetics; bio-inpsiration; design principles; honeycombs;

foams; lattices

1. Introduction
The material world can, from a design standpoint, be divided into form (the bounding shape of a
structure) and pattern (the constituents of this form) [1]. Cellular materials are essentially patterns
that may be best defined in contrast to their homogeneous counterparts in that they are heterogeneous
materials that have the following two key requirements:

• A Unit Cell: Most cellular materials are defined by a unit cell that is some combination of material
and space. At its limit, a homogeneous material may be said to be a cellular material with a fully
dense unit cell.
• Repetition: The unit cell is repeated in space to create the larger structure or surface—the resulting
pattern need not be regular and may include more than one type of unit cell.

Designs 2019, 3, 19; doi:10.3390/designs3010019 www.mdpi.com/journal/designs

Designs 2018, 2, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 30

Designs 2019, 3, 19 2 of 31
• Repetition: The unit cell is repeated in space to create the larger structure or surface—the
resulting pattern need not be regular and may include more than one type of unit cell.
Cellular
Cellular materials
materialsoffer advantages
offer that that
advantages cannot be easily
cannot be availed
easily of from homogeneous
availed structures,
of from homogeneous
such as the ability to locally tune properties and to add multi-functionality to component
structures, such as the ability to locally tune properties and to add multi-functionality to componentparts [2].
This
partshas[2].been
Thisexploited
has beeninexploited
a wide range of structural,
in a wide range ofthermal, fluidthermal,
structural, and biomedical
fluid andapplications,
biomedical
listed in Figure 1, adapted from a design guide for metal foams [3].
applications, listed in Figure 1, adapted from a design guide for metal foams [3].

Figure 1.
Figure 1. Applications for cellular structures that can
can leverage
leverage their
their special
special properties
properties to
to enhance
enhance
functional performance (adapted from a design guide on metal foams
functional performance (adapted from a design guide on metal foams [3]). [3]).

Recent
Recentdevelopments
developments in manufacturing,
in manufacturing, such assuchwith as
Additive
with Manufacturing (AM) technologies,
Additive Manufacturing (AM)
and design software,
technologies, have
and design now made
software, haveit now
significantly easier to design
made it significantly and
easier tomanufacture geometries
design and manufacture
that were hitherto
geometries that werecost hitherto
prohibitive, cost orprohibitive,
simply notor feasible
simplyto notfabricate.
feasibleWhile the advantages
to fabricate. While the of
designing
advantages with cellular materials
of designing are increasingly
with cellular materials are apparent, several
increasingly challenges
apparent, limit challenges
several the widespread limit
implementation of additively manufactured
the widespread implementation of additivelycellular materials
manufactured in functional
cellular materialsparts. One of parts.
in functional these
challenges
One of these is the lack of aismethodology
challenges for designingfor
the lack of a methodology structures
designing with cellularwith
structures materials to optimize
cellular materials
function,
to optimize including
function,approaches to assess which
including approaches cellular
to assess which pattern might
cellular patternworkmightbestwork
for abestspecific
for a
application, which iswhich
specific application, the focus
is theoffocus
this of
review. We identify
this review. traditional
We identify engineering
traditional approaches
engineering approachesand
propose combining them with biomimicry for identifying optimal strategies
and propose combining them with biomimicry for identifying optimal strategies when designing when designing with
cellular materials.
with cellular The former
materials. approaches
The former have been
approaches havedeveloped by researchers
been developed over theover
by researchers past the
century
past
and are well
century and documented in textbooks
are well documented and literature,
in textbooks which arewhich
and literature, briefly
arereviewed in the next
briefly reviewed insection.
the next
Over 3.95 billion years of evolution [4], organisms have developed a variety of cellular geometries
section.
that conserve
Over 3.95 material
billionusage
years andofenhance
evolutionperformance under the
[4], organisms conditions
have developedwhere a life thrives.
variety of As early
cellular
as the 1st century
geometries BC, the Roman
that conserve materialscholarusage Varro postulated
and enhance on the cellular
performance underdesign of honeycomb
the conditions whereand life
its material-saving
thrives. As early asproperties
the 1st century[5], andBC,inthe
1665,
Romanusing microscopy,
scholar Robert Hooke
Varro postulated speculated
on the correctly
cellular design of
that the behavior
honeycomb of cork
and its could be attributed
material-saving properties to [5],
its cellular
and in structure
1665, using [6].microscopy,
Since this time,Robertscientists
Hooke
have investigated
speculated a wide
correctly thatvariety of cellular
the behavior patterns
of cork could in be
nature and postulated
attributed aboutstructure
to its cellular their functions [7],
[6]. Since
summarized in Figure
this time, scientists 2. Imaging
have investigatedtechnology
a widehas also greatly
variety improved
of cellular andin
patterns now commonly
nature includes
and postulated
X-ray
abouttomography
their functionsmethods [8]. The similarities
[7], summarized in Figurebetween
2. Imaging Figures 1 and 2has
technology arealso
strongly suggestive
greatly improved of and
the
fact
nowthat nature and
commonly engineers
includes X-ray have both used methods
tomography cellular materials to attain similar
[8]. The similarities objectives.
between Figures 1 and 2
are strongly suggestive of the fact that nature and engineers have both used cellular materials to
attain similar objectives.
Section 2 of this paper discusses traditional engineering approaches to cellular material selection.
In Section 3, we present a three-level classification scheme to aid the designer of cellular materials.
Section 4 describes how a biomimetic approach can be used to guide the designer in the selection of
Designs 2018, 2, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 30

options at all three levels of the classification scheme. Finally, in Section 5, we discuss how combining
engineering and biomimetic approaches can help a designer traverse the design space and select an
Designs 2019, 3, 19 3 of 31
optimum cellular shape.

Figure 2. Functions of cellular structures in nature, following [9].

Figure 2. Functions of cellular structures in nature, following [9].
Section 2 of this paper discusses traditional engineering approaches to cellular material selection.
2. Engineering Approaches to Cellular Material Selection
In Section 3, we present a three-level classification scheme to aid the designer of cellular materials.
Broadly
Section speaking,
4 describes how there are three types
a biomimetic of approaches
approach can be usedused by engineers
to guide to select
the designer in an
theappropriate
selection of
unit cell at
options forall
a specific application.
three levels The first is scheme.
of the classification analytical in nature,
Finally, where5,first
in Section principles
we discuss how are invoked
combining
to represent and
engineering behavior in the approaches
biomimetic form of mathematical models. traverse
can help a designer The second approach
the design spaceis and
empirical
select in
an
nature,
optimum where engineers
cellular shape.rely on experimental or computational data to develop predictive models or
compare one material against another. The third approach involves the use of computational tools
2. Engineering
where the material Approaches
design is to anCellular
emergent Material
property.Selection
In practice, a combination of these approaches
may be most useful,
Broadly speaking,especially inthree
there are moretypes
complex, multi-objective
of approaches used bycontexts.
engineers to select an appropriate
Before examining these approaches in more detail, however,
unit cell for a specific application. The first is analytical in nature, where it is useful
first to ask: what
principles is invoked
are the figureto
of merit that
represent is beingincompared?
behavior the form ofFor the three structural
mathematical models.properties
The second ofapproach
interest inisthis paper (stiffness,
empirical in nature,
strength and toughness),
where engineers what is the appropriate
rely on experimental metric?data
or computational Thetonext section
develop first examines
predictive models theordifferent
compare
ways this metric can be estimated, and then discusses the analytical and empirical
one material against another. The third approach involves the use of computational tools where methods that may
the
be used todesign
material compare is anshapes withproperty.
emergent these metrics in mind.
In practice, a combination of these approaches may be most
useful, especially in more complex, multi-objective contexts.
2.1. Figures
Beforeofexamining
Merit these approaches in more detail, however, it is useful to ask: what is the
figureToofselect
merita that is being compared?
homogeneous For the
material (one thatthree structural
is not cellular),properties
one simplyof interest
looks up inathis paper
material
(stiffness,chart
property strength
suchand toughness),
as the one shownwhat is the appropriate
in Figure metric?
3, and selects, The next asection
for example, firstalloy
Titanium examines
over the
an
different ways this metric can be estimated, and then discusses the analytical and empirical
Aluminum one if higher stiffness is desired. However, this is not as straightforward when it comes methods
that
to may be
cellular used to since
materials, compare shapes with
the observed these metrics
property in mind. of both composition (material) and
is a combination
design (cellular structure). A chart such as the one in Figure 3 provides little granularity regarding
2.1. Figures of Merit
the relative contributions of each, limiting the designer’s ability to make an insightful selection. An
To select a homogeneous material (one that is not cellular), one simply looks up a material property
chart such as the one shown in Figure 3, and selects, for example, a Titanium alloy over an Aluminum
one if higher stiffness is desired. However, this is not as straightforward when it comes to cellular
Designs 2019, 3, 19 4 of 31

materials, since the observed property is a combination of both composition (material) and design
(cellular structure).
Designs 2018, A chart
2, x FOR PEER such as the one in Figure 3 provides little granularity regarding the relative
REVIEW 4 of 30
contributions of each, limiting the designer’s ability to make an insightful selection. An additional
complication is that cellular
additional complication materials
is that cellular can respond
materials candifferently depending
respond differently on the specific
depending on the loading
specific
conditions—a specific shape that has a compressive strength may not be optimum
loading conditions—a specific shape that has a compressive strength may not be optimum under under bending,
for example.
bending, for example.

Figure
Figure 3. The “Ashby”
3. The “Ashby”plot
plotfor
forYoung’s
Young’smodulus
modulus(Y-axis)
(Y-axis)and
anddensity
density(X-axis)
(X-axis)
is is
anan effective
effective tool
tool in
in material selection but does not isolate geometry from composition for cellular materials
material selection but does not isolate geometry from composition for cellular materials (Attr: (Attr:
Nicoguaro,
Nicoguaro, Wikimedia
Wikimedia Commons).
Commons).

The Ashby plot in Figure 3 can be used for cellular materials with the use of the effective property,
The Ashby plot in Figure 3 can be used for cellular materials with the use of the effective
which is estimated just as properties of homogeneous materials would, typically through experimental
property, which is estimated just as properties of homogeneous materials would, typically through
studies [6]. To address integration of this cellular material into a more realistic loading environment,
experimental studies [6]. To address integration of this cellular material into a more realistic loading
materials indices introduced by Ashby [10] can be used. These indices are a function of the structural
environment, materials indices introduced by Ashby [10] can be used. These indices are a function of
geometry (such as tie, beam, column or panel), the objective of interest (weight, cost) and the constraints
the structural geometry (such as tie, beam, column or panel), the objective of interest (weight, cost)
prescribed (stiffness, strength, buckling load). Given these three pieces of information, a material index
and the constraints prescribed (stiffness, strength, buckling load). Given these three pieces of
can be specified that enables selection among a range of materials. For strength-limited designs for
information, a material index can be specified that enables selection among a range of materials. For
example, with the objective of minimizing mass, the index becomes [10]:
strength-limited designs for example, with the objective of minimizing mass, the index becomes [10]:
σyσ/ρy/ρfor
fora atietie(rod)
(rod)structure
structure (1)

)0.5
(σy(σ /ρ/ρfor
y)0.5 foraapanel
panelstructure
structure (2)

where σσyy is the yield strength, and ρρ is the density of the material. The designer would seek materials
where
that maximize
maximize these
these indices—and
indices—andselect
selectthe
thehighest
highestone available
one (all(all
available other things
other being
things equal).
being For
equal).
cellular
For materials,
cellular thesethese
materials, indices would
indices be composed
would of effective
be composed properties
of effective but otherwise
properties the process
but otherwise the
is identical.
process MaterialMaterial
is identical. indices,indices,
while useful
whilein selection
useful for a given
in selection for amaterial composition,
given material do not do
composition, enable
not
an isolation
enable of geometry
an isolation from composition.
of geometry from composition.Another critique
Another of these
critique indices
of these is that
indices is they oftenoften
that they lack
physical
lack insight
physical andand
insight possess unfamiliar
possess unfamiliar units that
units can
that canbebedifficult
difficulttotointerpret,
interpret, depending
depending on the
specific index
specific index under
under consideration.
consideration.
Another dimensionless metric called the relative effective property is simply expressed as the
effective property of interest divided (normalized) by the same property but for the material that
constitutes the cellular structure. Therefore, to cite one example, instead of comparing just the
effective moduli E* of two cellular materials, this metric would compare their relative effective
moduli:
Designs 2019, 3, 19 5 of 31

Another dimensionless metric called the relative effective property is simply expressed as the
effective property of interest divided (normalized) by the same property but for the material that
constitutes the cellular structure. Therefore, to cite one example, instead of comparing just the effective
moduli E* of two cellular materials, this metric would compare their relative effective moduli:

Relative Effective Modulus = E*/Es (3)

where Es represents the effective modulus of the solid material from which the cellular material is
composed. Normalizing the property being maximized (or minimized) by its equivalent bulk material
property isolates contributions of composition. A disadvantage of using the relative effective property
is that it does not address the material utilization (density) aspects in the figure of merit itself. For this
purpose, a metric that includes the benefits of normalization but also combines it with a consideration
of relative density, is needed.
Berger et al. [11] introduced a measure of geometric efficiency of the cellular material design,
which is independent of the composition of the material used to create it. For effective modulus of a
cellular material, for example [11]:

E∗ /Es
Geometric E f f iciency Index = (4)
ρ∗ /ρs

where E* and ρ* represent the effective modulus and density of the cellular material, while Es
and ρs represent their bulk material counterparts. The power of such a metric is that it allows
a designer to answer a question such as what is the stiffest isotropic cellular material design.
Traditionally, in material selection handbooks, this answer can be obtained by a study of plots of
modulus vs density, where material indices are prescribed depending on the objective and constraint
of interest. However, as mentioned previously, this approach does not isolate the contributions of
material from geometry. Berger et al. [11] examined different metamaterials with the aim of identifying
ones near the theoretical limit for elastic stiffness.
In summary, if composition is fixed and loading conditions are well characterized by standard
testing procedures, the effective property (e.g., E*) may be adequate to compare cellular material
designs and select an appropriate cellular geometry. If composition is also allowed to vary, the
property of interest needs to be normalized with its bulk material counterpart (i.e., E*/Es ). If the
objective with cellular material selection is to achieve the maximum performance with the lowest mass,
cellular materials should be compared using the geometric efficiency index.

2.2. Maxwell’s Stability Criterion

The 1800s were a period of expanding construction, and one of the concerns was developing
theories for how to design structures. Maxwell pioneered the field of the mathematical theory of
structural rigidity and 1864 published a paper developing a simple equation that discusses stability in
the context of rigid truss structures [12]—conveniently, this is also of relevance to cellular materials
when discussing lattice structures. The results developed by Maxwell have come to be known as
Maxwell’s stability criterion, and it involves the computation of a metric M for a lattice-like structure
with b struts and j joints as follows [12]:

In 2D structures: M = b − 2j + 3 and,
(5)
In 3D structures: M = b − 3j + 6.

Per Maxwell’s criterion, and assuming the joints are locked, the following three scenarios are
possible, which are graphically shown for a 2D structure in Figure 4:

• If M < 0, the structure is under-constrained

• If M = 0, the structure is a rigid framework
Designs 2018, 2, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 30
Designs 2019, 3, 19 6 of 31
with M < 0 are more appropriate. To quote the cited paper, “the modulus and initial yield strength of
a stretching-dominated cellular solid are much greater than those of a bending-dominated cellular
•material
If M of
> 0,the
thesame
structure is over-constrained
relative density.” [13].

Figure 4. The relationship between Maxwell’s stability criterion and stretch- and bending-dominated
Figure 4. The relationship between Maxwell’s stability criterion and stretch- and bending-dominated
structures [12,13].
structures [12,13].

The rigidity of the frame structure has a direct relationship to its behavior in a lattice.
The main advantage of using Maxwell’s stability criterion in the context of cellular materials is
This connection was made in the context of foam topology and demonstrated for a range of different
the significant insight it provides given its relative simplicity. However, it is also very limited to
shapes specifically in the context of determining if a structure was stretch- or bending-dominated [13].
beam-based structures, and only gives information into the expected nature of deformation. This
As shown in Figure 4, under-constrained structures are bending dominated while rigid structures are
deformation mode is also limited to the very specific direction of uniaxial, in-plane loading.
stretch dominated. What this means from a design standpoint is that if stiff structures are desired,
Maxwell’s stability criterion also does not provide insight into the role of the base material and its
lattice structures that have M = 0 are ideal for the task. If compliant structures are sought, structures
property (it assumes rigid, infinitely stiff rods), or how the dimensions of these rods influence
with M < 0 are more appropriate. To quote the cited paper, “the modulus and initial yield strength of
behavior. Nonetheless, it allows us to quickly categorize lattice structures into stretch- and bending-
a stretching-dominated cellular solid are much greater than those of a bending-dominated cellular
dominated structures for such load cases, which is a crucial design consideration for structural
material of the same relative density.” [13].
applications.
The main advantage of using Maxwell’s stability criterion in the context of cellular materials
is the significant insight it provides given its relative simplicity. However, it is also very limited
2.3. Relative Density Scaling Laws
to beam-based structures, and only gives information into the expected nature of deformation.
Relative density
This deformation modeis one of the
is also most important
limited to the very features of direction
specific a cellular material and in-plane
of uniaxial, has been loading.
a critical
Maxwell’s stability criterion also does not provide insight into the role of the base materialto
figure-of-merit in the use of foams. It can be used in conjunction with property equations make
and its
design decisions
property (it assumeswhen density
rigid, is of
infinitely importance—in
stiff rods), or how the buoyancy
dimensionsor light-weighting applications,
of these rods influence for
behavior.
example. Relative density is expressed as ρ*/ρ , where ρ* is the density of the cellular
Nonetheless, it allows us to quickly categorize lattice structures into stretch- and bending-dominated
s material, and
ρs the density
structures of the
for such loadmaterial of which
cases, which is athe cellular
crucial structures
design are made
consideration [6]. Relative
for structural density can be
applications.
calculated from the geometry of the shape and for beam-based structures is typically some function
2.3. Relative
of the ratio Density Scaling Laws
of the thickness of the member (edge or wall) over its length (t/l). For honeycombs and
foams, for example, these relationships
Relative density is one of the most important typically take the forms
features below, material
of a cellular where C1and
, C2 has
andbeen
C3 are a
constants
critical [6]:
figure-of-merit in the use of foams. It can be used in conjunction with property equations to
make design decisions when density is of importance—in 𝜌∗ buoyancy
𝑡 or light-weighting applications,
Honeycomb: =𝐶 (6)
𝜌
for example. Relative density is expressed as ρ*/ρs , where ρ*𝑙 is the density of the cellular material,
and ρs the density of the material of which the cellular structures are made [6]. Relative density can be
calculated from the geometry of the shape 𝜌∗ 𝑡
Openand
Cell for beam-based
Foam: = 𝐶 structures is typically some function(7) of
𝜌 𝑙
the ratio of the thickness of the member (edge or wall) over its length (t/l). For honeycombs and foams,
for example, these relationships typically take the forms∗below, where C1 , C2 and C3 are constants [6]:
𝜌 𝑡
Closed Cell Foam: ∗ = 𝐶 (8)
ρ𝜌 t 𝑙
Honeycomb : = C1 (6)
A table of such relationships for different shapesρscan be lfound in [6]. For more complex shapes,
relative density can be computed from an output of the design  file2 used to create it, and it can also be
measured experimentally. A designer is typically ρ∗
concerned twith selecting a certain shape, not(7) in
Open Cell Foam : = C2
knowing its relative density per se. This is where relationships
ρs l between a certain property and the
relative density are useful—these relationships are also commonly termed “Scaling Laws”. Scaling
Designs 2019, 3, 19 7 of 31

 3
ρ∗ t
Closed Cell Foam : = C3 (8)
ρs l
A table of such relationships for different shapes can be found in [6]. For more complex shapes,
relative density can be computed from an output of the design file used to create it, and it can
also be measured experimentally. A designer is typically concerned with selecting a certain shape,
not in knowing its relative density per se. This is where relationships between a certain property
and the relative density are useful—these relationships are also commonly termed “Scaling Laws”.
Scaling laws are most well developed for making predictions on mechanical response. For effective
modulus, for example, the relationship typically takes the following form, where E* and Es are effective
modulus of the cellular material and of the bulk solid, respectively [6]:
n
ρ∗

∗
E = C Es (9)
ρs

Table 1 lists the relative densities and relative effective property equations based thereon for
different cellular materials and can be used as the basis for design selection when relative density is
important to the design. For example, for the same relative density, it is clear that an octet is a third as
stiff under compression as a triangular honeycomb loaded out-of-plane.

Table 1. Material property scaling for some cellular materials, from [14].

Relative Young’s Compressive Fracture

Density Modulus Strength Toughness√
ρ*/ρs E*/Es σ*/σ s KIc /(σ s l)
Triangular √2 t 1ρ
∗
1ρ
∗
1ρ
∗

3l 3 ρs 3 ρs ∼ 2 ρs
honeycomb—out-of-plane
√ t 2

1ρ
∗
1ρ
∗ ρ∗
Octet truss lattice 6 2 9 ρs 3 ρs 0.32 ρs
l

In principle, scaling laws can be developed for any property where physical principles suggest a
relationship between that property and the relative density of the cellular material, by manufacturing
and testing materials at a range of relative density values and then fitting an appropriate relationship
to the observed datasets. This method, while empirical and likely geometry dependent, can prove to
be a useful design protocol in the absence of analytically derived relationships.
It is also important to recognize that scaling laws ignore geometric detail—thus, whether
the relative density is obtained using variation of parameters (changing thickness of walls and
struts, for example) or through changing cell sizes as shown in Figure 5, or a combination of both
strategies—these are all equivalent for the purposes of property estimation. For the effective properties
discussed here, these may be reasonable strategies. For studying the failure of cellular materials,
they are likely to be inadequate.
relative density is obtained using variation of parameters (changing thickness of walls and struts, for
example) or through changing cell sizes as shown in Figure 5, or a combination of both strategies—
these are all equivalent for the purposes of property estimation. For the effective properties discussed
here, these may be reasonable strategies. For studying the failure of cellular materials, they are likely
Designs 2019, 3, 19 8 of 31
to be inadequate.

(a)

(b)
Figure
Figure 5.
5. Two
Two different latticedesigns
different lattice designswith
withidentical
identicalrelative
relative density:
density: (a)(a)
thethe lattice
lattice hashas a small
a small cell cell
size
size
withwith a thin
a thin strutstrut diameter,
diameter, (b) lattice
(b) the the lattice
has ahas a larger
larger cell size
cell size withwith a thicker
a thicker diameter.
diameter.

2.4. Empirical Methods

The most commonly used method of selecting a particular cell shape is to test them empirically,
either experimentally or computationally [15–19]. These datasets can also be used as the basis to
fit the aforementioned scaling laws to experimental data [20] and derive the parameters that can
then be used in design. Computational methods can also be used to study the relative merits of
cellular materials in a specific loading environment. This can be demonstrated for the case of a beam
bending problem. As shown in Figure 6a, this beam was simply supported on either end and had
a distributed edge load applied across the top surface. The beam was then populated with several
different cellular material designs, and displacement calculated, one example of which is shown in
Figure 6b. This displacement was used to solve for an effective flexural rigidity, (EI)*, where I is the
area moment of inertia. Following Berger et al.’s notion of geometric efficiency [11], this quantity
was normalized with respect to the flexural rigidity Es I of a solid beam constructed with material Es .
While the specific conclusions and differences are not relevant for the present discussion, Figure 6c
shows how different cellular materials can be compared for a specific loading condition and one
selected from a range of different options. In this specific study, for example, one may conclude that
the “tet oct edge” shape is the cellular material with the highest geometric efficiency with regard to
flexural rigidity, among the shapes studied.
with respect to the flexural rigidity EsI of a solid beam constructed with material Es. While the specific
conclusions and differences are not relevant for the present discussion, Figure 6c shows how different
cellular materials can be compared for a specific loading condition and one selected from a range of
different options. In this specific study, for example, one may conclude that the “tet oct edge” shape
is the cellular
Designs 2019, 3, 19material with the highest geometric efficiency with regard to flexural rigidity, among
9 of 31
the shapes studied.

(a) (b)

(c)
Figure
Figure 6. Empiricalstudy
6. Empirical studyconducted
conductedwith
withnTopology’s
nTopology’s Element
Element software
software [21]
[21] to
to identify
identify cellular
cellular
material with
material withthe
thehighest
highestgeometric
geometricefficiency
efficiency for
for bending
bending stiffness:
stiffness: (a)
(a)model
modelsetup;
setup;(b)(b)typical
typicalstress
stress
contours and
contours and (c)
(c) graph
graph comparing
comparing different
different cell shapes across a range of relative densities.

2.5. Simulation-Driven
2.5. Simulation-DrivenCellular
Cellular Material
Material Design
Design
While analytical
While analytical and
andempirical
empiricalmethods
methodshelphelp
narrow downdown
narrow the field
theoffield
cellular
of material
cellular selection,
material
there may be instances, particularly with regard to multi-functional design, where
selection, there may be instances, particularly with regard to multi-functional design, the optimum cellular
where the
material is not one that is readily identifiable among available choices. In fact, there is work to suggest
that lattice structures may not be optimal for stiffness objectives at any length scale, including at the
cellular material level [22], and therefore it is only in multi-objective scenarios that cellular materials
may be worth the additional design cost. In such circumstances, a computational method based on
optimizing the design of the unit cell itself may prove to be useful since it may be challenging to
do so analytically, and cost-prohibitive to evaluate empirically. One of these approaches is to use a
multi-scale optimization approach as described by Osanov and Guest [23] and Cadman et al. [24].
In this approach, the unit cell domain is discretized into elements which are then optimized using
topology optimization methods [25]. Once a unit cell is designed, effective properties are determined.
Test fields are applied to the unit cell architecture along with periodic boundary conditions to compute
a response and estimate properties, typically using Finite Element Analysis (FEA), since analytical
models only exist for the simplest of geometries. In the final step, inverse homogenization is used
to upscale the cellular geometry to the level of the larger structure [26]. These ideas have been
extended to multi-material cellular optimization as well [27]. Recent work has looked at implementing
some of these ideas, inverse homogenization in particular, towards integration into commercial FEA
code [28,29]. Finally, cellular automata methods have also been proposed to design materials [30] and
microstructures [31], and machine learning methods are also beginning to be applied to materials
(FEA), since analytical models only exist for the simplest of geometries. In the final step, inverse
homogenization is used to upscale the cellular geometry to the level of the larger structure [26]. These
ideas have been extended to multi-material cellular optimization as well [27]. Recent work has looked
at implementing some of these ideas, inverse homogenization in particular, towards integration into
commercial FEA code [28,29]. Finally, cellular automata methods have also been proposed to design
Designs 2019, 3, 19 10 of 31
materials [30] and microstructures [31], and machine learning methods are also beginning to be
applied to materials design [32,33]. These latter methods do not require a repeated unit cell and in
design
that sense[32,33]. These
are not latterscope,
within methodsbutdo maynotberequire
said toa repeated
representunit cell andinstance
a specific in that sense are not
of cellular within
material
scope, but may be said to represent a specific instance
design where each cell is allowed to have an independently varying form. of cellular material design where each cell is
allowed to have an independently varying form.
3. A New Classification of Cellular Materials
3. A New Classification of Cellular Materials
A designer seeking to leverage cellular materials can select from, quite literally, an infinitely
largeAlistdesigner
of unit seeking
cells. One to way
leverage
to makecellular
the materials
selection can select
process from, quite
tractable is toliterally,
classify an infinitely
cellular large
materials
list
basedof unit cells. and
on shape Onethen wayassociate
to make the theseselection
classes process
of shapestractable is to classify
with functional cellular
benefit. materials
Several based
approaches
on shape and then associate these classes of shapes with functional benefit.
have been developed, either explicitly or implicitly, to classify cellular materials. The most common Several approaches have
been
approachdeveloped,
follows either
the explicitly
work done or implicitly,
by Gibson to classify cellular
and Ashby materials.
[6], The mostclassifying
who proposed common approach
cellular
follows the work done by Gibson and Ashby [6], who proposed classifying
materials as either honeycombs or foams. Honeycombs are defined as prismatic cellular structures, cellular materials as either
honeycombs or foams. Honeycombs are defined as prismatic cellular structures,
where a two-dimensional template is extruded in the third direction, and the name owes its origins where a two-dimensional
template
to the nest is extruded
constructed in thebythird
the direction,
honeybee,and the name
shown owes its
in Figure 7 origins to the nest constructed
(left). Honeycombs, by the
in engineering
honeybee, shown in Figure 7 (left). Honeycombs, in engineering parlance, need
parlance, need not always be hexagonal and can assume square, triangular or irregular forms as well not always be hexagonal
and
[6]. Incancontrast
assumetosquare, triangular
a honeycomb, or irregular
a foam forms as well [6].cellular
is a three-dimensional In contrast to a honeycomb,
material a foam
that is typically the
is a three-dimensional cellular material that is typically the result of a foaming
result of a foaming process and often has a stochastic form as a result—an example of this structure process and often has a
stochastic form as a result—an
is shown in Figure 7 (right). example of this structure is shown in Figure 7 (right).

Figure 7.
7. The bee’s honeycomb (left) isis an
an example
example of
of aa prismatic
prismatic cellular
cellular material.
material. The stochastic
stochastic
example of
metal foam (right) is an example of aa 3D
3D cellular
cellular material
material (Attr:
(Attr: SecretDisc,
SecretDisc, Wikimedia
Wikimedia Commons).
Commons).

Honeycombs
Honeycombs [34] [34]and
andfoams [35][35]
foams havehave
dominated the landscape
dominated of engineering
the landscape cellular materials
of engineering cellular
over the past
materials overtwo
the decades
past twowith littlewith
decades needlittle
for aneed
moreforformal
a morenomenclature since these
formal nomenclature were
since thewere
these two
classes of cellular materials that were readily manufacturable with existing technologies and
the two classes of cellular materials that were readily manufacturable with existing technologies and therefore
most in use.
therefore However,
most as a comprehensive
in use. However, classification
as a comprehensive scheme, this
classification simplistic
scheme, this separation of cellular
simplistic separation
materials falls short of describing all the possibilities in the design space. Towards this end, two areas
of study that deal with unit cell shapes are mathematics and crystallography. Within mathematics,
the field of tessellation deals with the partitioning of space into smaller units or cells [36–38].
Crystallography, the science of crystal structure, has also developed nomenclature schemes that are
amenable to the study of ordered cellular materials. Examples of these include the BCC (Body Centered
Cubic) and FCC (Face Centered Cubic) crystal structures. This approach has been used as the basis for a
nomenclature scheme proposed by Zok et al. [39], which is, however, limited to truss-based structures.
Finally, there is at least one effort in the literature to develop design guidance for the selection of
prismatic cellular materials, but this does not include three-dimensional cellular materials [40]. In this
section, ideas from these sources are synthesized to develop a comprehensive classification scheme.
This is also the scheme that the subsequent discussion of natural cellular materials is based on.
At the outset, it helps to think of cellular materials at the following three levels:

1. Tessellation: The compartmentalization of space into independent volumes of a certain shape

2. Elements: The use of beams and/or shells and faces within the tessellated space
3. Connectivity: The actual arrangement of the elements within the tessellated space
classification scheme. This is also the scheme that the subsequent discussion of natural cellular
materials is based on.
At the outset, it helps to think of cellular materials at the following three levels:
1. Tessellation: The compartmentalization of space into independent volumes of a certain shape
Designs 2019, 3, 19
2. Elements: The use of beams and/or shells and faces within the tessellated space 11 of 31

3. Connectivity: The actual arrangement of the elements within the tessellated space
Within
Withineacheachofofthese
theselevels,
levels,aadesigner
designercan
canchoose
chooseamong
amongaarange
rangeofofoptions.
options. These
These options
options are
are
shown as a classification scheme in Figure 8. A designer thus must define a tessellation, specify
shown as a classification scheme in Figure 8. A designer thus must define a tessellation, specify what what
elements
elementslieliewithin
withinthe tessellation,
the and
tessellation, finally
and describe
finally howhow
describe thesethese
elements are connected
elements to each
are connected toother.
each
In the following
other. discussion,
In the following each of these
discussion, each design
of thesechoices,
designrepresented as dots in as
choices, represented Figure
dots8,inare examined.
Figure 8, are
In subsequent
examined. sections these
In subsequent choices
sections are discussed
these choices areindiscussed
more detail.
in more detail.

Figure8.8. Cellular
Figure Cellular material
material classification
classification developed
developed by
by the
the authors
authors from
from aa synthesis
synthesis of
ofschemes
schemes from
from
many domains. Each dot represents a decision point.
many domains. Each dot represents a decision point.

3.1. Tessellation
3.1. Tessellation
Designing structures with cellular materials ultimately involves filling space. From a mathematical
perspective, this is a question that falls within the purview of geometry, and more specifically in
the domain of tiling, or tessellation. Broadly speaking, space can either be tessellated in periodic,
non-stochastic shapes (where the shape of each cell and its connectivity to others is prescribed,
such as the regular hexagon honeycomb pattern), or stochastic shapes (where the shape emerges as a
result of an underlying stochastic function, such as Voronoi patterns). Each of these two approaches
are discussed in turn, first for the simpler case of 2-dimensional (2D) tessellation, and then for
3-dimensions (3D).

3.1.1. Periodic Tessellation

Attempts have been made since the time of the ancient Greeks to develop a classification
scheme for tessellating space with pre-defined shapes, with approaches of the most rigor found
in mathematics [36,41,42]. From a designer’s perspective, periodic tessellation is about the selection
of one or more polygonal (in 2D) or polyhedral (in 3D) shapes and the relationships between their
connections. Thus, there are two levels of descriptors: the first is the type, and the second is the
relationship. Repeating unit cell entities may be constituted of one, two, three, four or more different
 Attempts have been made since the time of the ancient Greeks to develop a classification scheme
for tessellating space with pre-defined shapes, with approaches of the most rigor found in
mathematics [36,41,42]. From a designer’s perspective, periodic tessellation is about the selection of
one or more polygonal (in 2D) or polyhedral (in 3D) shapes and the relationships between their
Designs 2019, 3, 19 12 of 31
connections. Thus, there are two levels of descriptors: the first is the type, and the second is the
relationship. Repeating unit cell entities may be constituted of one, two, three, four or more different
polygons/polyhedra,
polygons/polyhedra, and andaccordingly
accordingly
are are
termedtermed
Unary,Unary, Binary, and
Binary, Tertiary Tertiary and Quaternary,
Quaternary, respectively.
respectively.
The relationship Thedefines
relationship defines
how these how are
shapes these shapes are
connected connected
to each to each other.
other. Examples Examples
of different of
types
different types and relationships are shown in Figure 9 for a few different
and relationships are shown in Figure 9 for a few different tessellation schemes. tessellation schemes.

Figure 9.9.AAselection
Figure of tessellation
selection relationship
of tessellation schemes
relationship (Wikimedia
schemes Commons
(Wikimedia Attribution—Tomruen,
Commons Attribution—
following [36]).
Tomruen, following [36]).

The most
The most commonly
commonly studied
studied (and
(and tractable)
tractable) tessellations
tessellations are
are Edge-to-Edge,
Edge-to-Edge, which
which is
is aa class
class of
of
tessellations that ensures that when two polygons intersect at more than one point,
tessellations that ensures that when two polygons intersect at more than one point, they always share they always
share complete
complete edges. edges.
This is This is the
true of truefirst
of the first
three three tessellations
tessellations in Figurein9,Figure
but not9,ofbut
thenot of the
fourth, fourth,
which is
which is a Non-Edge-to-Edge configuration, since at least one shape shares a partial
a Non-Edge-to-Edge configuration, since at least one shape shares a partial edge with another. Within edge with
another. Within
Edge-to-Edge Edge-to-Edge
tessellations, tessellations,
the polygons can betheregular
polygons can be regular
(all identical—of (all identical—of
which there are onlywhich
three
there are only three permissible shapes: hexagon, square and triangle)
permissible shapes: hexagon, square and triangle) or semi-regular (when there is more or semi-regular (whenthanthere
one
is more than
polygon). one polygon).
Focusing on theFocusing
symmetry on around
the symmetry around
vertices allowsvertices allows the introduction
the introduction of a k-uniform of a
k-uniform classification,
classification, where k represents
where k represents broadly the broadly the different
different possible possible surroundings
surroundings around around
a vertex.a
vertex. Finally, an overlapping tessellation is a relationship where unit cells may lie
Finally, an overlapping tessellation is a relationship where unit cells may lie on top of each other on top of with
each
other with partial overlaps, much in the manner
partial overlaps, much in the manner of rooftop tiling. of rooftop tiling.

3.1.2. Stochastic Tessellation

3.1.2. Stochastic Tessellation
Stochastic tessellation does not rely on the pre-supposition of one or more polygons (or polyhedral)
that form an aggregate structure. Instead, stochastic tessellations emerge from an underlying
function that has a random distribution specified within it. The most common way of representing
stochastic tiling is using the Voronoi diagram, attributed to Ukrainian mathematician Georgy Voronoi,
who defined and generalized the n-dimensional case in 1908 [37]. Other methods include using
the Poisson line method and crystal growth models [37,38]. In its simplest manifestation, a Voronoi
diagram emerges from a distribution of a finite number of randomly distributed points in space,
around which a cell is drawn such that every point is equidistant from the lines formed at the
intersections of the cells, as shown in Figure 10.
representing stochastic tiling is using the Voronoi diagram, attributed to Ukrainian mathematician
Georgy Voronoi, who defined and generalized the n-dimensional case in 1908 [37]. Other methods
include using the Poisson line method and crystal growth models [37,38]. In its simplest
manifestation, a Voronoi diagram emerges from a distribution of a finite number of randomly
distributed
Designs 2019, 3,points
19 in space, around which a cell is drawn such that every point is equidistant13from
of 31
the lines formed at the intersections of the cells, as shown in Figure 10.

Figure 10.
Figure 10.Voronoi
Voronoidiagram
diagram (left,
(left, Attribution:
Attribution: Wikimedia
Wikimedia Commons,
Commons, Balu and
Balu Ertl), Ertl),
3Dand 3D Voronoi
printed printed
Voronoi prismatic
prismatic structure.structure.

3.1.3.
3.1.3. Hierarchical
Hierarchical Tessellation
Tessellation
A form of
A form of tessellation
tessellation common
common in in nature,
nature, but
but not
not often
often seen
seen in
in engineering
engineering applications,
applications, emerges
emerges
around
around aa hierarchy,
hierarchy, which
which can
can take
take several
several forms.
forms. One
One such
such form
form isis branching,
branching, asas in
in the
the case
case of
of the
the
dragonfly wing in Figure 11a. It has been shown that a collection of so-called “primary”
dragonfly wing in Figure 11a. It has been shown that a collection of so-called “primary” veins are veins are such
dominant features
such dominant that they
features thatmay
theybemay
used
betoused
identify speciesspecies
to identify [43]. Cells
[43].inCells
this context may be may
in this context seen be
as
emerging from an overriding branching pattern.
seen as emerging from an overriding branching pattern.

(a) (b)
Figure 11.
Figure 11. Branching
Branching patterns
patterns in
in dragonfly
dragonfly (a)
(a) and
and the Amazon water
the Amazon water lily
lily (b)
(b) demonstrate
demonstrate how
how
tessellation can
tessellation canbebe defined
defined in context
in the the context of branches
of branches (Attr:
(Attr: lily lily Keiows,
by Laitr by LaitrWikimedia
Keiows, Commons).
Wikimedia
Commons).
The examples discussed so far are two-dimensional (2D), or prismatic cellular materials—what
GibsonTheand
examples
Ashby discussed so far are[6].
term honeycombs two-dimensional
These prismatic(2D), or prismatic
cellular materialscellular materials—what
have strong anisotropy
in the out-of-plane
Gibson and Ashby termdirection, i.e., the [6].
honeycombs behavior
These of these materials
prismatic is different
cellular materials depending
have on which
strong anisotropy
direction the property
in the out-of-plane of interest
direction, i.e.,is the
measured in. of
behavior Thus,
thesefrom an application
materials standpoint,
is different the 2D
depending on nature
which
direction
of thecellular
prismatic property of interest
materials is measured
means in.use
that their Thus, from often
is most an application
restrictedstandpoint,
to conditionsthe where
2D nature
the
directionality of the environmental
of prismatic cellular materials means loads
thatare predictable
their use is most andoften
the design canto
restricted beconditions
oriented inwhere
a certain
the
way to extractof
directionality maximum benefit. Examples
the environmental loads areofpredictable
this include andcrash
the panels
design incanthebeautomotive
oriented in industry,
a certain
way to extract
sandwich maximum
panels benefit. and
in construction, Examples of thisradiator
automotive include grilles.
crash panels in these
In all of the automotive industry,
cases, the direction
of the environmental
sandwich stimulus is unidirectional
panels in construction, and automotive and predictable—whether
radiator it be mechanical
grilles. In all of these load or
cases, the direction
fluid
of theflow. However, there
environmental are several
stimulus applications
is unidirectional andwhere this is not the case,itsuch
predictable—whether as foam packaging
be mechanical load or
for energy absorption, commonly used in the shipping industry, and this is a key reason for needing
three-dimensional (3D) cellular materials.

3.1.4. Extension to 3D
For 3D cellular materials, Pearce [44] identifies 23 different space-filling polyhedra. Three of
these are prismatic: the cube, triangular prism and hexagonal prism. The remaining 20 space-filling
polyhedra include non-prismatic but commonly known forms, such as the tetrahedron. As before,
a cellular material tessellation could be unary, binary, ternary or quaternary. Pearce suggests that
 3.1.4. Extension to 3D
these are
these are prismatic:
prismatic: the the cube,
cube, triangular
triangular prismprism andand hexagonal
hexagonal prism.prism. The
The remaining
remaining 20 20 space-filling
space-filling
For
polyhedra 3D
3.1.4. Extension
polyhedra cellular
include
includeto 3D materials,
non-prismatic Pearce
but [44]
commonly identifies
known 23 different
forms, such
non-prismatic but commonly known forms, such as the tetrahedron. As space-filling
as the polyhedra.
tetrahedron. Three of
As before,
before, aa
these
cellular
cellular are prismatic:
material the cube,
tessellation triangular
could be prism
unary, and hexagonal
binary, ternary prism.
or The remaining
quaternary. Pearce 20 space-filling
suggests that
Formaterial
3D cellular tessellation
materials, could be [44]
Pearce unary, binary,23
identifies ternary or quaternary.
different space-fillingPearce suggests
polyhedra. Three that
of
polyhedra
higher
higher levels
levels include
of
of non-prismatic
tessellation
tessellation do
do not
notbut
occurcommonly
occur in
in nature.
nature.known
Table
Table forms,
22 lists
lists such
some
some as the tetrahedron.
space-filling
space-filling As before,
tessellations
tessellations thata
that
these are prismatic: the cube, triangular prism and hexagonal prism. The remaining 20 space-filling
have
Designs
have interesting
cellular
2019, 3,material
19
interesting properties
tessellation
properties andcould
and may form
may form
be unary, the basis
the basis of tessellation
binary,
of tessellation
ternary orfor for cellular materials
quaternary. materials for
Pearce for designers.
suggests
14 of 31that
polyhedra include non-prismatic but commonly known forms, such cellular
as the tetrahedron. designers.
As before, a
For
For aa more
higher more
levels complete study, the
of tessellation
complete study, the reader
do reader
not occur is referred
is referred
in nature.to the
to the
Tabletitles by Pearce
2 lists
titles by Pearce [44,45].
some space-filling
[44,45]. tessellations that
cellular material tessellation could be unary, binary, ternary or quaternary. Pearce suggests that
have interesting properties and may form the basis of tessellation for cellular materials for designers.
higher
higher levels
levels of tessellation
of tessellation
Table do
notnot
doExamples
2. occur
occur in
of 3D
3D in nature.
nature. Table
Table
space-filling 2 lists
2 lists
with some some space-filling
space-filling
non-prismatic polyhedra. tessellations
tessellations thatthat
For a more complete study,
Table 2. the reader
Examples of is referred to the
space-filling with titles by Pearcepolyhedra.
non-prismatic [44,45].
have
have interesting
interesting properties
properties andand maymayformform thethe basis
basis of tessellation
of tessellation forfor cellular
cellular materials
materials forfor designers.
designers.
ForFor aPacking
a more more
Packing Arrangement
complete
complete
Arrangement study,
study,
Table the the reader
reader
2. Examples
Constituents
is referred
isofreferred to the
to the
Constituents
3D space-filling titles
titles
with by by Pearce
Pearce
non-prismatic[44,45]. Properties
[44,45].
Properties
polyhedra.

Packing Arrangement
Table 2. Examples
Table of 3D
2. Examples Constituents
space-filling
of 3D with
space-filling non-prismatic
with Properties
polyhedra.
non-prismatic polyhedra.

Packing
Packing Arrangement
Arrangement Constituents
Constituents Properties
Properties
One of
One of the
the only
only regular
regular (all
(all faces
faces
Unary system
Unary system composed
composed of
of and edges are identical),
and edges are identical), non- non-
a regular octahedron
a regular octahedron One of the
prismatic
prismatic only regular
polyhedra
polyhedra that (all
that faces
fill space
fill space
Unary system composed of and edges
One are
by
by identical),
itself
itself non-
Oneofofthe
theonly
onlyregular (all(all
regular faces faces
a regular
Unary octahedron
system composed of a prismatic
and edges are identical), space
polyhedra that fill
Screenshot from
from nTopology
nTopology Unaryregular
systemoctahedron
composed of and edges are
non-prismatic by identical), non-
Screenshot itself that fill
polyhedra
[21] a regular octahedron prismaticspace
polyhedra
by itselfthat fill space
[21]
Screenshot from nTopology by itself
[21]
Screenshot
Screenshot from
from nTopology
nTopology [21]
[21]
Unary system
Unary system composed
composed One of
One of the
the lowest
lowest surface
surface area
area per
per
only of the
only the semi-regular
semi-regular unit volume
volume space-filling
space-filling systems
systems
Unaryofsystem composed only unit
One of the lowest surface area per
Unary system
truncated composed
octahedron One of(but
the lowest
(but not the surface
lowest)area per
oftruncated octahedron
the semi-regular truncated unit volume not the lowest)
space-filling systems
only of the semi-regular
octahedron unit volume
(but notspace-filling
the lowest) systems
Unary system composed One of the lowest surface area per
Attr: AndrewKepert,
Attr: AndrewKepert, truncated octahedron (but not the lowest)
only of the semi-regular unit volume space-filling systems
Wikimedia
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Attr:Attr:
AndrewKepert, Wikimedia truncated octahedron (but not the lowest)
AndrewKepert,
Wikimedia
Attr: AndrewKepert, Results in
Results in the
the “octet”
“octet” lattice
lattice
Binary system
Binary system composed of of Results in the “octet” lattice
Wikimedia Binary systemcomposed
composed of structure
structure when lattice
whenlattice
lattice beams
beams are
two regular polyhedra: the structure when beams are are
two regular
two regularpolyhedra:
polyhedra: the
the placedalong
Results along
in the each edge—a
“octet” lattice
Binary system composed placed
placed along each
each edge—a
edge—a
octahedron
octahedron
octahedron and the of
the
andthe
and structure
commonly when
used lattice
structure beams
due are
to its
commonly
commonly used
used structure
structure due
duetoto its
two regular polyhedra: the
tetrahedron
tetrahedron
tetrahedron Results in the “octet” lattice
Binary system composed of its high
placed high
alongstiffness
each
stiffnessedge—a
octahedron and the structure high
whenstiffness
lattice beams are
two regular polyhedra: the commonly used structure due to its
tetrahedron placed along each edge—a
octahedron and the high stiffness
commonly used structure due to its
tetrahedron
high stiffness

Stochastic tessellation Voronoi tessellation in 3D

Stochastic tessellation
Stochastic tessellation Voronoi tessellation
Voronoi tessellation in
in 3D
3D

Stochastic tessellation Voronoi tessellation in 3D

Screenshotfrom
Screenshot from nTopology
nTopology
Screenshot from nTopology[21]
[21] Stochastic tessellation Voronoi tessellation in 3D
[21]
Screenshot from nTopology
3.2. Elements
[21]
Tessellation is merely
Screenshot from the first in a 3-step process to defining a 3D unit cell. The next step involves
nTopology
deciding what physical
[21] elements will occupy that space. These can be broken down into two types of
elements: (1) beam elements, and (2) surface elements. Surface elements in turn can apply externally
to the skin of a structure, or may be distributed internally within the structure itself.

3.2.1. Beam Elements

Cellular materials composed of beams are among the most popular choices in design and
are commonly called lattice structures, or simply, lattices [46–49]. In a lattice, the length of the
beam is governed by the placement of vertices in space, which is discussed in the next section.
However, the beam itself has a cross-section that can take a range of shapes, including a variable
 tothe
to theskin
skinof
ofaastructure,
structure,or
ormay
maybe
bedistributed
distributedinternally
internallywithin
withinthe
thestructure
structureitself.
itself.

3.2.1.Beam
3.2.1. BeamElements
Elements
Cellular materials
Cellular materials composed
composed of
of beams
beams are
are among
among the
the most
most popular
popular choices
choices in
in design
design and
and are
are
commonly
commonly
Designs called
2019, 3,called
19 lattice structures,
lattice structures, or
or simply,
simply, lattices
lattices [46–49].
[46–49]. In
In aa lattice,
lattice, the
the length
length of
of the
the beam
beam isis
15 of 31
governedby
governed bythe
theplacement
placementof ofvertices
verticesin inspace,
space,which
whichisisdiscussed
discussedin inthe
thenext
nextsection.
section.However,
However,the the
beam itself
beam itself has
hasaa cross-section
cross-section that
that cancan take
takeaa range
range ofof shapes,
shapes,including
includingaa variable
variable section
sectionfrom
from one
one
section
end to from
to another.oneFigure
another. end to12another.
shows threeFigure
three 12 shows
possible three possible
cross-sections one cancross-sections
can assign to to aaone
beam.canDepending
assign to
end Figure 12 shows possible cross-sections one assign beam. Depending
aon
beam. Depending
the scales
scales involved,on such
the scales
nuances involved,
may notnotsuch nuances may
be resolvable,
resolvable, butnot be resolvable, but if they are,
on the involved, such nuances may be but ifif they
they are, they
are, they become
become aa design
design
they become
variable thatacan
design
can variable
influence that can as
behavior influence
well asas behavior as well as manufacturability.
manufacturability. An example
example of An example
of aa design
design of
variable
variable that influence behavior as well manufacturability. An variable
arelated
designto variable related
beamelements to
elementsisisthebeam elements
theteardrop
teardropshape is
shapeinthe teardrop
inFigure
Figure12c, shape
12c,which in Figure
whichisisdesigned 12c,
designedto which
toenable is designed
enableoverhanging
overhangingto
related to beam
enable overhanging
lattice beams
beams to to be lattice beams
be self-supporting to
self-supporting for be self-supporting
for processes
processes that for
that needprocesses
need support
support inthat need support
in Additive in Additive
Additive Manufacturing
Manufacturing
lattice
Manufacturing
processessuchsuchprocesses
aslaser such asbed
laserpowder
powder laserfusion
powder bed
[50]. fusion
Others [50].also
have Others
looked have also looked atwaviness
atintroducing
introducing introducing
into
processes as bed fusion [50]. Others have also looked at waviness into
waviness
these into
lattice these
beams lattice
to studybeams
their to study
effects their
on effects
mechanical on mechanical
performance performance
[51]. [51].
these lattice beams to study their effects on mechanical performance [51].

(a)
(a) (b)
(b) (c)
(c)
Figure12.
Figure
Figure 12.Different
12. Different
Different cross-sections
cross-sections
cross-sections for
forfor the
thethe beams
beams
beams that constitute
thatthat constitute
constitute the lattice:
the
the lattice:lattice: (a) circular
(a)
(a) circular circular section,
section,section, (b)
(b)
(b) square
square and
square
section section
section and (c)
and
(c) teardrop(c) shape
teardrop
teardrop shape
shape
to aid to aid
to aid in
in self-supporting
in self-supporting self-supporting overhangs (screenshots
overhangs
overhangs (screenshots (screenshots
from from
from
nTopology’s
nTopology’s
Element Element
software)
nTopology’s software)[21].
[21].software)
Element [21].

3.2.2.
3.2.2.Surface
3.2.2. SurfaceElements
Surface Elements
Elements
An
Analternative
An alternativeto
alternative tobeams
to beamsis
beams isisthe
theuse
the useof
use ofsurfaces
of surfacesto
surfaces toconstruct
to constructthe
construct theunit
the unitcell.
unit Here
Herethere
cell.Here
cell. thereare
there aretwo
are twofurther
two further
further
possibilities—the use
possibilities—theuse
possibilities—the of
useof flat
offlat surfaces
flatsurfaces
surfacesoror curved
orcurved surfaces.
curvedsurfaces.
surfaces.AnAn example
Anexample
exampleofof a flat
ofaaflat surface
flatsurface cellular
surfacecellular material
cellularmaterial
material
and
andaaabasic
and basicminimal
basic minimalsurface
minimal surfaceare
surface areshown
are shownin
shown inFigure
in Figure13a,b,
Figure 13 a,b,respectively.
13a,b, respectively.
respectively.

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure13.
Figure
Figure (a)(a)
13. (a) FlatFlat
Flat surface-based
surface-based cellular
cellular
surface-based material,
material,
cellular screenshot
screenshot
material, fromnTopology’s
from
screenshot nTopology’s Element
Element
from nTopology’s [21],and
[21],
Element and (b)
(b)
[21],
a
andsaddle
a saddle shaped
shapedshaped
(b) a saddle surface
surface showing
showing
surface minimal
minimal
showing surface
surface
minimal curvature
curvature
surface curvature planes
planes and
and
planes andhow
how a convex
howa aconvex and
convexand concave
and concave
concave
curvatureresult
curvature
curvature resultinin
result inaaamean
mean
mean curvature
curvature
curvature of
ofof zero
zero atevery
at at
zero every
every point
point (Attr:
(Attr:
point Eric
(Attr: Eric Gaba,
Gaba,
Eric Wikimedia
Wikimedia
Gaba, Wikimedia Commons).
Commons).
Commons).

A particular manifestation of curved surfaces is the use of minimal surfaces, which have an
average curvature of zero at every point on the surface. Figure 13b shows two planes of principal
curvature, that intersect the surface in question in two curves whose curvatures are equal and opposite,
which is true at every point of minimal surfaces. Minimal surfaces are energetically favorable ways of
weaving surfaces through space and mathematicians have developed several of these surfaces, some of
which are discussed in a review article by Han et al. [52].

3.3. Connectivity
Once the type of tessellation is chosen and the elements are specified, the last step is to integrate
the two. This is done by specifying a series of nodal co-ordinates and establishing connectivity between
 opposite,which
opposite, whichisistrue
trueatatevery
everypoint
pointofofminimal
minimalsurfaces.
surfaces.Minimal
Minimalsurfaces
surfacesareareenergetically
energetically
favorableways
favorable waysofofweaving
weavingsurfaces
surfacesthrough
throughspace
spaceand
andmathematicians
mathematicianshave havedeveloped
developedseveral
severalofof
thesesurfaces,
these surfaces,some
someofofwhich
whicharearediscussed
discussedinina areview
reviewarticle
articleby
byHan
Hanetetal.al.[52].
[52].

3.3.Connectivity
3.3. Connectivity
Designs 2019, 3, 19 16 of 31
Oncethe
Once thetype
typeofoftessellation
tessellationisischosen
chosenand andthe
theelements
elementsare arespecified,
specified,thethelast
laststep
stepisistotointegrate
integrate
thetwo.
the two.This
Thisisisdone
doneby byspecifying
specifyinga aseries
seriesofofnodal
nodalco-ordinates
co-ordinatesand andestablishing
establishingconnectivity
connectivity
them.
between
between Alternatively,
them. the designer
them.Alternatively,
Alternatively, the can deploy
thedesigner
designer an
can
can equation
deploy
deploy that assigns
ananequation
equation these
that
that to the
assigns
assigns unit
these
these totocell, aunit
theunit
the method
cell,
cell,
commonly
a amethod used
methodcommonly for
commonlyused surface-based
usedfor cellular
forsurface-based materials.
surface-basedcellular For
cellularmaterials.beam-based
materials.For cellular
Forbeam-based materials,
beam-basedcellular examples
cellularmaterials,
materials,
are shown
examples
examples are in
are Figure
shown
shown 14
inin for cubic
Figure
Figure 1414fortessellations
for usingusing
cubictessellations
cubic tessellations beam elements,
usingbeam
beamelements,but with
elements, but different
butwith
withdifferent nodes
different and
nodes
nodes
connectivity.
andconnectivity.
and Connectivity
connectivity.Connectivity can
Connectivitycan be between
canbebebetweenvertices
betweenverticesat the corners
verticesatatthe of the
thecorners tessellation,
cornersofofthe or
thetessellation,even connect
tessellation,ororeven even
vertices
connect along
verticesedges
along or faces.
edges This
or form
faces. of
This connectivity
form of can also
connectivity be
can used
also to
be
connect vertices along edges or faces. This form of connectivity can also be used to define surfacesdefine
used surfaces
to define between
surfaces
edges,
between
between one example
edges,
edges, of whichofof
oneexample
one example iswhich
shown in
whichisis Figure
shown
shown 13a.
inin Figure13a.
Figure 13a.

Figure14.
Figure
Figure 14.For
14. For
Fora aagiven
giventessellation
given tessellationand
tessellation and element,
andelement, there
element,there are
thereare severalways
areseveral
several waystoto
ways toestablish
establishconnectivity,
establish connectivity,asas
connectivity, as
shown here for a cubic,
shown here for a cubic, beam beam element
beamelement unit
elementunit cell
unitcell (screenshots
cell(screenshots from
(screenshotsfrom nTopology
fromnTopology Element
nTopologyElement software
Elementsoftware [21]).
software[21]).
[21]).

Withregard
With regard
regard to
totothethe
the previously
previously
previously discussed
discussed
discussed minimal
minimal
minimal surfaces,
surfaces,
surfaces, the surfaces
thesurfaces
the surfaces of interest
ofofinterest
interest from
froma aspace-
from space- a
space-filling
filling perspective
fillingperspective
perspective arecalled
are calledare called
Triply
Triply TriplyMinimal
Periodic
Periodic Periodic Minimal
MinimalSurfaces Surfaces
Surfaces(TPMS).
(TPMS). (TPMS).
First
First dating
dating First
back
back dating
toto1865, back
1865, to
there
there
1865,
arenow
are there
now are now
several
several several
types
types ofofTPMStypes
TPMS of TPMS [53],
structures
structures structures [53], aof
[53],a aselection
selection selection
ofwhich
whichareofare
which
shown
shown are shown
inin Figure
Figure in15.
Figure
15. TPMS
TPMS 15.
TPMS
structuresstructures
structures are are developed
aredeveloped
developed from from governing
fromgoverning
governing equations
equations
equations thatcan
that that
can bebecan be implemented
implemented
implemented ininCADCADin software,
CAD software,
software, but
but
but interestingly,
interestingly,
interestingly, they they
theyalso also
alsooccur
occuroccur in nature
ininnature
nature and
havehave
andhave
and beenbeen
been found
found
found bothin
both both in living
inliving
living creatures
creatures
creatures (sea
(seaurchins,
(sea urchins,
urchins, the
the
the
scales scales
scales on on butterfly
onbutterfly
butterfly wings wings
wings and
and and beetle
beetle
beetle exoskeletons),
exoskeletons),
exoskeletons), as
asaswellwell
well asinzeolite
asasin inzeolite
zeolite and
and
and some
some
some liquid
liquid
liquid crystals
crystals
crystals [52].
[52].
[52].

Figure15.
Figure 15.AAselection
selectionofoftriply
triplyperiodic
periodicminimal
minimalsurfaces,
surfaces,left
lefttotoright:
right:the
right: theSchwarz
SchwarzP PSurface,
Surface,the
the
Gyroid
Gyroidand
andthe
theNeovius’
Neovius’surface
surface(Attr, order:Anders
(Attr,ininorder:
order: Sandberg,Catsquisher,
AndersSandberg, Catsquisher,Anders
AndersSandberg,
Sandberg,
Sandberg,
WikimediaCommons).
Wikimedia
Wikimedia Commons).
Commons).

4.4. ABiomimetic
4.AA BiomimeticApproach
Biomimetic Approachtoto
Approach Cellular
toCellular Material
CellularMaterial Selection
MaterialSelection
Selection
Each
Each node
Eachnode
node ininin
the the
the classification
classification
classification scheme
scheme
scheme in Figure
ininFigure
Figure 8 represents
8 8represents
represents a decision
a adecision
decision a designer
a adesigner
designer needstoneeds
needs tomake.
make.to
Atmake.
Atthe At thelevel,
thehighest
highest highest
level,these level,
these these decisions
decisions
decisions havetotodeal
have have
deal to deal
with
with withaselecting
selecting
selecting strategyafor
astrategy strategy
for for tessellation,
tessellation,
tessellation, deciding
deciding
deciding
whattype
what what type
typeofofelements of elements
elementstotouse, use,andto use, and
andfinally, finally,
finally,deciding deciding
decidinghow how
howtotoconnectto connect
connectthese these
theseelements elements
elementswithin
withinwithin
the
the
the tessellated
tessellatedunit
tessellated unit
unitcell. cell.
cell.This This
Thissectionsection
sectionproposesproposes
proposesthat that a biomimetic
thata abiomimetic
biomimeticapproach approach
approachisisideal is ideal
idealtotohelp to help
helpselect select
selectthe the
thebest
best
best tessellation
tessellation
tessellation strategy,
strategy,
strategy, as well
asaswell
well as inform
asasinform
inform thethe
the selection
selection
selection ofofof beam
beam
beam orsurface
oror surfaceelements.
surface elements. Traditional
elements.Traditional
Traditional
engineering methods can then be leveraged to define a connectivity for the identified elements using
analytical, computational and/or experimental techniques. Most of the applied work in cellular
material design tends to focus on selection of a connectivity scheme but forgoes addressing the first
two aspects of the design classification in sufficient detail, based on generalizations such as bending-or
stretch-dominated structures.

4.1. Tessellation
The first decision a designer encounters along the classification scheme in Figure 8 is whether to
tessellate space using a periodic, stochastic or hierarchical scheme. All three strategies are observed
Designs 2018, 2, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 30

engineering methods can then be leveraged to define a connectivity for the identified elements using
analytical, computational and/or experimental techniques. Most of the applied work in cellular
material design tends to focus on selection of a connectivity scheme but forgoes addressing the first
Designs 2019, 3, 19 17 of 31
two aspects of the design classification in sufficient detail, based on generalizations such as bending-
or stretch-dominated structures.
in nature, and some examples of each are compiled in Table 3, along with the functions typically
4.1. Tessellation
attributed to these structures in the literature.
The first decision a designer encounters along the classification scheme in Figure 8 is whether to
4.1.1. Periodic Tessellation
tessellate space using a periodic, stochastic or hierarchical scheme. All three strategies are observed
in nature, and some
Periodicity examples
in natural cellular of each are compiled
materials in Table 3, observed
is most commonly along with in the
the functions
nests of the typically
social
attributed
insects, such to these
as thestructures
honeybeeinand the literature.
the paper wasp [54]. This is not surprising, since the cells in
these nests have a clear storage function, where each cell stores materials of a similar total volume;
4.1.1.
in the Periodic
case of the Tessellation
honeybee, this is the storage of brood, pollen or nectar. The design of these nests
is optimized
Periodicity to use material
in natural in efficient
cellular materialsways is by
most forming
commonly hexagonal
observed cellsinthat
the have
nests been
of theshown
social
mathematically to be the most efficient way of tessellating 2D space
insects, such as the honeybee and the paper wasp [54]. This is not surprising, since the cells in these into partitions of equal area [55].
Periodic tessellations are also found in natural structures that do
nests have a clear storage function, where each cell stores materials of a similar total volume; in thenot have a storage function. Several
radiolarian
case of the demonstrate
honeybee, this periodic
is the structures
storage of[56], brood, as do the tesserae
pollen or nectar.in rays
The[57] and of
design scales
theseonnests
a wide is
range of fish and reptiles. For two-dimensional or planar
optimized to use material in efficient ways by forming hexagonal cells that have been shown tessellation in protective structures, a key
function is to break
mathematically to beup theamost
continuous
efficientsurface
way ofinto inter-locking
tessellating 2D space tilesinto
thatpartitions
are less proneof equal to area
fracture,
[55].
while also providing flexibility, often by the use of a secondary material
Periodic tessellations are also found in natural structures that do not have a storage function. Several that is softer than the primary
structural
radiolarian component,
demonstrate as periodic
discussedstructures
by Fratzl [56],
et al.as [58].
do the tesserae in rays [57] and scales on a wide
range Inof
addition
fish andtoreptiles.
serving For a protective function against
two-dimensional or planar thetessellation
external environment,
in protective these examples
structures, are
a key
all constructed around axes or planes of symmetry at the level of
function is to break up a continuous surface into inter-locking tiles that are less prone to fracture, the organism. The radiolarian shell
in Table
while 3, for
also example,
providing has 3D radial
flexibility, often by symmetry.
the use ofScales on snakes
a secondary and fish
material thatare constructed
is softer than thearound
primary a
plane of bilateral
structural component,symmetry. Stochastic
as discussed patterns
by Fratzl that
et al. have a mechanical function and are distributed
[58].
aboutInanaddition
axis or plane of symmetry could potentially
to serving a protective function against the violate this symmetry
external and its associated
environment, benefits,
these examples
in particular for motor function [59].
are all constructed around axes or planes of symmetry at the level of the organism. The radiolarian
shellIninFigure
Table 8, 3, periodic
for example, tessellation
has 3Disradialdivided into twoScales
symmetry. furtherondecision
snakes points:
and fishone arerelates to the
constructed
type of periodicity and the other the relationship between the
around a plane of bilateral symmetry. Stochastic patterns that have a mechanical function and areperiodic elements. A biological structure
that embodies
distributed both an
about theseaxisaspects
or plane is theofpattern
symmetry of scalescould on potentially
a snake. Theviolate scales on thisa snake
symmetryhave several
and its
functions: they provide a protective
associated benefits, in particular for motor function [59].cover, minimize friction [60], provide flexibility and minimize
moisture loss. However,
In Figure 8, periodicthe size of these
tessellation scales varies—in
is divided into two particular,
further decisionthe ventral
points: (underlying)
one relatesregionto the
of the snake has long bands of scales as shown in Figure 16a,
type of periodicity and the other the relationship between the periodic elements. A biological whereas the dorsal (top) side and the
head and tail regions have smaller scales, as shown in Figure 16b.
structure that embodies both these aspects is the pattern of scales on a snake. The scales on a snake
haveThe majority
several of periodic
functions: cellular materials
they provide a protective may thusminimize
cover, have one or more [60],
friction of the following
provide conditions
flexibility and
underlying their periodicity: (i) a storage function; (ii) use
minimize moisture loss. However, the size of these scales varies—in particular, the ventralof a stiff-soft material hierarchy for fracture
resilience;
(underlying) and/or
region (iii)
ofathe need to form
snake around
has long axesoforscales
bands planes as of symmetry
shown in Figureat the level
16a, of the the
whereas organism.
dorsal
This
(top)raises
side andthe question:
the head and whytail bother
regions with non-periodic
have smaller scales, tessellations
as shown at in
all?Figure 16b.

(a) (b)
Figure 16.
Figure 16. (a)
(a) Scales
Scales on
on aasnake
snakeshow
showsmaller
smallerscale
scalesizes
sizesononthe
thetop/dorsal
top/dorsal side and larger
larger bands
bands ofof
scales on the bottom/ventral side, minimizing frictional losses; (b) the head region shows a
scales on the bottom/ventral side, minimizing frictional losses; (b) the head region shows a distribution
of smaller scale
distribution sizes, probably
of smaller adapted
scale sizes, for flexibility
probably adapted forto enable the to
flexibility jaw to open
enable thewide.
jaw to open wide.
Designs
Designs2018,
2018,2,2,x2018,
Designs xFOR
FOR2,PEER
xPEERREVIEW
FOR PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 1717ofof3030
17 of 30
Designs 2019, 3, 19 18 of 31
Designs Designs
2018,2,2,x2018,
Designs2018, xFOR
FOR2,PEER
x FOR
PEER PEER REVIEW
REVIEW
REVIEW 17 of 30 of 30
17 of 17
30
Table
Table3.Table
3.Natural
3. Natural
Naturalexamples ofofperiodic,
examples
examples stochastic
of periodic,
periodic, and
andbranching
stochastic
stochastic tessellation.
and branching
branching tessellation.
tessellation.
Periodic 3.Table
Table3.Table
Natural Natural
3.3.Natural examples
examples
examples ofofperiodic,
periodic, stochastic andbranching
Stochastic
stochastic and branching tessellation.
tessellation. Hierarchical
Periodic
Periodic
Table Natural examples ofofperiodic,
periodic, stochastic
stochastic and
and branching
Stochastic
Stochastic
branching tessellation.
tessellation. Hierarchical
Hierarchical
Honeybee Nest
Honeybee
Honeybee Nest Nest
Periodic
Trabecular
Trabecular
Trabecular Bone
StochasticBone Bone Dragonfly Wing
Dragonfly
Dragonfly WingVenation
Wing
Hierarchical Venation
Venation
Periodic
Periodic
Periodic Stochastic
Stochastic
Stochastic Hierarchical
Hierarchical
Hierarchical
Honeybee
Honeybee
Honeybee
Honeybee Nest Nest
Nest Nest Trabecular
Trabecular
Trabecular
Trabecular Bone Bone
Bone
Bone Dragonfly
Dragonfly
Dragonfly
Dragonfly Wing
Wing Wing Venation
Venation
WingVenation
Venation

Patrick
PatrickSiemer
Patrick
SiemerSiemer
In-plane gravity
In-plane
In-plane loads,
gravity
gravity seasonal
loads,loads,
seasonal variation
seasonal in weight
variation
variation Toughness
in weightToughness
in weight under
Toughness
under compressive
under
Patrick and
compressive
compressive
Patrick
Siemer andimpact
Siemer and impact Flexural
impact rigidity
Flexural
Flexural [62],
[62],fracture
rigidity
rigidity [62], fracture
fracture
Mechanical
Mechanical
Mechanical Patrick
Patrick Siemer
Siemer
In-plane [54,61]
[54,61]
gravity [54,61]
loads, seasonal variation in Toughness loading
under [7]
loading
loading [7]
compressive [7]
and impact toughness [63]
toughness
toughness [63] [63]fracture
Mechanical In-plane
In-plane
In-plane gravitygravity
gravity loads,loads,
loads, seasonal
seasonal seasonal variation
variation
variation in weight
ininweight
weight Toughness
Toughness
Toughness underunder
under compressive
compressive
compressive and and impact
andimpact
impact Flexural
Flexural
Flexural rigidity
Flexural rigidity
rigidity
rigidity [62],
[62],fracture
[62], fracture
[62], fracture
toughness [63]
Mechanical
Mechanical
Mechanical Storage of brood,
Storage
Storage pollen
of brood,
of brood, pollenand
pollennectar;
weight minimization
[54,61]
and nectar;
and[54,61]
nectar; of
minimization
minimization Storage
of of for bone
Storage
Storage marrow,
loading
forloading
for bone bone
marrow, [7] nerves
marrow,
nerves and
nervesblood Circulation
and bloodCirculation
and blood of hemolymph
Circulation of hemolymph
of hemolymph through through
through
Biological
Biological
Biological [54,61]
Storage[54,61]
of(effort)
brood, [61]
pollen and nectar; Storage for boneloading loading
marrow, [7]
[7] [7]
nerves and blood toughness
toughness
toughness [63]
[63] [63]
material
material
material (effort)
(effort) [61] [61] minimization vessels
vessels [64] wing [65]
Biological
StorageStorage
Storage of ofminimization
ofbrood,
brood,brood,
pollen
pollen pollen
and
and of and nectar;
nectar;
material
nectar; minimization
(effort) [61] of
minimization of
of Storage Storage
Storage forbone
for bone bonevessels
forvessels
marrow,
marrow,
[64]
marrow,
[64]
[64]
nerves
nerves nerves
andblood
and blood Circulation
and blood Circulation
Circulation ofwing
of hemolymph
Circulation
of ofwing
[65]
hemolymph
hemolymph
[65]through
through
hemolymph wing
through
[65]
through
Biological
Biological Radiolarian
Radiolarian
Radiolarian shell
shell shell Plant
Plant Parenchyma
Plant Parenchyma
Parenchyma Amazon
Amazon Water
Amazon
Water Lily
Biological material
material
material (effort)
(effort)
Radiolarian
(effort) [61]
[61] [61]
shell vessels
Plant vessels
[64]
Parenchyma
vessels [64] [64] Amazonwing
wing [65]Water
wing
Water
[65] [65] Lily
Lily
Lily
Aulonia hexagona
Aulonia
AuloniaAulonia hexagona
hexagona
hexagona Helianthus
Helianthus (sunflower)
Helianthus
Helianthus (sunflower)(sunflower)
(sunflower) Victoria amazonica
Victoria
Victoria
Victoria amazonica
amazonica
amazonica
Radiolarian
Radiolarian
Radiolarian shell shell
shell Plant
PlantParenchyma
Plant Parenchyma
Parenchyma Amazon
Amazon Amazon
WaterWater
Water Lily Lily
Lily
Aulonia
Aulonia hexagona
hexagona
Aulonia hexagona Helianthus
Helianthus (sunflower)
(sunflower)
Helianthus (sunflower) Victoria
Victoria amazonica
amazonica
Victoria amazonica

Michael
Michael Spaw
Michael
Spaw Spaw
Michael Spaw Laitr
LaitrKeiows
Laitr Laitr Keiows
Keiows
Keiows
High specific High specific
strength strength
under under hydrostatic
hydrostatic pressure Maintainshape,
Maintain shape, adapt
adapt in response toto
Mechanical
Mechanical
High High specific
specific strength
strength under
Michael
Michael
pressure
under
Michael
Spaw
Spaw
and
hydrostatic
hydrostatic
Spaw
compression [56]
pressure
pressure Maintain
Maintain shape, adaptin
shape, inresponse
adapt
environment [7]
in response
response to to Flexural
Laitr
Laitr
Flexural
rigidity [66]
Laitr Keiows
Keiows
Keiows
rigidity [66]
Mechanical
Mechanical and compression [56] environment [7] Flexural
Flexural rigidity
rigidity [66] [66]
High
Highspecific
specific and
specific
strengthand compression
compression
strength
underunder [56]
hydrostatic [56]
hydrostatic pressure Maintain
pressure Maintain
Maintain environment
environment
shape,shape, [7]
adapt
adaptin [7]
in response
inresponse
response to to
Mechanical High
Mechanical Protective strength
case, under
light-weight hydrostatic
totooccupy pressure
surface shape, adapt to Flexural
Flexural rigidity
rigidity [66] [66]
Mechanical
Biological Protective
Protective case, case,
andlight-weight
light-weight
compression
andcompression
compression [56] to[56]
occupy occupy surface
surface Storage ofofenvironment
sugars, photosynthesis
environment
environment [7] [7] [7] Carry Flexural
nutrients rigidity
and waste[66]
products
Biological
Biological and waters [56] [56] Storage
Storage of sugars,
sugars, photosynthesis
photosynthesis
[7] [7] [7] CarryCarry nutrients
nutrients and and
waste waste products
products
Protective
Protective case, waters
case, waters
[56] to[56]
light-weight
light-weight to
occupy occupy surface
surface
Biological
Biological Protective case, light-weight to occupy surface Storage
Storage of sugars, photosynthesis
[7] [7] Carry CarryOrange fruit
nutrients andfruit
waste products
Biological Elasmobranchii endoskeleton [56]tesserae Storage
Veiled Ladyofofsugars,
sugars, photosynthesis
photosynthesis [7] Carrynutrients
nutrients
Orangeand
and waste
Orange
fruit
waste products
products
waters
Elasmobranchii
Elasmobranchii waters waters
[56]
endoskeleton
endoskeleton
[56] tesserae
tesserae Ladyindusium
Veiled
Veiled Lady Phallus
indusium
indusium Phallus indusiatus
Phallus indusiatus
indusiatus Hesperidium
Orange Hesperidium
Hesperidium
Orange
fruit fruit
Elasmobranchii
Elasmobranchii endoskeleton
endoskeleton tesserae
tesserae Veiled
Veiled Lady Lady indusium
indusium PhallusPhallus indusiatus
indusiatus Orange fruit
Elasmobranchii endoskeleton tesserae Veiled Lady indusium Phallus indusiatus Hesperidium
Hesperidium
Hesperidium
 Designs 2019, 3, 19 19 of 31

Table 3. Cont.

Periodic Stochastic Hierarchical

Honeybee Nest Trabecular Bone Dragonfly Wing Venation
Protective case, light-weight to occupy surface
Biological Storage of sugars, photosynthesis [7] Carry nutrients and waste products
waters [56]
Designs2018,
Designs 2018,2,2,x2018,
Designs xFOR
FOR PEER
2,PEER REVIEW
REVIEW
x FOR PEER REVIEW Orange fruit 1818ofof3030
18 of 30
Elasmobranchii endoskeleton tesserae Veiled Lady indusium Phallus indusiatus
Hesperidium

MasonMason
Mason Dean
Dean (rights
(rights
Mason reserved),
reserved),
Dean(rights
Dean (rights adapted
adapted
reserved),
reserved), from[57]
from
adapted
adapted [57]
from [57]
from [57]
High bending flexibility; Compressive strength Resilience
Resilience under
under
Resilience dropimpact
drop
under impact
drop impact
Mechanical
Mechanical Mechanical
Highbending
High bending flexibility;
flexibility; Compressive
Compressive strength
strength Strengthunder
[67] [67]
[67] Strength
Strength undervariable
under variable
variable loading
loading
loading (speculated)
(speculated)
(speculated) Resilience under drop impact (speculated)
Mechanical High bending flexibility; Compressive
[67] strength Strength under variable loading (speculated) (speculated)
(speculated)
Space between tesserae provides room for Access for insects of varying sizes to fungal cap (speculated)
Spacebetween
Space
Biological between
Space tesserae
tesserae
between provides
provides
tesserae roomfor
room
provides
growth [57]
forgrowth
room growth
for growth Access
Access forinsects
for
Accessinsects
for ofofvarying
varying
insects
(speculated)of sizestoto
sizes
varying fungal
fungal
sizes to fungal Improve seed dispersal (speculated)
Biological
Biological
Biological Improve
Improve seeddispersal
seed
Improve dispersal (speculated)
(speculated)
seed dispersal (speculated)
[57] [57]
[57] cap(speculated)
cap (speculated)
cap (speculated)
Designs 2019, 3, 19 20 of 31

4.1.2. Stochastic Tessellation

Some structural cellular materials in nature do not follow the periodic regularity of structures
such as the honeybee nest. This lack of periodicity is what is termed here as stochastic, whether these
emerge from an underlying mathematical function (such as those resulting in the Voronoi pattern),
or not. The breaking of symmetry in biology has received increasing interest of late, summarized in
a review article by Li and Bowerman [68], who recognize that symmetry breaking occurs at various
scales from molecular assemblies to embryonic body axes, and that it is intimately linked to functional
diversification. This is well understood for molecular scales and for some examples of interest at
larger scales, such as trabecular bone, shown in Table 3. Trabecular bone does indeed have to perform
multiple functions: storage of bone marrow, nerves and blood vessels, as well as possess toughness
under compressive and impact load [7]. Bone tissue also undergoes active strain-adaptive remodeling
to allocate material where it is needed and remove it from where it is not [64]. This requirement to
adapt to local strain inherently breaks symmetry since the interactions between the environment and
the body do not result in a symmetric state of stress. Furthermore, this state of stress changes as the
individual ages or as the load-bearing environment changes. Additionally, trabecular bone does not
have a local symmetry requirement since an individual bone is not inherently symmetric, nor is there a
requirement of equal storage volume within each cellular region.
Another example of stochastic patterns can be found in the ground tissue system in plants,
which consists of parenchyma cells that store sugars and typically make up the bulk of non-woody
plants. These cells can have very irregular shapes, as shown in Table 3, that while approaching
a tetrakeidecahedron shape, have varying shapes and degrees of compaction. A final example of
stochastic cellular materials is the pattern of the indusium of the Veiled Lady fungus, shown in Table 3.
The functional benefits for this structure’s stochastic nature is not clear, but since it serves as a network
that enables several insect species to reach the fungal cap, it may be preferable to have a non-periodic
pattern that can accommodate a wide range of insect sizes and mobility mechanisms.
Natural cellular materials, it may be speculated, tend to be stochastic when there is a need for
one or more of the following conditions: (i) a high degree of multi-functionality; (ii) a need for the
structure to be adaptive to changing loading conditions in the environment; and, (iii) a high degree of
uncertainty in the magnitude and direction of these loads. This resonates well with what engineers
have been practicing for decades with regard to energy-absorbing foams used in packaging, where the
nature of the applied loads is uncertain.
While irregular cellular patterns suggest a lack of underlying relationships, empirical studies
of natural stochastic cellular materials have revealed at least two relationships between cells in a
certain neighborhood, which can then be generalized across a large area of interest. These two
relationships are discussed briefly below and may form the basis of a stochastic design methodology
for cellular materials.

• The Aboav-Weaire law: The Aboav-Weaire law relates the number of edges in a particular cell
to the number of edges in the cells in its neighborhood. A general observation of stochastic
cellular materials in nature is that a cell with more sides than average has neighbors which, when
considered together, have fewer sides than the average number. For 2-dimensional honeycombs,
this relationship was first given empirically by Aboav in 1970 (with a slightly different formulation)
and derived formally by Weaire in 1974 [6] is:

6
m = 5+ (10)
n
where n is the number of edges of the candidate cell and m is the average number of edges of
its n neighbors (this is specific to edge-to-edge cells only). A fuller discussion of this law and its
historical journey can be found in a review paper by Chiiu [69].
Designs 2018, 2, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of 30
Designs 2019, 3, 19 21 of 31
where n is the number of edges of the candidate cell and 𝑚 is the average number of edges of
its n neighbors (this is specific to edge-to-edge cells only). A fuller discussion of this law and its
• The rule: F.
Lewisjourney
historical T. be
can Lewis
foundstudied cells paper
in a review in nature as a mathematical
by Chiiu [69]. problem through the
• mid-1900s,
The Lewis rule: F. T. Lewis studied cells in nature as a mathematical problemarea
publishing several papers in this field. The “Lewis rule” relates of a cell
through the to
mid-its
number of edges [6]:
1900s, publishing several papers in this field. The “Lewis rule” relates area of a cell to its number
of edges [6]: A(n) n − n0
= (11)
𝐴 𝑛 A ( n𝑛 𝑛n − n0
)
= (11)
where A(n) is the area of a cell with 𝐴 𝑛
n sides, 𝑛
A(n)𝑛is that of the cell with average number of sides
where
n, and nA(n)
0 is is the area of a cell with n sides, 𝐴 𝑛 is that of the cell with average number of sides
a constant.
𝑛, and n0 is a constant.
4.1.3. Hierarchical Tessellation
4.1.3.Cellular
Hierarchical Tessellation
materials may also emerge around a hierarchy, such as a network of branches. This is
especially truematerials
Cellular in the context of multi-functional
may also emerge arounddesign. One example
a hierarchy, such as aofnetwork
this is the
ofvenation
branches.patterns
This is
of the wing of the dragonfly. Veins in a dragonfly perform a circulatory function consistent
especially true in the context of multi-functional design. One example of this is the venation patterns with most
branching
of the wingpatterns in nature,Veins
of the dragonfly. but also
in aplay a role in
dragonfly stiffening
perform the vein [62,70,71]
a circulatory and in increasing
function consistent its
with most
resilience to damage [63]. A similar stiffening effect has been attributed to the veins of the
branching patterns in nature, but also play a role in stiffening the vein [62,70,71] and in increasing itsAmazon
water lily to
resilience [66]. The key
damage design
[63]. relationships
A similar stiffeningofeffect
branching involve
has been the level
attributed of hierarchy,
to the veins of theassociated
Amazon
branch thickness
water lily andkey
[66]. The branching angles. For the
design relationships of latter two, the
branching following
involve empirical
the level relationships
of hierarchy, have
associated
been proposed:
branch thickness and branching angles. For the latter two, the following empirical relationships have
been proposed:
• Murray’s law: This law, first proposed by Murray in 1926 [72], states that when a parent blood
• Murray’s
vessel law: This
branches intolaw, first proposed
daughter vessels, by
theMurray
cube ofinthe 1926 [72], of
radius states
the that when
parent a parent
vessel blood
is equal to
vessel
the sum branches into daughter
of the cubes of the radii vessels, the cubeblood
of daughter of thevessels.
radius of thelaw
This parent
hasvessel is equal to the
been generalized to
sum of networks
fluidic the cubes of the radii ofshape
arbitrary daughter
and blood vessels.for
scale where This lawscale
large has been generalized
channels, the ratioto fluidic
of the
networks of arbitrary
cross-sectional areas of shape and scale wherechannels
the daughter-to-parent for largeis scale to N −2/3 where
equalchannels, the ratio
N isofthethenumber
cross-
sectional
of daughter areas of the(of
channels daughter-to-parent channels
constant cross-sectional is equal
shape) [73]. to N−2/3 where N is the number of
• daughter channels
Determination (of constant
of Vertex angles: cross-sectional
Thomson [74]shape)
studied [73].
the angles at the intersection of different
• Determination
veins of Vertex
and postulated thatangles: Thomson
the angle [74] studied
was related to thethe“tensions”
angles at the intersectioninofthe
experienced different
veins.
veins and postulated that the angle was related to the ◦
As shown in Figure 17, for a dragonfly wing, right angles (90 ) are formed at the intersection ofAs
“tensions” experienced in the veins. a
shownprimary
thick, in Figure
rib 17, for a dragonfly
(presumably wing,
bearing moreright
load)angles
and a (90°)
thin veinare formed at load).
(with less the intersection of a
Between these
thick, primary
primary branches,rib the
(presumably bearing
thin veins tend to meet 120◦ angles.
moreatload) and a thin vein
Recent (with
work onless load). venation
dragonfly Between
these
has primary
added morebranches,
weight tothe thisthin veins tend
hypothesis, to data
with meetshowing
at 120° angles. Recent
a similar work on
relationship dragonfly
between the
venationangles
interior has added more
in a cell andweight to this
the number ofhypothesis,
primary veins with it isdata showing
bounded a similar relationship
by [43].
between the interior angles in a cell and the number of primary veins it is bounded by [43].

Figure 17.
Figure 17. Thompson
Thompson [75]
[75] postulated
postulated that when the
that when “tensions” in
the “tensions” in veins
veins had
had large
large differences
differences (T > t),
(T > t),
the veins would meet at right angles, approaching ◦
120° as the tensions in coincident veins equaled
the veins would meet at right angles, approaching 120 as the tensions in coincident veins equaled
other.
each other.

Not all hierarchical patterns have to physically manifest as branches—some may be the result of
segmentation, such as the packing of cells in a citrus fruit as shown in Table 3, where an overlying overlying
high-level distribution into sections then influences
influences the distribution
distribution of
of cells
cells within
within each
each section.
section.
Another example
example of ofhierarchy
hierarchyisisvisible
visibleinin the
the structure
structure of of
thethe Venus
Venus flower
flower basket,
basket, a seaa sponge
sea sponge
that
that
has ahas a silica
silica lattice
lattice structure
structure withwith multiple
multiple levelsofofcellularity,
levels cellularity,combining
combining nested
nested and
and overlaid
Designs 2018, 2, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 of 30
Designs 2019, 3, 19 22 of 31

strategies [75] for increased resilience to fracture. It is probable that most, if not all hierarchical
tessellation
strategies [75]emerges from the need
for increased for thetocellular
resilience fracture.structure to address
It is probable thatmore than
most, one all
if not function.
hierarchical
tessellation emerges from the need for the cellular structure to address more than one function.
4.2. Elements
4.2. Elements
The majority of cellular materials that have found engineering application have been
The majority
honeycombs of cellularclosed-cell
and stochastic materials that have
foams, found
both engineering
shown previously application
in Figurehave beenrecently,
7. More honeycombs
the
growth in Additive Manufacturing and design capabilities has greatly increased interest in latticein
and stochastic closed-cell foams, both shown previously in Figure 7. More recently, the growth
Additive All
materials. Manufacturing
three of these and design capabilities
geometries employ one, hasor greatly increased of,
a combination interest in lattice
two types materials.
of elemental
All three of these geometries employ one, or a combination of, two types of elemental
features: beams or surfaces. Honeycombs consist of a pattern extruded in the out-of-plane direction, features: beams
or surfaces.
and Honeycombs
foams resemble consist soap
closely packed of a bubbles,
pattern extruded
and both in arethe out-of-plane
surface-based direction,
cellular and foams
structures. On
resemble
the closely
other hand, packed
lattices aresoap bubbles,cellular
beam-based and both are surface-based cellular structures. On the other
structures.
hand, lattices
Table are beam-based
4 shows cellular structures.
examples representing each of the three options discussed above. These and other
natural Table 4 shows
cellular examples
material examplesrepresenting
suggest thateachnature
of thetends
three tooptions discussed
use surface above.
elements These
either and
when
other natural
resorting to somecellular material
storage examples
function (sugarssuggest that larvae
for plants, nature fortends to use
nests) surface
or for elements
providing either
physical
when resorting
protection to some
and acting asstorage function
an external skin(sugars
cover.forWhenplants, larvae
there forstorage
is no nests) ororforexternal
providing physical
protection
protection and
requirement, mostacting as an
natural external
cellular skin cover.
materials When therefrom
are constructed is nobeams,
storageas or external
shown protection
in the lattice
requirement, most natural cellular materials are constructed from beams,
structure of the Venus flower basket and the radiolarian, although more data is needed to confirm as shown in the lattice
structure
the validityofofthe
thisVenus flower basket and the radiolarian, although more data is needed to confirm the
observation.
validity of this observation.
Table 4. Examples of beam and surface elements in nature.
Table 4. Examples of beam and surface elements in nature.

Surface Elements
Strut/Beam Elements
Internal External (Skin)

Venus flower basket (Neon) Douglas fir wood (US NARA) Snake skin

Radiolarian (Picturepest) Wasp nest Pangolin (Red Rock Photo.)

4.3 Connectivity
4.3. Connectivity
Unlike the previous two levels of the classification (tessellation and elements), there are infinitely
many Unlike
choicesthe previous
when it comestwotolevels of the classification
the decision (tessellation
of connectivity. To narrowand elements),
down there of
the window areselection,
infinitely
many choices when it comes to the decision of connectivity. To narrow down the window of
the specific function(s) of interest needs to be articulated in order to identify natural models that selection,
the specific
perform function(s)
that function of interest needs to be articulated in order to identify natural models that
[76].
perform that function [76].
4.3.1 Functional Specification
Designs 2019, 3, 19 23 of 31

4.3.1. Functional Specification

A common
Designs 2018, 2, xtechnique is to pose this as a question: “How would nature design for X function?”
FOR PEER REVIEW 22 of 30 This
paper is limited in scope to the design of load-bearing structures, where the following mechanical
propertiesA are
common technique is to pose this as a question: “How would nature design for X function?” This
of interest:
paper is limited in scope to the design of load-bearing structures, where the following mechanical
• properties are of interest:
Stiffness/rigidity (the ability to resist deformation),
• •Strength (the ability(the
Stiffness/rigidity to resist
abilitycollapse), and
to resist deformation),
• •Toughness
Strength(the
(theability
ability to resistcollapse),
to resist fracture)and
• Toughness (the ability to resist fracture)
These properties are defined in the context of the conditions experienced by the structure.
These properties are defined in the context of the conditions experienced by the structure. With
With regard to the nature of loads, these may be classified as gravity loading, compression, tension,
regard to the nature of loads, these may be classified as gravity loading, compression, tension, torsion,
torsion, bending and shear, or some combination of these. Furthermore, these loads may be applied
bending and shear, or some combination of these. Furthermore, these loads may be applied in one or
in one or many
many directions
directions (such as(such as uniaxial,
uniaxial, biaxial andbiaxial and hydrostatic),
hydrostatic), and with
and with different different
durations (such durations
as at
(suchvarying
as at varying strain rates, fatigue and vibration). Thus, the loading condition may be adequately
strain rates, fatigue and vibration). Thus, the loading condition may be adequately described
described by specifying
by specifying three
three pieces of pieces of information
information (seeloading
(see Figure 18): Figuretype,
18): loading type, loading
loading direction, direction,
and period
and period of application
of application [9]. [9].

(a)

(b)

(c)
Figure
Figure 18.proposed
18. A A proposed classificationfor
classification forloading
loading conditions:
conditions:(a)(a)loading type,
loading (b) (b)
type, loading direction
loading and and
direction
(c) period of application, first published by the authors
(c) period of application, first published by the authors in [9].in [9].

4.3.2.4.3.2. Natural
Natural Models
Models
ThisThis approach,
approach, while
while simplifyingfrom
simplifying from an
an application
applicationstandpoint,
standpoint,increases the the
increases likelihood of
likelihood of
finding studies in the literature of natural models that thrive in these conditions, whether through a
finding studies in the literature of natural models that thrive in these conditions, whether through a
formal review of the literature, or using online resources like AskNature.org [77]. Table 5 shows how,
formal review of the literature, or using online resources like AskNature.org [77]. Table 5 shows how,
for eight identified natural cellular materials with an evident load bearing functional requirement,
for eight identified natural cellular materials with an evident load bearing functional requirement,
the loading conditions can be identified within the framework in Figure 18, and the relevant design
the loading conditions
choices described in can be 8identified
Figure within the
may be extracted framework
for each in FigureSuch
cellular material. 18, and the relevant
a methodology design
is in
choices
principle extendable to a range of structural cellular materials and also to non-structural functions is in
described in Figure 8 may be extracted for each cellular material. Such a methodology
principle
such asextendable to a range
storage, thermal of structural
regulation, cellular
and acoustic materials and also to non-structural functions
modulation.
such as storage, thermal regulation, and acoustic modulation.
Designs 2019, 3, 19 24 of 31

Designs
Designs
Designs 2018,
2018, 2,
2018, xx2,2,FOR
xxxxFOR
FOR PEER
PEER
FOR REVIEW
REVIEW
PEER REVIEW 23 23
of
23 of30
30
of 30
Designs
Designs
Designs2018,
2018, 2, 2,
2018, 2,FOR PEER
PEER
FOR REVIEW
REVIEW
PEER REVIEW 232323 of 30
of of
30 30
Table 5. Biomimetic cellular materials design classification levels by loading conditions.
Table
Table 5.
Table 5.Biomimetic
Biomimetic
Biomimetic
5. cellular
cellular materials
materials design
design classification
classification levels
levels by by loading
loading conditions.
conditions.
Table
Table
Table 5.Biomimetic
5. 5.
Biomimetic cellular
cellular
cellular
Biomimetic materials
materials
materials
cellular design
design
design
materials classification
classification
classification
design levels
levels
levels
classification levels by
byby loading
loading
loading
by conditions.
conditions.
conditions.
loading conditions.
Loading Conditions
Loading
Loading
Loading
Loading Conditions
Conditions
Conditions
Conditions
Cellular
Cellular
Cellular Material
Material
Material
Cellular
Cellular
Design
Design
Design
Material
Material Design
Design
Loading Conditions
Loading Conditions Natural Model
Natural
Natural Model
Model Cellular Material
Cellular Design
Material Design
Type Direction Duration Natural
Natural
Natural Model
Model
Model
Natural Model Tessellation Elements Connectivity Schematic Diagram
Type Type
Type
Type
Type
Type
Direction
Direction
Direction
Direction
Direction
Direction
Duration
Duration
Duration
Duration
Duration
Duration
Tessellation
Tessellation
Tessellation
Tessellation
Tessellation
Tessellation
Elements
Elements
Elements
Elements
Elements
Elements
Connectivity
Connectivity
Connectivity
Connectivity
Connectivity
Connectivity
Schematic
SchematicDiagram
Schematic
Schematic
Schematic Diagram
Diagram
Diagram
Diagram
Schematic Diagram
Honeybee
Honeybee
Honeybee
Honeybee nest
nest
nest
nest
Honeybee
Honeybee nest
nest
Honeybee nest

Periodic—Unary—
Periodic—Unary—
Periodic—Unary—
Periodic—Unary—
Periodic—Unary— Hexagonal
Hexagonal
Hexagonal
Hexagonal
Hexagonal prism,
prism,
prism,
prism,
prism,
Gravity
Gravity (Self-
(Self-
Gravity
Gravity
Gravity (Self-
(Self-
(Self- Periodic—Unary— Hexagonal
Hexagonal prism,
prism,
Gravity
Gravity (Self- Uniaxial
Uniaxial
Uniaxial
Uniaxial
Uniaxial Creep
Creep
Creep
Creep
Creep Periodic—Unary—
Edge-to-Edge—
Edge-to-Edge—
Edge-to-Edge—
Edge-to-Edge—
Edge-to-Edge— Surface
Surface
Surface
Surface
Surface surfaces
surfaces
surfaces
surfaces
surfaces connect
connect
connect
connect
connect
Weight)
Weight)
Weight)
Weight) Uniaxial
Weight) Uniaxial Creep Creep Edge-to-Edge— Surface
Surface surfaces connect
surfaces connect
Weight)
(Self-Weight) Edge-to-Edge—Regular
Regular
Regular
Regular
Regular
Regular edges
edges
edges
edges
edges
Regular edges
edges

Venus
Venus
Venus
Venus
Venus
Venus flower
flower
flower
flower
flower
flower basket
basket
basket [75]
basket
basket
basket [75]
[75]
[75]
[75]
[75]
Venus flower basket [75]

Hierarchical-
Hierarchical-
Hierarchical-
Hierarchical-
Hierarchical- Corner
Corner
Corner vertices
vertices
Corner and
vertices
vertices
Corner
Corner vertices and
and
and
vertices
and
Compression
Compression
Compression
Compression
Compression
Compression Hydrostatic
Hydrostatic
Hydrostatic
Hydrostatic
Hydrostatic
Hydrostatic Dynamic,
Dynamic,
Dynamic,
Dynamic, Fatigue
Fatigue
Dynamic, Fatigue
Fatigue
Fatigue
Dynamic, Fatigue Hierarchical-
Hierarchical-Overlaid Beam
Beam
Beam
Beam
Beam Beam Corner vertices and
Compression Hydrostatic Dynamic, Fatigue Overlaid
Overlaid
Overlaid
Overlaid Beam across
across
across
and faces
faces
across faces
faces
across
Overlaid
Overlaid across facesfaces
faces
across

Toucan
Toucan
Toucan
Toucan
Toucan
Toucan beak
beak
beak
beak
beak
beak [78]
[78]
[78]
[78]
[78]
[78]
Toucan beak [78]
Stochastically
Stochastically
Stochastically
Stochastically
Stochastically
Stochastically
Closed
Closed
Closed
Closed
Closed cellcell
foam
cell
Closed
cell
cell foam
foam
foam
foam andand
and
cell
and
and Stochastically
foamdistributed
Bending Bending Variable
Bending
Bending
Bending
Bending Variable
Variable
Variable
Variable
Variable Dynamic
Dynamic
Dynamic
Dynamic
Dynamic
Dynamic Stochastic
Stochastic
Stochastic
Stochastic
Stochastic
Stochastic Closed cell foam and distributed
distributed
distributed
distributed faces
faces and
faces
distributed
faces
faces and
and
faces
and
and
Bending Variable Dynamic Stochastic lattice
lattice
lattice
and struts
struts
struts
lattice distributed faces and
lattice
lattice struts struts
struts
struts
lattice vertices
vertices
vertices
and vertices
vertices
vertices
vertices

Amazon
Amazon
Amazon
Amazon
Amazon
Amazon waterlily
waterlily
waterlily
waterlily
waterlily
waterlily leaf
leaf
leaf
leaf
leaf
leaf
Amazon waterlily leaf
[66]
[66]
[66]
[66]
[66]
[66]
[66]
Distributed
Distributed
Distributed
Distributed
Distributed
Distributed Along edges
Distributed Along
Along
Along
Along edges
edges
Along edges
edges
edges defined
defined
defined
defined
defined
Bending (surface
Bending
BendingBending
Bending
Bending (surface Static
(surface
(surface
(surface
(surface Static
Static
Static
Static
Static (Stable)
(Stable)
(Stable)
(Stable)
(Stable)
(Stable) Branching
Branching
Branching
Branching
Branching
Branching Beam
Beam
Beam
Beam
Beam Beam Along edges
defineddefined
by
Bending (surface Static (Stable) Branching Beam by by branching
branching
by
byby pattern
pattern
branching
branching
branching pattern
pattern
pattern
pressure
pressure
pressure load)
pressure
pressure
pressure load)
load)
load)
load)
load) bybranching
branching pattern
pattern
pressure load)

Pummelo
Pummelo [79]
Pummelo
Pummelo
Pummelo [79]
[79]
[79]
[79]
Pummelo [79]

Pressure,
Pressure,
Pressure,
Pressure,
Pressure, Stochastically
Stochastically
Stochastically
Stochastically
Stochastically
Compression
Compression
Compression
Compression
Compression Pressure, Impact
Impact
Impact
Impact
Impact Stochastic
Stochastic
Stochastic
Stochastic
Stochastic Surface
Surface
Surface
Surface
Surface Stochastically
Compression Variable
Variable
Variable
Variable
Variable Impact Stochastic Surface distributed
distributed faces
faces
distributed
distributed
distributed faces
faces
faces
Variable distributed faces
 Toucan beak [78] Stochastically
Closed cell foam and
Bending Variable Dynamic Stochastic distributed faces and
lattice struts Stochastically
Closed cell foam and vertices
Bending Variable Dynamic Stochastic distributed faces and
lattice struts
vertices

Designs 2019, 3, 19 Amazon waterlily leaf 25 of 31

[66] Amazon waterlily leaf
Distributed [66]
Along edges defined
Bending (surface Static (Stable)
Distributed Cont.
Table 5.Branching Beam
by branching pattern
Along edges defined
pressure load)
Bending (surface Static (Stable) Branching Beam
by branching pattern
Loading Conditions pressure load) Cellular Material Design
Natural Model
Type Direction Duration Tessellation Elements Connectivity Schematic Diagram
Pummelo [79]
Pummelo [79] Pummelo [79]

Pressure,
Pressure, Pressure, Stochastically
Stochastically
Stochastically
Compression
Compression Compression Impact
Impact Impact Stochastic Stochastic
Stochastic Surface Surface
Surface
Variable
Variable Variable distributed facesfaces
distributed
distributed faces
Designs
Designs 2018,
2018,
Designs 2, xx2,FOR
2,
2018, FOR PEER
PEER
x FOR REVIEW
REVIEW
PEER REVIEW 24 24
24 of of
of 30 30
30
Designs 2018, 2, x FOR PEER REVIEW 24 of 30
Designs 2018, 2, x FOR PEER REVIEW 24 of 30
Designs 2018, 2, x FOR PEER REVIEW 24 of 30
Ray
Ray [67][67]
[67]
Ray
Ray [67]
Ray [67] Ray [67] Periodic—Unary,
Ray [67] Periodic—Unary,
Periodic—Unary,
Periodic—Unary,
Periodic—Unary,
Edge-to-Edge—
Edge-to-Edge—
Edge-to-Edge—
Periodic—Unary,
Edge-to-Edge—
Edge-to-Edge—
Periodic—Unary,
Regular
Shear
Shear
Shear Hydrostatic
Hydrostatic
Hydrostatic Static
Static (Stable)
(Stable)
Static (Stable) Regular
Regular Surface
Edge-to-Edge—Surface (tiles)
(tiles)
Surface (tiles) Faces
Faces
Faces
Shear Shear Shear
Hydrostatic
Hydrostatic Hydrostatic
Static (Stable)
Static (Stable) Static (Stable) Regular Regular
Edge-to-Edge—Regular
Regular Surface(tiles)
Surface
Surface (tiles) (tiles) Faces
FacesFaces
Shear Hydrostatic Static (Stable) Hierarchical—
Hierarchical—
Hierarchical— Surface (tiles) Faces
Hierarchical—
Hierarchical—Overlaid
Hierarchical—
Overlaid
Overlaid Hierarchical—
Overlaid
Overlaid Overlaid
Overlaid

Abalone
Abalone
Abalone shell
shell
Abalone [80,81]
[80,81]
shell
shell [80,81]
[80,81]
Abalone shell [80,81]
Abalone shell [80,81]
Abalone shell [80,81]
Periodic—Unary—
Periodic—Unary—
Periodic—Unary—
Periodic—Unary—
Periodic—Unary—
Periodic—Unary—
Edge-to-Edge—
Edge-to-Edge—
Edge-to-Edge—
Edge-to-Edge—
Uniaxial— Uniaxial— Edge-to-Edge—
Uniaxial—
Uniaxial— Edge-to-Edge—
Compression
Compression
Compression
Compression
Compression
Uniaxial—
Compression
Uniaxial—
Impact
Impact
Impact
Variable
Impact
Impact Regular Regular
Regular
Periodic—Unary—Edge-to-Edge—Regular
Regular Regular Surface
Surface Surface (tiles)
(tiles)
(tiles)
Surface (tiles)
Surface (tiles) Faces
Faces Faces
Faces
Faces
CompressionUniaxial—Variable
Variable
Variable
Variable Impact
Impact
Variable Regular
Hierarchical—Overlaid
Hierarchical—
Hierarchical—
Surface
Surface (tiles) (tiles) FacesFaces
Variable Hierarchical—
Hierarchical—
Hierarchical—
Hierarchical— Overlaid
Overlaid
OverlaidOverlaid
Overlaid
Overlaid

Mantis shrimp [82]

Mantis
Mantis shrimp
shrimp Mantis
[82]
[82] shrimp [82]
Mantis
Mantisshrimp [82]
shrimp [82]
Mantis shrimp [82]
Uniaxial— Periodic—Unary— Fibers stacked along a
Compression Uniaxial— Impact Periodic—Unary— Beam (fibers) FibersFibers stacked along a
stacked
Uniaxial—
Compression
Uniaxial—
Uniaxial— Variable Impact Periodic—Unary—
Overlapping
Periodic—Unary—
Periodic—Unary— Fibers
Beam (fibers) Fibers stacked
Fibers along
helical
stacked aa a
twist
along
stacked along
Compression
Compression Uniaxial—Variable
Compression
Compression Variable
Impact
Impact
Impact
Impact Overlapping Beam
Beam
Periodic—Unary—Overlapping (fibers)
Beam
(fibers)
Beam (fibers) Fibershelical
(fibers) helical
along twist
aalong
helical
Uniaxial—
Variable Periodic—Unary—
Overlapping stackedtwist a
Compression Variable
Variable Impact Overlapping
Overlapping Beam (fibers) helical twist
helical twist
Variable Overlapping twist
helical twist
Designs 2019, 3, 19 26 of 31

Connectivity is the last decision in the process of cellular material selection, and it specifies the
actual shape of the unit cell. In that sense, this step provides the complete solution to the question
of selection of a specific shape. The reason this step is not sufficient is that the previous decisions
(tessellation and elements) can often provide functional insight that this final level of connectivity
may not. Consider the hexagonal honeycomb of the honeybee, for example: a focus on wall-based
connectivity along the edges of a hexagon for a self-supporting structure under gravity loads is not a
strong enough reason to use this pattern in every application. One may ask as to why the tessellation
is hexagonal (as opposed to stochastic or hierarchical), or why the structure is composed of surfaces
(walls) instead of beams, and get to the underlying biological and structural benefits for these forms.
For example, the hexagon is the best way of sub-dividing two-dimensional space into regions of equal
area, something that has been mathematically proven [55]. However, the need for equal area (in reality,
honeybee nests do not strictly have cells of equal area [61], but one may make this assumption for the
present discussion) may not be relevant—in the bee’s honeycomb, these cells serve a storage function
that may not be of interest in the engineering application. For the same reason, honeybee nests need
walls instead of just lattice-like struts. This is the reason a full comprehension of the design space must
include an examination of cellular materials at all three levels: tessellation, elements and connectivity,
and not just the last level alone.

5. Discussion
In this paper, we proposed a classification scheme for cellular materials from a designer’s perspective.
This classification scheme suggests three levels of decisions: tessellation, elements and connectivity, which
when considered together, are sufficient to describe most unit cell designs. Engineering approaches that
enable selection of cellular materials include analytical methods such as Maxwell’s stability criterion
and relative density-based scaling laws, as well as empirical methods such as experimentation and
simulation. Analytical tools, while powerful in the insight they provide, are often restricted to simple
shapes. Empirical methods can address complexity, but come with significant cost and time penalties, and
do not provide much direct insight into the circumstances that make one cellular material (e.g., stochastic)
preferable to another (e.g., periodic). We propose that natural cellular materials be considered as part of a
guiding approach for cellular material selection in design.

5.1. Design Methodology

A mechanical designer seeking to leverage cellular materials may well ask how best to reconcile
engineering and biomimetic approaches. A “biomimicry thinking” methodology has been proposed
for those seeking to emulate solutions from nature, wherein a challenge may be posed to biology
(“challenge to biology”), or natural models may be first discovered in nature and opportunities
identified (“biology to design”)—both approaches are shown graphically in Figure 19 [76].
These approaches involve four steps: scoping, discovering, creating, and evaluating and the
reader is advised to study the cited reference to learn more.
For the specific problem of selecting a cellular material for a specific function, we propose the
following approach inspired by the four steps in the “challenge to biology” methodology and shown
graphically in Figure 20 for a specific example of structural honeycomb:

- Scoping: In this phase, the application context is identified and specific details of the environment
(temperature, pressure, etc.) are also obtained. The functional requirements are then defined and
understood to be valid in these contexts. In Figure 20, for example, a context could be aircraft
paneling, where honeycomb structures are used to distribute stresses evenly.
- Discovering: Following this, natural models are identified that perform these functions in similar
environments—insect nests, in this example. Importantly, measurements are then made on the
natural model to abstract parameters and relationships between these parameters that may, in the
next step, lead to design principles.
Designs 2019, 3, 19 27 of 31

- Creating: Design principles are developed to translate the abstracted biological principle into
Designs 2018, 2, x FOR PEER REVIEW 26 of 30
something of use to the engineering designer, which may result in an analytical and/or numerical
model- that can then
Creating: Designbeprinciples
exercised. In this example,
are developed to translatethe the role of the
abstracted cornerprinciple
biological radius into
is examined,
and a model is developed
something of use to thethat incorporates
engineering designer,it.which may result in an analytical and/or numerical
model that can then be exercised. In this example, the role of the corner radius is examined, and
- Evaluating: In the final phase, the design principle is reconciled against other models, both in
a model is developed that incorporates it.
engineering and nature.
- Evaluating: We
In the final can the
phase, usedesign
numerical
principleand experimental
is reconciled techniques
against other to validate
models, both in our
hypothesized design principle that the corner radius optimizes for specific
engineering and nature. We can use numerical and experimental techniques to validate our stiffness, for example,
hypothesized
and reconcile design principle
our findings that the
with other cornernests
insect radiusand
optimizes for specific
methods, suchstiffness, for example,
as scaling laws.
and reconcile our findings with other insect nests and methods, such as scaling laws.

Biomimicry
Figure 19. Figure thinking
19. Biomimicry methodology,
thinking methodology,asasproposed
proposed inin [76],
[76], showing
showing the “challenge
the “challenge to biology”
to biology”
method onmethod
the left on and
the left
theand the “biology
“biology to design”method
to design” method ononthe
the right. Attribution:
right. Biomimicry
Attribution: 3.8,
Biomimicry 3.8,
creative commons BY-NC-ND.
creative commons BY-NC-ND.
Designs 2018, 2, x FOR PEER REVIEW 27 of 30

5.2. Limitations of Study

In addition to the limited scope of this work, restricted as it is to structural parameters only, this
work is also limited to the identification of a specific unit cell design. While this is arguably the central
question in cellular materials design, it is not the only one. Other questions include:
- How should the density of the cellular material be prescribed within the structure? Should it be
completely full of cellular materials, or are there benefits to including empty (or negative) space
[83]?
- How should local parameters such as thickness, beam shape be optimized? and
- What is the optimum termination strategy for the cellular material at the boundary of the
structure?
A second limitation of the study is that, for the most part, it ignores discussion of the
contributions of ancestry (phylogeny) and development (ontogeny) to the resulting form. We assume,
therefore, that the observed structure is optimal for the function at hand and that any constraints that
phylogeny and ontogeny have placed on it do not detract from the inherent benefit of that structure
relative to the function of interest. Finally, while this paper does develop a new classification scheme
and demonstrate a methodology for studying natural cellular materials relative to this scheme, we
concede that much work is needed in order to implement biomimetic cellular materials as a
considered option in mechanical design beyond just the conceptual design phase. A framework such
as the one proposed here has the potential to further accelerate discovery of biomimetic cellular
materials and their application in design.

Figure 20. Figure 20. Incorporation of biomimicry thinking into the selection of cellular material designs, along
Incorporation of biomimicry thinking into the selection of cellular material designs, along with an
with an example for the use of honeycomb designs in mechanical structures. Phylogenetic tree from
example forOneZoom.org.
the use of honeycomb designs in mechanical structures. Phylogenetic tree from OneZoom.org.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, D.B., C.A.P., L.A.F. and C.L.; Methodology, D.B.; Writing—Original
Draft Preparation, D.B.; Writing—Review & Editing, D.B., C.A.P., C.L. and L.A.F.; Funding Acquisition, D.B.,
L.A.F. and C.L.

Funding: This research was partially funded by a seed grant awarded by the Biomimicry Center at Arizona State
University.
Designs 2019, 3, 19 28 of 31

5.2. Limitations of Study

In addition to the limited scope of this work, restricted as it is to structural parameters only,
this work is also limited to the identification of a specific unit cell design. While this is arguably the
central question in cellular materials design, it is not the only one. Other questions include:

- How should the density of the cellular material be prescribed within the structure? Should it
be completely full of cellular materials, or are there benefits to including empty (or negative)
space [83]?
- How should local parameters such as thickness, beam shape be optimized? and
- What is the optimum termination strategy for the cellular material at the boundary of
the structure?

A second limitation of the study is that, for the most part, it ignores discussion of the contributions
of ancestry (phylogeny) and development (ontogeny) to the resulting form. We assume, therefore,
that the observed structure is optimal for the function at hand and that any constraints that phylogeny
and ontogeny have placed on it do not detract from the inherent benefit of that structure relative
to the function of interest. Finally, while this paper does develop a new classification scheme and
demonstrate a methodology for studying natural cellular materials relative to this scheme, we concede
that much work is needed in order to implement biomimetic cellular materials as a considered
option in mechanical design beyond just the conceptual design phase. A framework such as the one
proposed here has the potential to further accelerate discovery of biomimetic cellular materials and
their application in design.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, D.B., C.A.P., L.A.F. and C.L.; Methodology, D.B.; Writing—Original
Draft Preparation, D.B.; Writing—Review & Editing, D.B., C.A.P., C.L. and L.A.F.; Funding Acquisition, D.B.,
L.A.F. and C.L.
Funding: This research was partially funded by a seed grant awarded by the Biomimicry Center at Arizona
State University.
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to acknowledge Raghav Sharma for providing the simulation results
shown in Figure 6, and Austin Suder for CAD schematics in Table 5, both students at Arizona State University at
the time of writing this paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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