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aTCI75
. H36
1966

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

SOIL CONSERVATION SERVICE

HANDBOOK OF CHANNEL
DESIGN FOR SOIL AND
WATER CONSERVATION

Prepared By

Stillwater Outdoor Hydraulic Laboratory

Stillwater, Oklahoma

In cooperation with the

Oklahoma Agricultural Experiment Station

SCS-TP-61
Washington, D. C.
March 1947
Revised June 1954
Converted to metric system August 1966
 The examples in the narrative portion of SCS-TP-61 was converted
from the English to the metric system by the Soil Conservation Service.
Figures 1 through l8 had been previously converted to the metric
system by the State of Israel, Ministry of Agriculture, Soil Conserva¬
tion Department, Hakirya, Tel Aviv, Israel.
 HANDBOOK OF CHANNEL DESIGN FOR
SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION

Contents Page
Introduction . 1

Open-channel flow . 2
General . 2
Notation . 2
Character of flow . 3
Estimating velocity . 3

Stability of channels . 4
Nonvegetal channels . In¬
stability of vegetation-lined channels . In-

Design of bare and nonvegetal channels . 6

Example 1 . 7
Example 2 . 7
Example 3 . 7
Design of vegetation-lined channels . 8
General . 8
Selection of channel shape . 9
Selection of vegetation . 10
Illustration of graphical method of design . 11

Selected references . 14

Appendix . 15

(Contains the experimental results upon which the

various degrees of retardance are based.)

U.S. Department of Agriculture

National Agricultural Library

MAR 1 1 2016
Received
Acquisitions and Metadata Branch
 HANDBOOK OF CHANNEL DESIGN FOR
SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION1

Introduction

The factors to consider in open-channel flow and stability; together

with graphical methods for designing conservation channels; are pre¬
sented in this handbook. The purpose is to furnish technicians of the
Soil Conservation Service with the most recent and complete information
to aid them in the design of channels to be lined with vegetation.

Complete graphical methods are presented that deal with retardance to

flow offered by vegetation as a function of the depth and velocity of
flow. In addition; as an aid in designing channels where the retar¬
dance may be considered constant; e.g.; one with a concrete lining; a
simple nomographic solution of the Manning formula has been developed.
The dimensions of trapezoidal (side slopes 1:1; 1.5:1; 2:1; 2.5:1; 3:1;
A:l; 5:1; and 6:l); triangular, and parabolic channels are determined
graphically. The solution for parabolic channels permits the deter¬
mination of the width for any depth and the approximate side slope at
each depth.

The appendix contains pertinent experimental results from which the

degrees of vegetal retardance were determined and recommendations
based. A list of references is included.

The method of vegetal-channel design was developed by the Stillwater

Outdoor Hydraulic Laboratory of the Soil Conservation Service. The
stability recommendations and capacity-design charts for completely
vegetated channels are based on experimental results from this labora¬
tory; from its former location near Spartanburg; S. C.; and from the
Oklahoma Agricultural Experiment Station. Information concerning
Kentucky bluegrass was obtained from the Soil Conservation Experiment
Station at Columbia; Mo.

1 Early in 19^-6 it was determined that sufficient information was avail¬

able from experiments on vegetation-lined channels (made by the Soil
Conservation Service at Spartanburg; S. C., from 1937 to 19^1 and at
Stillwater; Okla., since 19^+1) to permit the development of a handbook
pertaining especially to the design of channels lined with vegetation.
This handbook was prepared by Vernon J. Palmer; Agricultural Engineer;
Research Project OK-R-3; assisted by William P. Law; Jr.; formerly of
the Soil Conservation Service.
In this revised edition, the information contained in the earlier
publication has been supplemented by data, graphical methods, and
design charts useful in the design of vegetated channels having ex¬
tremely low retardance values. This material was prepared by W.O. Ree,
Hydraulic Engineer, Division of Drainage and Water Control,Soil Con¬
servation Service--Research.

The Stillwater Outdoor Hydraulic Laboratory, Stillwater, Okla., was

transferred to Agricultural Research Service of the U. S. Department
of Agriculture Dec. 1, 1953*
2

Although developed primarily for use in the Western Gulf Region, this
handbook contains values of Manning’s n, general design charts, and
graphical solutions that are applicable in all regions.

Open-Channel Flow-

General
An open channel is defined as any conduit in which water flows with a
free-water surface. Rivers, canals, and uncovered flumes are open
channels. Pipes, drains, sewers, etc., act as open channels when
flowing partially full. Following are definitions of a number of
common terms describing flow in open channels:

Steady flow.--When the discharge or rate of flow remains constant at

a cross section, the flow is described as steady. Flows in drainage
channels and rivers tend to be steady except during surface-runoff
periods.

Unsteady flow.--When the discharge is changing at a cross section,

the flow is unsteady. Intermittent runoff into terrace outlets, mead¬
ow strips, diversion channels, and pond spillways is generally un¬
steady.

Uniform flow.--When the flow is steady and
same at each succeeding cross section, the
nel must have a constant cross section and
nary vegetation-lined channels the flow is
at the maximum discharge.
the mean velocity is the
flow is uniform. The chan¬
slope. In designing ordi¬
considered to be uniform

Nonuniform flow.--When the mean velocity changes from cross section

to cross section, the flow is nonuniform. Flow in the upper portions
of steep channels near the entrance is nonuniform. In a channel of
changing 'cross section the flow is nonuniform.

Notation
Q - Rate of discharge or flow in cubic meters per second.
A - Cross-sectional area of the flow in square meters.
V - Velocity of flow (mean) in meters per second.
n - Coefficient of retardance used in flow formulas. In vegetation-
lined channels this coefficient contains not only the effect of
lining roughness but also the effect of irregularities in bed
surface, channel shape, slope, and alinement on the flow. The
effect of blocking out a portion of the cross section by vegeta¬
tion is also included.
R - Hydraulic radius in meters. It is the cross-sectional area A
divided by the wetted perimeter.
S - Slope of energy gradient in meters per meter. In vegetation-lined
channels where the flow is considered to be uniform, the bed slope
in meters per meter of length may be used. The use of vertical
drop and slope length in.computing S is satisfactory in most veg¬
etated channels.
d - Depth of flow in meters.
D - Depth of channel in meters after freeboard is added.
 3

t - Width of water surface when the water is at depth d.

z - Side slope. Ratio of horizontal to vertical,
h - Bottom width of a trapezoidal channel in meters.

Character of Flow
Flow in conservation channels is turbulent. Turbulence exists when
the direction and magnitude of the velocity at any point within a
fluid varies irregularly with time. Considerable energy may be ex¬
pended in this action. Eddying and "boiling" are visible forms of
energy loss. These disturbances in the fluid are produced and main¬
tained largely by roughness and irregularities of the bed and oscil¬
lation and sometimes severe whipping of stems and leaves of vegetation
by the flow. The more violent the disturbances;, the greater is the
retardance to the flow and the greater are the forces acting to scour
the bed.

The velocity V, as computed from Q/A or estimated from flow formulas,

is the mean velocity of all components parallel to the axis of the
channel. These velocity components in any vertical section range from
a maximum near the surface to zero at the bed. With vegetation, the
velocity distribution from surface to bed may be very nonuniform, in¬
creasingly so as the cover becomes taller, stiffer, and "bunchier."

In vegetation-lined channels, there are wide differences in velocity

throughout a cross section. The water at the edges of the channel will
be flowing through the vegetation at low velocities. In the deeper
portions of the channel, where the vegetation has been bent over and
submerged, resistance to flow will be less and velocities will be higher*
The least resistance will be encountered where the flow is deepest.
The velocity V, as ordinarily determined, is the mean for the entire
cross section. It is apparent that channel shape affects velocity
distribution. For the same mean velocity, the maximum velocity in the
center of a triangular channel could be much higher than in a trape¬
zoidal or parabolic channel. For this reason, a reduction in per¬
missible velocities with triangular channels is desirable.

Flow in field channels lined with vegetation generally has a rough water
surface. The more irregular the bed and vegetal growth and the higher
the velocity, the greater is the surface roughness. The amount of aera¬
tion is also dependent upon these factors. A freeboard (vertical dis¬
tance from the maximum water surface to the channel berm) allows for
these conditions as well as for differences between estimated and actual
discharge and capacity. Freeboards of 0.15 meter are commonly used for
vegetation-lined channels.

Estimating Velocity
The design of conservation channels will be based on a mean velocity
determined from the Manning formula:

V = - R2/3 sV2
n
Refer to the previous section, on Notation for an explanation of the
terms in this expression.
4

The coefficient known as Manning's n contains the effect of all the

retarding influences on the flow. Kutter’s n, which is used in an
older, more complicated expression known as the Kutter formula and is
no more accurate than Manning's for estimating the velocity, is equal
to Manning's n only for a hydraulic radius of 1.0 meter. For other
values of hydraulic radii, they are not identical and should not he
used interchangeably. Values of Manning's n for various kinds of open
channels are contained in table 1 in the Appendix.

When the channel is to be lined with vegetation, the design problem

is complicated by a roughness or retardance element that changes its
general position and oscillates continuously in the flow to an extent
that is dependent upon the depth and velocity. To aid in designing
channels of this type, a criterion has been developed for estimating
n that considers the depth and velocity of the flow. A subsequent
section presents this criterion together with a simple, complete, and
graphical method of application.

The Manning formula will apply to uniform flow in channels. In design¬

ing ordinary vegetation-lined channels, this condition of uniform flow
can be assumed to exist. For some steep channels and all channels with
artificial linings (example: concrete, sheet metal, wood), careful con¬
sideration must be given to (l) inlet and outlet design and their ef¬
fect on the flow in the channel, (2) changes in grade and alinement,
and (3) changes in cross-sectional shape. Recourse to King's "Hand¬
book of Hydraulics" or other qualified texts on hydraulics is recom¬
mended .

Stability of Channels

Nonvegetal Channels
With channel linings of concrete, metal, wood, etc., stability against
erosion is generally not a consideration unless abrasive material is
being carried in high-velocity flow. In earth channels, bare and vege¬
tation-lined, resistance against erosion by flowing water is of princi¬
pal concern. The difficulty of providing adequate protection increases
with increases in both velocity and bed slope.

To aid in designing canals and irrigation and drainage channels, the

Special Committee on Irrigation Hydraulics of the American Society of
Civil Engineers authorized Samuel Fortier and F. C. Scobey in 1926 to
prepare a paper presenting what was known about permissible velocities
in bare channels of mild slope. King's "Handbook of Hydraulics" con¬
tains their conclusions. The problem is complex, depending not only
upon the bed material and velocity of flow but also upon the grada¬
tion of bed material, the presence or absence of colloidal material
(which acts as a cementing agent) on the bed, the age of the canal
(well-seasoned canals will withstand much higher velocities than new
ones), the depth of flow, and whether or not the water is clear or is
transporting colloidal silts or noncolloidal material. Permissible
canal velocities after aging, as recommended by Fortier and Scobey,
are presented in table 2. They have been specified to apply, in a
general sense, to canals with long tangents (for sinuous channels,
reduce values by 25 percent) and to depths O.92 meters or less (for
 5

greater depths an increase of velocity of 0.15 meters per second is

allowable). An additional limitation not stated is that they apply
only to channels of mild slope. A slope of 0.2 per cent is suggested
as a reasonable upper limit.

Stability of Vegetation-Lined Channels

A common misconception has been that vegetation, bent over and com¬
pletely submerged by flowing water, shingles the bed and forms a
protective shield. Observations through vertical glass walls in ex¬
perimental channels lined with such physically different vegetations
as bermudagrass, (Cynodon dactylon), weeping lovegrass (Eragrostis
curvula) and yellow blue stem (And'ropogon ischaemum), have revealed
that vegetation remains up in the flow, waving and whipping back and
forth. The severity of the action is a function of the velocity,
vertical distribution (as affected by slope), depth of flow, and
roughness of the bed.

Vegetation protects the channel by reducing the velocity near the bed.
Dense stands of long-stemmed vegetations will produce deep mats, and
velocities will be low in these vegetal zones. It follows that a uni¬
form, sod-forming vegetation having a dense, relatively deep root
system will offer the greatest protection against scour. However,
consideration must be given to the ability of a vegetation to reassume
its normal growing position and withstand and recover from excessive
deposition. Bermudagrass possesses these properties and, as known by
experience, is one of the best covers to use.

With vegetal linings there are factors such as adequate stand estab¬
lishment, lack of uniformity of cover, uncertainty of density and
climate, rodent control, maintenance of stand, and control of deposi¬
tion the evaluation of which requires experience and good judgment
on the part of the technician. Since these factors are so many and
varied, it is possible to. present only a few general principles of
vegetated-channel stability:

(a) Uniformity of cover is extremely important. The stability of a

sparsely covered area is the stability of the entire channel.
Weak areas should be fertilized, sodded, and treated as neces¬
sary to produce adequate cover.

(b) In construction, if practical, the topsoil should be preserved

and replaced, particularly over the center portion of the chan¬
nel where the flow will be deepest. When the subsoil is partic¬
ularly unfavorable to vegetal growth, either a layer of good top¬
soil or manuring and development of a favorable soil condition is
necessary.
(c) Fertilization and proper soil preparation should be done on newly
constructed channels to insure rapid growth.

(d) Maintenance by mowing or controlled grazing will help to assure

continuance of the desired density and uniformity of cover.

(e) Timely repair of eroded areas and protection against damage by

rodents cannot be stressed too highly.
6

(f) Control of deposition is the first,consideration of the technician

when designing the channel and selecting the cover. Bunchgrasses
and open covers like alfalfa, kudzu, etc., offer less retardance
to low-silting flows than sod covers. Keeping covers short will
reduce deposition. Wide, flat trapezoidal channels will he the
most difficult to maintain from the deposition standpoint. Para¬
bolic and triangular sections are less subject to deposition.
(Unless side slopes are 6:1 or flatter, triangular sections are
generally not recommended because of the undesirable velocity
distribution.)

(g) If possible, keep water diverted from the channel until vegetation
is well established.

To serve in designing earth channels to be lined with vegetation, per¬

missible velocities have been determined experimentally for many dif¬
ferent covers. Prime factors determining permissible velocities are:
(a) Physical nature of vegetation (type and distribution of root growth
and top growth and physical condition), (b) erodibility of soil, (c)
uniformity of cover, and (d) bed slope.

Permissible velocities for bunchgrasses and other nonuniform covers

are lower than where sod-forming covers are used, because (a) areas
bare of vegetation exist, (b) bunchgrasses generally produce the ef¬
fect of very rough beds that seriously disturb the smoothness of flow,
and (c) bunchgrasses lack a dense, uniform root system.

Flow disturbances grow in severity with increase in bed slope. The

ability of vegetation to provide adequate protection decreases with
increase in slope.

Permissible velocities to use in design are contained in table J.

Many have been determined by experiment, others by reasonable exten¬
sion and interpolation.

Design of Bare and other Nonvegetal Channels

The application of the Manning formula to hard-surfaced channels of

concrete, sheet metal, wood, etc., and to earth channels free of bot¬
tom vegetation is straightforward. For the former, n can usually be
assumed as constant for a given type of lining irrespective of the
slope and shape of channel and depth of flow. For earth channels
with bank vegetation, the selection of n for the smaller channels
must be based on the width of the water surface, since some bank
vegetation partially submerged has a relatively greater retarding
effect in narrow channels. Table 1 contains values of Manning’s n
for common hard-surfaced linings and various conditions of earth
channels.

A nomographic solution of the Manning formula, figure 1, and the chan¬

nel-dimension diagrams for trapezoidal, triangular, and parabolic¬
shaped channels, figures 2 to 12 in the Appendix, permit rapid solution
of all ordinary channel problems where uniform flow is involved. The
following examples illustrate the solution of several types of problems
 7

Example 1

Given: Q = 1.4l6 cubic meters per second

S = 0.2 meters per kilometer

Find: The bottom width, depth of flow, and mean velocity of a drain¬
age channel with 1-5:1 side slopes. Channel to be maintained regularly
and kept free of excessive vegetal growth. Estimate n to be 0.04.

Solution: Requires one or more trial solutions. The steps are:

(l) Select a velocity, (2) compute the area required from Q/V, (5)
determine the required R from the nomograph (fig.l), and (4) determine
the bottom width and depth from the 1:5:1 dimension diagram (fig. 3)-

Item Trial Solutions

1 2 3
V - meters per second (selected) 0.305 0.274 0.289
A - square meters (from Q/v) 4.64 5.17 4.90
R - meters (from fig. l) 0-79 0.67 0.73
b - meters (from fig. 3) * 4.6 2.3
D - meters (from fig. 3) 0.87 1.25
*Bottom width less than 0.6 meters. Section not practical.

Dimensions as determined by solutions 2 and 3 are practical.

Choice will depend upon depth and bottom width of channel desired. If
still not satisfactory, change V slightly and redetermine dimensions.

Example :

Given: Q = 1.4l6 cubic meters per second

Find: The bed slope required to maintain a velocity of O.762 meters

per second in a trapezoidal channel with side slopes 3:1 and bottom
width of 3*1 meters. Determine the depth of flow. Use n = 0.04.

Solution: The area required is Q/V or 1.86 square meters. Enter

figure 6 (3:1 dimension diagram) with A = 1.86 and b = 3-1 and find
R = 0-33 meters. In the nomograph (fig. l) extend a line from R = 0.33
through the velocity scale at O.762 and find the pivot point on the
pivot line. Then from this point on the pivot line extend a line
through n = .04 and to the slope line. The slope required is 4.0
meters per kilometer. Depth of flow (from fig. 6) will be 0.44 meters.

Example 3

Given: An existing drainage channel of these dimensions: Side

slopes 3:1, bottom width 3-7 meters, depth 1.07 meters, bed slope 0.8
meters per kilometer. Channel has not been well maintained and some
willows and other vegetal growth exist. Estimate n to be 0.06

Find: Present capacity allowing a 0.15 meter freeboard.

 8

Solution: Depth of flow will be 0-92 meters. From the 3:1 dimension
chart (fig- 6) R = 0.63 meters and A = 5-9 square meters. From nomo¬
graph (fig. l) V = 0.35 meters per second. Then channel capacity =
5.9 x 0.35 = 2.06 cubic meters per second.

Design of Vegetation-Lined Channels

General
The material in this section applies to the design of terrace outlets,
meadow strips, diversion channels, pond-spillway channels, and other
completely vegetated channels subject to intermittent flow. The design
problem is more complicated than for nonvegetal channels, since the
use of a constant value for Manning’s n is not usually correct where
vegetal linings are used. Under the influence of velocity and depth of
flow, vegetation tends to bend and oscillate continuously. The retard-
ance to flow varies as these factors change.

It has been determined experimentally in both large and small channels,

in channels of different cross-sectional shape and bed slope, and with
different vegetations, that the Manning retardance coefficient n varies
with VR, the product of velocity and hydraulic radius. This relation¬
ship will be referred to as the n-VR relationship. It is the basis of
the vegetal-channel design method presented in this handbook.
<

Five general n-VR curves have been selected to apply to groups of

vegetations. These curves, figure 13, were selected from a study of
the experimental-results presented graphically in the Appendix.

The various vegetations for which experimental n-VR relationships are

available are classified in table 4 according to their degree of
retardance. When a cover can be expected to be significantly shorter
or much less dense than that described in the table, use the next
lower degree of retardance in estimating capacity.

Above some minimum level of cover density, the tallness of the vege¬
tation overshadows the effect of differences in density on retardance.
For these conditions, only limitations as to tallness and to density
conditions need be considered. Except for very sparse coverage, table
5 may be used to judge the degree of retardance.

The design of vegetation-lined channels requires that n be compatible

with the value of VR. To accomplish this easily, graphical solutions
of the Manning formula that apply to the five degrees of retardance, A,
B, C, D, and E are presented in figures 14 to 18. These apply to flow
with the vegetation completely submerged or nearly so. For shallow
flow through upright vegetation with no submergence, Manning's n ceases
to be related to VR. Some results of low-flow studies have been
reported in the Transactions of the American Geophysical Union (April 1946).

To aid in channel design, graphical solutions of dimensions of trape¬

zoidal (side slopes 1:1, 1.5:1, 2:1, 2.5:1, 3:1, 4:1, 5:1, and 6:1),
triangular, and parabolic channels are included in figures 2 to 12.
Complete examples for using the graphical solutions are presented in
subsequent sections.

The parabolic channel, offering distinct advantages for control of

scour and deposition, deserves explanation. Most natural channels
tend to assume this shape. The parabolic channel is defined by
d = k(t/2)2, where d is the depth, t the width at depth d, and k is
a shape constant.

As soon as d and t have been determined for maximum flow (from fig.
ll), k is automatically evaluated (a fixed point on the pivot line
in fig. 12). It remains constant for the parabolic channel in
question. Other combinations of depth and width for that channel
must give the same value of k.

To determine other values of t and d use the nomograph in figure 12.

A specific parabolic channel will have only one intersection point
on the pivot line. When this is located by a straight line through
the d and t for maximum flow, it serves as a pivot point that allows
width to be readily determined for any other depth. In the example
illustrated on the nomograph, the maximum flow was at a depth of
0.59 meters and top width of 9-8 meters. A 0.15-meter freeboard
required a total depth of 0-74 meters. The top width at this depth
is graphically determined to be 10.7 meters.

As an aid in judging the shape of the channel, a side-slope line is

incorporated in the nomograph in figure 12. Extension of a line
through a specific pivot point to this slope scale gives the approx¬
imate side slope at the depth being considered. In an initial design,
a check of the side slope at maximum depth is recommended so as to
assure that a steep, impractical shape is not being selected.

Selection of Channel Shape

The technician generally has some degree of freedom in the selection
of channel shape. Following are some considerations that affect his
decision:

(a) Equipment available for construction

If the channel is to be built with a grader, a trapezoidal (if
the bottom width is greater than the minumum cut the blade will
make) or triangular shape will generally be easiest to
construct. A plow, bulldozer, or fresno are more suitable for
construction of parabolic shapes. If a plow or ordinary grader
is to be used, side slopes steeper than 4:1 cannot be
constructed readily.

(b) Maintenance (by mowing)

If the vegetation in a channel is to be maintained by mowing,
side slopes 3:1, 4:1, or flatter will be found desirable. A
triangular channel, or relatively flat parabolic channel, will
be easier to mow than a small trapezoidal channel with a
bottom narrower than the length of a sickle bar.
10

(c) Crossing channel with equipment

Where a channel is to be crossed occasionally, with farm machin¬
ery, its side slopes should be k:l or flatter.

(d) Depth of excavation

Broad-bottomed trapezoidal channels require the shallowest exca¬
vation. To carry the same quantity of water, parabolic channels
require a slightly deeper center excavation and triangular
channels the deepest. Where depth of excavation is a limiting
factor, these inherent differences between shapes should be
considered.

(e) Stability
Trapezoidal channels designed and constructed with wide flat
bottoms tend to silt during periods between peak discharges,
thereby reducing their capacity. This silting, which occurs
unevenly, results in channeling of intermediate flows and a
consequent entrenching action. On the other hand, triangular
channels decrease the opportunity for silting by concentrating
the low flows. Since the high flows are also concentrated in
the "V" of the channel, the higher velocities are more likely
to produce damaging scour. The "V" of the triangular channel
is the critical area. A common objection is that trickle flows
of long duration seriously weaken the vegetation in the "V."

The triangular and, particularly, the trapezoidal cross sections will

not maintain their shape as well as the parabolic under ordinary con¬
ditions of intermittent runoff. In fact, the trapezoidal and triangular
sections tend to become parabolic in shape, due to the normal actions
of channel flow, deposition, and bank erosion.

The parabolic cross section approximates the cross-sectional shape

naturally assumed by many old channels. For conservation channels,
this appears to be a very desirable compromise between the other two
shapes, combining most of the strong points of each, with none of the
undesirable characteristics of either.

Selection of Vegetation
In addition to climate and soil, which determine the type of vegetation
that will grow and survive in any particular region, there are local
factors that influence the selection of a vegetal lining for a channel.
From a stability standpoint these, in approximate order of importance,
are:

(a) Discharge to be handled

In general, the greater the discharge the better is the vegetal
lining required.

(b) Bed slope

Permissible velocities decrease with increase in slope. As
bed slopes increase, channeling of the flow is more likely to
occur. For this reason, bunchgrasses should not be used alone
on slopes steeper than 5 percent. For slopes above 5 percent,
 11

only sod-forming covers should be used on the channel bed

where the main flow occurs.

(c) Establishment
Ease of establishment and time required to develop a protective
cover are extremely important considerations in selecting a
vegetation. Bermudagrass and weeping lovegrass establish
covers rapidly. Sometimes annuals are desirable for more
immediate or earlier protection, with native grasses seeded
as soon as possible. Generally, any type of temporary cover
during establishment of permanent cover would be better than
none at all.

(d) Suitability to farmer

If a sod cover is required, as determined by discharge and
slope, but is objectionable to the farmer because of likely
spreading, a combination channel might be selected. This
type of channel will have, for example, bermudagrass on the
bed and partially up on the sides and weeping lovegrass on
the upper reaches of the side and on the berm.

(e) Deposition
Deposition may be controlled to some extent by the selection
of vegetation. Low, shallow flows encounter very high
retardance when flowing through sod covers like bermudagrass.
A dense sod cover keeps the flow from channeling. This results
in low velocities which are conducive to excessive deposition.
Only when the vegetation bends and submerges will high, non¬
silting velocities develop.

Bunchgrasses and "open" covers like alfalfa, lespedeza, and

kudzu offer less resistance to shallow flows than sod-forming
covers- Velocities are higher, owing primarily to develop¬
ment of channeled flow. Less opportunity for deposition
exists. These covers, however, offer less protection than sod
covers and are limited to lesser slopes.

Illustration of Graphical Method of Design

Graphical solutions are provided in this handbook to permit rapid
design of trapezoidal, triangular, and parabolic channels with five
different degrees of vegetal retardance. Care has been taken to
make the parabolic solution complete and as easy to use as the other
two types of sections.

The degree of vegetal retardance depends largely on the tallness

and density of cover, particularly the tallness. The selection of
the degree of retardance for a given channel will depend mostly upon
the tallness of the cover chosen. Generally, after the cover is
selected, the retardance with a good uncut condition will be the
one to use for capacity determination. Since a condition offering
less protection exists at least during the establishment period, it
is advisable to use the next lower degree of retardance when designing
for stability. The procedure is to design first for stability, then,
12
with the next higher retardance, determine the increase in depth neces¬
sary to contain the maximum discharge.

In the following example, dimensions of a trapezoidal channel with 4:1

side slopes, a triangular channel, and a parabolic channel are deter¬
mined graphically for a given discharge and bed slope. Weeping love-
grass is selected as the channel lining.

Given: Q = 2.832 cubic meters per second

S = 3 percent
Cover - weeping lovegrass

Find: Dimensions of a trapezoidal channel with 4:1 side slopes, a

triangular channel, and a parabolic channel that will carry this flow
on a 3-percent bed slope. Uniform flow is considered.

Solution: Refer to table 3 and find that the permissible velocity

for an average stand of weeping lovegrass on a silt-loam soil is I.O67
meters per second. Table 4 classifies weeping lovegrass under retard-
ance A at the end of the second season. (The channels should be
designed for stability, using retardance B and then provide sufficient
additional depth to allow for retardance A.)

The first step is to design for stability, using retardance B. Enter

the design graph for retardance B (fig. 15) with V = I.O67 and determine
R = 0.30 meter. The area required is Q/V =2.65 square meters. From
dimension charts (fig. 7j> 10, and 11) the following dimensions are
determined:

Side Bottom
Shape Depth d Width t
slope width b

meters meters meters

Trapezoidal 4:1 5:5 0.3B
Triangular 7:1 0 0.61 —
Parabolic —i — 0.46 8.5

The second step is to determine the depth of flow in the above channels
under retardance A. (A cut-and-try procedure is necessary since all
dimensions except depth and top width are determined.)

(a) For trapezoidal channel with 4:1 side slope and b = 5-5 meters:
Try d = 0.49 meters. Enter figure 7 with d = 0.49 and b = 5*5
and find R = O.38 and A = 3*6. Enter figure l4 (design chart
for retardance A) with R = O.38 and S = 3 percent and deter¬
mine V = 0.68. Then capacity with d = 0.49 is AV = 3*6 x
0.68 = 2.45 cubic meters per second. Since this is signifi¬
cantly less than the 2.832 required, a new, slightly higher
d should be investigated. Try d = 0.50. Proceeding again through
figures 7 and 14 find R = 0.39> A = 3*8, and V = O.76. Capa¬
city with d = 0.50 is 2.89 which is adequate. Adding freeboard
to this depth will give the total depth of channel.
 13

(b) For triangular channel with 7:1 side slopes: Try d = O.76
meters. Enter figure 10 with z = 7 and d = O.76 and find
R = O.38 and A = 4.1. Enter figure 14 with R = O.38 and S = 3
percent and find V = 0.68. Then capacity with d = 0.76
meters is 2.79 cubic meters per second which is adequate.
Total depth of channel will be O.76 plus freeboard.

(c) For parabolic channel with the channel shape determined by

d = 0.46 meters and r = 8.3 meters? In the nomograph (fig.
12) project a line from d = 0.46 through t = 8.5 to the pivot
line. The point established on this line remains fixed for
this particular channel. Assuming d = O.58 for retardance
A, project (fig. 12) a straight line between this depth and
the fixed point on the pivot line and determine t = 9*5 from
the width scale. Then from figure 11 with d = 0-58 and t =
9.5 determine R = O.38 and A = 3*7* Enter figure 14
(retardance A) with R = O.38 and find V = 0.J0. Then capa¬
city at d = O.58 equals 3-7 x 0.70 = 2.59 cubic meters per
second which is too low. Try d = 0.59* From figure 12,
t = 9-75* From figure 11, R = 0.39 and A = 3«9* From
figure 14, V = O.78. Then capacity = 3-04 which is satis¬
factory.

With parabolic channels, additional information such as the top width

after a freeboard is added and widths for lesser depths is helpful.
Continuing with the example: Allowing a freeboard of 0.15 meter,
the following data were obtained for this parabolic channel from the
nomograph, figure 12. A straight line is extended to the slope scale
(through the fixed pivot point) for various combinations of d and
t to arrive at the approximate side slope.

Approximate
Depth d Width t
side slope

meters meters

0.15 . 4.9 8:1

0.30 . 7.0 5-6:1
0.46 . 8.2 4.6:1
0.59 (Maximum w. s.). 9-73 4.1:1
0.73 (with freeboard).... 10.7 3-7:1

The side slope at maximum depth (after freeboard is added) is

important. If too steep, a reduction in velocity would be necessary
to obtain a flatter, workable section. The above data are also
useful in laying out and checking the channel in the field.

When a trial velocity does not yield a satisfactory cross section

(bottom width too narrow with trapezoidal channels, or side slopes
too steep with triangular and parabolic channels), a change in V
of only 0.15 meters per second is recommended where the trial velocity
 14

is greater than 0.6l. Dimensions will he affected greatly by this small

change. Use still smaller increments of change for velocities lower
than 0.6l meters per second.

SELECTED REFERENCES

(1) Cox, M. B.
1942. Tests on Vegetated Waterways. Okla. Agr. Expt. Sta. Tech. Bui.
T-15, 23 pp., illus.

(2) _ and Palmer, V. J.

1948. Results of Tests on Vegetated Waterways. Okla. Agr. Expt. Sta,
Misc. Pub. 12, 43 pp., illus.

(3) King, H. W.
1939* Handbook of Hydraulics. 3d edition, 617 pp., illus. New York
and London.

(4) Palmer, V. J.
1945* A Method for Designing Vegetated Waterways. Agr. Engin. 26:
516 - 520 illus.

(5)
1946. Retardance Coefficients for Low Flow in Channels Lined with
Vegetation. Amer. Geophy. Union Trans. 27: 187 - 197, illus.

(6) Ramser, C. E.
1929- Flow of Water in Drainage Channels. U. S. Dept. Agr. Tech.
Bui. 129, 101 pp., illus.

(7) Ree, W. 0., and Palmer, V. J.

1949* Flow of Water in Channels Protected by Vegetative Linings.
U. S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bui. 9^7, 115 pp., illus.

(8) Scobey, F. C.
1933- The Flow of Water in Flumes. U. S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bui. 395,
98 pp., illus. j

(9) _
1939* Flow of Water in Irrigation and Similar Canals. U. S. Dept.
Agr. Tech. Bui. 652, 78 pp., illus.

(10) Smith, D. D.
1946. Bluegrass Terrace Outlet Channel Design. Agr. Engin. 27:
125 - 130, illus.
 APPENDIX
15
TABLE 1.--Values of Manning’s n

Item Manning’s n

Nonvegetal Channels1:
Wooden flumes--planed (no battens).. 0.010 0.014
Wooden flumes--unplaned (no battens). .011 .015
Metal flumes--smooth. .011 .015
Metal flumes--corrugated. .022 .030
Vitrified clay tile. .012 .017
Concrete--finished. .011 .014
Concrete--unfinished. .015 .020
Ma s onr y - -r ubb le. .017 .030
Masonry--dry-rubble. .025 .035

Earth channels subject to intermittent flow:

Bare--unable to support vegetal growth or vegetal growth is not
permitted by farm operations
Straight and uniform. .017 .025
Dredged (rough bed) . .025 • 035
Vegetal lining--use a retardance coefficient n related to the
product of velocity and hydraulic radius. Use figures 14
to 18 to solve graphically the Manning formula for five
degrees of vegetal retardance so that n will be compatible
with VR. Use tables 4 and ^ as a guide in selecting the
degree of retardance.

Earth channels subject to continuous flow^:

Canals and ditches with continuous flow or sufficiently
frequent flow to keep vegetation from growing on the bed.

A. Channels with unusually good alinement, relatively

smooth beds and side slopes. Banks fairly well
vegetated but no vegetation or large obstructions
on the bed.
Product of top width and depth
Up to 10. .050 .o4o
10 to 20. .020 .030
Greater than 20. .017 .025

B. Channels with average bed and side-slope roughness

and alinement. Banks fairly well vegetated. Average
maintenance.
Product of top width and depth
Up to 10. .045 .050
10 to 20. .040 .045
Greater than 20. .030 .040

C. Channels choked with weeds and willows. Values of n

as high as 0.15 may develop.

■‘‘Selected from table of Horton's values of n in King's "Handbook of Hydraulics.

Reference to U. S. Dept. Agr. Technical Bulletins by C. E. Ramser and F. C.
Scobey (see references) is recommended.
16

Recommended in 1926 by Special Committee on Irrigation Research, American Society of Civil Engineers.
Although not specifically stated in the original recommendations, these values apply only to channels
bO CQ d
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d •H rH
0 p •H •N •
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> P (—1 d
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TABLE 2.—Permissible canal velocities after aging; for channels with linings other than

d o CQ
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P d o
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> d !—1 d • O d
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d X 1—1 d (—1 1—1 •rH CQ CQ O
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with mild bed slopes.

d O 1—1 1—l O 1—l 1—1

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d d O 1—1 O d O ft 1—1 P O CD CQ
O ■H 1—l 1—1 ip 0 E O O O O d 1—1 d
d 1—l O 1—1 d d O O O 0 bD d
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P O d O •N 1—1 d O *\ O •rH d
d d 0 d CQ CD P CQ P •N p d
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3 O d 1—1 O d 1—l 1—1 bD d
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a d rH 1—\ d 1—l d •H d rH d d P d
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d (U Pi . . • • ctf 0 1—1 CD
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CD
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■H 0 (U d ft ai ai
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d • 0 ft ai p ai
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ft >
CD ft • d •H d CD
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d o co * 1—1 cu E rQ 0
ft o co CU -H CD ft O s !>
CD •H d o d a o O
bO ft E CO d CO ft* ON ft ON ft* ft ON [ft ft o u
TABLE 3.--Permissible velocities for channels lined with ve.
The values apply to average, uniform stands of each type o:

d d 0 A A CVJ KN CVJ CVJ cvj ft VO VO ai

CU o -P ftft ft CO ft CO ITN LTN CVJ o o CD d P
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d -p o O 1—l ft p
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1 ft d * 1—"1 1 1 0 ft P
d O 1 (L) O 10 o > o o ft O 0 O
0 IT\ > A > 0! LfN CO in d X O d
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1 ! 1 ft ft d cu
1
I i p p o ft
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o ft ft
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0 0 0 •H ft
I-”1 J~\ / 1 1 K O ft ft E cu
X O o cu
0 i—l 1—1 d
CD CD CD o
CD ctf CD CD
0 CD ctf 0 d d ft
u o ctf E N •H o o 0
bO •r—1 d 0 0 p CD
0 0 d bO P ft •H 0 0 d
CD co 0 0 d 0 0 co 0 o • CD CD 1
CD CD r—1 S d CD > 0 o ft d d 1
Cl3 d ft O d p O d CD CD 1—l 0 CD
H d PE x Ctf 1—l i—1 CD 0 0 0 d p p d
&0 bJ3 >> ft d •H N ft CD ft d > •H O O ai o
ctf Oft d E 0 bO cri crt d ai d d d
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ft o ft bO ft d > ft d d bO 0 p cu
d 0 ft CD 0 •H o d rH b() o d CD rQ o o G co
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r—\
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18

CD CD —.
d d .
0) CD ft
-P -P d /—\ ,--

Good stand, headed (15-2 to 30.5 centimeters)

CD 0) /-X QJ CD CD CD CD ✓—X -X

Good stand, uncut (15.2 to 20.3 centimeters)

S E CD CD 0 d d d d CD CD

Very dense cover (average 15*2 centimeters)

•H •H d d QJ QJ QJ QJ d d
-P -p QJ QJ KV ft ft ft ft QJ Q)
d d -P ft • QJ QJ QJ QJ ft ft
0) <L> QJ QJ CO E E E E QJ QJ
0 0 E E ft- •H •H •H •H E E
•H •H -p ft ft -p •H •H
OJ -=1- -p -p QJ d d d d ft ft
• d d bD QJ Q) QJ QJ d d
VO 1—l QJ QJ d 0 O 0 0 QJ QJ
t— ON O 0 d 0 0
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<d CD 1ft 0 > • • . OJ o\
CD • bD bD . . d C— KV N"\ 1—1 . .
O 03 d d O 1—1 cvj KV OJ LO, Ift-
a 1—1 d d d Kd VO 1—1 1—1 OJ
d (D 0 CD 0) 1—l QJ Q) QJ
ft P •H > > Q) QJ 1—1 bD bD bD 0 QJ QJ
d 2 -p d d bD bD d d d d ft bD bD
d •H w -p d d ft d d d d d
ft rP ft d d d QJ QJ QJ ft- d d
(U 0 d •\ 0 QJ QJ *X > > > • QJ QJ
d 0 1—1i—l C > !> >5 d d d irv > >
1—l to 1—11—1 d d d ft V_/ X-X OJ d d
ft d d v—^ ft ^—- O ft v-/ X-/ x-/
O -p -P -P •X QJ O d •N
a
CD •X
ft > ts ft ft 0
pi
ft ft ftft
0) -p 1—l O 1—1 d QJ d d Q) d
OJ e ft > rH E 1—l ft 0 S d 0 0 0
d •rH d 0 d d 0 Cl O p p O p
UO d d d -p p ft d p E *\ p d E p
(D QJ -p bo ft
ft ft CD »\ •x ft •x
X * QJ ft ft ft ft ft ft > ft ft ft ft
O a) E -p O CD d d d d d d O d d d d
-P d d Q d d d d d d d d d d d d
d O
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0 QJ -p ft ft ft ft ft bD ft ft ft ft
CD 1—1 ft CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD
d •H 1—1 QJ
ft d 0 >5 ft ft ft ft ft ft CD ft d ft ft
CD (U d 0 d O O O O O O d 0 •H O O
d -p X QJ O O O O O O QJ 0 a5 O O
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d d
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common lespedeza).
Centipedegrass.
Kentucky tluegrass.
ft ft 0) E
0 Grass -legume mixture--summer(orchard
grass, redtop, Italian ryegrass, and
bO QJ ft
bo 0 -P d
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0 d d E 1—l ft
•H r—1 0) QJ —x
ft O > d d d
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03 CD CD > 0 d ft
03 d d 0 CD d ft
a3 (D qj 0 CD H ft O CD d CD
rH > > CD X ✓—X CD QJ CD d
O O 0 d E •H ft CD d O d N
1 O 0 d QJ E d QJ d •H d QJ
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 19

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d d d d o d (D
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P d 0 P
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p P P p O p d
d P d d p P d p
d d d d d <D d to
P aj P p 0 ,Q P
to 1—1 to to w P
1—1 d P 0)
P 0) P P a; d P d
O 0 O O p d O d
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1
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d d
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to d

d
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cd d to £ to CD to
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bO P bO a) d E to w bO
d O l—1 d E <L> ctf d
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d
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Retardance

P w
 TABLE 5*--Guide to selection of vegetal retardance

Average length
Degree of
Stand of
retardance
vegetation

Longer than 76.2 cm. A

27.9 to 6l.O cm. B
Good. 15.2 to 25.4 cm. C
5.1 to 15 • 2 cm. D
Less than 5*1 cm. E

Longer than 76.2 cm. B

27.9 to 6l.O cm. C
Fair 15.2 to 25.4 cm. D
5-1 to 15.2 cm. D
Less than 5*1 cm. E
 21

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i—1 i—l i—1 i—l S Si—l i—I l—I i—i i—1 i—1 i—1 i—l i—1 i—l s s
P i—I t—1 i—1 i—I S Si—l l—I l—1 l—1 i—l i—l i—I i—1 i—1 i—1
a5 ctf c 6
a5 P P d cS d oj ct5 c\3 g3 I 2
ft ft ft ft CQ CD h h h h ft ft ft ft ft ft CO CO
TABLE 6.--Source of experimental results presented in figures 19 to 22

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MANNING _ J_ . 2/3 1/2
FORMULA V n

Figure I. -• Solution of the Manning formula

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Figure 3. -- Dimensions of trapezoidal channels with 1-1/2 to I side slopes.
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Figure 5. -- Dimensions of trapezoidal channels with 2-1/2 to I side slopes.
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Figure 6. -- Dimensions of trapezoidal channels with 3 to I side slopes.
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Figure 7. -- Dimensions of trapezoidal channels with 4 to I side slopes.
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Figure 9.-- Dimensions of trapezoidal channels with 6 to I side slopes.
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12. -- Solution for dimensions of parabolic channels

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VELOCITY, V, METERS PER SECOND

HYDRAULIC RADIUS, R, METERS

Figure 14. — Solution of the Manning formula for retardance A (very high vegetal retardance)
Figure 15. -- Solution of the Manning formula for retardance B (high vegetal retardance).
 VELOCITY. V, METERS PER SECOND

Figure 16. Solution of the Manning formula for retardance C (moderate vegetal retardance)
 VELOCITY, V, METERS PER SECOND

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Figure 17. -- Solution of the Manning formula for retardance D (low vegetal retardance)
U.S. GOVERMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1978 0-635-032/66-79
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