The Effects of Forces on

Materials
Lecture 7
 The Effects of Forces on Materials
• A force exerted on a body can cause a change in either the shape or the motion of the
body.
• No solid body is perfectly rigid and when forces are applied to it, changes in dimensions
occur.
• Such changes are not always perceptible to the human eye since they are so small.
• The three main types of mechanical force that can act on a body are:
(i) tensile
(ii) compressive
(iii) shear
Tensile Force
• Tension is a force which tends to stretch a material
(i) the rope or cable of a crane carrying a load is in tension
(ii) rubber bands, when stretched, are in tension
(iii) a bolt; when a nut is tightened, a bolt is under tension

A tensile force, i.e. one producing tension, increases the length of the material on which it acts.
 Compressive Force
• Compression is a force which tends to squeeze or crush a material

(i) a pillar supporting a bridge is in compression

(ii) the sole of a shoe is in compression
(iii) the jib of a crane is in compression

A compressive force, i.e. one producing compression, will decrease the length of the material on which it
acts.
 Shear Force
• Shear is a force which tends to slide one face of the material over an
adjacent face.

(i) a rivet holding two plates together is in shear if a tensile force is applied between the plates
(ii) a horizontal beam is subject to shear force
(iii) transmission joints on cars are subject to shear forces

A shear force can cause a material to bend, slide or twist

State the types of forces acting labelled A to F

A – Compression
B – Shear
C – Tension
D – Tension
E – Compression/Shear
F - Tension
Stress
• Forces acting on a material cause a change in dimensions
• Then the material is said to be in a state of stress.
• Stress is the ratio of the applied force F to cross-sectional area A of the material.
F
Stress =
A
• The unit of stress is the Pascal, Pa, where 1 Pa = 1 Nm−2 .
For tensile and compressive forces,
The cross-sectional area is that which is at right angles to the direction of the force.

For a shear force

The cross-sectional area A is that which is parallel to the direction of the force.

Tensile stress / Compressive stress , σ = F/A

Shear stress , τ = F/A
Examples

1. A circular wire has a tensile force of 60.0N applied to it and this force produces a stress of 3.06 MPa in
the wire. Determine the diameter of the wire.

σ = F/A , 3.06 x 10^6 N/m^2 = 60 N / A >>> A = 19.6 x 10^(-6) m^2 = 19.6 mm2

A = ∏(D^2)/4 >>>> 19.6 = 3.14 x D^2 / 4 >>> 19.6 x 4 / 3.14 = D^2 >>> D = 5.00 mm

1. A square-sectioned support of side 12mm is loaded with a compressive force of 10 kN. Determine the
compressive stress in the support.

σ = F/A = 10000N/ 0.012 x 0.012 = 69.44 x 10^6 Pa = 69.44 MPa

1. A bolt having a diameter of 5 mm is loaded so that the shear stress in it is 120MPa. Determine the
value of the shear force on the bolt.

A = ∏(D^2)/4 = 3.14 x (0.005 x 0.005)/4 = 19.62 x 10 ^(-6) m2

τ = F/A 120 x 10^6 = F/ 19.62 x 10 ^(-6)
F = 120 x 10^6 x 19.62 x 10 ^(-6)
F = 120 x 19.62 = 2355N
Strain
• The fractional change in a dimension of a material produced by a force is called the
strain.
• For a tensile or compressive force, strain is the ratio of the change of length to the
original length.
For a material of length lmetres which changes in length by xmetres when subjected to
stress, the strain,
𝑥
ξ=
𝑙
For a shear force, strain ,
𝑥
ϒ=
𝑙
Examples
1.
(a) A rectangular metal bar has a width of 10mm and can support a maximum compressive stress of 20 MPa;
determine the minimum breadth of the bar when loaded with a force of 3 kN.
(b) If the bar in (a) is 2 m long and decreases in length by 0.25 mm when the force is applied, determine the
strain and the percentage strain.
(a) σ = F/A
20 MPa = 3000 / A >>> A = 3000/ 20 x 10^6 = (3000/20 ) mm2 = 150mm2
Area = Width x Breadth
Breadth = Area / Width = 150 mm2 / 10mm = 15mm
(b) Strain = 0.25/2000 = 1.25 x 10 ^(-4)
Percentage Strain = 1.25 x 10 ^(-4) x 100 % = 0.0125 %
2. A rectangular block of plastic material 500mm long by 20 mm wide by 300 mm high has its lower face glued
to a bench and a force of 200 N is applied to the upper face and in line with it. The upper face moves 15 mm
relative to the lower face. Determine
(a) the shear stress = 20000Pa
(b) the shear strain in the upper face, assuming the deformation is uniform. = 0.05
Shear stress = 200 / (0.5 x 0.02) = 20 000 Pa = 20kPa
Shear Strain = 15 / 300 = 0.05
Homework

1. A wire of length 4.5 m has a percentage strain of 0.050% when loaded with a tensile force. Determine
the extension in the wire.

2. A metal bar 2.5 m long extends by 0.05 mm when a tensile load is applied to it. Determine
(a) the strain,
(b) the percentage strain.

3. A pipe has an outside diameter of 25mm, an inside diameter of 15 mm and length 0.40 m and it supports
a compressive load of 40 kN. The pipe shortens by 0.5 mm when the load is applied. Determine
(a) the compressive stress,
(b) the compressive strain in the pipe when supporting this load
Elasticity & Elastic Limit
• Elasticity is the ability of a material to return to its original shape and size on the removal of
external forces.
• Plasticity is the property of a material of being permanently deformed by a force without
breaking.
Thus if a material does not return to the original shape, it is said to be plastic.

extension is directly
If a tensile force applied to a proportional to the applied
force.
uniform bar of mild steel is
gradually increased and the
corresponding extension of the bar
is measured,
Stress, σ = F/A

For a particular bar the cross sectional area is a constant. Then, σα F

Strain, ξ = x/l

For a particular bar l is a constant. Then, ξα x

σ 𝐹
α
ξ 𝑋

• If the applied force is large, it is found that the material no longer returns to its original length when the force
is removed.

• The material is then said to have passed its elastic limit and the resulting graph of force/extension is no
longer a straight line.
Hooke’s Law
• Within the elastic limit, the extension of a material is proportional to
the applied force
• Within the elastic limit of a material, the strainproduced is directly
proportional to the stress producing it.

Stress = (A constant) x Strain

This Constant of Proportionality is the Young’s Modulus of Elasticity.
σ
E= Pa
ξ
Stiffness
• A material having a large value of Young’s modulus is said to have a
high value of stiffness,
Young’s Modulus = Stress/Strain
Stiffness = Force/Extension
Force 𝐹
Stiffness = = Stress = F/A
Extension 𝑥 Strain = Extension/ l

E = Stress/Strain
𝑙 E = (F/A) / (x/l)
Young’s Modulus, E = (Stiffness) x ( ) E = (F/A) x (l/x)
𝐴 E = (F/X) x (l/A)

E = Stiffness x (l/A)
Examples

1. A wire is stretched 2 mm by a force of 250 N. Determine the force that would stretch the wire 5 mm, assuming
that the elastic limit is not exceeded.
Force /Extension = 250N /2mm = 125N/mm
125 = Force / 5 >>>> Force = 125 x 5 = 625 N
2. A copper rod of diameter 20 mm and length 2.0 m has a tensile force of 5 kN applied to it. Determine
(a) the stress in the rod
(b) by how much the rod extends when the load is applied.
Take the modulus of elasticity for copper as 96 GPa.
(a) Stress = 5000 / (3.14 x 0.02 x 0.02 /4) = 15.92 MPa

(b) E = Stress /Strain >>> 96 x 10^9 = 15.92 x 10^6 /Strain >>> Strain = (15.92 / 96) x 10 ^(-3) = 1.66 x 10^(-4)
Strain = Extension / Initial Length >>> 1.66 x 10^(-4) = Extension / 2 >> Extension = 0.332 mm

3. A bar of thickness 15 mm and having a rectangular cross-section carries a load of 120 kN. Determine the
minimum width of the bar to limit the maximum stress to 200 MPa.
The bar, which is 1.0m long, extends by 2.5 mm when carrying a load of 120 kN. Determine the modulus of
elasticity of the material of the bar.
Stress = Force / Area >>> 200MPa = 120kN /A >>>> A = 120kN/200MPa = 600mm2
Thickness x Width = Area >>> Width = Area/Thickness = 600/15 = 40mm

Strain = 2.5mm/1000mm = 2.5 x 10^(-3)

Modulus of Elasticity = Stress/ Strain = 200MPa/ 2.5 x 10 ^(-3) = 80 x 10^9 Pa
Summary

Tensile stress / Compressive stress , σ = F/A

Shear stress ,τ= F/A

𝒙
For Tensile/ Compressive Force, the strain , ξ =
𝒍
𝒙
For a shear force, strain , ϒ =
𝒍

σ
Young’s Modulus , E=
ξ

E = (Stiffness) x (l /A)
Thank you!!