Portland Cement

Manufacturing
Properties
 Portland Cement-I
Hydraulic cements, namely portland and natural, along
with limes are the principal cementing materials used in
structures.

They become plastic by the addition of water and then

the mix hardens.

The earliest cement known was pozzolan cement which

was first used by the Romans more than 2000 years ago.

It was produced by mixing lime with a volcanic ash called

pozzolana which is found near the town of Pozzuoli, Italy.
 Portland Cement-II
Natural cement in more recent times was produced
by burning a limestone high in clay and magnesia to
drive off the carbonic acid and then grinding the
clinker to a fine powder.

In comparison to portland cement, natural cement

possesses lower tensile strength, gains strength more
slowly, and is less uniform.

Portland cement was first made in Portland, England

from which it derived its name by Joseph Aspdin in
1824.
 Portland Cement-III
Portland cement is very commonly used in the concrete
industry and has a wide variety of compositions that include
various forms and percentages of different calcium
aluminosilicates.

Hardening of Portland cement is accomplished by reactions

with water, which are called hydration reactions.
These reactions are complex and not completely understood.

The extents to which the hydration reactions are completed

determine the strength and durability of the concrete.
 Portland Cement-IV
It is important that the concrete retains water during the early
curing period and that evaporation (drying) is prevented.

Portland cement is a hydraulic cement because water is

involved in the reactions.

A nonhydraulic cement employs other compounds in the

hardening reactions. For example lime employs CO2.

Water that is left over and trapped in the cement will tend to
weaken the concrete.
 Portland Cement-V
A water-to-cement ratio above 0.4 decreases the
compressive strength of concrete significantly.

However there is a limit to how low the water-to-cement

ratio can be since less water makes it more difficult to work
the concrete and have it completely fill the forms.

Entrained air will provide workability to cement allowing

the water content to be less. Entrained air will also increase
the cement’s resistance to freezing and thawing.
 Portland Cement-VI
The properties of concrete will depend on the
proportioning of its ingredients: cement, fine
aggregates, coarse aggregates, water and air.
Turkish Standards Instutition sets the methods of
proportioning concrete mixtures.

The design of • Workability

concrete mixtures • Strength and
should include
• durability
consideration of the
• Economy of production
following factors:
 Portland Cement Production
Portland
Cement • In the wet method
can be the raw materials are
blended and ground in a
produced slurry condition.
by either • In the dry process operations
a wet or are carried out with the
a dry materials in a dry state.
process.
 Portland Cement Production

• calcinations - grind and mix

The clay and lime bearing minerals
process • heat to obtain a material called
to make clinker
portland • grind this to a powder
cement • add gypsum (CaSO4 2H2O) to
retard setting process
 PRODUCTION OF PORTLAND CEMENT

Raw materials
1. LIMESTONE 2. CLAY/SHALE

QUARRYING PROCESS

CRUSHING PROCESS

CRUSHED LIMESTONE + CLAY/SHALE

ARE MIXED AND GROUND TOGETHER

MIXTURE IS HEATED IN A KILN

CLINKER

GYPSUM IS ADDED AND THE MIXTURE IS

GROUND TO A POWDER RESULTING IN
PORTLAND CEMENT
 Portland Cement Production

Adjustments to the constituents are made by the addition

of clay or stone of known characteristics.

Portland cement is obtained from finely pulverizing clinker

produced by calcining to incipient fusion properly
proportioned argillaceous and calcareous materials.

The final constituents and properties of portland cement

are very carefully controlled during the manufacture.
Examples of raw materials for portland
cement manufacture
Calcium Silicon Aluminum Iron
Limestone Clay Clay Clay
Marl Marl Shale Iron ore
Calcite Sand Fly ash Mill scale
Aluminum ore
Aragonite Shale Shale
refuse
Blast furnace
Shale Fly ash
dust
Sea Shells Rice hull ash
Cement kiln
Slag
dust
Manufacturing Portland Cement
Manufacturing Portland Cement
Manufacturing Portland Cement
 Manufacturing Portland Cement
Roraty Kiln
Raw
Materials

free water
clay decomposes
limestone decomposes
formation of initial compounds
initial formation of dicalcium silicate
formation of
tricalcium silicate

dehydration
zone

calcination zone heat

clinkering
zone
cooling zone
gas temp.
ÞC 450 800 1200 1350 1550
clinker

Schematic outline of conditions and reactions in a typical cement

rotary kiln (dry process)
 Rotary Kiln-I
Dehydration
• This is simply the evaporation and removal of the
zone (up to ~
free water.
450˚C):

• The term calcination refers to the process of

decomposing a solid material so that one of its
constituents is driven off as a gas.
Calcination • At about 600˚C the bound water is driven out of the
zone (450˚C clays, and by 900˚C the calcium carbonate is
– 900˚C): decomposed, releasing carbon dioxide.
• By the end of the calcination zone, the mix consists
of oxides of the four main elements which are ready
to undergo further reaction into cement minerals.
 Rotary Kiln-II
Solid-state reaction zone (900˚ - 1300˚C):

This zone slightly overlaps, and is sometimes included with, the

calcination zone. As the temperature continues to increase above ~
900˚C there is still no melting, but solid-state reactions begin to
occur. CaO and reactive silica combine to form small crystals of C2S
(dicalcium silicate), one of the four main cement minerals. In
addition, intermediate calcium aluminates and calcium ferrite
compounds form. These play an important role in the clinkering
process as fluxing agents, in that they melt at a relatively low
temperature of ~ 1300˚C, allowing a significant increase in the rate
of reaction. The final aluminum- and iron-containing cement
minerals (C3A and C4AF) in a portland cement contribute little to the
final properties.
 Rotary Kiln-III
Clinkering zone (1300˚C – 1550˚C):

This is the hottest zone where the formation of the most important
cement mineral, C3S (alite), occurs. The zone begins as soon as the
intermediate calcium aluminate and ferrite phases melt. The presence
of the melt phase causes the mix to agglomerate into relatively large
nodules about the size of marbles consisting of many small solid
particles bound together by a thin layer of liquid. Inside the liquid
phase, C3S forms by reaction between C2S crystals and CaO. Crystals of
solid C3S grow within the liquid, while crystals of belite formed earlier
decrease in number but grow in size. The clinkering process is
complete when all of silica is in the C3S and C2S crystals and the
amount of free lime (CaO) is reduced to a minimal level (<1%).
 Rotary Kiln-IV
Cooling zone:

As the clinker moves past the bottom of the kiln the temperature
drops rapidly and the liquid phase solidifies, forming the other two
cement minerals C3A (aluminate) and C4AF (ferrite). In addition, alkalis
(primarily K) and sulfate dissolved in the liquid combine to form K2SO4
and Na2SO4. The nodules formed in the clinkering zone are now hard,
and the resulting product is called cement clinker. The rate of cooling
from the maximum temperature down to about 1100˚C is important,
with rapid cooling giving a more reactive cement. This occurs because
in this temperature range the C3S can decompose back into C2S and
CaO, among other reasons. It is thus typical to blow air or spray water
onto the clinker to cool it more rapidly as it exits the kiln.
Cement chemistry notation based on
oxides
Oxide form Notation
CaO C
SiO2 S
Al2O3 A
Fe2O3 F
SO3
H2O H
 Chemical Composition of Portland
Cement
Tricalcium silicate: 3CaO SiO2 (abbreviated: C3S)

Dicalcium silicate: 2CaO SiO2 (abbreviated: C2S)

Tricalcium aluminate: 3CaO Al2O3 (abbreviated: C3A)

Tetracalcium aluminoferrite: 4CaO Al2O3 Fe2O3

(abbreviated: C4AF)
 Cement Minerals and Products.
Chemical Name Chemical Oxide Formula Cement Mineral
Formula Notation Name
Tricalcium Silicate Ca3SiO5 3CaO.SiO2 C3S Alite
Dicalcium Silicate Ca2SiO4 2CaO.SiO2 C2S Belite
Tricalcium Aluminate Ca3Al2O6 3CaO.Al2O3 C3A Aluminate
Tetracalcium Ca2AlFeO5 4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2 C4AF Ferrite
Aluminoferrite O3
Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 CaO.H2O CH Portlandite
Calcium sulfate CaSO4.2H2O CaO.SO3.2H2O C H2 Gypsum
dihydrate
Calcium oxide CaO CaO C Lime
 Belite, C2S

Alite, C3S

Width of the picture is 0.31 mm

Physical Properties of Cementitious
Materials
 Properties of the Major Cement
Minerals -I
About 90-95% of a Portland cement is comprised of the four main
cement minerals, which are C3S, C2S, C3A, and C4AF, with the
remainder consisting of calcium sulfate, alkali sulfates, unreacted
(free) CaO, MgO, and other minor constituents left over from the
clinkering and grinding steps.

The four cement minerals play very different roles in the hydration
process that converts the dry cement into hardened cement paste.

The C3S and the C2S contribute virtually all of the beneficial
properties by generating the main hydration product, C-S-H gel.
 Properties of the Major Cement
Minerals
However, the C3S hydrates much more quickly than the C2S and
thus is responsible for the early strength development.

The C3A and C4AF minerals also hydrate, but the products that are
formed contribute little to the properties of the cement paste.

These minerals are present because pure calcium silicate cements

would be virtually impossible to produce economically.

The crystal structures of the cement minerals are quite complex,

and since these structures do not play an important role in the
properties of cement past.
 Tricalcium Silicate (C3S)
C3S is the most abundant mineral in portland cement,
occupying 40–70 wt% of the cement, and it is also the most
important.

The hydration of C3S gives cement paste most of its strength,

particularly at early times.

Pure C3S can form with three different crystal structures. At

temperatures below 980˚C the equilibrium structure is
triclinic. At temperatures between 980˚C – 1070˚C the
structure is monoclinic, and above 1070˚C it is rhombohedral.
C3S is highly reactive.
 Dicalcium Silicate (C2S)
As with C3S, C2S can form with a variety of different
structures. There is a high temperature a structure with
three polymorphs.

An important aspect of C2S is that C2S has a very stable

crystal structure that is completely unreactive in water.

The C2S in cement contains slightly higher levels of

impurities than C3S. The overall substitution of oxides is
4-6%, with significant amounts of Al2O3, Fe2O3, and K2O.
 Tricalcium Aluminate (C3A)
Tricalcium aluminate (C3A) comprises anywhere from zero to
14% of a portland cement.

Like C3S, it is highly reactive, releasing a significant amount of

exothermic heat during the early hydration period.

Unfortunately, the hydration products of formed from C3A

contribute little to the strength or other engineering properties
of cement paste.

In certain environmental conditions (i.e., the presence of sulfate

ions), C3A and its products can actually harm the concrete by
participating in expansive reactions that lead to stress and
cracking.
Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite (C4AF)
A stable compound with any composition between C2A and
C2F can be formed, and the cement mineral termed C4AF is
an approximation that simply the represents the midpoint
of this compositional series.

The actual composition of C4AF in cement clinker is

generally higher in aluminum than in iron, and there is
considerable substitution of SiO2 and MgO.

Typical composition to be Ca2AlFe0.6Mg0.2Si0.15Ti0.5O5.

However, the composition will vary somewhat depending
on the overall composition of the cement clinker.
Oxide composition of a Portland cement
Range Cement #135
Oxide
(wt%) (wt%)
CaO 60.2 – 66.3 63.81
SiO2 18.6 – 23.4 21.45
Al2O3 2.4 – 6.3 4.45
Fe2O3 1.3 – 6.1 3.07
MgO 0.6 – 4.8 2.42
P2O5 -- 0.11
TiO2 -- 0.22
Na2O 0.20
0.05 – 1.20
K2O (Na2O equiv) 0.83

SO3 1.7 – 4.6 2.46

Loss on Ignition -- 0.81

Insoluble residue -- 0.16

Free CaO -- 0.64

 Bogue Composition
A simple estimate of the phase composition of a portland cement
can be obtained from the oxide composition if one assumes that
the four main cement minerals occur in their pure form.

This method is named after the cement chemist R.H. Bogue. While
this method is simple, it is not very accurate.

C3S = 4.071C – 7.600S – 6.718A – 1.430F – 2.852

C2S = 2.867S – 0.7544C3S
C3A = 2.650A – 1.692F
C4AF = 3.043F
 Typical Composition
C S A F
C3S 71.6 (73.7) 25.2 (26.3) 1.0 (0) 0.7 (0)
C2S 63.5 (65.1) 31.5 (34.9) 2.1 (0) 0.9 (0)
C3A 56.6 (62.3) 3.7 (0) 31.3 (37.7) 5.1 (0)
C4AF 47.5 (46.2) 3.6 (0) 21.9 (21.0) 21.4 (32.9)

Typical compositions of the cement minerals as

found in portland cement clinker and cement, and
The numbers in parentheses are the values for the
pure minerals. All values are weight%.
Bogue Composition (verification)
0.716C3S + 0.635C2S + 0.566C3A + 0.475C4AF = 62.52 (C)
0.252C3S + 0.315C2S + 0.037C3A + 0.036C4AF = 21.34 (S)
0.010C3S + 0.021C2S + 0.313C3A + 0.219C4AF = 4.40 (A)
0.007C3S + 0.009C2S + 0.051C3A + 0.214C4AF = 3.07 (F)

Standard Modified
Mineral SEM/X-ray
Bogue Bogue
C3S 55.4 64.7 62.1
C2S 19.7 14.4 16.4
C3A 6.6 3.47 6.2
C4AF 9.3 10.8 8.6
Total 91.0 93.3 93.3
 Hydration of Cement
The concrete (or specifically, the cement in it) needs
moisture to hydrate and cure (harden). When
concrete dries, it actually stops getting stronger.

Concrete with too little water may be dry but is not

fully reacted. The properties of such a concrete
would be less than that of a wet concrete.

The reaction of water with the cement in concrete is

extremely important to its properties and reactions
may continue for many years.
 Hydration of Cement

When water is added to cement, each of the

compounds undergoes hydration and
contributes to the final concrete product.

Only the calcium silicates contribute to

strength.
 Approximate Hydration Reactions

C-S-H Calcium Silicate Hydrate = Tobermorite Gel

The numbers in the square brackets corresponding masses.
 Tricalcium Silicate Reaction
Tricalcium silicate is responsible for most of the early strength
(first 7 days). Dicalcium silicate, which reacts more slowly,
contributes only to the strength at later times.

Upon the addition of water, tricalcium silicate rapidly reacts to

release calcium ions, hydroxide ions, and a large amount of heat.
The pH quickly rises to over 12 because of the release of alkaline
hydroxide (OH-) ions.

Tricalcium silicate + Water--->Calcium silicate hydrate+Calcium hydroxide + heat

2 Ca3 SiO5 + 7 H2O ---> 3 CaO. 2SiO2. 4H2O + 3 Ca(OH)2 + 173.6kJ
 Dicalcium Silicate Reaction
Dicalcium silicate also affects the strength of concrete through
its hydration. Dicalcium silicate reacts with water in a similar
manner compared to tricalcium silicate, but much more slowly.

The heat released is less than that by the hydration of tricalcium

silicate because the dicalcium silicate is much less reactive. The
products from the hydration of dicalcium silicate are the same as
those for tricalcium silicate.

Dicalcium silicate + Water--->Calcium silicate hydrate + Calcium hydroxide +heat

2 Ca2SiO4 + 5 H2O---> 3 CaO.2SiO2.4H2O + Ca(OH)2 + 58.6 kJ
 Tricalcium aluminate and
Tetracalcium aluminoferrite
The other major components of portland cement, tricalcium
aluminate and tetracalcium aluminoferrite also react with
water.

The reaction of pure C3A with water is very rapid and would
lead to a flash set, which is prevented by the addition of
gypsum to cement clinker.

Their hydration chemistry is more complicated as they involve

reactions with the gypsum as well. Because these reactions
do not contribute significantly to strength, they will be
neglected.
 In general, the rates of hydration
during the first few days ranked from
fastest to slowest are:

tricalcium tricalcium tetracalcium dicalcium

aluminate silicate aluminoferrite silicate.
Schematic illustration of the pores in calcium
silicate through different stages of hydration.
Hydration of Portland Cement
Hydrated Cement Paste
SEM image of a mature cement paste
Air Voids in Concrete
Air-voids - Thin-section
photomicrograph of a concrete
showing small, spherical,
entrained air voids in paste,
one large rounded gravel
coarse aggregate particle (left)
and numerous small, angular,
fine aggregate particles. The air
voids are highlighted by blue
dye mixed epoxy, which was
used in impregnating the
concrete prior to thin-section
preparation.
Schematic
representation of the
formation and
hydration of Portland
cement
Reactions and products
Cement model reactions - numbers below
reactions indicate volume stoichiometries.
 Heat of Hydration
The hydration of cement compounds
is exothermic.

About one-half of the total heat is

liberated between 1 and 3 days,
about three-quarters in 7 days, and
nearly 90 percent in 6 months.

The heat of hydration depends on

the chemical compositions of the
cement.
 Heat of Hydration
By reducing the proportions of C3A and C3S, the
heat of hydration (and its rate) of cement can be
reduced.

Fineness fo cement affects the rate of heat

development but not the total amount of heat
liberated.

There is no relation between the heat of hydration

and the cementing properties of the individual
compounds.
Two compounds primarily
responsable for the strength of
Strength
hydrated cement are C3S
and C2S.

C3S contributes most to strength

development during the first four
weeks and C2S influences the
later gain in strength.

At the age of about one year, the

two compounds, mass for mass,
contribute approximately equally
to the strength of hydrated
cement.
 Tests on Cement
• Fineness of Cement
• Specific Gravity of Cement
• Consistence of Standard Paste
• Initial Setting Time
• Final setting Time
• Soundness
• Strength
 Fineness of Cement
• rate of hydration
• rate of setting
Fineness • rate of hardening
of cement • durability (ASR)
is also • rate of carbonation during
important; storage
it affects: • cost
• rate of gypsum addition
• bleeding
 Fineness of Cement
Since hydration starts at the surface of the cement particles, it is the
total surface area of cement that represents the material available for
hydration.

Thus, the rate of hydration depends on the fineness of cement

particles and for a rapid development of strength a fineness is
necessary.

The fineness of cement is defined as the specific surface ( in m2/kg).

A direct approach is to measure the particle size distribution by

sedimentation or elutriation; these methods are based on Stoke’s Law,
giving the terminal velocity of fall under under gravity of a spherical
particle in a fluid medium.
 Fineness of Cement

The specific surface of cement can be detemined by air

permeability method (Lea and Nurse).

It measures the pressure drop when dry air flows at a

constant velocity through a bed of cement of known
porosity and thickness.

From this, the surface area per unit mass of the bed can
be related to the permeability of of the bed. Blaine is the
modification of this method.
 Fineness of Cement
In Blaine test, the air does not pass through the bed at a
constant rate, but a known volume of air passes at a
prescribed average pressure, the rate of flow diminishing
steadily; the time taken for the flow to take place is measured,
and for a given apparatus and standard porosity, the specific
surface can be calculated.
 Blain Air Permeability Test
The Blaine air permeability apparatus is used to
express the fineness as a total surface area in square
centimeters per gram.

• Blaine air permeability apparatus

• Medium retentive filter paper having the
EQUIPMENT same diameter as the inside of the cell.
AND • Light grade of mineral oil for the
MATERIALS manometer
• Timer accurate to 0.5 sec.
• Sample of Portland cement.
Blain’s Air
Permeability
Apparatus
 Fineness

Typical partical
size distribution
and cumulative
surface area by
particles up to any
size for 1 gram of
cement.
 Progressive Surface Adsorption

Immediately after water addition (left) the cement and silica particles
are suspended in water and bind little water physically. Next, cement
hydration begins, increasing the surface area and the amount of
physically bound water (middle). Finally, the pozzolanic particles react
with calcium hydroxide from the cement reactions and the cement
hydration continues, both increasing the physical binding of water
(right).
 Consistence of Standard Paste

For the determination of the initial setting time, the final setting
time, and for Le Chatelier soundness tests, neat cement paste of a
standard consistence has to be used. It is necessary to determine
the water content for any given cement.

Consistence is determined by the Vicat Apparatus, which measures

the depth of penetration of a 10 mm diameter plunger under its
own weigth. (5mm to 7 mm from the bottom of Vicat's mould).

When the depth of penetration reaches a certain value, the water

content required gives the standard consistence of between 26 and
33 (percentage by mass of dry cement).
Vicat Apparatus
Consistence of Standard Paste
 Setting Time
Setting time is the term used to describe the stiffening
of the cement paste.
Setting refers to a change from fluid to a rigid state.
Setting is mainly caused by a selective hydration of C3S
and C3A and is accompanied by temperature rises in
cement paste.

Initial set corresponds to a rapid rise and final set

corresponds to the peak temperture.

Initial and final sets should be distinguished from false

set.
 Setting Time

The purpose of this test is to determine the time of

setting of hydraulic cement by the Vicat needle.

• Vicat apparatus with plunger and mould

APPARATUS • Weighing balance accurate up to 0.1 gr,
AND non-porous plate, tray, stopwatch,
MATERIALS • Trowel, enamel trough and spatula, etc.
• Cement sample and water.
 Setting Time
To determine initial setting and final setting time of cement.

• 1. Vicat's apparatus with initial setting time

needle and final setting time needle.
• 2. Weighing balance accurate up to 0.1gm.
APPARATUS • 3. Non porous plate (Glass or Metal)
AND • 4. Stop watch
MATERIALS • 5. Spatula.
• 6. Trowel of about 210gm weight .
• 7. Measuring cylinder. 250ml capacity
• 8. Enamel trough.
 Determination of initial setting time
Place this mould together with the non-porous plate under the
rod bearing the initial setting time needle. Adjust the needle so
that it touches the surface of test block .

Release needle quickly allowing it to sink in the cement paste in

the mould. Note down the penetration of the needle in the
paste.

Repeat this procedure after every 2 minutes until the needle fails
to penetrate the block up to about 33 to 35mm from the top of
block.

Note the time shown by the stop watch at this instant, as Initial
setting time.
Determination of final setting time
Replace the needle of Vicat's apparatus by the needle
with an annular attachment .

Apply the needle gently to the surface of the test block.

Repeat this procedure, until the needle makes an
impression while the attachment fails to do so.

Note the time shown by the stop watch at this instant,

as Final setting time . final
setting time(min)= 90 + 1.2 (initial setting time)
 Soundness

Once cement paste has set, it should not undergo a large

change in volume.

There must be no appreciable expansion, which under

conditions of restraint could result in disruption of the
hardened cement paste.

Such expansion may occur due to reactions of free lime,

magnesia and calcium sulphate, and cements exhibiting this
type of expansion are classified as unsound.
 Soundness

Free lime is present in the clinker and its intercrystallized with

other compounds; consequantly, it hydrates very slowly
occupying a larger volume than the original free calcium oxide.

Magnesia reacts with water in a manner similar to CaO, but only

the crystalline form is deleteriously reactive so that unsoundness
occurs.

Calcium Sulphate is the third compound liable to cause

expansion through the formation of calcium sulphoaluminate
(ettringite) from excess gypsum.
 Soundness
To determine soundness of cement by Le-Chatelier's
apparatus

• Le-Chatelier apparatus
• Weighing balance accurate up to 0.1gm
• Water bath with electric heating arrangement
APPARATUS • Measuring cylinder
AND • Glass plates
MATERIALS • Stop watch
• Trowel
• Tray
• Materials: Cement sample, Water
 Unsoundness (abnormal
expansion) caused by
hard-burned CaO or MgO
CaO + H2O→Ca(OH)2
MgO + H2O→Mg(OH)2
 Test Procedure
Prepare a cement paste formed by gauging cement with 0.78 times water
required to give a paste of standard consistency.

Oil the inner surface of the mould. Place the mould on a glass sheet and fill it
with cement paste, taking care to keep the edges of the mould gently
together. Cover the mould with another piece of glass sheet and peace a small
weight on this covering glass sheet and immediately submerge the whole
assembly in water at a temperature of 27°C and keep it for 24 hours.

Take out the assembly from water after 24 hrs. Measure the distance between
the indicator points and record it.

Submerge the mould again in water and bring the water to boiling in 25 to 30
minutes and keep it boiling for three hours.

Remove the mould from the water. Allow it to cool and measure the distance
between the indicator points and record it.
 Autoclave Test for Soundness
Magnesia is rarely present in large quantities in the raw
materials. ASTM C151-84 spacifies the autoclave test which is
sensitive to both free magnesia and free lime.

A neat cement paste specimen of known length is cured in

humid air for 24h and then heated by high pressure steam ( 2
MPa) for about 1h so that temperature and pressure for a
further 3h, the autoclave cooled so that the pressure falls within
1.5h and the specimen is cooled in water to 23oC in 15 min. After
a further 15 min, the length of the specimen is measured; the
expansion due to autoclaving must not exceed 0.8 per cent of
the original length.
Autoclave Test for Soundness
 Strength

Strength tests are not made on neat cement paste because

of difficulties in obtaining good specimens and in testing
with a consequent large variability of test results.

Cement-Sand mortar and, some cases, concrete of

prescibed proportions, made with spacific materials under
strictly controlled conditions, are used for the purpose of
determining the strength of cement.

There are several forms of strength tests; direct tension,

compression and flexure.
 Strength
In mortar test, 1:3 cement-sand mortar is used, with the
mass of water in the mix being 10 per cent of the mass of
the dry materials. The sand is a standard material of
nealy on size. (Ottowa sand or RILEM Cembureau sand)
 Compressive Strength Test
• Cube mould of size 7.07x 7.07 x 7.07cm with base
APPARATUS plates, Weighting balance accurate up to 0.1gm,
and • Motored cube vibration machine , Measuring
MATERIALS cylinder , Trowel and tray etc.
• Cement sample, water and standard sand.
 Tensile Strength Test
The purpose of this test is to determine the tensile strength of
hydraulic cement mortars using briquet specimens.

• 2 kg scale accurate to 0.1 g

• Briquet molds.
• Small steel trowels.
• Clips for holding the test specimens.
APPARATUS
AND • Testing machine capable of applying the load at a
MATERIALS rate of 2.67 ±0.11 (600 ± 25 lb/ft2)/min.
• Ottawa Sand with at least 85% passing the 850 μm
(No. 20) sieve and not more than 5% passing the 600
μm (No. 30) sieve
• Portland cement
Briquet gang
mold and
specimen.
 DENSITY OF
HYDRAULIC CEMENT
The purpose of this test is to determine
the density of a hydraulic cement in
connection with the design of portland
cement concrete mixtures.

• Standard Le Chatelier flask

• Heavy rubber pad about 12 ×
12 in.
• Lead-ring weight to fit around
APPARATUS stem of the flask.
AND
MATERIALS • Funnel
• Thermometer
• Portland Cement or other
mineral filler
• Kerosene
Flexural Strength Test
• Flexural strength (actually a measure of tensile strength in bending) is
carried out on a 40 x 40 x 160 mm cement mortar beam. The beam is
then loaded at its center point until failure.
Specific Gravity Test
• Specific gravity is normally used in mixture proportioning
calculations. The specific gravity of portland cement is generally
around 3.15 while the specific gravity of portland-blast-furnace-slag
and portland-pozzolan cements may have specific gravities near 2.90.

Loss on Ignition
• Loss on ignition is calculated by heating up a cement sample to 900 -
1000°C (1650 - 1830°F) until a constant weight is obtained. The
weight loss of the sample due to heating is then determined. A high
loss on ignition can indicate prehydration and carbonation, which
may be caused by improper and prolonged storage or adulteration
during transport or transfer.
Main Types of Portland Cements
 General features of the main types of portland
cement
Classification Characteristics Applications
Type I General purpose Fairly high C3S content for General construction (most
good early strength buildings, bridges,
development pavements, precast units,
etc)
Type II Moderate sulfate Low C3A content (<8%) Structures exposed to soil or
resistance water containing sulfate ions

Type III High early strength Ground more finely, may Rapid construction, cold
have slightly more C3S weather concreting

Type IV Low heat of hydration Low content of C3S (<50%) Massive structures such as
(slow reacting) and C3A dams. Now rare.

Type V High sulfate resistance Very low C3A content (<5%) Structures exposed to high
levels of sulfate ions

White White color No C4AF, low MgO Decorative (otherwise has

properties similar to Type I)
 Different amounts of compounds give
different types of Portland Cement
Type I General purpose such as sidewalks, buildings, bridges, culverts and
tanks, and reservoirs.

Type II Used where moderate sulfate attack is expected such as in drainage

structures or in hot weather since this type has a moderate hear of hydration.

Type III Early-strength type; develops high strength in an early period.

Type IV A low-heat-of-hydration portland cement used when the rate and

amount of heat must be minimized.

Type V Sulfate-resisting cement used when the concrete is exposed to severe

sulfate attack.

Type xxA the A means that air entraining agents have been added.
Strength
development of
concretes
containing 335 kg of
cement per cubic
metre, and made
with Portland
Cements of
different types.
 Ordinary Portland (Type I) Cement
Type I is a general purpose portland cement suitable for all uses where
the special properties of other types are not required.

It is used where cement or concrete is not subject to specific

exposures, such as sulfate attack from soil or water, or to an
objectionable temperature rise due to heat generated by hydration.

Its uses include pavements and sidewalks, reinforced concrete

buildings, bridges, railway structures, tanks, reservoirs, culverts,
sewers, water pipes and masonry units.

Lime saturation factor is limited between 0.66 – 1.02. Where each

term in brackets denotes the percentage by mass of the given
compound present in the cement.
 Rapid-hardening Portland
(Type III) Cement
Type III is a high-early strength portland cement that provides high
strengths at an early period, usually a week or less.

It is used when forms are to be removed as soon as possible, or

when the structure must be put into service quickly.

In cold weather, its use permits a reduction in the controlled curing

period.

It should not be used in mass concrete construction or in large

structural sections because of its higher rate of heat development.
 Special Rapid-hardening Portland
Cements

These are specially manufactured cements which are

highly rapid-hardening.

The early strength is achieved by a higher fineness (700

to 900 m2/kg) and a higher gypsum content, but this
does not affect long-term soundness.

Typical uses are early prestressing and urgent repairs.

 Low-heat Portland (Type IV) Cement
Type IV is a low heat of hydration cement for use where the
rate and amount of heat generated must be minimized.

It develops strength at a slower rate than Type I cement. It

has lower content of C3S and C3A.

Type IV portland cement is intended for use in massive

concrete structures, such as large gravity dams, where the
temperature rise resulting from heat generated during
curing is a critical factor.
 Modified (Type II) Cement
Type II portland cement is used where precaution against moderate
sulfate attack is important, as in drainage structures where sulfate
concentrations in groundwaters are higher than normal but not
unusually severe.

Type II cement will usually generate less heat at a slower rate than
Type I.

With this moderate heat of hydration (an optional requirement),

Type II cement can be used in structures of considerable mass, such
as large piers, heavy abutments, and heavy retaining walls.

Its use will reduce temperature rise -- especially important when

the concrete is placed in warm weather.
 Sulphate-Resisting (Type V) Cement
Type V is a sulfate-resisting cement used only in concrete
exposed to severe sulfate action -- principally where soils or
groundwaters have a high sulfate content.

This cement has low Tricalcium Aluminate (C3A) content,

generally 5% or less, is required when high sulfate
resistance is needed.

So as to avoid sulphate attack from outside the concrete;

otherwise the formation of calcium sulphoaluminate and
gypsum would cause disruption of the concrete due to an
increased volume of the resultant compounds.
Portland blast-furnice (Type IS) cement

This type of cement is made by intergrinding or blending

Portland cement clinker with granulated blast-furnice slag, which
is a waste product in the manufacture of pig iron; thus there is a
lower energy consumption in the manufacture of cement. Slag
contains lime, silica and alumina but not in the same proportions
as in Portland cement.

Sometimes referred as slag cement.

The amount of slag sholud be between 25 and 70 per cent of the

mass of the mixture.

Minimum fineness is 275 m2/kg.

White and Coloured Portland cements
White portland cement differs from the usual gray cement chiefly in
colour. The manufacturing process is controlled so that the finished
product will be white.

It is made of selected raw materials such as china clay which

containing negligible amounts of iron and magnesium oxides, the
substances that give cement its gray colour.

White portland cement is used primarily for architectural purposes,

such as precast curtain walls and facing panels, terrazzo surfaces,
stucco, cement paint, tile grout and decorative concrete.

Pastel colours can be obtained by painting or by adding pigments to

the mixer, provided there is no adverse affect on strength.
 Portland-puzzolan (Types IP, P and I)
cements
These cements are made by intergrinding or blending puzzolans with
Portland Cement.

Puzzolan is siliceous or siliceous and aluminos material which in itself

possesses little or no cemetitious value but will, in finely divided form
and in the presence of moisture, chemically react with lime at ordinary
temperatures to form compounds possessing cemetitious properties.

Portland-puzzolan cements gain strength slowly and therefore require

curing over a comparatively long period.

Type IP for general construction and Type P for use when high
strengths at early ages are not required.
 Portland-puzzolan (Types IP, P and I)
cements
The puzzolan content is limited to between 15 and 40 per cent of
the total mass of the cemetitious material.

The pulverized fly ash which is a common type of puzzolan as

between 25 and 40 per cent by mass. The use of PFA improves
sulphate resistance. PFA can be used with low-heat, portland blast-
furnice or low-heat portland balst-furnice cements.

Puzzolans may often be cheaper than portland cement that they

replace but their chief advantage lies in slow hydration and
therefore low rate of heat development. Hence, portland-puzzolan
cement or a partial replacement of portland cement by the
puzzolan is used in mass concrete construction.
 Expansive (or expanding) cements
A cement which when mixed with water forms a paste that tends to
increase in volume, after setting, to a significantly greater degree than
portland cement paste does; used to compensate for volume decrease
due to shrinkage or to induce tensile stress in reinforcement.

For many purposes, it would be advantageous to use a cement which does

not change its volume due to drying shrinkage (and thus to avoid cracking)
or, in special cases, even expands on hardening.

Concrete containing such a cement expands in the first few days of its life,
and a form of prestress is obtained by restraining this expansion with steel
reinforcement: steel is put in tension and concrete in compression.

All types of expansive cements produce calcium sulphoaluminate hydrate

(ettringite) which causes expansion of the paste.
 Puzzolans

• volcanic ash (the original

Typical puzzolan),
• pumicite,
materials • opaline shales and cherts,
of this • calcined diatomaceous earth,
• burnt clay, and
type • fly ash (PFA).
 Puzzolans
For the assessment of puzzolanic activity with cement, the
puzzolanic activity index (PAI) shoul be measured.

PAI is the ratio of compressive strength of the mixture with

specified replacement of cement by puzzolan to the strength of a
mix without replacement.

Puzzolanic activity index with lime (total activity) compares the

quantity of Ca(OH)2 present in a liquid phase in contact with the
hydrated puzzolanic cement with the quantity of Ca(OH)2 capable of
saturating a medium of the same alkalinity. If the concentration of
Ca(OH)2 in the solution is lower than that of the saturated medium,
the cement satisfies the test for puzzolanicity.
 Puzzolans
The most common artificial puzzolan is fly ash, or pulverized fly
ash (PFA), which is obtained by electrostatic or mechanical
means from the flue gases fo furnices in coal-fired power
stations.

The fly ash particles are spherical and of at least the same
fineness as cement so that silica is readily available for reaction.

Uniformity of properties is important, and EN standard specifies

the fineness, expressed as the mass proportion of the fly ash
retained on a 45 mm mesh test sieve, to be at most 12.5 per
cent.
 High-Alumina cement (HAC)
High Alumina cement was
developed to resist sulphate
attack but it soon became
used as a very rapid-hardening
cement.

HAC is manufacture from

limestone or chalk and
bauxite, the latter consisting
of hydrated alumina, oxides of
iron and titanium, with small
amounts of silica.