Meteorology JAA ATPL Training C23 irnrons ene Tange LN JEPPESEN.Meteorology Weather has a major bearing on the outcome of any flight. There have been great strides in the science of meteorology from the early days of flight and is very relevant to the pilots of today. The learning objectives for the JAR ATPL (A) examination require an understanding of the fundamentals of meteorology such as the effects of pressure, densi and temperature in the atmosphere before studying stability, cloud formation, and precipitation. Since wind is a critical element for flight planning and the operation of the aircraft, it is discussed in det volume. The text also covers meteorological hazards to aviation such as thunderstorms, icing, windshear, and turbulence. The interpretation of meteorological messages, synoptic, and upper wind charts is also discussed. Since the Airline Transport Pilot may be required to operate anywhere in the world, this volume also includes an extensive section on global and regional climatology. Jeppesen and Atlantic Flight Training (AFT) have teamed to produce these ATPL. training volumes. The philosophy of both Jeppesen and AFT is to train pilots to fly, not to simply pass the exams. Jeppesen was founded in 1934 by barnstormer and pioneer airmail pilot Elrey B. Jeppesen to provide accurate airport and airway information to the growing aviation industry. Since then, the company has become the world Jeader in navigation information and flight planning products. In the 1960s, Jeppesen emerged as the foremost creator of state-of-the-art flight training materials using the latest technologies. With offices in the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, Australia, China, and Russia, Jeppesen is committed to introducing a fully integrated line of JAA training products. Atlantic Flight Training, based at Coventry Airport U.K., is an independent Joint Aviation Authority approved Flight ‘Training Organisation for professional training from a Private Pilots Licence to an Airline Transport Pilots Licence, including Multi Crew Co-operation and Crew Resource Management. AFT has over twenty years experience in training Commercial Pilots, including the conversion of ICAO to JAA Licences, and specialises in full time and distance learning ground school (Aeroplane and Helicopter). We at Jeppesen and Atlantic Flight Training wish you the best in your flying career, and hope that our materials contribute to your understanding, safety, and success. °. JEPPESEN. _ « Atlantic Flight Training Ltd SEE Jeppesen GmbH Frankfurter Str. 233 63263 Neu-Isenburg, Germany j so000> | —< | Il ANITA WI | 9°780884"873501 www.jeppesen.com 4A310101-000‘These materials are to be used only for the purpose of individual, private study and may not be reproduced in any form or medium, copied, stored in a retrieval system, lent, hired, rented, transmitted, or adapted in whole or in part without the prior written consent of Jeppesen. Copyright in all materials bound within these covers or attached hereto, excluding that material which is used with the permission of third parties and acknowledged as such, belongs exclusively to Jeppesen. Certain copyright material is reproduced with the permission of the International Civil Aviation ‘Organisation, the United Kingdom Civil Aviation Authority, and the Joint Aviation Authorities AA), This book has been written and published to assist students enrolled in an approved JAA Air Transport Pilot Licence (ATPL) course in preparation for the JAA ATPL theoretical knowledge examinations. Nothing in the content of this book is to be interpreted as constituting instruction or advice relating to practical flying ‘Whilst every effort has been made to ensure the accuracy of the information contained within this book, neither Jeppesen nor Atlantic Flight Training gives any warranty as to its accuracy or ‘otherwise. Students preparing for the JAA ATPL theoretical knowledge examinations should not regard this book as a substitute for the JAA ATPL theoretical knowledge training syllabus published in the current ecition of ‘JAR-FCL 1 Flight Crew Licensing (Aeroplanes)" (the Syllabus). ‘The Syllabus constitutes the sole authoritative definition of the subject matter to be studied in a JAA ATPL theoretical knowledge training programme. No student should prepare for. or is entitled to enter himself/herself for, the JAA ATPL theoretical knowledge examinations without first being enrolled in a training school which has been granted approval by a JAA-authorised national aviation authority to deliver JAA ATPL training, Contact Details: Sales and Service Department Jeppesen GmbH Frankfurter Strasse 233 63263 Neu-lsenburg Germany Tel: +449 (0)6102 5070 E-mail: fra-services@jeppesen.com For further information on products and services from Jeppesen, visit our web site at: ‘woww.jeppesen.com (© Jeppesen Sanderson Inc, 2004 ‘All Rights Reserved 4JA310101-000 ISBN 0-88487-350-1 Printed in GermanyPREFACE AAs the world moves toward @ single standard for international pilot licensing, many nations have adopted the syllabi and regulations of the “Joint Aviation Requirements-Flight Crew Licensing” (WAR-FCL), the licensing agency of the Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA). ‘Though training and licensing requirements of individual national aviation authorities are similar in content and scope to the JAA curriculum, individuals who wish to train for JAA licences need ‘access to study materials which have been specifically designed to meet the requirements of the JAA licensing system, The volumes in this series aim to cover the subject matter tested in the JAA ATPL ground examinations as set forth in the ATPL training syllabus, contained in the JAA publication, “JAR-FCL 1 (Aeroplanes)’. The JAA regulations specify that all those who wish to obtain a JAA ATPL must study with a flying training organisation (FTO) which has been granted approval by a JAA-authorised national aviation authority to deliver JAA ATPL training. While the formal responsibility to prepare you for both the skill tests and the ground examinations lies with the FTO, these Jeppesen manuals will provide a comprehensive and necessary background for your formal training. Jeppesen is acknowledged as the world's leading supplier of flight information services, and provides a full range of print and electronic flight information services, including navigation data, computerised flight planning, aviation software products, aviation weather services, maintenance information, and pilot training systems and supplies. Jeppesen counts among its customer base all US airlines and the majority of international airlines worldwide. It also serves the large general and business aviation markets. These manuals enable you to draw on Jeppesen's vast experience as an acknowledged expert in the development and publication of pilot training materials. We at Jeppesen wish you success in your flying and training, and we are confident that your study of these manuals will be of great value in preparing for the JAA ATPL ground examinations. The next three pages contain a list and content description of all the volumes in the ATPL series.Table of Contents CHAPTER 1 ‘The Atmosphere Introduction 44 Definition of the Atmosphere... 14 Properties of the Atmosphere at omposton ofthe atmosphere. 44 Water (H20). 13 The Water Cycle: 13 Particles and Dust 43 Carbon Dioxide (C02) 14 Structure of the Aimosehere 14 Troposphere.... : ‘Tropopause 18 Stratosphere 47 Stratopause. 17 Mesosphere. 17 Mesopause 17 Thermosphere... AT Intemational Standard Atmosphere (ISA) 1-8 ISA deviation. 18 Jet Standard Atmosphere (JSA) 19 ‘Answers to ISA deviation questions.. 4-10 CHAPTER 2 Prossure and Pressure Systems Introduction a ‘3 24 ‘Atmospheric Pressure, 24 ‘Measuring Atmospheric Pressure ..nsnsnmnsnumnnnsnennsnmnaninnnnnnnnnananannieanenn de® Mercury Barometer... 22 Aneroid Barometer... 23 Units of Measurement. 23 Pressure Variation 24 Horizontally gear % estiaahereaoaeatnia Diurnally. 24 Vertically. 24 ‘The Relationshio between Pressure and Temperature nonn.n. cacao ee Pressure/Height Calculations, 26 Pressure Values... as 28 QFE. - 28 NH 28 OFF... 28 The Standard Pressure Soting 28 ‘Synoptic Charts. 28 Pressure Systems: 29 Doprossions. 29 Depression Weather za een eter tect 2-40 Ce = 2-40 THOUDHS ne omen 212 ‘Trough Weather. BAZ Ridges... oa se . 213 Ridge Weather 243 Cols. 243 Col Weather... 244 Movement of Pressure Systems 214 Meteorology viiai SS ee Table of Contents CHAPTER 3 Altimetry Introduction. ot Pressure Celculations. 34 Converting between Height and Altitude... tel is 2 Converting between Altitude and Pressure AltitudeiFlight Level... a4 Pressure Change wren 35 Correcting for Temperature nnn maaan 38 Converting between QNH and GFF 38 ‘Mountain Flying... 3-10 Altimeter Settings. 340 Caleulation of Minimum Usable Flight Level. ant CHAPTER 4 Temperature Introduation Temperature Scales. Fahrenhelt Celsius Kelvin... Conversion Factors. ‘Measuremant of Temperature. Heating of the Atmosphere Solar Radiation ron Terrestrial Radiation... Conduction x Convection Latent Heat of Condensation ‘Advection Diumal Variation of Temperature ‘The Greenhouse Effect. CHAPTER 5 Water in the Atmosphere Introduction Water States and Latent Heat. Evaporation Melting ‘Sublimation Condensation. Freezing Saturation... Humidity. Absolute Humidity. ‘Saturation Content. Relative Humility Humidity Mixing Ratio Super-saturation. ‘Saturation and Dewpoint Condensation Level. Diumal Variation of Humidity... Water Vapour Pressure. ‘Saturation Vapour Pressure Curve... Meagurement of Humiy Psychrometer... Humidity Method Answers to Exercises: = 5 5. 5 5S 5. 54 5 5. 5. “5 5 5 ge 38S gee vii MeteorologyTable of Contents CHAPTER 6 Density Introduction 64 The Ideal Gas Laws 4 Boyle's Law... 62 Charles's Law nsonnnnnnn Soot ci eB ‘The Gas Equation... oo snus 62 Effect of Wator Vapour on Air Density 8 5 63 Variation of Surface Air Density with Latitude 63 Variation of Air Density with Height. 63 Variation of Air Density with Latitude and Height. 64 Diurnal Variation of Density en 65 Density Altitude... 65 Calculating Density Altitude . sais 288 Effect of Density on Aircraft Performance «... 3 7 Answers fo Exercises, . a 68 CHAPTER 7 ‘Stability Introduction Adiabatic Processes ‘The Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate ‘The Saturated Lapse Rate. ‘The Environmental Lapse Rat ‘Summary of Aciabatics Stabilty ofthe Air. Absolute Stability Absolute Instability Conditional Instability ‘Summary of Stabity. Neutral Stability Convective or Potent instbity Inversions. Cloud Formation ‘The Dry Thermal Formation of a Cloud . Calculating Cloud Base... Forecasting Cloud Formation. CHAPTERS Clouds ‘Acknowledgements, cal Introduction at Cloud Terms "et Cloud Classification a2 Layer Clouds... B2 Clouds of Great Vertical Extension .. B2 Low Clouds 83 Stratus, ST... 83 Stratocumuius, SC 4 Medium Clouds. Bt Altostratus, AS. 84 ‘Altocumulus Castelianus, ACC : er arse Altocumulus Lenticularis, ACL... aan cin 385 Meteorology ixTable of Contents CHAPTER 8 (Continued) High ClOUdS won : 85 Girrus, Cl it we 5 Girro-Stratus, CS... i aS A eee Girro-Cumulus, CC... 86 Glos wth Great Vertical Development. er CUMS nr ron ae see a7 Cumulonimbus. Lien TERT ‘3 a8 Cloud Amounts... ao Cloud Base... a9 Cloud Cetting . aes 8-10 Measuring Cloud Base. ae 840 AIREPS. 7 i 810 Human Observations 8410 Balloons. 810 Ceilometer. 810 Alidade..... 8410 Vertical Visibility a ‘ oes 7 ‘Summary of Cloud Type and Characteristics... ett CHAPTER 9 Cloud Formation Introduction Turbulence... Conditions Mechanisr Cloud Types. Convection | Conditions ‘Mechanism. Adveetion Cloud Types: (Orographiic Upii. Conditions 96 Mechanism. o7 Cloud Types. 10 Frontal Uplift. “eto Conditions 0. 210 Co ae 10 ‘The Warm Front. 9-10 ‘The Cold Front. “ett Cloud TYPES wenn 12 Convergence. 913 Conditions 9413 Mechanism, 913 Cloud Types. S913 CHAPTER 10 Precipitation Introduction 404 Precipitation Processes. 10-4 Bergeron Theory (The lee Crystal Effect... 40-1 Coalescence Theary (Capture Effect) 10-2 Intensity of Precipitation 102 Continuity of Precipitation 102 recitation Type aa Siecle 10-3 Hall... m 10-4 x MeteorologyTable of Contents CHAPTER 11 ‘Thunderstorms Introduction re Conditions.. 114 Trigger Act 4 ‘Thunderstorm Giassification... 14 HeatiAirmass Thunderstorms .. 44-2 Convection... 44-2 ‘Orograohic Uplift. 14-2 Advection, 442 ‘Convergence. 14-2 Frontal Thunderstorms. 14-2 Identification of Thunderstorms. 143 Siages of Developmen. 14-3 Growth Stages 143 Mature Stage .. 113 Dissipating Stage 114 ‘Supercell Thunderstorms. 11-5 Movement of Thunderstorms, 11-5 ‘Squall Lines 115 Hazards... 11-5 ‘Turbulence and Windshear 11-5 Gust Front. 11-6 Microbursts “A468 Hell nn 44-7 Icing Ate Lightning 148 Static. 8 Water ingestion: 14-8 Tornadoes. 119 Pressure Variation 11-9 Weather Radar... 11-9 Avoidance Criteria... 41-40 CHAPTER 12, Visibility Introduction Types of Visibility Reduction Types of Visibility a Meteorological Viibiity.. Runway Visual Range. Oblique Visibility Measurement of Visibility... ‘Measurement of Runway Visual Range. RVR Reporting. Visibility While Flying ‘Types of Fog Radiation Fog. Advection Fog ‘Steaming Fog (Artic Sea Smo). Frontal Fog. Hill FOg.n Other Reducers of Visibility ‘Smoke Fog (Smog)... Dust and Sand Meteorology xiTable of Comers CHAPTER 12 (Continued) Precipitation... H all mat 12.40 Visual ilusions 1241 Shallow Fog 12411 Rain Showers. 1244 Layer Clous.. 4244 Rain Effects. 4241 CHAPTER 13 Icing Introduction... _— se ane 7 fs 134 Conditions = ne . “ s et Effects of Icing... - eon - - AH ling Definitions... a a _ 13.2 ‘Supercooled Water Droplets... 13.3 ‘Size of Supercooled Water Droplets. 13:3 Freezing Process . 13:3 ‘Types of Icing, 13.4 Clear toe 19-4 Rime Ice... 134 Med Ice... 13:5 Rain 100 oer * en 1S Hoar Frost... z oo mei 13-5 Ecos fect he Svery of ig. 136 Engine Icing 137 Piston Engine Icing . 187 Jet Engine Icing, 13-8 le Protection 13.9 CHAPTER 14 Wind Introduction .. i 44 Terms Associated with Wind we ed Forces Acting upon the Air. 142 ‘The Pressure Gradiont Force. 14.3 ‘The Geostrophic Force 7 . ean 143 ‘The Geostrophic Wind .. — Tr — ve 145 ‘The Geostrophic Wind Scale 147 The Gradient Wind.. 147 Winds Near the Equator, 014-9 ‘The Surface Wind... 14.9 Diurnal Variation of the Surface Wind 44-10 osaurement of Surface Wind, 1414 Isallobaric Effect. 1412 xii MeteorologyTable of Contents CHAPTER 15 Local Winds Introduction en 15-4 Land and Sea Breezes . 15-4 Sea Breeze. elt Land Breeze... ot oa aeenaccnteoenl OD (Operational Impiications of the Land and Sea Breezes . Seton OR Katabatic and Anabatic Winds ieee 153 Katabatic Wind. . 153 Anabatic Wind. are Foehn WindiEtfect 155 ValleyiRavine Wind.. O58 Headland Effect 187 Low-Level Jet 18-7 Noctumal Jet.. 187 Valley Inversion. 187 Coastal Jet ee nen renee AB Low Level Jet in Front of an Extra-Tropical Cold Front. an 15-8 CHAPTER 16 Air Masses Introduction . 16-1 Origin and Classification .. AG Modification of Air Masses 16-2 A Masses Afecting Europe... 163 Arctic 16-3 Polar 16-3 Tropical Air Mass Summary... CHAPTER 17 Fronts and Occlusions Introduction “Typos of Front. Warm Front. Cold Front... Quasi-Stationary Front. Pressure Situation at a Front. an ‘Semi-Permanent Fronts of the World Acti Front. Polar Front... Mediterranean Front. Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (I Characteristics of Fronts War Front. Cold Front... 1 Polar Front epressions . - Weather Associated with the Polar Front Depression... Occlusions: se Meteorology xiiia a a a Table of Contents CHAPTER 18 Upper Winds Introduction. 184 ‘Thermal Wind Component 184 Calculating the Thermal Wind Component 182 Upper Wind = 183 Giobal Upper Winds. 185, Jet Streams ae as nan 185 Common Jet Streams peste 185 Sub Tropical Jet Stream... -vsnsnsnsnnnnnnrnnannnnnnannnnna 188 Polar Front Jet Stream... : 188 Winds Around @ Polar Front Depression... -_ 18-8 Clear Air Turbulence 189 Identification of Jet Streams... 18:40 Contour Charts. 1840 Thickness Charts... 1841 CHAPTER 19 Windshear and Turbulence Windshear.... 194 Definitions and the Meteorological Background ae 194 Definition 5 nats on BH Low Attitude Windshear 194 Meteorological Features. 192 ‘Thunderstorms 192 192 193 Turbulent Boundary Layer 193 “Topographical Windshears 193 The Effects of Windshear on an Aircraft in Flight... ee 194 Techniques to Counter the Effects of Windshear......... 198 ICAO Defritions.... z sna 19-10 Nature of Turbulence il Pee 1941 Turbulence, Meteorological Factors. — jo4 Thermal Turbulence 1941 Mechanical Frictional Turbulence. 1941 Mountain Waves... 18:12 Flight Over and in the Vicinity of High Ground 1842 Conditions 19-42 Visual Detection of Mountain Waves. 1943 Turbulence: 19:14 Turbulence at Low and Medium Levels... 1914 Turbuionce inthe Rotor ZON@ ween oo 1914 Turbulence in Waves 194 Turbulence at High Levels (rea and above the tropopause) -~ nna 19615 Turbulence Near the Jet Stream. 19-15 Turbulence in the Stratosphere. A915 Downdraughts Sais 1915 Icing nS = 19415 Flying Aspects. 19-45 Low Altitude Flight. 19-45 High Altitude Flight. 19-46 Inversions. 19-46 Marked Temperature inversion a inna 116 Reporting Turbulence... oa 19.17 xiv MeteorologyTable of Contents CHAPTER 20 Non-Frontal Pressure Systems Introduction tome = 20-4 Low, Cylons or Depression, and Trough. asa nn OA Low Pressure Types: ' senensBO2 Secondary Depression... 20-2 leelandic Low. 20-3 ‘The Origin Of Low Prossures And Weather.. 20-5 COrogrephic or Lee Side Lows or Troughs .. 20-5 Thermal Depressions... 206 Instability Lows. 20-7 Mediterranean Low. 20-7 Polar Lows Baltic Sea Cyclones... Celis of Cold Air Alot (Cold Pools) 208 Anticyclone or High, and Ridge or Wedge 20-9 [Nature of a High 20-9 High Pressure Systems . 20-10 ‘Subtropical Highs (Warm Anticyciones). ‘20-10 Continental Highs (Gold Anticyclones).. sen BO-10 High Pressures And High Pressure Ridges (Or Wedges) in Series Of Traveling Depressions sc... 20-11 CHAPTER 21 Meteorological Observations and Meteorological Services Types of Service 24 Pre-Flight Briefing. 214 . mir . sn BAA Broadcast Text Meteorological information... ove h2 Special Aerodrome Meteorological Reports (SPECI)... 212 ‘Terminal Aerodromes Forecast (TAF) 242 Spocial Forecasts and Specialized Iforation 21-3 SIGMET Service 23 Aircraft Report. odd Routine Aircraft Observations 214 ‘Special Aircraft Observations... 214 Clear Air Turbulence (CAT)... 21-5 Airframe Icing... “28 ‘Aerodrome Closure. 21-8 Inclight Procedures. 21-8 ‘Accuracy of Meteorological Measurement or Observation 217 ‘Marked Temperature Inversion : mat? ‘Aerodrome Warnings 2V7 Special Facilities “218 Windshear Alertin: 218 \Windshear Reporting Criteria... 218 ‘Observing Systems and Operating Procedures... 21-9 Cloud Height nnenron 219 Temperature . 21-9 Horizontal Surface Visibil 219 Runway Visual Range (RVR). 21-40 Meteorology wvTable of Contents CHAPTER 22 Meteorological Messages Introduction si ect minennemnibaics 2A Aerodrome Meteorological Report... 224 Special Aerodrome Meteorological Reports 224 ‘Terminal Aerodrome Forecasts, — 24 Actual Weather Codes 224 Identifier 222 Surface Wind Velocity. 22-2 Horizontal Visibilty.. an nt . 222 Runway Visual Range (RVR). rasa 223 Weather i 22-4 Significant Present and Forecast Weather Codes. 22-4 Cloud, 225 cavoK 22-5 Air Temperature and Dewpoint. 225 ‘Sea Level Pressure (QNH) ws.innsnnesnonnon Fee cst 228 ‘Supplementary Information zi 26 Recent Weather (RE) c ot nmi aan Windshear (WS). 226 Trend. ot iahcaat sina 228 Runway State Group... eee 226 Runway Designator (First Two Digits). coon mL 2B7 Runway Deposits (Thitd Digit).rnennonesnssonsonsnran a 227 Extent of Runway Contamination (Fourth Digit) 227 Depth of Deposit (Fifth and Sixth Digits) * : on B27 [aon Coeicient r Braking Acton (Seventh end Eighth Dig) wn vn 28 “Auto' and "Rk. 228 Missing information 228 Examples of METAS... 228 ‘Aerodrome Forecasts (TAF) Codes. - i 22.9 ‘TAF Contents and Format, oo i 229 Significant Changes. 22.9 Other Groups. 22-10, VOLMET Broadcasts . 22-11 CHAPTER 23 The Synoptic Chart Introduction B34 ‘The Station Circle Decode 233 Pressure (1 0'C100K) nn 233 Pressure Tendency (3 o'clock). 233 Past Weather (6 o'clock)... 23-4 ‘Additional Past Weather Symbols... 234 Low Cloud or Vertical Visity (© och i 23.5 Vertical Visibility - anna 28 Dewpoint (7 o'clock) 235 Visibility (9 o'clock Outer Position) ae 23.5 Present Weather 2 o'clock Inner Position) =a 236 Weather in the Past Hour But Not atthe Time of Observation. Desi 23.7 Surface Ar Temperature o Dry Bulb Temperate (11 2004 nn nn 238 Medium Level Cloud (12 o'clock Lower Position)... ea . 238 High Level Cloud (12 o'clock Upper Position) a ans 23-8 Total Cloud Cover (Shown in the Centre of the Circle)... "23-10 Surface Wind... 23-10 xvi MeteorologyTable of Contents CHAPTER 24 Upper Air Charts Introduction Bb ‘Symbols for Significant Weather. . 241 Fronts and Convergence Zones and Other SyMbOIS...n.eurueuenen : 242 Cloud Abbreviations. ai - 246-2 Cloud Amount Soeiaat eae Clouds Excerpt, 24-2 ‘Cumulonimbus Oniy ao Weather Abbreviations... 243 Lines and Symbols on the Chart. 24-3 Significant Weather Chart. 24-4 Upper Wind and Temperature Charts. cg penta 246 ‘Averaging Wind Velocities He eae a 248 CHAPTER 25 Climatology - The World Climate Introduction ron 2541 Ideal Global Circulator ere Rotation of the Earth, 25-2 Idealised Pressure Zones 25-3 ‘The Earth's Tit. 95-3 Pressure Zones, 254 Equatorial Low 25-4 Sub-Tropical Highs . 25-4 Temperate Low. 25-4 Polar High 25-4 Prevailing Surface Winds. 25.4 Westerly Winds. 25-4 Easterly Winds 255 Climatic Zones. 255 Equatorial Climate (0° to 10” Latitude). 25.5 ‘Tropical Transition Climate (10° to 20° Latitude) . 255 ‘Arid Sub-Tropical (20° to 35° Latitude)... Mediterranean Climate (35° to 40° Latitude). 7 Disturbed Temperate (40° to 65° Latitude) 25.6 Polar Climate (65° to 90° Latitude), i. 25-7 Modifications to the Idealised Circulation 257 Global Temperature Distribution 257 Mean Sea Level Temperatures - January 26-7 Mean Sea Level Temperature ~ July 258 ‘Seasonal Variations in Temperature. 258 Upper Air Temperature Distribution 259 World Pressure Distribution... 25.9 Mean Sea Level Pressure — January 25.9 Mean Sea Level Pressure — July 25-10 | Upper Winds. 25-41 Mean Upper Wind ~ January 25-14 Mean Upper Wind — July. 25-12 Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITZ). 25-12 ITCZ = January. 25-13 ez — Juy. 25-13 ‘Stabilty and Moisture Content of the ITCZ. 25-14 ITCZ Weather. . 25-14 Inter Tropical Front (ITFIFIT)... 25-14 Low Level Winds. 25-15 Low Level Winds ~ January... 25-15 Low Level Winds July 25-16 Climatic Summary. 25-17 Meteorology xviiALAA Po a Table of Comtents CHAPTER 26 Climatology ~ Provailing Winds and Ocean Currents. Introduction : soe 864 Europe and the Mediterranean, 28-4 Africa 26.7 S18 rrnsncnn nes 26.9 The indian Monsoon... 26-11 The Far East Monsoon. vo 28-13 North America.. 26-15 South America, 26-15 Australia 26-16 (Ocean Currents, sn 267 Gold Water Coast. 26-18 Warm Water Coast. 26-18 ‘Summary of the Local Winds of the World 26-18 CHAPTER 27 Climatology ~ Tropical Revolving Storms and Tornadoes ‘Tropical Revolving Storm (TRS).. 27a Characteristics 22 Visual Indications of the Advance of the TRS 218 Tornado. oy 276 Tropical Revolving Storm Areas. 278 CHAPTER 28 Climatology - Regional Climatology Europe Mediterranean North Atlantic And North America Arica, sais ABB run ‘Australia and the Pacific... ‘South America and the Car xvii MeteorologyINTRODUCTION Meteorology is the study of the Earth's atmosphere and the physical processes that occur within, it, The study of Meteorology is important for the pilot because the atmosphere is the medium through which the aircraft moves. It is essential to know what conditions are present along a route, and knowledge of the processes in which weather forms is useful for predicting what ‘conditions may occur during fight. DEFINITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE The term atmosphere refers to the gaseous envelope that surrounds the Earth. It is held to the Earth by the force of gravity. This gaseous envelope moves with the rotation of the Earth and ‘extends from the surface of the planet up to the boundary of space. PROPERTIES OF THE ATMOSPHERE ‘The atmosphere acts as a fluid, is a poor conductor of heat, and only supports life in the lower levels. Due to the extent of the volume of air, variations are found both horizontally and vertically in the following properties: Pressure Temperature Density Humidity vyvy Later chapters cover each of these properties in detail COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE ‘The density of the atmosphere decreases with altitude. This does not affect the composition up to an altitude of at least 60 km. Ozone and some trace elements are affected by the chemical reactions in the upper reaches towards 60 km. Meteorology ItChapter 1 The Atmosphere Above 70 km the lower force of gravity causes the atmospheric composition to vary with height. The following percentages show the composition of dry air in the lower levels: Nitrogei 78.09% Oxygen: 20.95% Argon: 0.93% Carbon Dioxide: 0.03% ‘The graph below represents this composition: Argon 0.93% ‘Carbon dioxide 0.03% Oxygen 20.95% Nitrogen 78.09% Other trace elements include: Neon Helium Krypton Xenon Hydrogen Methane logine Nitrous Oxide Ozone Sulphur Dioxide Nitrogen Dioxide Ammonia Carbon Monoxide vVvVVVVVVVVVYY The above list is background information and needn't be memorised. ‘The composition of dry clean air shown above does not allow for the effects of water in the atmosphere (up to 4% in volume), dust and smoke, or carbon dioxide. 12 MeteorologyThe Atmosphere Chapter 1 WATER (H20) Water can assume all three physical states in the atmosphere, the solid state (ice), the liquid state (water), and the gaseous state (water vapour). ‘Water is unique in that it can readily change from one state to another and can co-exist in all three states. ‘THE WATER CYCLE ‘The water cycle starts when solar radiation strikes moist ground or a water surface. The water then becomes vapour in the air. The concentration of water vapour is greatest in the lower parts of the atmosphere. ‘When conditions are correct, water vapour forms clouds and then condenses, becomes droplets, and falls as precipitation. ‘These clouds and the precipitation they produce make up part of what is known as weather. PARTICLES AND DUST ‘The solid particles in the atmosphere consist mainly of dust and sand from the ground and salt particles from the oceans. In addition, man has added all sorts of soot and dust. These solid particles can restrict visibility, for example, with haze or during sand storms. The amount of solid particles in the air varies, but the existence of these particles is of fundamental importance to processes such as condensation and the formation of ice. The condensation process occurs in the lower parts of the atmosphere. Without condensation ‘nuclei, it would be difficult for water vapour to convert into precipitation and for the formation of ice. Meteorology 13Chapter 1 The Atmosphere CARBON DIOXIDE (CO) Carbon dioxide is to be found both naturally in the atmosphere and as a waste product from burning fossil fuels (carbon compounds). A large part of the carbon dioxide, which is released into the air, is returned to nature's own circulation via the oceans. Carbon dioxide plays a large role in the heating of the atmosphere. STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE There are five layers in the atmosphere. From the surface upwards these are the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, ionosphere, and exosphere. 100 TEMPERATURE (°C) Note: In the diagram above, the ionosphere and the exosphere combine to form the thermosphere. TROPOSPHERE ‘The troposphere extends from the surface up to an average height of 11 km. Within the layer, temperatures generally decrease as alitude increases. Itis an area of relatively low stability where the over-turning of air is frequent. It holds virtually all the water vapour in the atmosphere and is the layer where most flying ocours. ‘The troposphere contains over 75% of the mass of the total atmosphere, 14 MeteorologyThe Atmosphere Chapter 1 TROPOPAUSE ‘The upper boundary of the troposphere is known as the tropopause. It separates the troposphere from the stratosphere. The temperature ceases to decrease with height at the boundary of the ‘tropopause. ‘The height of the tropopause varies with latitude, season of the year, and the weather conditions, “The tropopause is lowest over the poles (approximately 26 000 ft or 8 km) and highest over the ‘equator (approximately 52 000 ft or 16 km). Its average height is 36 090 ft (17 km) at about 45° latitude Since the thickness of the troposphere is determined by the amount of solar energy and the vertical mixing, the tropopause is lower over areas where the air is cold than where it is warm. The left-hand picture below shows that the tropical tropopause height is greater than the polar tropopause height. The right hand picture shows that, for a given region such as the poles, the ‘summer tropopause is higher than the winter tropopause. As the temperature decreases with height, so the temperature at the tropopause over the poles will be higher than over the equator because the tropopause is closer to the ground here. This is the opposite situation to the surface temperature. Typically, the tropopause temperature is -50°C over the poles and -80°C aver the equator. Another feature of the tropopause is that, rather than show a gradual change in height between the equator and the poles, there are breaks in the tropopause where large temperature differentials occur. Meteorology 1-5Chapter 1 The Atmosphere The first of these breaks occurs at about 40” latitude, where warm air circulating from the equator meets colder air from higher latitudes. The second break is at 55° latitude, where tropical air meets polar air, The third break is between 60° and 70° latitude, where polar air meets arctic air. This break is more common in the Northem Hemisphere. The diagram below shows the breaks: 55° at o0"-70" lat eae Soe The presence of these breaks can cause strong winds called jet streams. These will be discussed in detail in a later chapter. The table below shows the approximate height of the tropopause at various latitudes in winter and summer: [tattude TT wieter TP sunener 56.000 ft 55 000 55.000 ft 52.000 52.000 ft 51 000 45.000 ft 47 000 | 38.000 43 000 35.000 ft 38 000 ft 33.000 ft 35 000 ft 29 000 ft 31.000 ft 80° 25 000 ft 29 000 ft 16 MeteorologyThe Atmosphere Chapter 1 STRATOSPHERE ‘The stratosphere extends from the tropopause to approximately 50 km above the surface of the Earth. ‘Some flying occurs in the lower parts of the stratosphere, so the combination of the troposphere and lower parts of the stratosphere is therefore often referred to as the aviation atmosphere. ‘The stratosphere is relatively stable. Initially, the temperature remains constant and then starts to increase so that it is around 0°C at the top of the layer. This is due to the absorption of ultra-violet radiation by ozone in the lower layers of the stratosphere and the retransmission of this radiation as infra-red heat. ‘The concentration of ozone varies with the latitude, being greater over the poles than the equator. ‘Therefore, the stratosphere is warmer at higher latitudes. The region is not an area of still conditions but one of slow vertical movement and strong horizontal winds. ‘STRATOPAUSE This Is the boundary that separates the stratosphere from the mesosphere, MESOSPHERE In the mesosphere, temperature again decreases with h approximately -90°C occurs between 80 and 90 km. i. The lowest temperature of MESOPAUSE This is the upper boundary of the mesosphere, THERMOSPHERE This is the outermost layer of the atmosphere that holds the exosphere in its upper regions (at heights greater than 700 km) and the ionosphere in its lower regions. ‘The ionosphere is a region where the air becomes ionised by solar radiation. It consists of several sub-layers. These layers, named the D, E, F1, and F2 layers are important in the transmission of certain radio waves and will be covered in more depth in Radio Navigation. ‘The thermosphere is characterised by an increase in temperature with height. At 200 km, the temperature is generally 600°C. At times of sunspot activity, it can be up to 2000°C. Meteorology 17Chapter 1 The Atmosphere INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ATMOSPHERE (ISA) The conditions of the atmosphere are constantly changing. This causes problems for aviation, especially wit the calibration of pressure instruments. For this reason, the International Standard ‘Atmosphere (|SA) was devised. Itis @ purely hypothetical atmosphere that represents an average picture of the actual atmosphere. ISA has been in use since 1964 and is the most widely used hypothetical atmosphere. It possesses the characteristics laid out below: Temperature 15°C Pressure: 1013.25 hPa Density _ 1225 g/m? Temperature decreases at 1.98°C per 1000 ft (6.5°C per km) ‘Temperature constant at -56.5°C Temperature rises with height at 0.3°C per 1000 ft (1°C per km) The chart shows that the ISA temperature is constant above 36 090 ft in the aviation atmosphere. ISA DEVIATION In aviation, it is important to know how the atmosphere differs from ISA at any particular time. ‘Such information is used in performance calculations and in correcting for instrument errors. ISA deviation is the difference between the ISA temperature and the actual temperature. It can be a positive or a negative deviation. Example 1: You are flying at 30 000 ft. The outside air temperature is -50°C. What is the ISA deviation? Answer 1: The ISA temperature would be 15 - (1.98 x 30) = -44.4°C. The difference between this and the actual temperature is 5.6°C. The actual temperature is the lower figure, so the deviation is negative (-5.6°C). Example 2: You are flying at 22 000 ft. The ISA deviation is +10°C. What is the outside air temperature? Answer 2: The ISA temperature would be 15 ~ (1.98 x 22) = -28.56°C. ISA deviation is +10°C, so the ambient temperature must be higher than this: 28.56 + 10 = -18.56°C 18 MeteorologyThe Atmosphere Chapter 1 ‘The following table is given for you to practice doing ISA calculations. Answers can be found at the end of this chapter: Note: For the JAR exams, it is sufficient to round the lapse rate up and use 2°C/1000 ft for ISA calculations, JET STANDARD ATMOSPHERE (JSA) : The Jet Standard Atmosphere (JSA) is often used by engine manufacturers. It assumes @ mean sea level temperature of +18°C. The temperature then lapses at 2°C per 1000 ft to infinity. There is no tropopause in the JSA. So an aircraft at 40 000 ft with an outside air temperature of 65°C would have: > AnISA temperature deviation of -8.5°C > ASA temperature deviation of 0°C Meteorology 1Chapter 1 The Atmosphere ANSWERS TO ISA DEVIATION QUESTIONS 1-10 MeteorologyINTRODUCTION Chapter 1 introduced the concept of the atmosphere as a fluid. The chapter also discussed the fact that certain properties of the atmosphere vary both horizontally and vertically. The fluidity of the air means that it tends to flow from a region of high pressure to a region of low pressure. It is these pressure differences and the consequent movement of air that are the main cause of weather. ‘An understanding of pressure and pressure systems is vital for pilots, ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE Air is made up of particles that, small as they are, are nevertheless under the force of gravity. A ‘surface must support the weight of the air directly above it. Atmospheric pressure is the force per unit area exerted by the molecules of air over a specific surface. Consider the column of air below: ‘The height of the column above s2 (h2) is less than that above s1 (h1). There is a larger weight of air above s1, hence a larger pressure. The cross-sectional area of both surfaces is the same. Meteorology 2Chapter 2 Pressure and Pressure Systems MEASURING ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE MERCURY BAROMETER Vacuum Mercury Scale rt ‘The simplest means of measuring atmospheric pressure is the Mercury Barometer. A1 metre tube of mercury is uptumed in a reservoir of mercury. Atmospheric pressure is exerted cn the surface of the mercury in the reservoir. The mercury in the tube then sinks to about 760 mm above the reservoir at mean sea level. ‘The atmospheric pressure is therefore said to be 760 millimetres of mercury (760 mmHg). As the atmospheric pressure varies, so does the height of the mercury. 22 MeteorologyPressure and Pressure Systems Chapter 2 ANEROID BAROMETER ~~ Fr ‘Another way of measuring pressure is by using the aneroid barometer. This consists of a partially evacuated capsule that expands and contracts as the air pressure outside the capsule changes. A scale indicates these changes by using a system of linkages. The diagram shows the basic ideas behind the system, UNITS OF MEASUREMENT (One method of expressing atmospheric pressure was introduced above, that is, mmHg. ‘The SI unit for force is the Newton. The SI unit of pressure then becomes the Nim’, as pressure 's force per unit area. The Nim’ is also known as the Pascal (Pa). 100 000 N/m? is known as the Bar. Within one bar is 1000 millibars. This is the unit most widely used in aviation. The millibar may also be known as the hectoPascal. To further complicate the issue, some countries use inches of mercury—the United States for ‘example. Use the following conversion when moving between units: 1000 mb (000 hPa = 29.53 ing 100 000 Nim? = 750.1 mmHg The ISA values at mean sea level are: 1013.25 mb = 1013.25hPa = 29.92 inHg = 101 325 Nim? = 760 mmHg Meteorology 23Chapter 2 Pressure and Pressure Systems PRESSURE VARIATION Pressure varies horizontally, diumally, and vertically HORIZONTALLY Pressure varies from place to place and also changes over time. Horizontal pressure differences lead to movement of air and hence, weather. DIURNALLY Pressure also has a twelve-hour oscillation period. In one day there are two peak pressure values, which occur at around 1000 and 2200 hours. There are two lows, one at around 1600 and another at 0400 hours. The difference between the high and lovr values is very small in temperate latitudes (only about 1 hPa), but is much more significant in tropical and sub-tropical latitudes (about 3 hPa), Although the diurnal pressure change in temperate latitudes is often masked by other events, absence of the expected change in lower latitudes is often a waming of impending severe weather, such as a tropical revolving storm. 10:00 2200 ‘Tropical'sub- tropical lattudes typically 3 hPa Temperate latitudes — ‘typically 1 Pa VERTICALLY Pressure always decreases with increase of height. In the ISA we assume thet the surface pressure is 1013.25 hPa. From this we can calculate the pressure for any height. 24 MeteorologyPressure and Pressure Systems Chapter 2 5.000 amsi 40.000 ams! 48 000 ams! 24.000 amst 30 000 ams! 40 000 amst 53.000 ams! 68 000 ams! Beeeeg 100 50 Be sure to leam the figures in the above table. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE The diagram above shows three columns of air: one at ISA, one slightly warmer than ISA, and one slightly colder than ISA. The pressure at the base of all columns is the same. Cold air is denser than warm air and tends to sink. Therefore, the same pressure is found at a lower height in the cold column. The pressure decreases more quickly with height than in the ISA column, Conversely, warm air is less dense and rises. The same pressure is found at a higher height than the colder columns. The pressure decreases less quickly with height than in the ISA column, For @ given height interval the decrease in pressure depends on the mean temperature of the ‘column of ar. For the same height interval the pressure change will be greater in a cold column of air than in @ warm column of air. Meteorology 25Chapter 2 Pressure and Pressure Systems Note: This results in a difference in height of 120 ft per degree Celsius. This is addressed in more detail in later chapters This phenomenon is important to understand because the altimeter is calibrated to ISA. While fiying in an environment that is colder than ISA, the altimeter detects the same pressure at a lower height, so you are actually fying at a lower height than you think you are, which is obviously a potentially dangerous situation. Thus the phra: "Warm to cold — don't be bold! PRESSURE/HEIGHT CALCULATIONS It is unlikely that you will have to make pressure/height calculations in the JAR exams, but the formulae are included here nonetheless. For calculations involving small intervals of less than 50 hPa, the following formula can be used to calculate the height change per hectoPascal change in pressure: H=96T/P. Where: H height in feet T mean temperature in K P pressure in hectoPascals Example: Using the values for ISA MSL. T = 15 + 273 = 288; H = (96 x 288) / 1013.25 = 27.3 ft Therefore, at mean sea level, the height change is 27.3 ft per hPa, However, as you go higher the rate of pressure fall lessens because the temperature is also falling. The changes at various heights are laid out below: 2000 ft amst 20 000 amst 40 000 amst For JAR-FCL examinations, use 1 hPa change as equivelent to 27 ft near the surface. 26 MeteorologyPressure and Pressure Systems Chapter 2 Use the following formula to calculate an unknown height from knowledge of its pressure: H2=H1+221.17(Los P1-LoG P2) Where: H2 height required Hi known height 1 the mean temperature of the column of air in K P1 pressure at ht P2 pressure at h2 Example: A MSL the pressure is 1016 hPa, 12°C. At 700 hPa the temperature is 2°C. ‘What height is the 700 hPa level: ‘The mean temperature of the column is 7°C h2=ht +221.1T(log Pt — log P2) ha = 0 + (221.1 x 280) x (log 1016 — log700) h2= 61 908 x 0.1618 h2= 10017 feet This is the height of the 700 hPa level Meteorology 27Chapter 2 Pressure and Pressure Systems PRESSURE VALUES The following are the most likely pressure values that pilots will encounter: QFE QFE is the pressure at the datum level of an aerodrome (usually the highest useable point on the aerodrome). Since it is generally not possible to place a measuring device at this point it is usually measured elsewhere with corrections applied for the height difference between the measuring point and the aerodrome datum. These corrections take into account prevailing temperature. When you have QFE set, the altimeter reads zero when you are sitting at the datum level of the aerodrome. When flying on QFE, the reading on your altimeter is the height above aerodrome level and is often just referred to as height. QNH QNH is the QFE reduced to mean sea level using ISA conditions. With QNH set, the altimeter reads aerodrome elevation when you are sitting at the datum level of the aerodrome. ‘When flying on QNH, the altimeter reading is your height above mean sea level and is generally referred to as your altitude. FF FF is the GFE recuced to mean sea level using actual ouside air temperature, Itis an important term for meteorology but must never be used in altimetry. Never fly on QFF. THE STANDARD PRESSURE SETTING ‘The standard pressure setting of 1013 hPa is often used. The resulting figure is usually divided by 100 and referred to as a Flight Level. SYNOPTIC CHARTS A synoptic chart depicts the pressure situation at a particular time. The chart features lines called isobers. These lines connect places of equal pressure. They are normally drawn for every even whole millibar. Note that the pressure represented is the QFF. Another type of line found on some pressure charts is the isallobar, which connects places of the same pressure tendency and is annotated in milibars per hour. This may be a decrease or an increase. Isallobars are useful in predicting the movement of pressure systems, 28 MeteorologyI : } Pressure and Pressure Systems Chapter 2 PRESSURE SYSTEMS When looking at a synoptic chart, you can see certain patterns. These are called "pressure systems” and understanding the properties of these systems can help us forecast the weather. DEPRESSIONS ‘A depression is a region of low pressure. It can also be referred to as a low or a cyclone. ‘The size of depressions can vary quite considerably, for example: Temperate low up to 1500 km in diameter Tropical Revolving Storms approximately 300 km in diameter Tornado tens of metres in diameter It appears on a synoptic chart as a series of concentric, roughly circular isobars with the lowest pressure in the centre. ‘The low pressure in the centre causes air to flow into the low. This is called convergence. This then causes air in the centre to rise, producing a relatively high pressure at height. ‘The result is a circulation of air as shown in the diagram below: 30-35 000 ASCENDING The surface wind blows counter clockwise around a low in the Northern Hemisphere and ‘clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. In both cases, wind also blows in toward the centre. The mechanisms of this are discussed in a later chapter. Meteorology 29Chapter 2 Pressure and Pressure Systems ‘The diagram below represents this: 1002 1000 298 996 There are many different kinds of depressions. These will be described in later chapters, DEPRESSION WEATHER Due to the lifting at the centre of the low, cloud will form and there will be associated precipitation, ‘The mechanisms of this are described in later chapters. Typical weather is described in the table below: Full cover from near the surface to the tropopause. Generally continuous light or moderate. Heavy showers and thunderstorms possible because of the unstable nature of the air. ‘Good out of precipitation but poor in precipitation Depends on the pressure gradient of the isobars but normally strong. ANTICYCLONES This is @ region of relatively high pressure, appearing as roughly circular, concentric isobars on the synoptic chart, with the highest pressure in the centre. It is also referred to as a high. Isobars are generally more widely spaced than in a depression. Air will flow out of the contre of the high pressure toward areas of lower pressure. This is called divergence. To replace the diverging air, air descends. This is called subsidence. This results in a relatively low pressure at height Air circulates clockwise around a high in the Northern Hemisphere and counter clockwise around a high in the Southern Hemisphere, as well as flowing out of the high. 2-10 MeteorologyPressure and Pressure Systems Chapter 2 a Kp 30-35. 000 DESCENDING ‘There are two main types of anticyclone: the warm anticyclone and the cold anticycione. WARM ANTICYCLONES Warm anticyclones are a result of an excess of air at height. Air descends end is warmed. The ‘main example is the sub-tropical highs caused by the circulation of air known as the Hadley cells. COLD ANTICYCLONES Cold anticyciones are caused by low surface temperatures and are found in high latitudes. The low temperatures cause the density of the air to increase and air to subside. ANTICYCLONIC WEATHER When anticyclonic weather is present, air is descending, which prevents cloud from forming and gives generally good weather. There may be some cloud and precipitation at the edge of the system. Temperature inversions are possible due to the subsidence. Meteorology zlChapter 2 Pressure and Pressure Systems ‘The table below shows typical weather associated with an anticyclone: None because of the warming effect of subsidence. None. In summer, hazy conditions can occur; in winter, foggy conditions. Depends on the type. Hot in summer, cold in winter. Light. TROUGHS ‘A trough is the extension of isobars out from a depression in the shape of a V, with the pressure getting lower moving out from the centre. Troughs may be frontal or non-frontal In frontal troughs, the front forms the centre line of the trough. The weather depends on the type of front. Frontal weather is discussed in a later chapter. In non-frontal troughs, the convergence of air at the centre line causes lifting and unstable weather. 008 1004 1000 4 os 998, Centre ine TROUGH WEATHER For frontal troughs, the cloud types depend on the type of front. With cold fronts clouds with a large vertical development are expected. With warm fronts, layer clouds are more likely. For non-frontal troughs, CB and CU can be expected. ‘Showers, thunderstorms, hail with either cold frontal or non-frontal systems, Light to moderate rain and drizzle with warm fronts. Good except in precipitation. Moderate with possiblity of gusts and squalls. 212 MeteorologyPressure and Pressure Systems Chapter 2 RIDGES Ridges are an extension from a high pressure system. They are more rounded than troughs; more like a U shape. Ridges are often found between two polar front depressions (see later chapters). They provide periods of good weather. RIDGE WEATHER Ridge weather is very similar to anticyclone weather. COLS A col is a region of very little pressure variation between two highs and two lows. Winds are therefore very light and the air remains mostly stationary, so it remains in contact with the ground for an extended period of time. 1008 +1000 1008 a COL 1008 1000 ee 1008 OC) (© Meteorology 213Chapter 2 Pressure and Pressure Systems COL WEATHER In summer, extended contact with the hot ground can lead to instability cloud and thunderstorms. In winter, extended contact with the cold ground can result in the formation of fog or low stratus. MOVEMENT OF PRESSURE SYSTEMS ‘Anticyclones tend to be long-lasting (up to 6 months) and move quite slowly. Depressions move more quickly and generally only last about 2 weeks. Cols generally get quickly absorbed into other systems, lasting only @ few days, 214 MeteorologyChapter. 4 INTRODUCTION ‘Temperature is one of the most important variables that affect the atmosphere. The temperature changes that occur on the Earth's surface initiate both vertical air movement (leading to cloud development) and horizontal air movement (wind). ‘Temperature normally decreases with height. If there is an increase with height, this is called an inversion. I temperature stays the same with change in height, this is called an isothermal layer. TEMPERATURE SCALES There are three scales of measurement for temperature. These are: FAHRENHEIT In the Fahrenheit scale, the freezing point of water is 32°F and the boiling point of water is 212°F. This scale is not used in meteorology. CELSIUS The Celsius scale is widely used. The freezing point of water is 0°C and the boiling point is 100°C, KELVIN The Kelvin scale does not have units, but intervals of the scale are equal to 1°C. The scale relates to absolute zero (273°C) which is defined as OK. The freezing point of water is 273K and the boiling point is 373K. OK is called absolute zero and is the temperature at which all molecules stop moving completely. CONVERSION FACTORS. To convert from Celsius to Fahrenheit: *F=(CX 9 +32 5 Meteorology 4Chapter 4 Temperature ‘To convert from Fahrenheit to Celsius: "C= (F=32)X 5 9 To convert from Celsius to Kelvin: K="C+273 To convert from Kelvin to Celsius: °C =K-273 MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE ‘Surface temperatures are measured using mercury thermometers housed in a Stevenson screen. This is a louvred wooden box that allows air to circulate around the thermometers but protects them from draughts and direct sunlight. It is held 4 fl above the ground so the temperature won't be adversely affected by the ground temperature. High level temperatures are measured using a Radio Sonde, a radio transmitter that is carried high into the atmosphere (up to 150 000 ft) by a hydrogen balloon and sends back continuous readings of pressure, temperature, and humidity to stations on the ground Temperature is measured to the nearest 0.1°C and reported to the nearest whole number. If the temperature ends in 0.5, itis rounded to the nearest odd whole number. 42 MeteorologyTemperature Chapter 4 HEATING OF THE ATMOSPHERE ‘The atmosphere is heated by five different processes: 4. Solar radiation Terrestrial radiation Conduction Convection Latent heat of condensation oh eR sixth process, advection, is responsible for the horizontal transfer of heat. ‘We will look at each of these processes in turn, SOLAR RADIATION Radiation from the sun is of the short-wave type. Most of the radiation that reaches the Earth's surface is of wavelengths less than 2 microns. Nearly all the radiation passes through the Earth’s atmosphere without heating it. Ultra-violet radiation is absorbed by ozone in the stratosphere. Stil more is reflected by cloud cover. But on a clear day, about 85% of the sun’s radiation will reach the Earth's surface. ‘The radiation does not heat the atmosphere directly but does heat the surface of the Earth. This process is called insolation. The atmosphere then becomes heated by the other processes described below. ‘The amount of insolation (heating of the surface) depends on the angular elevation of the sun. “This in turn depends on latitude, season, and time of day. Latitude ‘As can be seen from the diagram below, as you move further from the equator, the curvature of the Earth means that the same amount of solar radiation is spread over a larger area of the Earth’s surface. So insolation is less at higher latitudes Rays of solar radiation Meteorology 43Chapter 4 Temperature Season For the same reasons mentioned above, the sun heats the Earth more efficiently if itis directly overhead. Where this ocours depends on the time of year. At the equinoxes, the sun is overhead the equator, at Summer Solstice (24st June) itis overhead the Tropic of Cancer (23.5°N); at Winter Solstice (21st December) it is overhead the Tropic of Capricom (23.5°S), Time of day ‘The amount of insolation is greatest at noon when the sun is highest in the sky. TERRESTRIAL RADIATION The Earth’s surface absorbs large amounts of solar radiation at short wavelengths and re- transmits it 2s smaller amounts of long-wave radiation, between 4 and 80 microns. This is the main method by which the atmosphere is heated. Since the atmosphere is heated from below, it gets colder as you move away from the surface of the Earth. This is the reason for the temperature lapse rate. CONDUCTION Conduction occurs when two bodies are touching one another. Heat passes from the warmer body to the colder body. For example, heat passes from a warm ground surface to the air. ‘At night, the ground cools quickly due to lack of insolation from the sun. The air in contact with the ground loses heat by conduction. As air is not a very good conductor, air at a higher level remains ‘warm, which results in a temperature inversion, 44 MeteorologyTemperature Chapter 4 CONVECTION AAs air is heated by conduction or radiation, it becomes less dense and tends to rise. Likewise, cold air is more dense and subsides. This vertical movement of air is called convection. This process helps heat the upper levels of the atmosphere. LATENT HEAT OF CONDENSATION When heat is used to alter temperature it is called sensible heat. Heat used to alter the state of a substance is referred to es latent heat (latent meaning hidden), as no temperature change occurs. For example, when water tus from vapour to droplets in the atmosphere, it is turning from the gaseous state to the liquid state. Heat is released when this occurs. Likewise, when it turns from liquid to gas, it ebsorbs heat to effect the change, but the actual temperature remains constant within the substance, {As air lifted it cools and is no longer able to hold as much water vapour. This condenses out as water droplets and latent heat is released, warming the atmosphere. ADVECTION ‘Advection is the process by which air moves horizontally. The movement is caused by variations in pressure, but the air takes with it ts characteristics, including its temperature. DIURNAL VARIATION OF TEMPERATURE ‘The maximum amount of insolation occurs at noon when the sun is high in the sky. As the earth takes time to heat up, it does not immediately transfer the heat out to the atmosphere — there is a slight lag. This means that the highest air temperature occurs at about 1500 local time. The lowest temperature occurs about a half an hour after sunrise, again due to lag. 16:00 Just ater sunrise Meteorology 4sChapter 4 Temperature ‘THE EFFECT OF CLOUD COVER ON DIURNAL VARIATION During the day, clouds prevent some solar radiation from reaching the Earth, hence reducing the maximum temperature that the air near the surface reaches during the day. ‘At night, clouds trap some of the heat between them and the ground, hence raising the minimum temperature that the air drops to at night. ‘The overall effect is to reduce the diurnal variation. ‘THE EFFECT OF WIND ON DIURNAL VARIATION During the day, wind causes surface air to be mixed with cooler air above. The amount of time that any air is in contact with the warm ground is short, so the maximum temperature the air near the surface reaches is lower compared to calm conditions. During the night, terrestrial radiation leads to a reduction in air temperature close to the ground ‘Any wind causes mixing of the cold surface air with warmer air above. Therefore, the minimum temperature of the air above the surface at night is not as low as it would be in calm concitions. ‘The overall effect is to reduce diurnal variation. ‘THE EFFECT OF SURFACE ON DIURNAL VARIATION How much @ surface heats up when exposed to insolation depends on its specific heat. The specific heat is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of the surface by 1°C. ‘Some examples of surfaces listed in the order of increasing specific heat follows: Bare rock/stone Concrete Dry soil Wet soil Oceans, oP MROENS ‘Snow surfaces ‘Those surfaces that take a long time to heat up also lose their heat very slowly, so the diurnal variation over the sea is minimal but is much greater over the land. Not only does water have a much higher specific heat than land, but due to the movement of the sea surface, the energy is spread to a depth of several metres, whereas solar radiation only heats the top few inches of the land surface. Topics found later in the course detail why the different properties of land and sea are important. 46 MeteorologyTemperature Chapter 4 ‘SUMMARY In summary, greatest diurnal variation can be found over the land, with clear skies and no wind. Least diurnal variation can be found over the sea and over the ice caps, when skies are cloudy and itis windy. THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT Water vapour and carbon dioxide are transparent to short wavelength radiation, but they are less permeable to long wavelengths. This means they allow solar radiation to reach the surface, but do not allow all of the terresirial radiation to leave the atmosphere and go back into space. This leads to an increase of temperature at ground level, a process called the greenhouse effect, since the glass in a greenhouse works in a similar way. Meteorology 47Cheyierg Water in tie Aunosvuae INTRODUCTION Most water in the atmosphere is in the form of water vapour, which is water in its gaseous state This water cannot be seen. In order for water to become visible in the form of clouds, mist, or fog it must tum into water droplets or ice crystals. WATER STATES AND LATENT HEAT Water can exist in three basic states: solid (ice), liquid (water), and gas (water vapour). When changing from one state to another, latent heat is either released or absorbed. LATENT HEAT RELEASED. a mies (oePosition fee ae sou LATENT HEAT ‘ABSORBED EVAPORATION This is the change of state from a li heat is “absorbed” during this process. to a gas, Gas is a higher energy state than liquid so latent Evaporation can take place at any temperature above absolute zero, but the rate of evaporation is greater at higher temperatures. MELTING This is the change of state from a solid to a liquid. Liquid is a higher energy state than solid so latent heat is “absorbed” during this process. Meteorology SelChapter 5 Water in the Atmosphere SUBLIMATION Sometimes a substance can turn directly from a solid to a gas or from a ges to @ solid without passing through the intermediate liquid state. The term sublimation can be used to describe this process in both directions. The change from gas to solid, however, can also be referred to as deposition. Latent heat is “absorbed” when a solid turns to @ gas. Latent heat is “released” when a gas tums to a solid. This process is important in the formation of frost, hail, and some airframe icing, CONDENSATION “This is the change of state from a gas to a liquid. Liquid is a lower energy state so latent heat is “released” Condensation nuclei must be present in order for condensation to occur in the atmosphere. Condensation nuclei are tiny particles of hygroscopic (water attracting) material, such as dust and pollution, FREEZING This is the change of state from a liquid to a solid. Solid is a lower energy state so latent heat is “released”. For this to occur, freezing nuclei are required, similar to those for condensation. Without them, the water droplets in the atmosphere become supercooled, which means they remain as a liquid state despite being lower than freezing temperature. ‘Supercooled droplets are a major cause of airframe icing. They are discussed again later in the course. SATURATION ‘As water evaporates into the air, there comes a point in which the air can no longer accept any more water vapour. The amount of vapour that air can hold is dependent on its temperature and pressure. The higher the temperature, the more water vapour the air can hold. When the air contains the maximum amount of water vapour it can hold, it is described as being saturated. ‘The air can become saturated in two ways: extra water vapour can be added, or the air can be cooled, since cooler air holds less water vapour. HUMIDITY Humidity refers to the amount of water vapour in the air. It is often expressed as a percentage and is known as relative humidity.Water in the Atmosphere Chapter 5 ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY Absolute humidity is the actual mass of water ina given volume of air and is generally expressed in gi’. SATURATION CONTENT Saturation content is the mass of water a given volume of air can hold, not that which it is actually holding, again expressed as gim’, RELATIVE HUMIDITY Relative humidity is an expression of how much water vapour is in the air, expressed as a percentage of the maximum amount the air could hold at that temperature and pressure. Hence’ RELATIVE HUMIDITY (RH) AMOUNT OF WATER VAPOUR IN THE AIR % [AMOUNT OF WATER VAPOUR THE AIR CAN HOLD ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY % ‘SATURATION CONTENT Example: _If the absolute humidity is 12 gim” and the saturation content is 26 g/m*, what isthe relative humidity? Relative Humility = Absolute Hu = (12+ 26) = 0.462 = 46.2% ity / Saturation Content Please attempt the following simple RH calculations. The answers can be found at the end of the chapter: Exercise 1: 6 20 34 45 14 30 HUMIDITY MIXING RATIO. Humidity mixing ratio (HMR) is similar to absolute humidity but is the mass of water in a certain mass of air. The unit for this is therefore g/kg rather than gim’. ‘Typically, the HMR is between 5 and 50 g/kg in temperate latitudes. Meteorology 53Chapter 5 Water in the Atmosphere HMR FOR SATURATION CONTENT / SATURATION MIXING RATIO. ‘The saturation mixing ratio (SMR) is the HMR. when the parcel of air is saturated. Hence relative humidity can also be expressed as: RELATIVE HUMIDITY (RH) = HMR % HMR FOR SATURATION CONTENT SUPER-SATURATION ‘As mentioned earlier, condensation only occurs if there are condensation nuclei present. If no nuolei are present, then the water remains as vapour and the air is described as super-saturated. ‘This means there can conceivably be a relative humidity greater than 100%. SATURATION AND DEWPOINT ‘The graph below shows the HMR for saturation plotted against the temperature in °C. The higher the temperature, the larger the amount of water the air can hold. However, the relationship is not linear, itis logarithmic. 30 25 8 HMR for Saturation in gikg a -30 -20 10 0 10 20 30 ‘Temperature in degrees C Soh MeteorologyWater in the Atmosphere Chapter 5 It follows that if @ parcel of air contains a certain amount of water vapour and is cooled, it will be able to hold less water vapour. If it continues to cool, it eventually reaches a point where the amount of vapour it can hold is equal to the amount it is actually holding. The air is said to be saturated. ‘The temperature at which this occurs is called the dewpoint. A parcel of air at 20°C with a HMR of 7 gikg (as seen on the graph) is not saturated. Air at 20°C can hold up to 14 g/kg. What happens if air is cooled to 10°C? Based on the graph, the HMR for saturation is 7 g/kg ‘Therefore, the air is saturated — the relative humidity is 100%. So the dewpoint for air containing 7 gikg is 10°C. Cooling the air beyond this point results in water vapour condensing to become droplets, which causes clouds, fogimist, or dew. Relative humility also has an effect on the rate of evaporation. Evaporation does not occur if the air is saturated. Warmer air can take more vapour s0 is less likely to be saturated. However, evaporation can still occur if the air above the liquid is cold, especially if there is a breeze to take away the saturated air and replace it with dry air. Note: The term dry air is used to describe any air that is not saturated. So, even air with a RH of 99% is still dry. Completely dry air, that is air with an RH of 0%, does not ‘occur in the atmosphere. Using the graph above answer the following questions: Exercise 2: ‘The HMR is 4 gikg. The temperature is 20°C. What is the RH? Exercise 3: ‘The HMR is 15 g/kg. What is the dewpoint? Exercise 4: ‘The dewpoint is 18°C. The RH is 40%. What is the HMR? CONDENSATION LEVEL When unsaturated air is cooled, it eventually reaches its dewpoint and water vapour condenses out as water droplets, ‘One way in which a pocket of air may cool is if itis lifted. As the air rises it cools. Once it reaches a level where the RH becomes 100%, any further lifting leads to condensation. This level is referred to as the condensation level. As air rises it is said to cool adiabatically. Likewise, as air descends it is seid to warm adiabatically. This process of adiabatics and how it relates to dewpoint and cloud formation is discussed more fully in the chapter on Stability. Meteorology 55Chapter 5 Water in the Atmosphere DIURNAL VARIATION OF HUMIDITY Assuming the absolute humidity of the air remains constant, the relative humicity varies as the temperature varies. Cold air can hold less water, so just after dawn, when temperature is at its lowest, RH is at its highest. This is why mist and fog are most likely to form around dawn. Throughout the day as the temperature increases with increased insolation, the relative humicity decreases, dropping to its lowest value at about 1500 LMT when the air temperature is at its greatest. ‘After this, the temperature starts to drop again, so the RH stars to rise. WATER VAPOUR PRESSURE This is the part of the atmospheric pressure that is exerted by the water vapour present. When the air is saturated, the water vapour pressure is called Saturation Vapour Pressure. The dewpoint depends on the vapour pressure. The lower the vapour pressure, the lower the dewpoint. As air rises, it expands and cools. Its overall pressure goes down so the pressure exerted by the water vapour also goes down. This leads to the dewpoint decreasing as well. The dewpoint decreases by about .5°C per 1000 ft gain in height. ‘Yet another formula for dewpoint arises from the relationship between water vapour pressure and ‘saturation vapour pressure: RELATIVE HUMIDITY (RH) VAPOUR PRESSURE (hPa) % (CORRESPONDING VAPOUR PRESSURE FOR SATURATION 56 MeteorologyWater inthe Atmosphere Chapter 5 SATURATION VAPOUR PRESSURE CURVE 12 10 ~ \Vapour Pressure in hPa ‘Temperature in degrees C ‘Saturation vapour pressure depends on a number of factors. The graph above shows that the saturation vapour pressure is higher over ice than over water. Other factors affecting saturation vapour pressure are: 1. Higher above a curved surface than a flat surface 2, Higher over clean water than a salt solution, 3. Higher around a supercooled droplet than an ice crystal Meteorology 57