Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Artigo
Artigo
PII: S1359-1789(17)30097-6
DOI: doi: 10.1016/j.avb.2017.03.001
Reference: AVB 1097
To appear in: Aggression and Violent Behavior
Received date: 9 May 2016
Revised date: 1 March 2017
Accepted date: 1 March 2017
Please cite this article as: Anna Harwood, Michal Lavidor, Yuri Rassovsky , Reducing
aggression with martial arts: A meta-analysis of child and youth studies. The address
for the corresponding author was captured as affiliation for all authors. Please check if
appropriate. Avb(2017), doi: 10.1016/j.avb.2017.03.001
This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As
a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The
manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before
it is published in its final form. Please note that during the production process errors may
be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the
journal pertain.
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
Reducing Aggression with Martial Arts: A Meta-Analysis of Child and Youth Studies
a
Department of Psychology, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel
b
Leslie and Susan Gonda (Goldschmied) Multidisciplinary Brain Research Center, Bar-Ilan
University, Ramat-Gan, Israel
PT
c
Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, University of California, Los
Angeles (UCLA), 760 Westwood Plaza (C8-746), Los Angeles, CA 90095
RI
SC
Running title: Reducing aggression with martial arts
NU
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Yuri Rassovsky, Department
of Psychology, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan 52900 Israel. Email: yurir@biu.ac.il
MA
Anna Harwood c/o Yuri Rassovsky, Department of Psychology, Bar Ilan University Ramat-
E
Michal Lavidor, Leslie and Susan Gonda (Goldschmied) Multidisciplinary Brain Research
CE
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by the Ministry of Science, Technology & Space, Israel (Grant
#3-13631). This study was carried in the course of the PhD research conducted by Anna
Harwood at Bar Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel. No conflicts of interest exist for any of the
authors nor was any specific funding supplied for this study. Anna Harwood is a recipient of the
Abstract
Martial arts are becoming a mainstream sport for energetic youth and their popularity extends
globally. Following a comprehensive search of martial arts research, a critical review of the
field and the psychological implications was conducted. The resulting meta-analysis
examined the effect of martial arts on problematic externalizing behavior (aggression, anger,
PT
and violence). The final meta-analysis included twelve studies, with 507 participants (ages 6
to 18), where study type was a moderator. For nine intervention and longitudinal studies,
RI
there was a homogenous effect size of 0.65 (95% CI: 0.11, 1.03) indicating a medium effect,
SC
where martial arts improved aggression among the practicing youth. The other three one-time
comparisons studies did not yield a homogenous effect size. Based on these analyses, it
NU
appears that martial arts has a potential to reduce externalizing behaviors in youth, although
MA
further research is needed to determine the mechanisms of change and specify the most
Reducing Aggression with Martial Arts: A Meta-Analysis of Child and Youth Studies
Introduction
Over the past half century, martial arts have gained increasing popularity in the west, as their
physical and mental health benefits have been demonstrated (Weiser, Kutz, Kutz, & Weiser,
PT
1995). Far from their negative connotations once exposed in the media (Fuller, 1988), martial
RI
arts are now seen in a much more positive light with both participation and research into their
SC
effects steadily increasing (Vertonghen & Theeboom, 2010).
Martial arts, the general term for those combat arts developed in the East, have a
NU
development shrouded in secrecy with techniques and practices initially designed for combat
MA
and to create a warrior who has spiritual, physical, and mental wellbeing. As these combat
arts began to permeate the West (particularly through increased travel to Eastern regions and
the stationing of US troops in Japan and Korea), they adapted to suit the needs of the
E D
participants whilst retaining the Eastern philosophy (Burke, Al-Adawi, Lee, & Audette,
PT
2007). The philosophy which permeates traditional martial arts is one of attaining the Zen
state of mushin, or “no mindedness,” a state whereby the participant is capable of fighting to
CE
their fullest extent but without aggressive feelings. This is carried out through ritualization of
AC
combat moves (katas), the requirement of respect to the teacher (sensei), to the practice space
and to one another, and also by highlighting the importance of meditation and philosophies
such as peace, benevolence, humanity, and self-restraint (Nosanchuk & MacNeil, 1989).
Research into martial arts focuses on those elements which are most valuable to the
targeted population. Research with adolescents and young adults examine the benefits of
martial arts in teaching self-control, enhancing self-esteem, teaching a more positive response
assertiveness. Martial arts provide an outlet for participants to channel energy into a
productive and self-enhancing activity (Twemlow & Sacco, 1998). They have also been
demonstrated to improve concentration and self-awareness in children (Lakes & Hoyt, 2004)
and tentatively aid executive functions (Diamond & Lee, 2011), including self-monitoring
and awareness (Haydicky, Wiener, Badali, Milligan, & Ducharme, 2012; Lothes, Hakan, &
PT
Of current interest is the effect of martial arts on externalizing behaviors.
RI
Externalizing and antisocial behaviors amongst youth are of pressing concern and considered
SC
a major public health problem (Krug, Dahlberg, Mercy, Zwi, Anthony, & Lozano, 2002).
Birth-Cohort studies carried out internationally demonstrate close links between youth
NU
delinquency and adult crime (Farrington, 2000; Laubacher et al., 2014; Moffitt, 1993). It
MA
appears that while a minor level of delinquency and antisocial behavior increases gradually
through adolescence and decreases in adulthood, youth who show serious and persistent
antisocial behaviors are at the greatest risk of becoming lifelong offenders (Hoge, Vincent, &
E D
level such as cognitive behavior approaches (Barnes, Smith, & Miller, 2014; Cornet, De
Kogel, Nijman, Raine, & Van Der Laan, 2015), at a family level such as systemic therapy
AC
(Smith et al., 2004), and community interventions (Marans & Schaefer, 1998). Other more
novel approaches include dietary changes, such as increasing fish oil consumption (Raine,
Portnoy, Liu, Mahoomed, & Hibbeln, 2015) and overhauling classroom teaching methods
(Hawkins, Catalano, Kosterman, Abbott, & Hill, 1999). While treatment success rates vary,
current guidelines highlight the necessity of matching the most suitable intervention for the
cultural and social needs of the relevant community (Krug et al., 2002).
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
Martial arts provide a novel intervention both because of the comparatively low cost
of implementation (just one martial arts instructor for a group as large as 15) and also because
of the novelty and ‘street-cred’ associated with the sport. As cognitive functions, specifically
executive functions, improve with training (Diamond & Lee, 2011), so too do externalizing
behaviors (Zhou et al., 2007). The more advanced a student becomes in the traditional martial
arts, the lower his or her aggression levels are reported on a range of measures (Nosanchuk &
PT
MacNeil, 1989). While martial arts appears to attract those children who have higher
RI
aggressive tendencies, it seems that throughout the training process assaultive hostility levels
SC
drop to below levels of those initially demonstrating normal hostility levels (Daniels &
al., 1995).
MA
Recent, school-based martial arts programs have shown promising results in the
significantly less violent behavior, as well as reductions in rule breaking and impulsive
PT
2001). Smaller scale studies have also indicated the positive effect of martial arts in at-risk
AC
youth on aggression levels (Palermo & Forno, 2006; Theeboom, De Knop, & Wylleman,
2008).
(Vertonghen & Theeboom, 2010) demonstrated the variability of research pertaining to the
effect of martial arts on externalizing behaviors and highlighted the need for more extensive
research. They emphasized the positive outcomes of martial arts in a host of studies but also
drew attention to those studies demonstrating negative outcomes. A simple review of the
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
studies these authors include in their analysis highlights the lack of segregation in this field of
research, with half the studies on aggression including mixed adult and youth samples. This
proves problematic when attempting to ascertain whether there are age effects within the
field. Likewise the majority of the research is with a male sample, although when females are
included they either show little (Lakes & Hoyt, 2004) or negative effects (Bjorkqvist &
Varhama, 2001).
PT
The goal of the current review is to estimate the effect size of martial arts training in
RI
youth on externalizing behaviors. In light of the large variability in the relevant studies, as
SC
discussed above, we will first review the sources of variability and potential moderators,
Current research does not distinguish between different forms of martial arts. Studies that
include two types of martial arts generally combine them together for final analysis (Daniels
D
& Thornton, 1992, 1990). The martial arts studied mostly conform to the ancient practices
E
PT
and include an internal reflection, ancient philosophies, and breathing practices. When these
aspects are contrasted with modern, fight-heavy martial arts, the traditional martial arts have
CE
superior effects, while modern martial arts may even be harmful (Trulson, 1986). Introducing
traditional, internally focused techniques, such as controlled breathing, can mediate this effect
AC
Movement type
It has been hypothesized that the repetitive movements in martial arts can act as a container
for destructive aggression and a vehicle for embodiment of the mind (Twemlow, Sacco, &
Fonagy, 2008). This effect may be similar to the synchronized and unifying effect of
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
movement expression in dance and movement therapies (Levy, 1988; Ritter & Low, 1996),
although there is little to no research to this effect in other fields (i.e., sports, educational
Gender
Current studies indicate that greater effects of martial arts practice for males than for females
PT
(Lakes & Hoyt, 2004; Twemlow, Biggs, et al., 2008). This could be due to the
RI
as opposed to females (Krug et al., 2002), but may also be due to the male dominated nature
SC
of the sport. NU
Age
MA
The majority of the studies on martial arts have been carried out on youth or university age
behavior problems are generally not studied in elderly populations, but there is evidence
E
(Jansen & Dahmen-Zimmer, 2012). Given the heightened risk of violence amongst youth and
young adults (Dahlberg & Potter, 2001), it follows that interventions designed to reduce
CE
violence would show the greatest impact when levels are at their peak. Likewise, executive
AC
functions are demonstrated to develop from early childhood (Baddeley, 1996), only reaching
adolescence (Satterthwaite et al., 2013). Given the heightened potential for improvement
during this period, interventions targeting executive function improvement and reduction of
Training/intervention duration
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
The effects of martial arts have been studied from as short as a two and a half week
least ten weeks. Shorter interventions appear to have smaller effect sizes, and there is
evidence to demonstrate that the longer time spent in martial arts practice, the lower
aggression levels demonstrated (Daniels & Thornton, 1992; Skelton, Glynn, & Berta, 1991).
PT
Location of training
Intervention programs can be divided into those taking place in school and outside of school
RI
settings. School based intervention programs are wider reaching and target much larger
SC
samples of children (Lakes & Hoyt, 2004; Twemlow, Biggs, et al., 2008; Zivin et al., 2001).
NU
While other intervention studies target those already demonstrating severe disruptive
problems (Palermo & Forno, 2006), the advantage of school-based programs is that they
MA
target those at-risk but not yet demonstrating criminal levels of anti-social behaviors and
externalizing problems. Likewise, those studies taking place in a martial arts sports clubs
D
show a wider range of results given the selection bias effects of participants choosing martial
E
arts over less aggressive sports (Delva-Tauiliili, 1995; Lamarre & Nosanchuk, 1999; Reynes
PT
There is not enough information concerning martial arts with patient populations, although
autism (Bahrami, Movahedi, Marandi, & Abedi, 2012), and epilepsy (Conant, Morgan,
Muzykewicz, Clark, & Thiele, 2008). Of course, externalizing behaviors may have different
This current meta-analysis is intended to collate those studies providing usable data
on martial arts and externalizing behaviors among children and adolescents and generate a
picture of the current state of the field. If martial arts does appear to demonstrate beneficial
outcomes in reducing externalizing behaviors, then this will provide a platform on which to
PT
Method
RI
SC
Literature search
NU
The first step in conducting the meta-analytical review involved a selective literature search
MA
for papers published from 1980 until November 2015. We used the PsycNET, Google
Scholar and Web of Science databases. Literature was also sourced from published literature
reviews including the aforementioned 2010 literature review (Vertonghen & Theeboom,
E D
2010). Our key search term was ‘‘martial arts’’ with the limitation that manuscripts were
PT
written in English.
CE
Selection criteria
AC
Inclusion criteria
1. Studies evaluating the effect of martial arts on externalizing behaviors (i.e. Aggression,
3. The study analysis included data or statistical information which could be used to generate
PT
Exclusion criteria
RI
We did not include studies evaluating the effect of martial arts on physiological or
SC
neurological functions which were unrelated to psychological functioning such as fitness or
NU
vision. We did not include studies which only dealt with an elderly population nor did we
Statistical data including means and standard deviations, T test/F Anova/P values and number
PT
of subjects/df were extracted from each study. In cases there were several reported effect
CE
sizes for various measures in one study, we extracted only the larger effect size for the most
relevant measure. Analysis Effect sizes were calculated according to Rosenthal (1991). In
AC
Meca & Fulgencio, 1997; Shadish & Haddock, 1994) and I2 (Higgins & Thompson, 2002).
Accordingly, if the Q value is not significant, then the effect sizes are considered to be
homogeneous, and the mean effect size is the best estimation for the data; however, if the Q
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
heterogeneous.
All studies were coded and the data extracted by the first author and a random
subsample of papers were coded independently by the second author. Inter-rater reliability
was 100%. All data was extracted from papers and if there was a lack of sufficient
PT
information to calculate effect sizes, the authors were contacted (for standard deviations).
RI
SC
Results
NU
Studies retrieval
MA
From the initial, broad, search criteria, 312 studies in English were retrieved. Forty-nine
publications which reviewed the psychological effects of martial arts were identified and
D
carefully reviewed. Many of these studies were eliminated due to the inclusion and exclusion
E
criteria. The majority of the eliminated studies focused on psychological characteristics other
PT
than externalizing behaviors, also other reasons for exclusion included inability to access
CE
relevant data (Nosanchuk & MacNeil, 1989; Rothpearl, 1980; Theeboom et al., 2008).Twelve
studies were deemed to fulfil inclusion and exclusion criteria (from unique publications).
AC
From each study, we took out the most significant results for behavioral measures; if the
result was not significant, we treated it as a zero effect size and included in the meta-analysis
PT
RI
SC
NU
MA
E D
PT
CE
AC
Meta-analysis results
We included twelve effect sizes. In the first step, the Q value was calculated based on all
effect sizes and revealed a Q value of 28.57, df = 11 (p<0.01) and I2 = 61.5, which reflect the
moderator thus effect sizes were split into two groups: nine studies derived from intervention
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
and longitudinal studies and three studies which were a one-time comparison of martial arts
Homogeneity tests for intervention and longitudinal studies yielded Q = 15.50, df = 8(p>
0.05) and I2 = 41.99, indicating that there is no need to search for another moderator and that
the results are homogeneous. A funnel plot of included studies did not show any asymmetry, an
indication that significant publication bias was not likely (Figure 1).
PT
RI
160
140
SC
120
Participant Number
100
NU
80
MA
60
40
20
D
0
E
Figure 1: Funnel plot showing effect sizes for martial arts meta-analysis delineated by
sample size.
AC
The final analysis of these studies revealed an average effect size of 0.65 (95% CI:
0.11, 1.03) indicating a medium effect size. These nine studies contained 507 participants
between the ages of 6 and 18 and were a combination of longitudinal, cross-sectional and
intervention studies. They were mainly comprised of normative youth or University age
students but they also included those with epilepsy (Conant et al., 2008), learning disabilities
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
(Haydicky et al., 2012) and social or behavioral problems (Palermo & Forno, 2006; Zivin et
al., 2001).
The three comparison studies in the second group were not homogeneous (Q= 10.96,
df=2 [p<0.01], I2=81.75) and while they yielded a small effect size (d= 0.38, 95% CI: -0.35,
PT
RI
Of the studies included in the final analysis, four were deemed to be as close to
SC
randomly controlled trials as possible within this field of research. These studies were found
to be homogenous (Q=4.81, df=3 [p>0.05], I2= 37.6) and yielded the greatest average effect
NU
size of 0.73 (95%CI: 0.37, 0.79). The remaining studies remained homogenous (Q=7.88,
Discussion
E
PT
The present meta-analytic study found support for the relationship between martial arts and
CE
reduced aggression amongst a range of youth populations. This result supports the hypothesis
that martial arts can reduce aggressive tendencies in a range of populations and is a
AC
There was no need for further moderator analysis following the removal of
comparison studies of martial arts participants with other sports participants. The studies
based on a martial arts intervention were found to be homogenous. Thus, based on studies
including over 500 youth, it is reasonable to conclude that the beneficial effects that martial
arts have on reducing externalizing behaviors do not depend on martial arts of participant
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
type, location of practice, or duration of the program. That said, age may still be a potential
The research on martial arts is sparse and many studies lack the statistic integrity to
include them in a robust meta-analysis. Vertonghen and Theeboom’s 2010 literature review
was the most comprehensive on this topic (Vertonghen & Theeboom, 2010). Unfortunately,
PT
of those studies which included a solely youth and young adult populations, studies such as
Nosanchuk’s (Nosanchuk, 1981) and Edelman’s (Edelman, 1994), none included usable
RI
statistical data that could be used in a meta-analysis. This left the current meta-analysis with a
SC
dearth of papers to be analyzed, and rather than subdivide the martial arts research into
definitive categories, the resulting analysis included the compilation of a wide range of
NU
martial arts in a variety of settings and populations.
MA
The studies included in the current analysis varied in their scope and quality. The
smallest effect was found, predictably, when youth participated in just two and a half weeks
D
of training, albeit daily (Delva-Tauiliili, 1995), and the largest effect was generated in the
E
longest intervention of 10 months (Palermo & Forno, 2006). When the youth taking part in
PT
various martial arts were deemed to be at risk and demonstrated significant behavior
CE
problems, the effect of martial arts varied dramatically (0.3 to 1.53, Palermo & Forno, 2006
and Zivin et al., 2001, respectively), and this variance is testament to both the varying
AC
behaviors also varied with some studies having aggression and aggressive behaviors as the
key measure (Reynes & Lorant, 2002a; Zivin et al., 2001), whereas others extracting the
(Conant et al., 2008; Twemlow, Biggs, et al., 2008) and novel, though rarely used,
observation methods (Lakes, 2012; Lakes & Hoyt, 2004). While studies such as Haydicky et
al (2012) used naturally formed experimental groups comprised of those eligible for the
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
intervention and those eligible but on a wait list others were self-selected participants (Conant
Just one study used full random assignment to the martial arts or physical activity
intervention (Lakes & Hoyt, 2004) though Palermo & Forno (2006) and Zivin et al (2001)
randomly assigned children referred to the martial arts program to either the test group or
PT
wait list (the later added participants to the test group at the school’s and parent’s request thus
reducing the level of randomization) and Twemlow et al (2008) used a sample taken from a
RI
school using the martial arts component from a wider RCT (Fonagy et al., 2009). When taken
SC
together, these studies produced an even larger effect size than when all intervention studies
were calculated.
NU
A limitation of all the included studies is that where attrition was documented, it was
MA
primarily as a result of absence from final testing (Lakes & Hoyt, 2004; Zivin et al., 2001)
and no study reports on the dosage or number of classes participated in from those offered
D
during the study period. It seems improbable that especially during large scale studies taking
E
place in schools with at-risk youth, that there would not be greater dropout or unwillingness
PT
to participate (indeed in Fonagy et al., 2009, the full RCT had just a 75% participation rate
CE
crucial when planning interventions and attempting to further research into lowering
criminogenic behaviors. While the current meta-analysis included only one study with a
negative result (Reynes & Lorant, 2002a), it should be noted that the same sample was used
for two additional publications reporting negative findings that were not included in the
present analyses (as outlined above, one effect size was taken from each sample; Reynes &
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
Lorant, 2002b, 2004). Similarly, of the three comparison studies not included in the final
analysis, Ziaee and colleagues found martial arts participants to demonstrate greater anger
(Ziaee, Lotfian, Amini, Mansournia, & Memari, 2012), although the other two studies
reported less hostility and aggression compared to other sports participants (Daniels &
PT
A recent meta-analysis was published on the foundation of detangling whether these
negative effects were more significant than the positive effects cited (Gubbels, van der
RI
Stouwe, Spruit, & Stams, 2016). Although the findings were overall positive, as in the current
SC
meta-analysis, the resulting effect size was relatively small in stark contrast to the current
result. Further investigation revealed a number of questionable inclusions into their analyses,
NU
including a study which did not appear to include traditional martial arts (Kreager, 2007) and
MA
another whereby martial arts was grouped with boxing and other combat sports (Mutz, 2012).
The authors also did not include their self-generated effect sizes, making their analyses
impossible to replicate. These questionable inclusions highlight the dearth of research in this
E D
field, which also blights the current meta-analysis. Nonetheless, as there are very few studies
PT
in the field of martial arts and crime prevention, and yet more and more schools and youth
clubs are introducing them and citing beneficial effects, it is critical to stimulate additional
CE
While psychologically oriented programs often receive the bulk of the scientific
interest (James, Stams, Asscher, De Roo, & der Laan, 2013; Zagar et al., 2013), troubled
youth often do not cooperate with these traditional approaches. Martial arts, it has been
suggested, may both complement and form a basis for further cooperation in psychological
therapies (Weiser et al., 1995). Further research is needed to substantiate the tentative claims
of this meta-analysis and also provide a more thorough examination of why martial arts
training appears to be a beneficial intervention. It does not appear to matter which specific
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
martial arts are used, but rather the common themes of repetitive movements, controlled
behaviors, and respect are present in all the studies outlined above. Furthermore these
positive effects have also been documented in reducing stereotypy in autism (Bahrami et al.,
increasing emotional mental state in the elderly (Jansen & Dahmen-Zimmer, 2012), thereby
adding further evidence to the wellbeing enhancing mechanisms of martial arts across a range
PT
of populations. Understanding the specific mechanisms of change in martial arts with at-risk
RI
youth will aid future program development and encourage the proliferation of this cost-
SC
effective, fun, and normative intervention.
NU
MA
E D
PT
CE
AC
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
References
Baddeley, A. (1996). Exploring the central executive. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental
http://doi.org/10.1080/713755608
Bahrami, F., Movahedi, A., Marandi, S. M., & Abedi, A. (2012). Kata techniques training
PT
consistently decreases stereotypy in children with autism spectrum disorder. Research in
RI
Barnes, T. N., Smith, S. W., & Miller, M. D. (2014). School-based cognitive-behavioral
SC
interventions in the treatment of aggression in the United States: A meta-analysis.
Bjorkqvist, K., & Varhama, L. (2001). Attidudes toward violent conflict resolution among
male and female karateka in comparison with practitioners of other sports. Perceptual
Burke, D. T., Al-Adawi, S., Lee, Y. T., & Audette, J. (2007). Martial arts as sport and
PT
Conant, K. D., Morgan, A. K., Muzykewicz, D., Clark, D. C., & Thiele, E. a. (2008). A
CE
karate program for improving self-concept and quality of life in childhood epilepsy:
AC
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2007.08.011
Cornet, L. J. M., De Kogel, C. H., Nijman, H. L. I., Raine, A., & Van Der Laan, P. H. (2015).
http://doi.org/10.1002/cbm
Dahlberg, L. L., & Potter, L. B. (2001). Youth violence. Developmental pathways and
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
http://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0749-3797(00)00268-3
Daniels, K., & Thornton, E. (1992). Length of training, hostility and the martial arts: a
comparison with other sporting groups. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 26(3), 118–
20. http://doi.org/10.1136/bjsm.26.3.118
Daniels, K., & Thornton, E. W. (1990). An analysis of the relationship between hostility and
PT
training in the martial arts. Journal of Sports Sciences, 8(2), 95–101.
RI
http://doi.org/10.1080/02640419008732137
SC
Delva-Tauiliili, J. (1995). Does brief Aikido training reduce aggression of youth? Perceptual
http://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750
MA
Diamond, A., & Lee, K. (2011). Interventions shown to aid executive function development
http://doi.org/10.1126/science.1204529
E
Southeastern University.
AC
http://doi.org/10.1002/1099-0798(200010)18:5<605::AID-BSL406>3.0.CO;2-0
Fonagy, P., Twemlow, S. W., Vernberg, E. M., Nelson, J. M., Dill, E. J., Little, T. D., &
http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.02025.x
Fuller, J. R. (1988). Martial arts and psychological health. British Journal of Medical
Gubbels, J., van der Stouwe, T., Spruit, A., & Stams, G. J. J. M. (2016). Martial arts
PT
Aggression and Violent Behavior. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2016.03.011
RI
Hasson-Ohayon, I., Kravetz, S., Roe, D., Rozencwaig, S., & Weiser, M. (2006). Qualitative
SC
assessment of verbal and non-verbal psychosocial interventions for people with severe
Hawkins, J. D., Catalano, R. F., Kosterman, R., Abbott, R., & Hill, K. G. (1999). Preventing
MA
Haydicky, J., Wiener, J., Badali, P., Milligan, K., & Ducharme, J. M. (2012). Evaluation of a
E
012-0089-2
Hernandez, J., & Anderson, K. B. (2015). Internal Martial Arts Training and the Reduction of
AC
Hostility and Aggression in Martial Arts Students. Psi Chi Journal of Psychological
Hoge, R. D., Vincent, G., & Guy, L. (2013). Bulletin 4: Prediction and Risk/Needs
Assessment (Study Group on the Transitions between Juvenile Delinquency and Adult
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
James, C., Stams, G. J. J. M., Asscher, J. J., De Roo, A. K., & der Laan, P. H. van. (2013).
Aftercare programs for reducing recidivism among juvenile and young adult offenders:
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2012.10.013
Jansen, P., & Dahmen-Zimmer, K. (2012). Effects of cognitive, motor, and karate training on
PT
cognitive functioning and emotional well-being of elderly people. Frontiers in
RI
Psychology, 3, 40–41. http://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00040
SC
Kreager, D. a. (2007). Unnecessary Roughness? School Sports, Peer Networks, and Male
Krug, E. G., Dahlberg, L. L., Mercy, J. A., Zwi, Anthony, B., & Lozano, R. (2002). World
MA
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15298158
D
Lakes, K. D. (2012). The Response to Challenge Scale (RCS): The development and
E
http://doi.org/10.14440/jbm.2015.54.A
Lakes, K. D., & Hoyt, W. T. (2004). Promoting self-regulation through school-based martial
AC
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2004.04.002
Lamarre, B. W., & Nosanchuk, T. A. (1999). Judo--the gentle way: a replication of studies on
martial arts and aggression. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 88(3 Pt 1), 992–6.
http://doi.org/10.2466/pms.1999.88.3.992
Laubacher, A., Rossegger, A., Endrass, J., Angst, J., Urbaniok, F., & Vetter, S. (2014).
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
http://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X13479935
Levy, F. (1988). Dance movement therapy: A healing art. Reston, VA: American Alliance for
PT
Lothes, J., Hakan, R., & Kassab, K. (2013). Aikido experience and its relation to
RI
mindfulness: A two-part study. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 116, 30–39.
SC
http://doi.org/10.2466/22.23.PMS.116.1.30-39
Marans, S., & Schaefer, M. (1998). Community policing, schools, and mental health: The
NU
challenge of collaboration. In D. Elliott, B. A. Hamberg, & K. R. Williams (Eds.),
http://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.100.4.674
PT
Mutz, M. (2012). Athletic Participation and the Approval and Use of Violence: A
CE
Nosanchuk, T. A. (1981). The Way of the Warrior: The Effects of Traditional Martial Arts
Nosanchuk, T. A., & MacNeil, M. L. C. (1989). Examination of the effects of traditional and
http://doi.org/10.1002/1098-2337(1989)15:2<153::AID-AB2480150203>3.0.CO;2-V
Palermo, M. T., & Forno, G. D. (2006). Behaviors and Karate- do : The Way of Crime
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
Raine, A., Portnoy, J., Liu, J., Mahoomed, T., & Hibbeln, J. R. (2015). Reduction in behavior
PT
http://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12314
RI
Reynes, E., & Lorant, J. (2002a). Effect of traditional judo training on aggressiveness among
SC
young boys. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 94(1), 21–25.
Reynes, E., & Lorant, J. (2002b). Karate and aggressiveness among eight-year-old boys.
NU
Perceptual and Motor Skills, 94, 1041–1042. http://doi.org/10.2466/pms.2002.94.3.1041
Reynes, E., & Lorant, J. (2004). Competitive martial arts and aggressiveness: a 2-yr.
MA
longitudinal study among young boys. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 98(1), 103–15.
http://doi.org/10.2466/pms.98.1.103-115
D
Ritter, M., & Low, K. G. (1996). Effects of dance/movement therapy: A meta-analysis. Arts
E
Rosenthal, R. (1991). Meta-analytic procedure for social research. Newbury Park: Sage
CE
Publications.
Roux, S., & Steyn, B. (2009). Aggression and psychological well-being of adolescent Tae
carlo comparison of statistical power and Type 1 error. Quality and Quantity, 31, 385–
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
399.
Satterthwaite, T. D., Wolf, D. H., Erus, G., Ruparel, K., Elliott, M. a, Gennatas, E. D., …
http://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2345-13.2013
Shadish, W. R., & Haddock, C. (1994). Combining estimates of effect size. In H. Cooper &
PT
L. V Hedges (Eds.), The handbook of research synthesis (pp. 261–281). New York:
RI
Russell Sage Foundation.
SC
Skelton, D. L., Glynn, M. a, & Berta, S. M. (1991). Aggressive behavior as a function of
Smith, E. P., Gorman-Smith, D., Quinn, W. H., Rabiner, D. L., Tolan, P. H., Winn, D.-M., &
MA
Groups to Prevent and Reduce Violent and Aggressive Behavior. American Journal of
D
http://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2003.09.018
PT
Theeboom, M., De Knop, P., & Wylleman, P. (2008). Martial arts and socially vulnerable
CE
youth. An analysis of Flemish initiatives. Sport, Education and Society, 13, 301–318.
http://doi.org/10.1080/13573320802200677
AC
Trulson, M. E. (1986). Martial Arts Training: A Novel “Cure” for Juvenile Delinquency.
Twemlow, S., Biggs, B. K., Nelson, T. D., Vernberg, E. M., Fonagy, P., & Twemlow, S. W.
http://doi.org/10.1002/pits.20344
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
Twemlow, S., & Sacco, F. C. (1998). The application of traditional martial arts practice and
Twemlow, S., Sacco, F. C., & Fonagy, P. (2008). Embodying the mind: Movement as a
Vertonghen, J., & Theeboom, M. (2010). The social-psychological outcomes of martial arts
practise among youth: A review. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, 9(4), 528–
PT
537.
RI
Weiser, M., Kutz, I., Kutz, S. J., & Weiser, D. (1995). Psychotherapeutic aspects of the
SC
Martial Arts. American Journal of Psychotherapy, 49(1), 118–127.
Zagar, R. J., Kovach, J. W., Ferrari, T., Joseph, S., Grove, W. M., Busch, K. G., … Zagar, A.
NU
K. (2013). Applying best treatments by using a regression equation to target violence-
http://doi.org/10.2466/03.16.49.CP.2.7
Zhou, Q., Hofer, C., Eisenberg, N., Reiser, M., Spinrad, T. L., & Fabes, R. A. (2007). The
D
369–385. http://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.43.2.369
CE
Ziaee, V., Lotfian, S., Amini, H., Mansournia, M.-A., & Memari, A.-H. (2012). Anger in
Adolescent Boy Athletes: a Comparison among Judo, Karate, Swimming and Non
AC
Zivin, G., Hassan, N. R., DePaula, G. F., Monti, D. a., Harlan, C., Hossain, K. D., &
Highlights
• Martial arts are a popular activity for youth worldwide
• Martial arts appear to be a worthwhile intervention in reducing aggressive behavior
• Current research in to martial arts is lacking in depth and quality
• This meta-analysis demonstrates that martial arts reduce externalizing behavior
• Further research is needed given the lack of RCTs on therapeutic martial arts
PT
RI
SC
NU
MA
E D
PT
CE
AC