CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

The issue of food security has been on the front burner for long and statements
about several countries in Africa that are food insecure. Food security, according to
FAO (1996, 2008a), exists when all people, at all times, have physical and
economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary
needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life. The definition of food
security as seen above consists of four dimensions namely; food accessibility,
availability, utilization and stability.

Food insecurity is a major problem facing the world. FAO (2017) estimated that
almost 1 billion people are chronically malnourished and food insecure around the
world. Most of these people are found in developing countries, especially in Asia
and Africa. According to African Food Security Briefs (AFSB, 2011),
approximately one-third of the people in sub-Saharan Africa are undernourished.
Shala and Stacey (2012) found out that the average amount of food available per
person per day in the region was 1,300 calories, compared to the worldwide
average of 2,700 calories. However, achieving sustainable economic development
in developing countries will continue to be a delusion without wellnourished and
healthy people. Food-secure people constitute a pool of potential that is capable of
transforming a nation into a developed state. However, this may not occur if their
health is compromised by nutritional deficiencies (Akerele et al., 2013).

Nigeria prides itself as the giant of Africa with the largest economy. Alas, it has
risen from a low poverty level status in the 1960s to become the country with the
highest poverty level in the world. Indeed, about 70% of Nigerians lived below the
poverty line in 2014 (Olawale, 2018). The food insecurity rate among rural people
and low-income urban households in Nigeria is 71% and 79%, respectively (Orewa
and Iyangbe, 2010; Akerele et al., 2013).

The Global Food Security Index (GFSI) of the Economist Intelligence Unit ranked
Nigeria 80th among 105 countries in terms of food affordability, availability and
quality. According to the Index, Nigeria recorded weak scores in the areas of
public expenditure on agricultural research and development (0.0); presence of
food safety net programs (0.0); gross domestic product per capita (3.0); proportion
of population under the global poverty line (9.6); food consumption as a share of
household expenditure (9.6); and protein quality (12.8) (Ahmed et al., 2015). As
pointed out by Matemilola and Elegbede (2017), food insecurity in Nigeria was
driven by insufficient food production, gender inequality, inefficient policies,
corruption, conflict, civil insecurity, climate change, natural disasters and low
technology for processing and storage.

Family crisis is an ulterior motive that motivates people within a family to have
misunderstanding among themselves. Family crisis is a group of people who are
related to each other by blood with ulterior motive. It is also a unit of blood entity
living without peace. Family crisis is one of the contemporarily issues bedeviling
the society today. Family crisis is a notable problem in the society that has created
a source of concern to many people in the society. Family crisis can occur as a
result of disagreement on the sharing of assets such as land property etc. the issue
of family crisis had become a problem associated with act of lawlessness of some
persons that has cause great effect or devastation such as killings, among brothers,
sisters, cousins and injustice. Family crisis has a lot of adverse effects but, it can be
addressed through understanding and respect for humanitarian laws and order.
Family crisis is a phenomenon that cannot be deleted in the society but can be
addressed with wisdom and experience Amadiali (2015).

1.2 Statement of the Problem

The issue of food security and its contribution to family crisis is a major concern in
Nigeria. This is particularly more among the rural households who have the highest
prevalence of under nutrition (Victoria and Benjamin, 2012). They also estimated
that about 66% of Nigeria’s population lives below poverty line as portrayed by
their level of food security. The connections among dwindling food production
capacity, rising food prices and dependency on food importation and the
consequence of food insecurity are nowhere more clearly demonstrated in recent
times than in household food crisis (Ojeleye et al., 2015). The issue of food
insecurity and how it affects family crisis therefore is a concern in Nigeria and
calls for continuous attention and strategy.

Food insecurity and malnutrition also have profound implication for health and
development, and present major obstacles to attaining the Sustainable
Development Goals (SDG’s). In Nigeria, understanding families– how much they
earn, what they eat, as well as broader question about the role food security plays
in livelihood outcomes is crucial to designing sustainable strategies to reduce
hunger, poverty, illness, and the occurrence of family crisis. In Nigeria, a Global
Food Security Index (GFSI) rank of 91st among 109 countries in 2015, together
with rising food prices, malnutrition and deaths as a result of wide-spread poverty
is an indication of the prevalence of food insecurity in the county. It is also a sign
of extreme suffering for millions of poor people as described by Global Hunger
Index Report of 2015. It is against this background that this research is undertaken
to analyze the effect of food insecurity on family crisis in Nigeria.
1.3         Objectives of the Study

The broad objective of this study is to analyze the effect of food insecurity on
family crisis in Nigeria. The specific objectives are to:

i. Describe the socio-economic characteristics of families in the study area;

ii. Examine the prevalence of food insecurity in the study area;
iii. Assess the expenditure pattern of households in the study area;
iv. Determine the food insecurity status of households;
v. Analyze the determinants of food insecurities in the study area; and
vi. Identify the various ways in which food insecurity contributes to family
crisis.

1.4 Research Questions

Based on the foregoing, the questions of interest in this research were as follows:

i. What is the socio-economic characteristics of families in the study area?

ii. How prevalent is food insecurity in the study area?
iii. What is the expenditure pattern of households in the study area?
iv. What is the food insecurity status of households?
v. What are the determinant factors of food insecurities in the study area?
vi. What are the various ways in which food insecurity contributes to family
crisis?
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 The concept of food security

The concept of food security has evolved since the 1974 world food conference. At
that time, discussion of food security focused on the supply of food at global and
national levels and more specifically on ability of different countries to obtain food
either through production, import or stock, or an adequate supply of food to feed
their population. This focused on national food security and however neglected the
fact that quite often countries did have adequate food supply at national levels and
still faced with widespread hunger (Corral et al., 2000). This conflicting scenario is
reflected and it brought about the definition used in the 1996 Rome declaration on
World Food Security which observed that food security exists when all people, at
all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food
to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life
(FAO, 2001). This definition clearly shows that there are some interrelationships
between access to food, availability of food as well as the biological utilization and
stability of food supply. Developing policies and interventions to increase food
security therefore requires an understanding of each of these factors, their
interrelationships and their relevance to particular group of people (FAO, 2004).
Having been defined as access by all peoples at all times to enough food for an
active and healthy life, food security is one of the several necessary conditions for
a population to be healthy and well nourished. Another definition given by the
National Special Programme on Food Security defines food security as the
physical availability and ability of individuals to have or afford food at a
reasonable cost (NFSP, 2001 as cited in Arene and Anyaeji, 2010).
United States Department of Agriculture (2000) defined food security as access by
all people at all times to enough food for an active, healthy life. Food security
includes at a minimum: (1) the ready availability of nutritionally adequate and safe
food, and (2) an assure ability to acquire acceptable foods in socially acceptable
ways (e.g. without resorting to emergency food supplies, scavenging, stealing, or
other coping strategies). Similarly, FAO committee on world food security sees it
as a situation where all people at all times have both physical and economic access
to the basic food they need (FAO, 2005). Bergeron, (2001) define food security as
availability and access to food by all at all times. This definitional framework
implies that food security constitutes a number of elements and they are food
availability, accessibility and utilization of food. Food availability implies
sufficient quantities of appropriate, necessary type of food from domestic
production, commercial imports or donors are consistently available to the
individuals or are within reasonable proximity to them or are within their reach.
Food accessibility exists when individuals have adequate incomes to purchase or
barter to obtain levels of appropriate food needed to maintain consumption of
adequate diet/nutrition level. Food utilization however means that food is properly
used; proper food processing and storage techniques are employed; adequate
knowledge and nutrition and child care techniques exists and is applied; and
adequate health and sanitation services exist (USAID, 1992).

Analysis of food security can be conducted at different conceptual levels: regions,

countries, households and individuals. Much analysis of the topic has focused on
the macro levels. Food production in their region as a whole and in most of its
countries fall far short of food requirements making it necessary for most countries
to turn to imports for a large share of domestic food consumption. As a result, the
ability of most countries to maintain national food security depends on import
capacity. On the micro level, food security depends on the ability of individual
households to meet their food requirements (Lofgren and Richards, 2003).
Recognizing the main problem of food security is lack of access rather than
aggregate shortage of food supplies, focus on food security has since the world
food conference of 1974 moved from global and national definition of food
security used in the 1996 Rome declaration on world food security which observed
that food security exist when all people at all times, have physical and economic
access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food
preferences for an active and healthy life (FAO, 2001). This definition clearly
shows that there are some interrelationships between availability to food, access to
food as well as biological utilization and stability of food supply. Developing
policies and interventions to increase food security therefore requires an
understanding of each of these factors, their interrelationships and their relevance
to a particular group of people (FAO, 2004). Food security is a measure of a
household condition. Therefore not all individuals in a food insecure or hungry
household are food insecure. The issue is especially important for young children
who are often shielded from even the most severe forms of food insecurity and
hunger.

2.2 Food insecurity

Food insecurity refers to limited or uncertain physical and economic access to

secure sufficient quantities of nutritionally adequate and safe food in socially
acceptable ways to allow household members to sustain active and productive
living (Ijarotimi and Odeyemi, 2012; FAO, 1996). By this definition, household
food insecurity has two broad components: insufficient access to nutritionally
adequate and safe food supply at the household level and inadequate utilization of
these foods by household members (Ijarotimi and Odeyemi, 2012). Another
definition given by the Life Sciences and Research Office (LSRO, 1990) of the
Federation of American Societies of Experimental Biology, defines food insecurity
as limited or uncertain availability of nutritionally adequate and safe foods or
limited or uncertain ability to acquire acceptable foods in socially acceptable ways.
Food insecurity exists when people lack sustainable physical or economic access to
enough safe, nutritious, and socially acceptable food for a healthy and productive
life. Food insecurity may be chronic, acute or transitory. Chronic food insecurity
occurs when people are unable to meet their minimum food requirements over a
sustained period of time. It is long term or persistent in nature and often the result
of extended period of poverty, lack of assets and inadequate access to productive
or financial resources. It can be overcome with long-term developmental measures
such as education or access to productive resources like credit. Acute or transitory
food insecurity refers to sudden drop in the ability to produce or access enough to
maintain a good nutritional status. It is short-term and temporary in nature and
primarily caused by shortterm stocks and fluctuations in food availability and food
access including year-to year variations in domestic food production, food prices
and household incomes. It is relatively unpredictable and emerges suddenly. Food
insecurity and malnutrition results in catastrophic amounts of human suffering
including childhood deaths and rendering children weak, vulnerable and less able
to fight such common diseases as diarrhea, acute respiratory infections, malaria
and measles (Feeding America, 2015).

2.3 Causes of food insecurity

A clear and deeper awareness of the real causes of hunger and malnutrition in poor
countries is imperative to enable policy makers make necessary arrangement at the
grassroots level for appropriate policy measures and development programmes
designed to alleviate poverty and ensure food security (Gebremedhin, 2000).
One of the greatest causes of poor nutrition among the rural populace in Nigeria is
seasonal hunger (Akanji, 1993). Pervasive poverty among the rural population in
Nigeria is an indication of low agricultural productivity and relatively low income.
This connotes that the poor farmers will have little access to food, either produced
or purchased. Farm families with limited access to productive resources such as
land, inputs and capital, required for attaining physical efficiency in food
production could be food insecure i.e. resource poverty could lead to low
productivity, food insufficiency and lack of income to purchase needed calories
(Obamiro et al., 2003)

Food availability may be constrained by inappropriate agricultural knowledge,

technology, policies, inadequate agricultural inputs and family size among others.
On the other hand access to food and its utilization could be constrained by
economic growth, lack of job opportunities, lack of credit, inadequate training and
knowledge, etc. (Hoddinott, 2001).

Production and price fluctuations, whether in food or non food items, which leads
to fluctuation in real income and ultimately having impact on household food
consumption are categorized as the two main causes of food insecurity. The root
problem of inadequate access to food is poverty, which is the result of failure of
the economic system to generate sufficient income and distribute it broadly enough
to meet household basic needs of people (Jayne et al., 1994).

The United Nations (2005) observed that growing populations and poor
agricultural productivity have been the major reason for food shortages in Sub-
Saharan Africa and Southern Asia. This may be responsible for the chronic food
insecurity that is prevalent in these regions whose populations are predominantly
rural and largely depends on agriculture for living.
2.4 Consequences of food insecurity

Food insecurity and malnutrition causes great amounts of human suffering. The
World Health Organization estimates that approximately 60 percent of all
childhood deaths in the developing world are associated with chronic hunger and
malnutrition. In developing countries, persistent malnutrition leaves children weak,
vulnerable and less able to fight such common diseases as diarrhea, acute
respiratory infections, malaria and measles. Even children who are mildly to
moderately malnourished are at greater risk of dying from these common diseases.
In the United States, malnourished children suffer from higher rates of illness such
as cold, headaches and fatigue.

Adolescents and adults also suffer adverse effects of food insecurity and
malnutrition. Malnutrition can lead to decreased energy levels, delayed maturation,
growth failure, impaired cognitive ability, diminished capacity to learn, decreased
ability to resist infections and illnesses, shortened life expectancy, increased
maternal mortality and low birth weight.

Hamelin et al. (1999) reported that food insecurity may also result in severe social
and psychological consequences. Food insecure individuals may manifest feelings
of alienation, powerlessness, stress and anxiety and they may experience reduced
productivity, reduced work and school performance, and reduced income earnings.
Household dynamics may become disrupted because of preoccupation with
obtaining food which may lead to anger, pessimism and irritability. Adverse
consequence for children include: higher levels of aggressive and destructive
behavior, hyperactivity, anxiety, difficulty with social interaction, increased
passivity, increased school absences and greater need for mental healthcare
services.
 Diouf (2005) observed that poor nutrition for women is one of the damaging
outcomes of gender inequality. It undermines women’s health, stunts the
opportunities for education an employment and impedes progress towards gender
inequality and empowerment of women (MDG 3). He also observed that under the
burden of chronic poverty and hunger, livestock herders, subsistence farmers,
forest dwellers and fisher folk may use their natural environment in unsustainable
ways leading to further deterioration of their livelihood conditions. Empowering
the poor and the hungry as the custodians of land, waters, forests and biodiversity
can advance both food security and environmental sustainability.

Malnutrition and hunger, particularly during early fetal development and early
childhood, is the root cause of multi-generational downward spiral of poor health,
poor performance in school and on the job, family stress and instability, lower
income and unsustainable cost to a nation’s economy (Feeding America, 2015).

2.5 Concept of Family and Family Crisis

A family is a group of people who are related to each other by blood or marriage. It
is the smallest unit of every community Amadiali (2015). There are rules and
regulation controlling the activities of members of a family and each member has
his or her right and responsibility in the family, children look up to their parents as
example and try to put up behaviours as taught by parents. Usually in a family, the
father is the head while the mother assists him. They live together in a house or
compound and co-operate when carrying out activities such as cooking, caring for
the young ones.

2.5.1 Types of Family Crisis

Charles (2014) identified the following as types of land dispute, lack of finance,
infidel, communication gap, drunkenness, unproductiveness etc.
Land disputes: Peter (2013), indicated that land disputes is the most common
family crisis in the society. He stressed that land dispute is unavoidable issue in the
family.

Lack of finance: Badey (2016), advocated that lack of finance in the family can
cause family crisis and make man and woman to live in crisis.

Infidelity: Chi (2015), opined that infidelity is the primary cause of family crisis.
It is asituation where a man or woman place themselves in prostitution or flirt
which is against the tenet of family law.

Drunkenness: Pedro (2015), asserted that drunkenness is one of the major

problem of family crisis. This is a situation where a man or woman exhibit habit of
drinking without minding his/her family.

Unproductive: Angel (2016), advocated that unproductiveness is one of the major

challenges facing man and woman in the society that can cause family crisis

Communication gap: Abigail (2015), opined that communication gap among sex
can cause family crisis. This type of family crisis can result to divorce among
couples because of habitual conflict which emanated from lack of understanding
among themselves. Communication gap among sex is very indecorous and can as
well create tension, antagonism, suspicion, poor educational background to the
offsprings, poor family growth and low self esteem.

2.5.2 Causes of Family Crisis

The causes of family crisis are associated with the following factors; lack of
understanding, laziness, negative thoughts, frustration, poverty and poor planning.

Lack of understanding
This can be defined as understanding attached with ill or erroneous idea or
thoughts. Benjamin (2015), stated in his findings that ill-understanding in the
family can cause family crisis which portend danger to the marital affairs. He
opined that poor understanding can throw a family into regret or coerce.

Laziness

This can be defined as a situation where family exhibit inability in handling the
affairs of the family. Laziness can cause family crisis in the society. Laziness can
as well be seen as inability to function as a resource person to the family Okoto
(2014). He opined that weakness of sex to uphold the fundamental right of human
sustainability in the family as a result of laziness will be prone to nervousness and
daily challenges such as proper feeding, clothing and other needed familys’
requirement.

Negative thought

People of these days believed they can advise themselves and get it right in life
without consulting others. It is unfair for an individual to conclude that he or she
knows everything. Above all, a family that ignored seeking God face for advise is
bound to face family crisis.

Frustration

This can be defined as a feeling of disappointment or defeat at being unable to

actualize family dreams or purpose as planned. Jacob (2013), indicated in his
findings that a family that fails to plan effectively has planned to fail and it can
result to family crisis.

Poverty
Adalu (2013), asserts that poverty is one of the contemporarily issue that has
subjected many persons to family crisis thereby leading to divorce and defamation
of persons character in the society. Majority of the families today are in crisis
because of poverty which is a notable social scourge in the society.

Poor planning

Abina (2016), advocated that family the architect of their fortune and also better
tomorrow depends on the families effort. He stated that families should be prudent
in planning to avoid consequences of regret in life. He also stated that life full of
ups and downs. Poor planning can also be seen as the root cause of frustration
within the family. Poor planning among the sex in the family can result to poor
feeding, poor performance of children academic pursuit, difficulties, humiliation,
disrespect and misfortune. Oporoma (2016), opined that poor planning can result to
absolute failure of the family in the areas of employment, societal recognition and
educational attainment.

2.6 The Effect of the Conflicts on the Couples, Siblings and Society

We have to be realistic and also recognise that disagreements are part of marriage.
Two strong independent personalities will not flow together without causing some
turbulence. This holds true for both Christian and non-Christian couples, whether
educated or uneducated. These conflicts are not necessarily bad or sinful. The
determining factor is how the spouses themselves are handle them. If a conflict is
used constructively then it can strengthen and solidify a marriage covenant. But if
the reverse reaction is the case then the couples, children and the society at large
experience the negative effect. Conflicts denote a drawback in marriage
relationship and the lingering effect of marital conflicts is divorce. When conflict
results in divorce the effect is felt beyond the spouses themselves who are the main
players (Makinde 1999) and Bulus 1986).

Divorce as opined by Parkykel (1969) and Weiss (1975) is a collapse of one’s

marriage world. At the point the couples resort to separation or divorce, there is
bound to be multiple devastating effect on the entire family ranging from the wife,
husband and children of the broken family. The crumbs from such collapse are
many, some of which are as follows:

2.6.1 Loss of Prestige

Marriage, culturally, is a statutory requirement by every fullgrown adult and if this

privilege is deprived, the parties involved may lose their prestigious status in the
society they belong. The society at large often time resents the status of couples
from broken home. The frustration from such resentments begets low self-esteem
and faulty socialisation and eventually affects the children’s adjustment in the
teaching/learning process. Denga (2005) observed that the human family is
designed to serve as a sanctuary, a place of peace and stability where mutual live
should prevail. It is meant to be a vehicle for transmitting family and consequently
societal values. It is meant to bring up children in the best and most acceptable
ways. For example, the crime diary as produced by the Divisional Police Officer
(DPO) in Obudu, one of the Local Governments in the study area affirms that most
inmates in detention have the history of broken homes or parents living at different
geographical locations.

2.6.2 Stigmatisation

Divorce or separation has a negative effect on the children of the spouse especially
the females. There is a popular adage. “Show me your friend and let me tell you
who you are”. This simply implies in this context that if one’s mother cannot be a
good housewife, what magic can one do to have a successful marriage since there
was no model to imitate. Denga (2005) still insist that family conflict generates
societal conflict, which leads to national conflict. Bad children from the family are
launched into society with their enormous pollution. Although it does not always
follow yet it cannot be absolute. The impression formed on such family members
leaves a stigma on such children, hence no sane man wishes to have a broken
marriage stigma.

2.6.3 Sense of Insecurity

Marriage stability goes with a lot of security cover on the spouse but where there is
instability, the couples experience or suffer a sense of insecurity and rejection.
Mallum (1997) believes that the idealistic goal of marriage is building social
security around the spouse, but today, this security has turned out to be positive
only in rare instances due to the so-called women liberation. The women now feel
that they have gained independence, which contradicts the Biblical injunction of
women acting as helpmates to their spouses.

2.6.4 Delinquency

Love is one of the fundamental requirements and the basis a happy marriage. If
couples get married without necessarily considering this prerequisite to a
successful marriage, then the relationship is crash-bound, Obudho (1983) affirms
that, most times people marry for money, companionship status and other reasons
that do not include the concept of love, and so they lose their marital status almost
immediately the money is no longer there. Usually, when a dignified marriage
relationship breaks, either of the parties develops a negative concept, which could
lead to exhibition of excessive diligence in their disposition to others and
proneness to adjusted behaviour.
2.6.5 Pervasive Sadness

Marriage could result in conflict if marriage guides were not properly followed or
taken note of on inchoation of the union. If conflicts could not be resolved, one of
the couples badly hurt, could live in pevasive SADNESS. This is a situation where
a man or woman no longer enjoys the place of happiness but is perpetual agony
and sadness and also becomes irritable to any recreational activities or stress-free
participation.

2.6.6 Poor Upbringing

The children from divorced homes often observe some kind of confusion as they
relate within their separated parents. They shuttle between their parents relocated
hostile residence being conditioned in each against the other. Sometimes, it
becomes mandatory to spend part of their time with either the mother or father
intermittently.

Cox and Cox (1975), and Denga (2005) observe that frequently, each parent seeks
to make the child a spy on the activities of the other for a price. With little tips on
either way the child is induced to find out how the “mother spends her alimony or
private lifestyle” or whether the father seems to have plenty of money and a lady-
friend. In the process, these young children’s loyalty is bound to fluctuate
depending on the highest bidder. The unfortunate experience of children being
“bought over” by their parents may also affect their sense of moral behaviour I
other spheres of life? E.g. the children may have been made to become inclined to
collecting of bribes. The habit formed developed into a chronic one where they
can’t achieve academically only through sorting the teachers or lecturers as the
case may be and the negative fallout may keep such children miserable. They stand
starkly exposed to fear, loneliness and uncertainty.
2.6.7 Low Commitment to Marriage of Children from Divorced Homes

Several studies have indicated that children from separated unions hardly enjoy a
successful married life. Gleen and Shetion (1983), note thus: persons whose
parents are divorced are more likely to have a collapsed relationship than persons
from stable married homes. One can deduce here that the former grows up without
the opportunity of having parents to oversee their day-to-day performance of the
role of husband or wife. Lack of adequate parental support after marriage. In fact,
lack of sample model for growing couples will throw them off the track of
achieving successful marriages.
 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research Design

According to Eze and Agbo (2015), research design is the specification of

procedures for collecting and analyzing the data necessary to help solve the
problem at hand, such that the difference between the cost and obtaining the
various levels of accuracy and the expected value of information associated with
each level of accuracy is maximized. It is a model or proof that allows for
inferences to be drawn by the researcher concerning causal relation among the
variables under investigation the research instrument used to carry out this study is
the questionnaire. The research therefore, adopted the survey method in data
collection. It is used to obtain the peoples opinion through questionnaire.

3.2 Sources of Data

To every research work, there is always a reliable source from which data are
collected. The two sources of data available to the researcher are listed and
explained below:

3.2.1 Primary Sources of Data

Primary sources of data is defined by Bordens and Abbott (2010), as those data
containing the full research report including all details necessary to duplicate the
study. Primary data are first hand data obtained from the source regarded as the
original. They are usually collected for specific purposes. The source guarantees
the authenticity of information required is obtained. The primary data used in this
research was gathered from the questionnaire.
3.2.2 Secondary Sources of Data

These are data collected from other sources other than the primary Source other
than the primary source. It covers published materials and information gathered by
other agencies for their own purposes but which incidentally is of use to the
researcher. It includes textbooks, websites, journals and lecture notes etc as it is
being used for this work.

3.3 Area of the Study

The area of the study covered the staff of Nigerian Breweries Plc, located in Ama
Eke in Udi local government area of Enugu state.

3.4 Population of the Study

Malhotra and Birks (2016), defined population as the group of elements that
possess the information sought and about which inferences will be made. The
population, as far as this research is concerned, embodied both administrative and
normal staff members of Nigerian Breweries Plc Enugu.

3.5 Sample Size Determination

A sample size is a subset of the population. In research, a sample size is drawn

through a definite procedure from selecting specifically valid samples as well as
generalizing from such samples to the total population. The sample size is
determined using Taro Yamare (1962) formula of finite population.

Formula n= N

1+N(e)2

Where:

n= sample
N= population

e= level of significance or error = 0.05 or 5%

Df= degree of freedom= (r-1) (c-1)

1= constant

n= 60

e= 0.05

60

1+60(0.05)2

n= 60

1+60(0.0025)

n= 60 = 52

1.15

n= 52

Sample size was distributed to each departments using Bowley’s proportional

method or formula.

Formula = NH x n

Where nh= population of each department

n= sample size of the study

N= total population
Therefore, the allocation will be as follows;

Department Population Sample size

Administration 18 18(52)/60=16

Brewing 12 12(52)/60=10

Sales 10 10(52)/60=9

Finance 8 8(52)/60=7

Marketing 12 12(52)/60=10

Total 60 52

3.6 Instrument for Data Collection

The research tool used for data collection was questionnaires. The questionnaire
covered all the necessary information needed for the study. The developed
questionnaires were distributed to and retrieved from the respondents in person.
This process of distribution and retrieving of the questionnaires in person was
taken for two reasons as suggested by Ahadzie (2017) and cited in Danso (2010),
first, to make sure that the questionnaires get to the intended recipients and
secondly, to help improve the response rate. In all, some of the questionnaires were
collected back on the same day while others were collected later from the
respondent.
3.7 Methods of Data Analysis

After the responses were gathered, every type of data relating to the questions were
separated and gathered to answer different research objectives. The information
received were classified into answer categories and expressed as percentage
frequencies. The research methodology that was used is quantitative. Statistical
Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) was used for the analysis.
 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Summary

This study generally aimed at analyzing food insecurity and family crisis. The
study used household expenditure and consumption surveys containing both
objective (quantitative) and subjective (qualitative) information on the same
household potentially provides a valuable data for the analysis and determination
of the level of food security.

The subjective (qualitative) method contains eleven questions that provide detailed
information about the experiences of household members as it pertains to a
household’s inability to meet basic food needs due to financial constraints. The
objective (quantitative) method provides data on monthly household expenditure
on basic food items that are found in the localities. The study also used
multivariate regressions (Probit) models to determine which socioeconomic
characteristics are associated with perceptions of subjective food adequacy. Thus a
positive coefficient of a given explanatory variable can be interpreted as being
associated with a higher probability of food adequacy.

The estimated model indicates that the independent variables explain a larger part
(45 per cent) of the variation in food adequacy perception. A number of factors
such as assets, income, and occupation level of education, gender, family size
indicators are correlated with perceptions of greater food adequacy. However,
differences in Religion, Age of Household Head, do not appear to influence
Perceptions of food adequacy significantly.
5.2 Conclusion

In this study, a series of questions and hypotheses related to family structures and
both household and individual-level food security outcomes were explored. These
questions were examined using two rounds of World Bank Living Standards
Measurement Survey data from Nigeria. Analyses at the household level involved
the use of a correlated random effects model, while a pooled OLS and household
fixed effects models were employed for the individual level analyses.

First, the relationship between household-level food security and family crisis was
explored, and the degree to which it is mediated by household wealth, size, and
livelihood. Some evidence was found in support of the posited pathways.
Individual level mechanisms were then explored, and the study examined whether
mother’s status as monogamous versus polygynous related systematically to family
stability. Although preliminary evidence indicated better stability in monogamous
households, this was not supported by the empirical analysis. Controlling for
unobserved household characteristics, using a household fixed effect model, there
is significant difference in household food security and the occurrence of family
crisis.

5.3 Recommendations for Policy;

Having found the presence of food insecurity, In the following, we recommend

measures for managing threats related to the availability, access, and utilization of
food, which constitute the core of food security;

Food Availability: Measures for stabilizing food availability should aim at

ensuring the supply of nutritionally adequate food. This stability can be achieved
through local production; domestic food stocks changes and concessional food
imports (where necessary). Measures for improving domestic production include
investments in irrigation, research into drought/pest resistant varieties and
encouraging farm level transfer of new technologies. These also include the
provision of effective agricultural extension services addressing longer-term food
production policies, Promote rural development and farm/non-farm linkages,
Empower women and other marginalized groups, Formal/Informal loans, Disease
control and Immunization as well as rehabilitating agricultural activities
aftershocks affecting production. A range of measures relate to the capacity of the
market to respond to supply fluctuations are important. This includes efforts to
improve the longer-term performance of input/output markets through
infrastructural development aimed at increasing spatial market integration and the
development of information systems to increase market transparency and allow a
more efficient spread of supply shocks.

Food Access: Measures for managing access to food aim at ensuring that
households are able to meet food consumption needs should be put in place. This
requires measures that stabilize households’ purchasing power/consumption ability
through assets management and by stabilizing income flows and/or stabilizing food
prices. This is in particular achieved through financial instruments, diversifying
income and livelihood activities, increasing the returns to livelihood activities,
asset sales, and safety net programmes. Formal and informal insurance, savings
and consumption credit are financial instruments used for smoothening
consumption. Income diversification can also be used for mitigating risks. Thus
Safety net programmes, such as investment in education, special assistance to aged
people (the most vulnerable group), public employment programmes, food
subsidies and school feeding, transferring payments to households, be it cash, food
or other commodities, can be used to maintain a minimum nutritionally adequate
food consumption level and at the same time help to avoid households eroding
their asset base.

Food Utilization: Risk management measures related to proper food utilization

which evolve around protecting health status of individuals should be maintained.
The measures are concerned with improving nutrition and healthcare practices,
health service delivery, ensuring access to safe water and sanitation, but also with
protection of food quality and safety. Promotions of good nutritional practices,
including safe food handling and the awareness of balanced diets, together with
simple information on how to avoid or treat basic diseases like diarrhea, typhoid
etc, all assist in maintaining individual health.
Adedeji, A. (1989), Interaction between Structuralism, Structural Adjustment and
Food Security Policies in Development Policy Management, ECDPM Occasional
Paper Maastricht.

Africa Leadership Forum, (1989) The Challenges of Agricultural Production and

Food Security in Africa, Report of a Conference 27 – 30 July 1989, Ota, Nigeria.

Aku P.S. (2012) Agriculture, Population Explosion and implication for Nigerian
Economy; Unpublished, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria.

Alamgir, M., and P. Arora, (1991) Providing Food Security for All, International
Fund for Agricultural Development, New Yorth University Press, USA.

Amiti, M., (1982) “Food Security and Shortage Policies.”Proceedings of the

workshop on Food Policy Research Priorities, held in Nairobi 14 – 17 June, 1982.

Ayantoye K., YusufS.A, OmononaB.T AndAmaoJ.O (2011). Food Insecurity

Dynamics and its Correlates among Rural Households in South Western Nigeria.
International Journal of Agricultural Economics and Rural Development. – 4 (1)
43-55

Babatunde R.O., Omotesho O.A. and Sholotan O.S. (2007) Socio Economic
Characteristics of
Food Security Status of Farming Household in Kwara State, North Central Nigeria
Pakistan Journal of Nutrition 6(1): 49-58

Ballenger, N. and C. Mabbs-Zeno, (1990) “Targeting Food Security and Food Aid
Issues at the GATT,” National Centre for Food and Agricultural Policy,
Discussion Paper series no FAP90-07, April.

Bapma, S.L., (1990) “Food security through the PDS: the Indian experience” in
D.S. Tyagi and V.S. Vyas, (eds) Increasing Access to Food: The Asian
Experience: Sage Publications, New Delhi and London.

Barraclough, S., and P. Utting, (1987) “Food Security Trends and Prospects in
Latin America, “ Working Paper no 99, Helen Kellog Institute for
International Studies, University of Notre Dame, USA.

Barraclough, S.L., and M.F. Scott, (1988) “The Rich Have Already Eaten…”
Roots of Catastrophe in Central America, Working Paper no 105,
HelenKellog Institute for International Studies, University of Notre Dame,
USA, January.

Basudeb Guha-Khasnobis, Shabd S. Acharya, and Benjamin Davis (2007).Food

Security

Indicators, Measurement, and the Impact of Trade Openness.Oxford

university press.
Benson, C., E.J. Clay and R.H. Green, (1986) Food security in Sub-Saharan Africa,
IDS, University of Sussex, Brighton.

Bickel, et al: 2000. Guide to Measuring Household Food Security, Revised 2000.
U.S.

Department of Agriculture, Food and Nutrition Service, Alexandria VA.

March,

Cathie, J., and H. Dick, (1987) Food Security and Macroeconomics Stabilization:
A Case Study of Botswana 1965 – 1984Institute fur Welwirtschaftan der
Universitat Kiel, Tubingen.

Central Bank of Nigeria Statistical Bulletin 2011

Chishom, A.H., and R. Tyers, (eds) (11982) “Introduction and overview,” Food
Security: Theory, Policy, and Perspectives from Asia and the Pacific Rim,
Lexington Books, Massachusetts.

Christian RomerLøvendal and Marco Knowles (2007),Tomorrow’s Hunger: A

Framework for Analysing Vulnerability to Food Security.Oxford
universityPress.
Clay, E., S. Jones, A. Rahman and Q. Shahabuddin, (1988) “Introduction” in Food
Strategies in Bangladesh, Proceedings of a Seminar held in Dhaka 8 – 10
October, and jointly sponsored by the Government of Bangladesh and the
Commission of the European Communities, University Press Ltd.

Economic Commission for Africa, (1991) Regional Cooperation in Food Security,

Paper presented to the Symposium on Food Security in Africa, Dakar.

Emmanuel O. Eyo. 2008. Macroeconomic Environment and Agricultural Sector

Growth in Nigeria. World journal of Agricultural sciences 4(6): 781-
786

Falcon, W.P., C.T. Kurien, F. Monckeberg, A.P. Okeyo, S.O. Olayide, F. Rabar
and W. Tims,

(1987) “The world food and hunger problem; changing perspectives and
possibilities, 1974 – 84” in J.P. Gittinger, J. Leslie and C. Hoisington (eds),
Food Policy: Integrating Supply, Distribution and Consumption, John
Hopkins Univeristy Press, Baltimore and London.

FAO, (1981) Agriculture: Toward 2000, FAO, Rome.

FAO, (1988) “Agricultural policies, protectionism and trade: selected working

papers, 1985 – 1987,” FAO Economic and Social Development Paper No 75,
FAO, Rome.
Fakayode S.B., Rahji M.A.Y, Oni O.A. and Adeyemi M.O., (2009). An
Assessment of Food Security Situations of Farm Households in Nigeria: A
USDA Approach. Medwell Journals, of Social Sciences 4 (1): 24-29

Gina Kennedy, (2003) Food Security in the context of urban sub-Saharan Africa.
Food Agricultural Organization.

Gujarati, D.N. and Porter, D.C (2009) “Basic Economics” fifth edition, New

Isaac Akinyele (2009) Ensuring food and nutrition in rural areas; an assessment of
the challenges, information need and analytical capacity. International Food
Policy Research Institute(IFPRI)

Isaac N. Luginaahand Ernest K. Yanful. Environment and Health in Sub-Saharan

Africa:

Managing an Emerging Crisis. Selected Papers from ERTEP 2007, July 17-19
2007, Ghana,

Africa

Israel, D. G. (2009) “Determining Sample Size”. University of Florida, USA.

Kennes, W. (1990) “The European Community and food security,” IDS Bulletin,
vol 21 no 3, Institute of Development Studies, Brighton.
Kenya, Republic of, (1982) “The concept of food security and how it relates to
Kenya,” Proceedings of the workshop on Food Policy Research Priorities
held in Nairobi, 14 – 17 June, 1982.

Kracht, U., (1981) “Food security for people in the 1980s, “Paper prepared for
discussion at the North – South Food Roundtable Meeting, Washington.

Manyong, V.M., A. Ikpi, J.K. Olayemi, S.A. Yusuf, B.T. Omonona, V. Okoruwa,
and F.S. Idachaba. 2005. Agriculture in Nigeria: identifying opportunities for
increased commercialization and investment .IITA, Ibadan, Nigeria. 159p

Mauro M., Benjamin D., Calogero C., and Kathleen B. (2007) Measuring Food
Security Using Respondents’ Perception of Food Consumption
Adequacy .Oxford University press.

Prahadeeswaran M., Ramasamy C. and Selvaraj K.N., (2005) Food Security and
Efficacy of the Intervention Mechanism in India. Poster paper prepared for
presentation at the International Association of Agricultural Economists
Conference, Gold Coast, Australia.
Maxwell, S., J. Swift and Buchanan – Smith M (1990) “Is food security targeting
possible in sub-Saharan Africa? Evidence from North Sudan,” IDS Bulletin,
vol 21 no 3, Institute of Development Studies, University of Sussex

Mellor, J., (1988) “Global food balances and food security,” World Development,
vol 16 no 9, pp 997-1011.

Muhammad, A., (1987) “Present Situation and Future Outlook for food security in
the Muslim World,” in food security in the Muslim World, proceedings of
the seminar on food security in the Muslim world, organized by the Islamic
Academy of Sciences, Amman, Jordan, 5 – 7 December.

Nanama, S. and Karim S. (2007) Brief: Comparison of Two Methods for

Measuring Household Food security and vulnerabity- evidenvce
form Zondoma Food security initiative Burkina Faso Africare food
security reviews Washington DC, Africare/Headquarters.

National Population Commission (2012) Bulletin

Obayelu A. E. (2010) Classification of households into food security status in the

north-central Nigeria: an application of Rasch measurement model. ARPN Journal
of Agricultural and Biological Science. 3: 26-41
Omotesho O. A.; Adewumi M. O., Muhammad-Lawal A. and. Ayinde O. E (2006)
Determinants of Food Security Among The Rural Farming Households in
Kwara State, Nigeria.African Journal of General Agriculture. Volume 2, No
1,

Omotesho O. A. and Muhammad-Lawal A. (2010)Optimal Food Plan for Rural

Households’

Food Security in Kwara State, Nigeria: The Goal Programming Approach.

Journal of Agricultural Biotechnology and Sustainable Development Vol.
2(1) pp. 007-014,

Omonona B. T. and Agoi, G. A. (2007) Journal of Central European Agriculture

Volume 8, No. 3 (397-406).

Orewa S.I and. Iyangbe C.O. (2009)The Food Insecurity Profile among the Rural
and Low- Income Urban Dwellers in Nigeria. American-Eurasian Journal of
Scientific Research 4 (4): 302-307.

Reutlingen, S., (1977) “Food insecurity: magnitude and remedies, “World Bank
Staff Working Paper no 267, World Bank, Washington DC

Risikat O. and Dauda S. (2010) Women’s Status, Household Food Security and
Coping
 Strategies in Nigeria: A Survey Based Analysis. Pakistan Journal of Social
Sciences. Volume: 7 No.: 262-268

Robert Paarlberg, (2010) Food Politics What Everyone Needs To Know? Oxford
university press

Smith L. C., and Ali S.(2007) Measuring Food Security Using Household
Expenditure Surveys. Food Security in Practice technical guide series
Washington, D.C.: International Food Policy Research Institute.

Steffen A. and Edgar T. (2006) The Niger food crisis: causes and implications for
research and development from an integrated agricultural economics
Perspective. Contributed paper prepared for presentation at the International
Association of Agricultural Economists Conference, Gold Coast, Australia,
August 12-18.

Stryker J. D., (1978) “Food security, self-sufficiency, and economic growth in the
Sahelian countries of west Africa” prepared for USAID from food research
institute, Stanford university.

Sumiter S. Broca, (2002) Food Insecurity, Poverty and Agriculture: A Concept

Paper, The

Food and Agriculture Organization: ESA Working Paper No. 02-15

UNFPA (2012) Population Projection in Nigeria

UNICEF (2012) demographic and health surveys in Nigeria

Vasco M. (2007) Food Security in Vietnam during the 1990s: The Empirical
Evidence, Oxford University Press.

Webb P. and Beatrice R. (2003) .Addressing the “In” in Food Insecurity.

Washington, DC: Food and Nutrition Technical Assistance Project,
Academy for Educational Development,
A. BIO DATA

1. Gender: Male { } Female { }

2. Occupation: Civil Servant { } Farming { }

Trading/Commerce { }

3. Level of Education: Primary Cert { } SSCE { }

Diploma/NCE { } HND/BSc { } MSc/PhD { }

4. Religion: Islam { } Christianity { } Others { }

5. Number of Children: 1–7{ } 8 and above { }

6. Location: Rural { } Urban { }

7. Monthly Income: N20000 - N25000 { } N25001 - N30000 { }

N30001 and above { }

8. Age: 18 – 45 { } 46 and above { }

9. Assets: Farmland { } Animals { } Shops { } Others { }

B. Food intake questions

10. In the last 12 months, did you or other members in your household ever cut
the size of your meals or skip meals because there wasn’t enough money for food?

Yes { } No { }

11. In the last 12 months, did you or other members in your household ever not eat
for a whole day because there wasn’t enough money for food?

Yes { } No { }

12. In the last 12 months, did any of the children ever skip a meal because there
wasn’t enough money for food?

Yes { } No { }
13. In the last 12 months, did you ever eat less than you felt you should because
there wasn’t enough money to buy food?

Yes { } No { }

14. In the last 12 months, were you ever hungry but didn’t eat because you
couldn’t afford enough food?

Yes { } No { }

15. Sometimes couples experience crisis and misunderstanding because they don’t
have enough to eat.

Yes { } No { }

16. In the last 12 months, did you ever have and argument or quarrel with your
spouse because of insufficient supply of food in the family?

Yes { } No { }

17. In the last 12 months, have your spouse ever made any complaints about the
children not getting sufficient meal?

Yes { } No { }

18. In the last 12 months, did any of the children ever not eat for a whole day
because there wasn’t enough money for food?

Yes { } No { }

19. Worry and anxiety arises each time the family is running out of food and there
is no money at hand to replenish

Yes { } No { }

20. Most husbands blame their wives when food items bought just didn't last as
expected

Yes { } No { }
SECTION C. food expenditure questions

I am going to ask you some questions about the food brought into your home in the
last month for your family to eat. I want to know about all the foods that you
bought with money, ate from your farm or garden, or got from other people, such
as friends, someone a family member worked for, or the government.

21. Since last day of the month, did you or others in your household acquire:
Rice, Maize, Millet, Yam, Bread, Flour, Oil, Meat or Others

Yes { } No { }

22. What quantity of the above mentioned did you buy?

(i) 0- 100kg { } (ii) 101 – 150kg { } (iii) 151 – and above { }

23. How much money did you spend?

(i)N15000 – N20000 { } (ii) N20001 - N25000 { }

(iii) N25001 and above. { }

24. How much did you did you eat from own production?

(i) 0- 5kg { } (ii) 6 – 100 kg { } (iii) 101 – and above { }

25. How much money do you spend weekly for food?

(i)N5000 – N10000 { } (ii) N10100 – N15000 { }

(iii) N15100 – and above { }