2.

3 Calculating Limits Using the Limit Laws

Calculating limits by testing values of x close to a is tedious. The following Theorem essentially says
that any ‘nice’ combination of functions has exactly the limit you’d expect.

Theorem. Suppose lim f ( x ) and lim g( x ) both exist and that c is constant.
x→a x→a
Then the following limits exist and may be computed.

1. lim c = c
x→a

2. lim x = a
x→a

3. lim c f ( x ) = c lim f ( x )
x→a x→a

4. lim [ f ( x ) ± g( x )] = lim f ( x ) ± lim g( x )

x→a x→a x→a

5. lim ( f ( x ) g( x )) = lim f ( x ) · lim g( x )

x→a x→a x→a

f (x) lim f ( x )
6. lim = x→a provided lim g( x ) 6= 0


x→a g( x ) lim g( x ) x→a
x→a

The Theorem also hold for one-sided limits and, with a little care,1 for infinite limits. For example,
if lim f ( x ) = −3 and lim g( x ) = −∞, then
x →2 x →2

lim [ f ( x ) + g( x )] = −∞ and lim f ( x ) g( x ) = ∞

x →2 x →2

Corollary. Suppose that p( x ) = cn x n + cn−1 x n−1 + · · · + c1 x + c0 is a polynomial, then lim p( x ) = p( a).

x→a
Moreover, if r is any rational function, and a ∈ dom(r ), then lim r ( x ) = f ( a).
x→a

Proof. Simply calculate:

lim p( x ) = lim cn x n + · · · + c1 lim x + lim c0 (rule 4)

x→a x→a x→a x→a
= cn lim x n + · · · + c1 lim x + c0 (rule 3)
x→a x→a
n
= c n a + · · · + c1 a + c0 (rule 5 (repeatedly) and 2)
= p( a)

p( x )
If r is rational, then r ( x ) = for some polynomials p, q. Rule 6 now finished things off.
q( x )
1 If you end up with an indeterminate form 0 , ∞
0 ∞,∞ − ∞, etc., then the rules don’t apply. We will deal with these limits
later using l’Hôpital’s Rule.
Examples

1. Suppose that lim f ( x ) = 3, lim g( x ) = −1, lim h( x ) = ∞, and lim h( x ) = 6. Then

x→a x→a x → a− x → a+

lim f ( x ) + 3g( x ) = 3 + 3(−1) = 0

x→a
lim 2 f ( x ) g( x )h( x ) = 2 · 3 · (−1) lim h( x ) = −∞
x → a− x → a−
lim 2 f ( x ) g( x )h( x ) = 2 · 3 · (−1) · 6 = 36
x → a+
g( x ) −1
lim = =0
x → a− f ( x )h( x ) 3 lim h( x )
x → a−
g( x ) −1 1
lim = =−
x → a+ f ( x )h( x ) 3·6 18

x3 + 2x2 − x − 1 1+2−1−1 1
2. Simple evaluation: lim = =
x →1 4x2 − 1 4−1 3
x2 − 7x + 10 ( x − 2)( x − 5) x−5 1
3. Factorizing: lim 2
= lim− = lim− = −3 lim− =∞
x → 2− x − 4x + 4 x →2 ( x − 2)( x − 2) x →2 x − 2 x →2 x − 2

Roots and Rationalizing

√
n
Theorem. lim f ( x ) = L =⇒ lim f (x) = L
p
n
x→a x→a

Recall how you would convert an expression with surds in the denominator into one with surds
in the numerator:
√ √
4 4 3− 5 4(3 − 5) √
√ = √ · √ = = 3− 5
3+ 5 3+ 5 3− 5 9−5

A similar approach can be used for limits.

Examples
√ √ √ √
x+3− 3 0 x+3+ 3
1. lim yields the indeterminate form 0 . Multiplying by 1 = √ √ = 1 fixes
x →0 x x+3+ 3
the problem:
√ √ √ √ √ √
x+3− 3 x+3− 3 x+3+ 3
lim = lim ·√ √
x →0 x x →0 x x+3+ 3
x+3−3
= lim √ √
x →0 x ( x + 3 + 3)
1 1
= lim √ √ = √
x →0 x+3+ 3 2 3
√
x2 + 9 − 5 4
2. lim =
x →4 x−4 5
Comparing Limits and the Squeeze Theorem
While simple limits can be computed using the basic limit laws, more complicated functions are often
best treated by comparison.
Theorem. Suppose that f ( x ) ≤ g( x ) for all x 6= a and suppose that lim f ( x ) and lim g( x ) both exist. Then
x→a x→a

lim f ( x ) ≤ lim g( x )
x→a x→a

Theorem (Squeeze Theorem). Suppose that f ( x ) ≤ g( x ) ≤ h( x ) for all x 6= a, and that lim f ( x ) =
x→a
lim h( x ) = L. Then lim g( x ) exists and also equals L.
x→a x→a

h( x )

g( x ) f (x)

a x
y
Example In this example
we compare the complicated 1
1
function g( x ) = x sin x2 with the much simpler function
f ( x ) = | x |. Since −1 ≤ sin x12 ≤ 1 for all x 6= 0, we have

that
1
 
− | x | ≤ x sin ≤ |x|
x2
−1 1
Since lim | x | = 0 it follows that x
x →0

1
 
lim x sin =0
x →0 x2
−1

Homework
1. (a) Prove that x − y = ( x1/3 − y1/3 )( x2/3 + x1/3 y1/3 + y2/3 ).
√3
x−2
(b) Hence or otherwise compute the limit lim
x →8 x − 8

2. Suppose that f ( x ) < g( x ) for all x 6= a and that limits of f and g both exist at x = a. Give
an example which shows that we may only conclude that lim f ( x ) ≤ lim g( x ). That is, the
x→a x→a
inequality need not be strict.
3. Show that lim x2 cos( 1x ) exists and compute it.
x →0