 Pressure is the normal force exerted by a fluid on a surface, per unit area.

𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆, (𝑭)
𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆, 𝑷 =
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂, (𝑨)

 SI Unit of Pressure: N/m2 (or) Pascal (Pa)

 The pressure exerted by the atmosphere of the earth = 1 atm or 101.325 kPa

 Atmospheric Pressure is because the column of air above the surface is being
pushed down by gravity.

 In other words, this pressure is due to the weight of the air in the earth’s
atmosphere pushing down on the earth’s surface from above.
• The pressure in a column of fluid increases as depth increases.

• Consider how air pressure is lower at the top of Mt. Everest and how deep
sea divers have to deal with extremely high pressures.

• This type of pressure is called hydrostatic pressure (the pressure in a fluid

at rest due to the column of fluid above, pushing down)
• The Hydrostatic pressure can be calculated using the formula:
Pressure (𝑷) = Specific weight of fluid (𝜸) × height of fluid column (𝒉)

Pressure (𝑷) = Density of fluid (𝝆) × gravity (𝒈) × height of fluid column (𝒉)

𝑷=𝝆×𝒈×𝒉
• This pressure is also called gage pressure as it is measured using any gage

• Note: This equation holds good only for fluids whose density is constant

(i.e. incompressible fluids)

Consider a swimming pool full of water as shown in
the figure:

1. What height of water exerts a pressure of 1 atm?

(take density of water: 1000 kg/m3)

2. What height of mercury (Hg) exerts a pressure of

1 atm? (Specific Gravity of Hg: 13.6)
𝜌𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
Note: 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
Consider a small segment of the fluid:

Force in the ‘𝒙’ and ‘𝒚’ directions is the same, as the pressure acting on each side is the
same, but in opposing directions.
 The force acting on the top of the segment is: (Δx × Δy) × P1

 The force acting on the bottom of the segment is: (Δx × Δy) × P2

 The only other force acting on the segment is the weight: W = (Δx × Δy × Δz) × ρ × g

 So, combining the forces in a force balance, we get:

Force Up = Force Down

(Δx × Δy) × P2 = (Δx × Δy) × P1 + (Δx × Δy × Δz) × ρ × g

P2  P1 = ρg × Δz

Or, ΔP = ρ × g × Δh
Note:

• So, pressure remains constant at all horizontal points in a fluid (i.e. at all points of the
same depth below the surface), but increases with depth – this is true no matter what
size or shape of container is used

• Pressure is sometimes measured as “pressure head”. This refers to the height of fluid
that would be equivalent to a certain pressure (So, if using this measurement, you
must specify the height, ‘𝒉’, but also the type of fluid, or the density of the fluid)

• So, if I say “A pump’s maximum delivery pressure head is 30 m of water, what is the
maximum pressure in Pascals?”
• A vacuum is an area where there are no molecules of gas present – therefore there are
no collisions and no pressure

• The gases present (nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, water vapor…) around us exert a
pressure on surfaces called atmospheric pressure.

• Reference pressure is atmospheric pressure.

• Example:

A gauge pressure of 5 bar means 5 bar above atmospheric pressure

A vacuum reading 50 kPa means the pressure is 50 kPa below atmospheric pressure.

𝑷𝑨𝒃𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 = 𝑷𝑮𝒂𝒈𝒆 + 𝑷𝑨𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆

• Question (Discussion among students):

A car tire contains air at an absolute pressure of 1 atmosphere. Is this good or bad?
• Pressure is sometimes expressed in mm of mercury (mm of Hg) or mm of water.
• For example, taking 𝜌𝐻𝑔 = 13600 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 , if pressure is stated as 𝟕𝟔𝟎 𝒎𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝑯𝒈,
then the pressure in 𝑷𝒂𝒔𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒔 is found from
𝑷𝑮𝒂𝒈𝒆,𝑯𝒈 = 𝝆𝑯𝒈 × 𝒈 × 𝒉 = 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 × 𝟗. 𝟖𝟏 × 𝟎. 𝟕𝟔 = 𝟏𝟎𝟏. 𝟑𝟐𝟓 𝒌𝑷𝒂
Question (Discussion among students):
• From the values, for equivalent head for mercury and water, can you tell which is
more denser?
Note:
• Use the equivalent head figure to calculate the density of Mercury
• For mercury, 760 mm (or 0.76 m) of Hg column = 1 atm.
• For water, 10,400 mm (or 10.4 m) of water column = 1 atm.
Convert the following pressures:
1. 5 bar to psi ….

2. 20 psi to atm. ….

3. 6 MPa to mm of Hg ….

4. 4.12 bar to meters of H2O….

5. What head of saltwater is equivalent to 5atm? (𝝆𝒔𝒂𝒍𝒕 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 = 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟓 𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟑)

6. If a vacuum chamber has a vacuum reading 40 kPa, what is the absolute

pressure?
Pascal's Law relates to pressures in fluids - liquid or gaseous state.

• If the weight of a fluid is neglected the pressure throughout an enclosed volume

will be the same.

• The static pressure in a fluid changes in vertical direction but acts equally in all
other directions.

• The static pressure acts at right angles to any surface in contact with the fluid.

• It states that the pressure applied to a confined fluid increases the pressure
throughout by the same amount.
• Since force applied by pressure is proportional to area, if two hydraulic cylinders of
different diameters were attached, then a small force applied to a small cylinder would
exert a larger force from a large cylinder.

• In the diagram above, will the force required to lift the car be more or less than the
weight of the car?
• If a cylinder of diameter 1 cm is coupled to a cylinder of diameter 5 cm as in the
diagram, what force would be required on the small cylinder to lift a weight of 500 kg
on the larger cylinder.
• An industrial pressure gauge shows a reading of 850 kPa.

What is the absolute pressure indicated?

(Patm = 101.325 kPa)

• What is the absolute pressure 2.5 m below the free surface of an oil tank at a
time when atmospheric pressure is 100.5 kPa?

(ρoil = 800 kg/m3 )

What did you observe in this figure?
(open for student discussion)
Bourdon gauge Strain gauge

Piezoelectric
transducer
Student Practice – 1
A manometer is used to measure
pressure in a tank. The manometer fluid
has a specific gravity of 0.85 and the
manometer column height is 55 cm. If
local atmospheric pressure is 96 kPa,
what is the absolute pressure in the
tank?
Student Practice – 1 (working for solution)
A manometer is used to measure pressure in a tank. The manometer fluid has a specific gravity of
0.85 and the manometer column height is 55 cm. If local atmospheric pressure is 96 kPa, what is
the absolute pressure in the tank?
Student Practice – 2
A multi-fluid manometer is used to measure the
pressure in a tank. The atmospheric pressure
around the tank is 85.6 kPa. Determine the air
pressure in the tank if 𝒉𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟏 𝒎, 𝒉𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝒎 &
𝒉𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟓𝒎.
Density of water : 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟑,
Density of oil : 𝟖𝟓𝟎 𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟑
Density of mercury : 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟑

(Hint: moving from one point to another at the same level in the same fluid means the
pressure remains constant – this should simplify the analysis)
Student Practice – 2 (working for solution)
A multi-fluid manometer is used to measure the pressure in a tank. The atmospheric pressure around
the tank is 85.6 kPa. Determine the air pressure in the tank if 𝒉𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟏 𝒎, 𝒉𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝒎 & 𝒉𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟓𝒎.
Density of water : 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟑,
Density of oil : 𝟖𝟓𝟎 𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟑
Density of mercury : 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟑

(Hint: moving from one point to another at the same level in the same fluid means the pressure remains constant – this should simplify the analysis)
Freshwater and seawater flowing in parallel pipelines are connected to each
other by a double U-tube manometer, as shown in the figure. Determine the
pressure difference between the two pipelines.
Note:
• Density of sea water 𝜌𝑠𝑤 = 1035 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
• Density of air 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 1.2 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
• Density of mercury 𝜌𝐻𝑔 = 13600 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
• Density of fresh water 𝜌𝑓𝑤 = 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
Freshwater and seawater flowing in parallel pipelines are connected to each other by a double U-tube manometer, as shown in the
figure. Determine the pressure difference between the two pipelines. Density of sea water: 𝜌𝑠𝑤 = 1035 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 ; Density of air: 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 =
1.2 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3; Density of mercury: 𝜌𝐻𝑔 = 13600 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3; Density of fresh water: 𝜌𝑓𝑤 = 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
A multi-fluid container is connected to a U-tube, as shown in the figure. For
the given specific gravities and fluid column heights, determine the gauge
pressure at ‘𝐀’. Also determine the height of a mercury column that would
create the same pressure as that at ‘𝐀’.
A multi-fluid container is connected to a U-tube, as shown in the figure. For the given specific gravities and fluid column heights,
determine the gauge pressure at ‘𝐀’. Also determine the height of a mercury column that would create the same pressure as that at ‘𝐀’.
Calculate the absolute pressure P1, of the manometer shown in the figure.
• The local atmospheric pressure is 758 mm of Hg
• The specific weight of fluid A = 10 kN/m3
• The specific weight of fluid B = 8 kN/m3
Calculate the absolute pressure P1, of the manometer shown in the figure.
• The local atmospheric pressure is 758 mm of Hg
• The specific weight of fluid A = 10 kN/m3
• The specific weight of fluid B = 8 kN/m3
The pressure in a tank is measured with a manometer by measuring the
differential height of the manometer fluid. The absolute pressure in the tank
is to be determined for two cases: the manometer arm with the (a) higher
and (b) lower fluid level being attached to the tank.
The pressure in a tank is measured with a manometer by measuring the differential height of the manometer fluid. The absolute
pressure in the tank is to be determined for two cases: the manometer arm with the (a) higher & (b) lower fluid level being
attached to the tank.
The pressure in a pressurized water tank is measured by a multi-fluid
manometer. The gage pressure of air in the tank is to be determined.
• The density of mercury = 13600 kg/m3
• The density of water = 1000 kg/m3
• The density of oil = 850 kg/m3
• The heights:
h1 = 0.2 m
h2 = 0.3 m
h3 = 0.46 m
The pressure in a pressurized water tank is measured by a multi-fluid manometer. The gage pressure of air in the tank is to be
determined.
• The density of mercury = 13600 kg/m3 ; The density of water = 1000 kg/m3 ; The density of oil = 850 kg/m3
• The heights: h1 = 0.2 m; h2 = 0.3 m; h3 = 0.46 m
Two pipes on the same elevation convey water and an oil of specific gravity
0.88. They are connected by a U-tube manometer with the manometric liquid
having a specific gravity of 1.25. If the manometric liquid in the limb connecting
the water pipe is 2 m higher than the other find the pressure difference in two
pipes.
Two pipes on the same elevation convey water and an oil of specific gravity 0.88. They are connected by a U-tube manometer with
the manometric liquid having a specific gravity of 1.25. If the manometric liquid in the limb connecting the water pipe is 2 m higher
than the other find the pressure difference in two pipes.
A differential manometer is connected at the two points ‘𝑨’ and ‘𝑩’ of two
pipes as shown in figure. The pipe A contains a liquid of specific gravity 1.5
while pipe B contains a liquid of specific gravity of 0.9. The pressures at ‘𝑨’ and
‘𝑩’ are 1 kgf/cm2 and 1.8 kgf/cm2 respectively. Find the difference in mercury
levels in the differential manometer. (Assume gravity = 9.81 m/s2)
A differential manometer is connected at the two points ‘𝑨’ and ‘𝑩’ of two pipes as shown in figure. The pipe A contains a liquid of
specific gravity 1.5 while pipe B contains a liquid of specific gravity of 0.9. The pressures at ‘𝑨’ and ‘𝑩’ are 1 kgf/cm2 and 1.8 kgf/cm2
respectively. Find the difference in mercury levels in the differential manometer. (Assume gravity = 9.81 m/s2)
A differential manometer is connected at the two points ‘A’ and ‘B’ of two pipes
as shown in figure. At ‘B’ the air pressure is 9.81 N/cm2 (abs.), find the absolute
pressure at ‘A’.
A differential manometer is connected at the two points ‘A’ and ‘B’ of two pipes as shown in figure. At ‘B’ the air pressure is
9.81 N/cm2 (abs.), find the absolute pressure at ‘A’.
Find out the differential reading ‘h’ of an inverted U-tube manometer
containing oil of specific gravity 0.7 as the manometric fluid when connected
across two pipes ‘A’ and ‘B’ as shown in figure, conveying liquids of specific
gravities 1.2 and 1.0 and immiscible with manometric fluid. Pipes ‘A’ and ‘B’ are
located at the same level and assume the pressures at ‘A’ and ‘B’ to be equal.
A differential manometer is connected at the two points ‘A’ and ‘B’ of two pipes as shown in figure. At ‘B’ the air pressure is
9.81 N/cm2 (abs.), find the absolute pressure at ‘A’.