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Enhancement of Starch-Pulp Separation in Centrifugal-Filtration Process:

Effects of Particle Size and Variety of Cassava Root on Free Starch Granule
Separation

Article  in  Food and Bioproducts Processing · May 2015

DOI: 10.1016/j.fbp.2015.05.008

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 food and bioproducts processing 9 5 ( 2 0 1 5 ) 208–217

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Food and Bioproducts Processing

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/fbp

Enhancement of starch-pulp separation in

centrifugal-filtration process: Effects of particle size
and variety of cassava root on free starch granule
separation

Kanchana Saengchan a,1, Montira Nopharatana a, Ruenrom Lerdlattaporn b,

Warinthorn Songkasiri c,∗
a Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi,
Thungkhru, Bangkok 10140, Thailand
b Pilot Plant Development and Training Institute, King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi, Bangkhuntien,

Bangkok 10150, Thailand

c National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Excellent Center of Waste Utilization and Management,

Bangkhuntien, Bangkok 10150, Thailand

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Cassava root and starch are used for human food consumption, animal feed and raw mate-
Received 11 November 2014 rial for various industries, including the renewable energy industry. The composition and
Received in revised form 8 May 2015 structure of cassava root depend on variety, age, environmental conditions and planting
Accepted 19 May 2015 season. Starch granules following rasping step are divided into free and bound starch; the
Available online 29 May 2015 latter remains in the pulp and is difficult to separate, while the former is not bound inside
the pulp complex structure. In a starch extractor, cassava starch granules are separated from
Keywords: pulp through the mechanisms of centrifugation and filtration. This research aimed to study
Bound starch granule the effects of particle size and variety of cassava root, centrifugation and filtration mecha-
Centrifugation nisms on free starch granule separation efficiency. Three cassava root varieties, Rayong 9,
Filtration Rayong 11 and Kasetsart 50, were classified by particle size after grinding and sieving. Exper-
Free starch granule iments were conducted at various relative centrifugal forces (RCF: 0–487 × G) and pressure
Manihot esculenta drops (2.5–12.0 kPa). The free starch separation efficiency increased with decreasing parti-
Semi bound starch cle size of all cassava root varieties. The grinding of cassava root into small pieces caused
cell wall breakage, facilitating free starch separation from the pulp. As the RCF increased,
some bound starch granules were released due to the force acting on the cassava pulp. The
pressure drop in filtration process drove the free starch granules to pass through the screen
although this force was insufficient to separate the bound starch granules from the fiber.
© 2015 The Institution of Chemical Engineers. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

∗
Corresponding author. Tel.: +66 86 909 4210; fax: +66 2 452 3455.
E-mail address: warinthorn@biotec.or.th (W. Songkasiri).
1
Present address: National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Excellent Center of Waste Utilization and Management,
Bangkhuntien, Bangkok 10150 Thailand.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fbp.2015.05.008
0960-3085/© 2015 The Institution of Chemical Engineers. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
 food and bioproducts processing 9 5 ( 2 0 1 5 ) 208–217
Nomenclature
List of symbols
A filtration area (m2 )
Ds surface area average particle diameter (m2 )
FG centrifugal force (N, kg m/s2 )
Fg gravitational force (N, kg m/s2 )
G centrifugal acceleration (m/s2 )
g gravitational acceleration (m/s2 )
k1 Kozeny constant
m mass (kg)
p operating pressure (Pa, N/m2 )
Q volumetric flow rate (m3 /s)
RCF relative centrifugal force
Rc cake resistance (m−1 )
Rm medium resistance (m−1 )
r radius (m)
t time (s)
V volume (m3 )
w mass of deposited cake per unit area (kg/m2 )
Greek letters
˛ specific cake resistance (m/kg)
ε cake porosity (volume fraction of void in the
cake)
s particle sphericity
 filtrate viscosity (N s/m2 )
s particle density (kg/m3 )
ω rotational speed (1/s)
1. Introduction
Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) or tapioca is ranked as the
third most essential carbohydrate source, which is cultivated
in the tropical and subtropical countries including Thailand
(Reinhardt et al., 2013). Cassava is a drought-tolerant crop and
often grows under uncertain rainfall conditions, infertile soils
and limited input resources (Fregene and Puonti-Kaerlas, 2002;
Saengchan et al., 2009). The tuber of cassava is an attractive
source as an edible product and as raw material for native
cassava starch. Cassava root and starch are used directly as
human food and have many other uses, including pharma-
ceutical, textile, cosmetic, petroleum, biodegradable products
paper and pulp industries, while cassava chips and pellets
are used as animal feed and in alcohol production (Reinhardt
et al., 2013).
The main cassava product is dried starch which can be
classified into three types: native starch, modified starch and
sago pearls (Sriroth and Piyachomkwan, 2002). Native cas-
sava starch production, a process where starch granules are
separated from ground cassava root, consists of 8 steps: cas-
sava root receiving, washing, rasping, extracting, separating,
dewatering, drying, and packing the starch product. Starch
granules are locked with cassava pulp and other constituents:
proteins, soluble carbohydrates and fats. The major compo-
nents of cassava pulp are cellulose, hemi-cellulose, lignin and
protein matrix, which form lignocellulosic material. Separa-
tion of starch granules from the cassava pulp is essential
in the manufacture of the cassava starch (Sriroth et al.,
2000b).
The mechanism of cassava starch granule-pulp separation
in a starch extractor relates to centrifugation and filtration
209
effects. The driving force for filtration is the centrifugal force
acting on starch slurry—a mixture of starch granules, water,
cassava pulp and impurities. Starch slurry is fed through a
feed inlet pipe at the bottom of the filtering screen and then
the slurry is accelerated up along the inclined screen due to
the centrifugal force. Water facilitates starch granules to pass
through the screen, while cassava pulp is retained and dis-
charged at an upper screen outlet (Grimwood, 2005; Svalovsky,
2000; Wallace and Leung, 1998).
The starch-pulp separation efficiency depends on design,
operation and feed variables. The design variables relate to
the physical dimension of the machine, including basket
radius, filtering screen and screen aperture. The operation
variables are rotational speed and volumetric feed flow rate,
while the feed variables are liquid to solid (L/S) ratio and
cassava root characteristics (Saengchan et al., 2014). The
characteristics and chemical compositions of cassava root
depend on variety, age and environmental growing condi-
tions (Galliard and Bowler, 1987). Starch loss in the process
mainly occurs due to inappropriate design and operation
of the extractor (Schwille et al., 2002). The starch loss with
pulp residues are approximately US$2 million annually in
one factory with a capacity of 200 t a day (Saengchan et al.,
2014).
The affecting variables on total starch production efficiency
have been studied. However, the research did not fully describe
the starch granule characteristics and the effects of centrifu-
gation and filtration on starch granule and pulp separation
process (Saengchan et al., 2014). To improve the starch recov-
ery from pulp, the starch-pulp separation mechanism and
factors affecting the starch separation efficiency need to be
investigated. Thus, this research explored the effects of parti-
cle size and variety of cassava root on starch-pulp separation
efficiency. The effects of centrifugation and filtration, the main
mechanisms in an extractor, on starch granule-pulp separa-
tion were studied.
1.1. Characteristics and composition of cassava root
Cassava root is a long tuber with a thin brown skin and a
white inner flesh. Cassava root portion is divided into three
main parts which are periderm, cortex and starch flesh. The
starch flesh is the central portion of the root, where starch
granules are deposited (Reinhardt et al., 2013). The peel of cas-
sava root consists of the outer periderm and the cortex. The
periderm consists of a few layers of dead cork cells, sealing the
outer layer of the root, while the cortex is a 1–2 cm thick white
layer located beneath the periderm (International Institute of
Tropical Agriculture, 1990)
Several cassava varieties exist in Thailand. Most varieties in
the country are the bitter type, used for the production of ani-
mal feed, starch and its derivatives. The chemical composition
and structure of cassava root depend on the cassava variety,
harvesting age, climate condition and other environmental
factors during cultivation (Galliard and Bowler, 1987). Rayong
1, the first cassava variety developed in Thailand, was released
in 1975. Its production yield and starch content (wet basis)
are approximately 14.0 t/ha and 18.1–23.0%, respectively. Since
1978, new cassava varieties with high starch content, good
adaptability and suitable for starch industrial purposes have
been bred locally. The characteristics, i.e., productivity, starch
content, and advantage, of cassava varieties in Thailand are
summarized in Table 1.
210 food and bioproducts processing 9 5 ( 2 0 1 5 ) 208–217

Table 1 – Year released, parents, root productivity (wet basis), moisture content, starch content and advantage of cassava
varieties in Thailand (Charles et al., 2005; Sriroth et al., 1999).
Variety Year Parents Root productivity Moisture Starch Advantage
(t/ha) content (%) content (%)

Rayong 1 1975 Local varieties 14.0 71.7 18.1–23.0 High yield, good
adaptability
Rayong 90 1978 CMC76*V43 24.75 61.0–66.0 25.0–30.0 Low fiber content, high
starch content
Rayong 5 1982 27-77-10* 27.63 63.0–67.3 23.0–26.0 Strength, high yield, good
Rayong 3 adaptability, pest and
drought tolerant
Kasetsart 50 1984 Rayong 1* 22.50–25.00 62.0–67.0 23.3–28.0 Good adaptability, pest
Rayong 90 tolerant, good breeding
Rayong 60 1987 Mcol 1684* 22.00 66.0–70.0 15.4–22.6 Early harvest, high yield
Rayong 1
Rayong 72 1990 Rayong 1* 31.81 66.0–70.0 20.9 Strength, drought tolerant,
Rayong 5 high yield, good
adaptability, good breeding
Huaybong 60 1991 Rayong 5* 31.25–40.00 64.6 25.4 Strength, good cultivation,
Kasetsart 50 high starch content, high
starch quality
Rayong 7 1992 CMR30-71-25* 39.38 61.0–67.0 27.2 Good breeding, high yield,
OMR29-20-118 high starch content
Rayong 9 1992 CMR31-19-23* 30.63 59.0–66.0 27.2–27.6 Good breeding, high starch
OMR29-20-118 content, suitable for
ethanol production
Huaybong 80 1992 Rayong 5* 30.63 62.8 27.3 Good breeding, high starch
Kasetsart 50 content
Rayong 11 2004 Rayong 5* 27.75 58.0–64.2 26.1–32.0 High yield, high starch
OMR29-20–118 content, disease tolerant

1.2. Free, semi-bound, and bound starch granules
A cassava root consists of water, starch granule, pulp and other
impurities. Cassava pulp or fiber acts as a fibrous network
holding the starch granules together (Sriroth et al., 2000a).
Native cassava starch is produced through the starch granule-
pulp separation process. The highest separation of starch
granules from the fibrous matrix of cassava root is a major goal
of all starch factories. During production process, the cassava
root is ground using a milling machine in rasping step to pro-
duce starch slurry. The cassava pulp is shredded and starch
granules are released from the broken cells. Starch granules
following a grinding are divided into free starch and bound
starch (Fig. 1). The bound starch granule remains in the fiber
and is difficult to separate, while the free starch granule is
Fig. 1 – Scanning electron microscope (SEM) photograph
with 1000× magnification of cassava pulp, free starch
granule, and bound starch granule.
not bound inside the pulp complex structure (Sriroth et al.,
2000a). To produce the free starch granules, a mechanical force
is generally applied to tear the fibrous matrix, facilitating the
free starch separation from pulp. Then, the starch slurry is
sent to extraction step. Some bound starch granules, or in
another word, semi-bound starch granules are released due
to the centrifugal force of the extractor acting on the cassava
pulp. However, the fibrous matrix is incompletely shredded
and some starch granules remain bound inside, resulting in a
starch loss with cassava pulp. Starch can be lost with pulps up
to 10% dry basis of starch input.
1.3. Starch granule-cassava pulp separation
Traditional cassava starch is produced through a separation of
starch granule from cassava root by a wet milling. The starch
granules are separated and then dried using sunlight. Cur-
rently, native starch plants utilize processing units of chopper,
rasper and extractor (Fig. 2) to separate the starch granules
from the cassava pulp. Washed cassava roots are initially
chopped with a cutting blade into small pieces and then gravi-
metrically fed to a saw-tooth rasper, producing starch slurry.
Cell walls of the root are shredded and the starch granules are
separated. Starch slurry from the rasping unit is a mixture of
free and bound starch granules, cassava pulp, water, and other
impurities.
The starch slurry is pumped to the top of a conical-
screen extractor, containing nozzles that continually spray
fresh water. Centrifugal force drives the starch granules to
pass through the screen. The cassava pulp is retained and
discharged at the upper outlet. The starch-pulp separation
takes place in a 2-stage extraction unit, i.e., coarse and
fine screen extractors. A coarse extractor generally has a
perforated stainless screen with 80–90 mesh (0.177–0.163 mm),
 food and bioproducts processing 9 5 ( 2 0 1 5 ) 208–217
Fig. 2 – Configuration of starch-pulp separation stage.
while a fine extractor has a nylon screen with 100–120 mesh
(0.149–0.125 mm). The starch slurry passes through the coarse
extractor to separate coarse pulp, then moves on to the fine
extractor to separate fine fiber. The pulp from the extractor is
collected and pumped to be dewatered by a pulp extraction
unit and a pulp dewatering unit, such as a screw press or belt
press machine. Generally, the pulp residues from the extrac-
tion unit contain starch content of 50–60% of total dry weight
and fiber content of 20–30% of total dry weight (Sriroth et al.,
2000a). During the extraction process, sulfur dioxide solution
is used to dispose of protein, to inhibit microbial growth and
to bleach starch product (Chavalparit and Ongwandee, 2009;
Radley, 1976).
In a conical-screen extractor, filtration process is the main
mechanism to free or separate starch granules from pulp. The
driving force for filtration is centrifugal force, generating a high
pressure drop across the filtration system. The filtration sys-
tem is the combination of filtering screen and deposited pulp,
or otherwise known as, cake on the screen. The pressure drop
drives the starch granules and water to pass through the fil-
tering screen, while the cassava pulp is retained on the screen
(Saengchan et al., 2014).
Centrifugal force of a conical-screen extractor depends on
rotational speed and radius of the basket screen. The centrifu-
gal force is specified here as relative centrifugal force (RCF)
rather than rotational speed. RCF is a ratio of the centrifugal
and gravitational forces as shown in Eq. (1), where FG is cen-
trifugal force, Fg is gravitational force, m is mass of particle,
ω is rotational speed, r is basket radius and g is gravitational
acceleration.
FG mG ω2 r
RCF = = = (1)
Fg mg g
The centrifugal force generating a high pressure drop
across the filtration system (p) is calculated using Eq. (2),
where s is density of deposited pulp or cake, ω is rotational
speed, r2 is basket radius, r1 is the difference between basket
radius and deposited cake thickness on the screen (Wallace
and Leung, 1998).
s ω2 (r22 − r12 )
p = (2)
2
In the filtration process, there are two resistances to fluid
flow, i.e., medium resistance and cake resistance across the
filtration system. An increase in the total resistance causes a
decrease in the fluid flow at constant pressure drop. The basic
211
filtration equation can be applied to both the filtering screen
and deposited cake on the screen as shown in Eq. (3), where Q
is filtrate flow rate, V is filtrate volume, t is filtration time, p
is pressure across the filtration system, A is filtration area,  is
filtrate viscosity, Rm and Rc are medium and cake resistance, ˛
is specific cake resistance and w is mass of deposited cake per
unit area (Chen and Hsiau, 2009; Gosele, 2005; Tarleton and
Willmer, 1997; Tien, 2002; Xu et al., 2008)
dV Ap Ap
Q= = = (3)
dt (Rm + Rc ) (Rm + ˛w)
The cake resistance and its structure depend on operat-
ing conditions of an extraction unit, especially pressure drop
across the filtration system. The specific cake resistance (˛)
relates to applied pressure drop and cake structure, includ-
ing cake porosity, specific surface and density of particles as
shown in Kozeny-Carman equation (4), where k1 is Kozeny
constant, ␧ is cake porosity, s is density of particle, s is parti-
cle sphericity and Ds is surface area average particle diameter
(Silva et al., 1999).
k1 (1 − ε)
˛= 2
(4)
s (s Ds ) ε3
2. Materials and methodology
2.1. Preparation and chemical composition
determination of cassava root
Cassava root varieties, Kasetsart 50 (KU50), Rayong 9 (R9) and
Rayong 11 (R11), were selected as raw materials. These three
varieties, cultivated in most planting areas of Thailand are
commercially important, yielding high starch content. Fresh
cassava roots were grown under similar environmental con-
ditions and were harvested at the age of 10 months. The roots
were cleaned to remove sand, dirt and peel, cut and ground
into small pieces by a grinding machine (Model GB-9001, Sam-
son, Thailand). They were then subsequently dried in a hot
air oven (Model ULN 500, Memmert, Germany) at 55 ◦ C for
12 h to reduce moisture content to approximately 10%. Total
starch content and fiber content of the dried cassava root
were determined according to an optical method based on
the starch-iodine reaction (Sriroth and Piyachomkwan, 2002)
and AOAC method (1990), respectively. Further, starch granule
characteristics in the ground cassava root was captured using
scanning electron microscope (SEM). Fig. 3 presents a method-
ology of preparation and chemical composition determination
of cassava root. The experiment was performed with 2 repli-
cations. The variance was statistically analyzed using ANOVA,
while the difference of means were determined by Duncan’s
multiple range tests at the 95% level of confidence.
2.2. Experimental setup: Effects of particle size and
variety of cassava root on starch-pulp separation
Fig. 4 presents a flow diagram of experimental setup for
investigation the effects of particle size and variety of cas-
sava root on starch-pulp separation. Particle size of three root
varieties was classified after grinding and sieving. The dried
cassava root was sieved through a sifter (Model ASTM E:11,
England) to classify particle size into <180, 180–300, 300–500,
500–700 and 700–1000 ␮m by a vibratory sieve shaker (Model
AS200 basic, Retsch, Germany). Starch slurry was prepared by
212 food and bioproducts processing 9 5 ( 2 0 1 5 ) 208–217
Fig. 3 – Preparation and chemical composition
determination of cassava root.
mixing ground cassava root and fresh water to obtain the L/S
ratio at 4.6, a normal concentration of the starch slurry in an
extraction stage. Starch granules were separated using a filtra-
tion through aluminum screen with opening size of 177 ␮m
(80 mesh), which is equal to the opening size of a coarse
starch extractor. During separation process, 20-mL fresh water
per gram starch slurry (L/S ratio at 13.5) was sprayed on the
aluminum screen with 1.67 mL/s to facilitate the free starch
granules to pass through the screen. Filtrate samples were
dried in a hot air oven (Model ULN 500, Memmert, Germany)
at 55 ◦ C for 24 h. The deposited cassava pulp on the aluminum
screen was shredded using a 9500 rpm-homogenizer (Model
IKA T25, Staufen, Germany) and ultrasonic bath (Model CF2
IYY, Cardiff, United Kingdom) to separate bound starch gran-
ules from the fiber matrix. The free starch content in filtrate
and bound starch content in cassava pulp were analyzed
(Sriroth and Piyachomkwan, 2002). A separation efficiency is
defined based on an initial starch content in feed and filtrate
outlet. The efficiency (E) is calculated using Eq. (5), where
Co and Ci are starch content in filtrate and initial feed, Qo
and Qi are volumetric flow rate of filtrate and initial feed,
Fig. 4 – Flow diagram of experimental setup for
investigation the effects of particle size and variety of
cassava root on starch-pulp separation.
respectively. The experiment was performed in triplicates,
reported in means and standard deviations.
Co · Qo
E= × 100 (5)
Ci · Qi
2.3. Experimental setup: Effects of centrifugation and
filtration on free and semi-bound starch separation
efficiency
Fig. 5 presents a flow diagram of experimental setup for inves-
tigation the effects of centrifugation and filtration on free and
semi-bound starch separation efficiency. To study the effect
of centrifugation on free and semi-bound starch separation
efficiency, starch slurry was prepared by mixing various par-
ticle sizes of KU50 variety (up to 1000 ␮m) and fresh water
to obtain the L/S ratio at 4.6 and then was fed into a cen-
trifuge tube (30 mL). The starch slurry was centrifuged using
a refrigerated centrifuge (Model himac CR21, Hitachi, Japan)
with RCF of 0–487 × G for 10 min and then filtered through
177 ␮m aluminum screen (80 mesh). Bound starch granules
separated by centrifugal force are semi-bound starch granules.
To study the effect of filtration process on starch separation
efficiency, the starch slurry was filtered through a 177 ␮m alu-
minum screen with various applied pressure drop across the
filtration system. The pressure drop was varied at 7 different
levels in the range of 2.5–12.0 kPa, similar to the centrifugal
force of 0–487 × G. The free, semi-bound and bound starch
contents were analyzed (Sriroth and Piyachomkwan, 2002). A
volumetric flow rate was measured by the change of volume
with time, while a viscosity of the filtrate was measured using
viscometer (Model DV II Pro, Brookfield, USA) by ASTM D2983-
09 method to determine specific cake resistance. The specific
cake resistance was determined using Eq. (3). The experiment
was performed in triplicates, reported in means and standard
deviations.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Free starch and bound starch granules
Free starch separation efficiency depends on cassava variety,
particle size and fiber content. The chemical compositions
(dry basis), including starch, fiber, crude protein, lipid, ash
and mineral contents of the three varieties of cassava root are
shown in Table 2. The starch content (dry basis) of R9, R11 and
KU50 varieties was 87.06%, 86.53% and 91.07%, respectively.
The fiber content (dry basis) of the three varieties was 3.44%,
3.14% and 3.77%, respectively. The other compounds of cas-
sava root are mineral, vitamin and hydrocyanic acid. The fiber
content of R9 and KU50 was significantly different. Fiber plays
a major role in retarding free starch separation as a fibrous
network holds starch granules together (Sriroth et al., 2000a).
The fiber content was influenced by the variety of cassava,
root age and environmental growing conditions (Galliard and
Bowler, 1987).
Cassava pulp is shredded and free starch granules are
released from broken cells (Fig. 6a). The free starch granule
is separated from the pulp by centrifugal force and filtrated
through a filtering screen in a stage of starch extraction.
However, some bound starch granules are released due to
the centrifugal force acting on the cassava pulp (Fig. 6b).
For the purpose of this research, the released bound starch
 food and bioproducts processing 9 5 ( 2 0 1 5 ) 208–217 213

Fig. 5 – Flow diagram of experimental setup for investigation the effects of centrifugation and filtration on free and
semi-bound starch separation efficiency.

Fig. 6 – SEM photographs with 500× magnification of (a) released starch granules following shredding and (b) additional
starch granules release following centrifugation.

granule is classified as semi-bound starch granule. The cas-

sava pulp after starch-pulp separation contained unseparated
free starch and bound starch granules. Residual starch gran-
ules in the pulp occur due to inappropriate design and
operation of the starch extractor.

3.2. Effects of particle size and variety of cassava root

on starch-pulp separation

The particle size of cassava root was created using the grind-
ing machine. The efficiency increased with decreasing particle
size of all cassava root varieties (Fig. 7). An increase in particle
size resulted in a decrease in the starch separation efficiency.
Starch granules were contained in the pulp complex structure Fig. 7 – Effects of particle size and variety of cassava root on
and were difficult to separate. Cassava variety and fiber con- starch separation efficiency.
tent affected the starch separation efficiency. In this research,

Table 2 – Chemical compositions of three varieties of cassava root (dry basis).

Variety Starch (%)ns Fiber (%) Protein (%) Lipid (%) Ash (%)

Rayong 9 87.06 ± 5.83 3.44ab ± 0.17 3.85b ± 0.09 0.08b ± 0.01 0.84b ± 0.01
Rayong 11 86.53 ± 5.30 3.14b ±0.26 4.55a ± 0.06 0.16a ± 0.01 0.94a ± 0.01
Kasetsart 50 91.07 ± 7.94 3.77a ± 0.30 2.11c ± 0.04 0.14a ± 0.02 0.58c ± 0.02

Mean value ± SD ns indicates that values in the same column are not significantly different (p ≥ 0.05).
Values followed by the same letter in the same column are not significantly different (p ≥ 0.05).
214 food and bioproducts processing 9 5 ( 2 0 1 5 ) 208–217

the fiber content of KU50 variety with particle size at >300,

300–500, 500–700 and 700–1000 ␮m was 1.84%, 2.86%, 3.05%,
and 3.43%, respectively. A small particle size contained a
higher free starch content and a lower fiber content, resulting
in an increase in a separation of starch from the fiber complex.
KU50 variety had the highest total fiber content, following by
R9 and R11, respectively. R11 provided the highest starch sepa-
ration efficiency because of its low fiber content (300–1000 ␮m).
Although the fiber content of KU50 was higher than R9 and the
separation efficiency was highest at the particle size less than
300 ␮m due to its highest starch content in root as shown in
Table 2. As particle size of starch granule was around 5–40 ␮m,
the smallest particle size contained the highest starch
granule.

Fig. 8 – Effects of particle size of cassava root and relative

3.3. Effects of centrifugation and filtration on free and centrifugal force (RCF) on semi-bound starch separation
semi-bound starch separation efficiency efficiency.

Starch separation efficiency is described as a total mass of sep-

arated starch granules from cassava pulp. In a conical screen
centrifuge, centrifugal force disrupts the fibrous network to
separate semi-bound starch granules from cassava pulp. Fur-
ther, this force generates a pressure drop driving the starch
granules to pass through the filtering screen.
The experiments were conducted with various particle
sizes of KU50 variety (up to 1000 ␮m), RCF of 0–487 × G and
pressure drop across filtration system (2.5–12.0 kPa). L/S ratio
was controlled at 4.6, a normal concentration of starch slurry
in an extraction stage. The starch slurry was centrifuged and
then filtered through a 177 ␮m aluminum screen. Bound starch
granules separated by centrifugal force are semi-bound starch
granules. Free starch, semi-bound starch and bound starch
content were analyzed.
Separated starch at 0 × G, without applied centrifugal force,
was free starch granules from the rasping unit. As particle
size decreased, cell walls of the root were shredded and starch
granules released.
According to Eq. (1), the RCF depends on rotational
speed and radius. Increasing rotational speed and radius
resulted in an increase in centrifugal force acting on starch
granule-pulp complex structure. As the RCF increased, the
semi-bound starch granules were separated from the pulp due
to the cassava pulp disruption (Fig. 8).
RCF affected cassava pulp structure and starch granule
separation from the pulp. Semi-bound starch separation effi-
ciency increased as the RCF increased up to 175 × G, decreased
from 175 × G to 312 × G, and then increased. As the RCF
increased up to 175 × G, the centrifugal force acting on cas-
sava pulp increased, resulting in a rise of semi-bound starch
separation from the pulp. The RCF of 175 × G to 312 × G, the
cassava pulp compression increased, leading to a decrease
in the starch granule separation and subsequently the semi-
bound starch separation efficiency. However, at the RCF of
310 × G to 487 × G, the semi-bound starch separation efficiency
increased due to an extreme centrifugal force acting on the
cassava pulp. This force rearranged the cake, which became
loosely packed, and the starch granules were easily released
from the pulp.
Total starch separation efficiency is the combination of free
starch and semi-bound starch granule separation. An increase
in particle size presented an increase in solid particle mass,

Fig. 9 – Fraction of free starch, semi-bound starch and bound starch of various particle sizes at 95 × G, 262 × G and 487 × G.
 food and bioproducts processing 9 5 ( 2 0 1 5 ) 208–217 215

resulting in an increase in the centrifugal force acting on the

pulp as shown in Eq. (1). As the RCF increased, the semi-
bound starch granules were separated from the pulp due to
the cassava pulp disruption. Although, the semi-bound starch
separation of smallest particle size was lowest, the highest
total starch separation efficiency was investigated. The parti-
cle size of <180 ␮m provided the highest free starch separation
due to its having the highest cell wall breakage. The per-
centage of the free starch separation was higher than the
semi-bound starch separation. In summary, as the particle size
decreased and relative centrifugal force increased, the total
free starch separation efficiency increased (Fig. 9).
Total starch separation efficiency increased as the pressure
drop increased up to 4.4 kPa, decreased from 4.4 to 7.8 kPa, and
then increased. An increase in the pressure drop provided an
increase in driving force for filtration. The pressure drop at
4.4–7.8 kPa provided a high cake compression, resulting in a Fig. 10 – Effects of particle size of cassava root and pressure
high resistance to flow through the cake. Hence, a decrease in drop on total starch-pulp separation efficiency.
starch separation was investigated. However, at the pressure
drop over 7.8 kPa, the driving force for filtration was greater
than the cake resistance, resulting in a rise of the starch sep- trapped in cassava pulp”. Fig. 11 shows the fraction of total
aration efficiency (Fig. 10). The centrifugal force affected the free starch and bound starch of various particle sizes at 2.4,
deposited cake properties in the filtration process—cake soli- 6.5, and 12.0 kPa. Total free starch granule are divided into free
dosity and specific cake resistance. Increasing the centrifugal starch separated by filtration process and free starch trapped
force caused an increase in deposited cake rearrangement, in cassava pulp. However, the pressure drop was insufficient
resulting in an increase in starch-pulp separation (Saengchan to separate semi-bound starch granules from fiber. Further,
et al., 2014). the particle size of <180 ␮m provided the highest separation
The separation efficiency of particle size at <180 ␮m was of free starch from the pulp due to its having the highest
highest. The larger particle size of root was retained on the fil- cell wall breakage. An increase in particle size yielded an
tering screen, while smaller ones passed through the screen. increase in the separation of free starch from the pulp due
However, the particle size of 300–500 ␮m provided the low- to a rise of mass fraction of coarse particles in the deposited
est starch separation efficiency due to complete obstruction cake.
of starch granules on the screen. Specific cake resistance is an important parameter of
Actually, total free starch granules are created by grind- deposited cake, relating to a pressure drop across the cake
ing machine in rasping unit and centrifugation effect during and cake structure on the filtering screen. The specific cake
extraction unit. Then, pressure drop in the filtration process and medium resistances were determined by Eq. (3). The spe-
drove free starch granules to pass through the screen, but was cific cake resistance is a resistance of fluid to flow through
insufficient to separate total free starch granules, resulting the deposited cake. It is inversely related to cake porosity and
in residual starch granules in the pulp as called “free starch particle size of the deposited cake as expressed by Eq. (4).

Fig. 11 – Fraction of free starch (separated by filtration process), free starch (trapped in cassava pulp) and bound starch of
various particle sizes at 2.4, 6.5, and 12.0 kPa.
216 food and bioproducts processing 9 5 ( 2 0 1 5 ) 208–217
Fig. 12 – Effects of particle size of cassava root and pressure
drop on specific cake resistance.
An increase in pressure drop provided an increase in specific
cake resistance due to a rise of deposited cake compres-
sion (Fig. 12). A decrease in starch separation efficiency was
investigated, while the medium resistance was constant at
6.33 × 109 m−1 .
The particle size of <180 ␮m provided the lowest specific
cake resistance. The 80 mesh screen aperture or 177 ␮m is
used as filtering screen. Mass of deposited cake on the filtering
screen or cake thickness was lowest, resulting in an increase
in starch granules passing through the screen as shown in
Fig. 10. The particle size of 300–500 ␮m provided the high-
est specific cake resistance due to complete solid obstruction
on the filtering screen, resulting in a decrease in starch gran-
ules passing through the screen. However, an increase of the
particle size over 500 ␮m caused a decrease in specific cake
resistance due to a rise of mass fraction of coarse particles as
described using Eq. (4). Hence, the cake porosity and starch
separation efficiency increased.
To enhance the starch-pulp separation efficiency, grind-
ing of cassava root into small pieces was conducted. In most
starch factories, the relative centrifugal force of an extrac-
tor is varied from 170 × G to 1100 × G. The effects of RCF and
pressure drop on the starch-pulp separation mechanism can
be used as a guideline for optimizing the full-scale extractor
operation.
4. Conclusion
Starch separation efficiency depends on the total mass of
free and semi-bound starch separation from cassava pulp by
rasping and extraction unit, respectively. This research aimed
to enhance our understanding on the starch granule charac-
teristics and centrifugal-filtration process in cassava starch
production. The effects of particle size and variety of cassava
root, RCF and pressure drop across the filtration system on
free and semi-bound starch separation were investigated. The
particle size and variety of cassava root was an important feed
variable. As the particle size decreased, cell walls of the cas-
sava root were shredded and starch granules were released,
resulting in an increase in the free starch separation efficiency
of all cassava varieties. At particle size of 300–1000 ␮m, R11
variety yielded a higher starch separation efficiency than
other varieties due to its lowest fiber content. However, KU50
variety with the smallest particle size (<180 ␮m) provided the
highest starch separation efficiency due to the highest starch
content in cassava root. As RCF increased, some bound starch
granules, or in another word, semi-bound starch granules
were separated due to disruption of the cassava pulp and
starch separation efficiency increased. Semi-bound starch
separation efficiency increased as the RCF increased up to
175 × G, decreased from 175 × G to 312 × G, and then increased.
At RCF of 487 × G increased the starch-pulp separation effi-
ciency of <180, 180–300, 300–500, 500–700 and 700–1000 ␮m
of particle size to 9.33%, 26.07%, 27.69%, 44.56%, 63.55%,
respectively. An increase in the pressure drop provided an
increase in driving force for filtration. However, pressure drop
at 4.4–7.8 kPa provided a high cake compression, resulting in
an increase in high specific cake resistance and a decrease
in separation efficiency. The pressure drop in the filtration
process drove some free starch granules, causing a residual
starch granule in cassava pulp. However, an increase in
pressure drop was insufficient to separate semi-bound starch
granules from fiber, thus the separation efficiency reduced. In
filtration process, the larger particle size of root was retained
on the filtering screen, while smaller ones passed through the
screen. The separation efficiency of particle size at <180 ␮m
was highest, while the particle size of 300–500 ␮m provided
the lowest starch separation efficiency due to complete
obstruction of starch granules on the screen. Therefore,
centrifugation and filtration mechanism are important to
separate starch granule-pulp in an extraction unit.
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by the Thailand Research Fund
and the Office of Small and Medium Enterprises Promotion
through the Royal Golden Jubilee Ph.D. Program (Grant No.
IUG50K0023) to Dr. Kanchana Saengchan and Dr. Warinthorn
Songkasiri. We gratefully acknowledge Choncharoen Co. Ltd.,
the Food Engineering Department, King Mongkut’s University
of Technology Thonburi (KMUTT) and Starch Engineering and
Process Optimization (SEPO) program for their technical sup-
port.
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