Organic

Geochemistry
Organic Geochemistry 35 (2004) 1039–1052
www.elsevier.com/locate/orggeochem

Organic geochemistry and organic petrology of a

potential source rock of early Eocene age in the
Beaufort–Mackenzie Basin
L.R. Snowdon *, L.D. Stasiuk, R. Robinson, J. Dixon, J. Dietrich, D.H. McNeil
Institute of Sedimentary and Petroleum Geology, Geological Survey of Canada, 3303-33 Street N.W Calgary, AB, Canada T2L 2A7

Received 6 December 2003; accepted 26 April 2004

(returned to author for revision 2 February 2004)
Available online 20 July 2004

Abstract

The biological marker compounds 17a(H) and 17b(H), 23,28-bisnorlupane have been identified in a coaly interval at
about 3300–3320 m depth within the lower Taglu Sequence (early Eocene) in the Immiugak A-06 well in the Beaufort–
Mackenzie Basin. These biomarkers were previously only known to occur in the lower part of the Richards Formation
and were thus used to infer that the Richards was the source for most of the Tertiary oils and condensates in the basin.
The discovery of bisnorlupanes in older, much more organic-rich rocks indicates that the previous oil–source rock
correlations may not have been correct and that the coals in the lower Taglu Sequence are likely the dominant effective
source rock, especially for the Paleocene and early Eocene reservoirs in the southern part of the Mackenzie Delta.
Petrographic and Rock–Eval analyses indicate that the lower Taglu Sequence coaly section should be mainly a source
for gas, but with some potential to expel liquids. The level of thermal maturity inferred from Rock–Eval Tmax (432–438
°C, equivalent to about 0.65–0.75% Ro vitrinite) is slightly higher than that inferred from the measured reflectance,
fluorescence and foraminiferal colouration index which all indicate that the maturity at 3300 m is about 0.60–0.65% Ro
vitrinite equivalent at the Gulf et al. Immiugak A-06 well site.
Ó 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction character of Tertiary potential source rocks as a func-

Many previous organic geochemistry studies in the
Beaufort–Mackenzie Basin (BMB) have considered
source rock–oil systems. Initial studies by Burns et al.
(1975), Powell and Snowdon (1975), Snowdon and
Powell (1979) focussed on various chemical properties of
crude oil samples and using these properties to assign
the oils into various categories including biodegraded
versus non-biodegraded and different genetic groups or
families. Snowdon (1978) investigated the chemical
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +1-403-292-7035/+1-403-284-
3500; fax: +1-403-292-5377.
E-mail addresses: snowdon@nrcan.gc.ca, snowdon_re-
search@shaw.ca (L.R. Snowdon).
tion of depositional environment and compared and
contrasted those results with similar data from various
crude oil samples. Lane and Jackson (1980) used
chemical data and geological arguments to determine
that two source rocks, one Cretaceous (Smoking Hills/
Boundary Creek formations) and one Tertiary gave rise
to two groups of hydrocarbons. The Cretaceous system
was confirmed and additional details on Tertiary source
rocks and reservoirs were provided in a series of publi-
cations based on work done by the Geological Survey of
Canada largely in the late 1970s and early 1980s (Gun-
ther, 1976a,b; Snowdon, 1980a,b, 1984, 1987, 1988,
1990a,b, 1991; Snowdon and Powell, 1982; Powell et al.,
1982; Dixon et al., 1985, 1992; Brooks, 1986a,b, Dietrich
et al., 1989a,b; Issler and Snowdon, 1990). A summary

0146-6380/$ - see front matter Ó 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.orggeochem.2004.04.006
1040 L.R. Snowdon et al. / Organic Geochemistry 35 (2004) 1039–1052

of this work was published in a Geological Atlas of the Richards Sequence, see Fig. 2), specifically in the Unark
Beaufort–Mackenzie Area (Dixon, 1996). L-24 well (Fig. 1), was used by Brooks to make an oil–
The discoveries at Parsons/Siku/Kamik (Fig. 1) were source correlation with this unit. This correlation
considered by Langhus (1980) to belong to a separate seemed to be very strong because of the high concen-
source rock–oil system derived from the Jurassic Husky tration of the bisnorlupane compounds despite the ra-
Formation. Although limited data were presented to ther poor source potential displayed by most of the
support this interpretation, very little, if any, additional samples in the Richards Formation (Snowdon, 1984).
work has been published on these deposits. Subsequent work by Curiale (1991) confirmed the
Two papers by Brooks (1986a,b) allowed for the presence of bisnorlupanes in a number of oils. However,
identification of two different source rock–oil systems in he also noted that a number of oils in the south-central
the Tertiary. One of these was represented by oils from part of the delta, in Moose Channel and Reindeer se-
the Adlartok P-09 discovery well in the offshore in the quence reservoirs (Niglintgak and Kumak discoveries)
western part of the Delta (Fig. 1), while the other Ter- had strong affinities with the Adlartok oil and he con-
tiary oils were interpreted to have been derived from a cluded that these oils were probably derived at least in
portion of the Eocene Richards Formation. This oil– part from a Paleocene source.
source rock correlation was based on the presence of key During the ongoing research efforts designed to refine
biomarker compounds used to differentiate sources of our knowledge of the western part of the Mackenzie
the western Delta area from other Tertiary discoveries. Delta, routine analysis and characterization of petro-
The presence of 23,28-bisnorlupane in relatively high leum source potential has been carried out using Rock–
concentrations in the lower portion of the Eocene Eval/TOC pyrolysis. These new data indicated the
Richards Formation (approximately equivalent to the presence of an organic rich zone at
3300 m (TOC up to

1420 128
0

1410 129
0

1380 1350 132

0

71
0
Beaufort Sea 710

Gas well
Oil well
Oil and gas well
Dry and abandoned

700 700

Adlartok P-09 Unark L-24

Immiugak A-06
ry to

50
Alaska
Yukon Terri

Richards
Island

690 690

Parsons/
Siku/
Kamik
Yukon Territory

680 680
N.W.T.

0
142
0
0 0
128
141 129
138
0
1320
1350

Kilometers

Fig. 1. Map of the Beaufort–Mackenzie Basin showing location of the Immiugak A-06 well along with other borehole locations.

SEQUENCE FORMATION
AGE
QUAT.
Holo.
Pleist.
Mio. Plio.
Late Early Late E M Late E L
Mackenzie Bay Mackenzie Bay
Olig.
TERTIARY
Eocene
Middle
Early Late Early
Paleo.
Maast.
CRETACEOUS
Camp.
Sant.
Con.
Turon. Boundary
Creek
Cen.
Fig. 2. Stratigraphic chart showing both formation and se-
quence names for the Beaufort–Mackenzie area.
16%) in the Immiugak A-06 well (Fig. 1) with results
somewhat different from those previously measured us-
ing older instrumentation. More detailed analyses were
carried out in order to investigate this unit as a potential
source for the Adlartok discovery and possibly other
discoveries (Niglintgak, Kumak, Taglu) in lower Ter-
tiary reservoirs. Seismic correlation and petrophysical
log character indicate that these Immiugak A-06 sam-
ples represent thick coal deposits below the Eocene
Richards Sequence. Identification of such a source rock
would result in a reduction of exploration risk through
the development of improved models of the oil–source
rock systems, particularly in the south and western
portions of the Mackenzie Delta where the post-
Paleocene cover is thinner than in the central and east-
ern parts of the Delta.
2. Methods and analytical results
2.1. Samples, stratigraphy, and biostratigraphy
Drill cuttings from depths of 3000–3500 m from the
Immiugak A-06 borehole (Fig. 1) were analyzed and
L.R. Snowdon et al. / Organic Geochemistry 35 (2004) 1039–1052 1041
TOC- and coal-enriched intervals were recognized vi-
(Basin-wide) (Delta only)
sually and by Rock–Eval analysis between 3240 and
3350 m (Table 1). On petrophysical logs, the coals show
Recent
Shallow Bay up as low velocity, high resistivity units up to a few
Herschel Is
meters thick about 1600 m below the well defined base
Nuktak
Iperk of the Eocene Richards Sequence which occurs at 1683
m. Initial interpretation based on petrophysical logs
Akpak and seismic profiles indicated that the TOC-rich units
occur within either the Aklak or the Taglu sequences.
Subsequent biostratigraphic analysis using benthic fo-
Kugmallit raminifera data indicated that the TOC-rich unit occurs
Kugmallit
within the Taglu Sequence and is likely of Early Eocene
age. This was based on the occurrence of Early Eocene
Richards Richards benthic foraminifera immediately underlying the coaly
unit. The benthic foraminifera occur from 3300 m to
Taglu the well’s total depth at 3800 m. The most distinctive
Reindeer species in the assemblage is Caronia gallagheri McNeil
Aklak which has been documented previously in the Taglu
Member
Aklak Sequence in the Natsek E-56 and Natiak O-44 wells
Moose Ministicoog Mbr (McNeil, 1989, 1997). At the Natsek E-56 location,
Channel C. gallagheri ( ¼ Verneuilina sp. 2700 of McNeil, in
Fish River
Tent Island Dietrich et al., 1989a,b) occurs in Early Eocene marine
strata of the lower Taglu Sequence directly and un-
Mason R.
conformably overlying Late Paleocene to earliest Early
Smoking Smoking
Hills Hills Eocene coaly strata of the Aklak Sequence (Dietrich
et al., 1989a). C. gallagheri also occurs in the Natiak
Boundary O-44 well (McNeil, 1997) from 3265 to 3412 m, above
Creek coaly strata of the Aklak Sequence and below possible
turbidite sands of the Taglu Sequence. To the southeast
of Immiugak A-06, the C. gallagheri biozone also oc-
curs in the Adgo F-28 well from 2652 to 2743 m, below
coaly strata of the Taglu Sequence (McNeil, unpub-
lished data).
Biostratigraphic evidence consistently indicates that
the C. gallagheri biozone and the bisnorlupane bio-
marker unit at Immiugak A-06 occur in the Early Eo-
cene lower Taglu Sequence. It should be noted that the
geochemically unique oils (lacking bisnorlupane bio-
markers) from Adlartok P-09 occur in the Aklak Se-
quence, dated biostratigraphically as Middle to Late
Paleocene by association with the widespread benthic
foraminiferal Reticulophragmium boreale Zone.
In addition to the biostratigraphic analysis, aggluti-
nated benthic foraminifera in the Immiugak A-06
borehole were analyzed as indices of thermal maturity
following the FCI (Foraminiferal Colouration Index)
technique outlined by McNeil et al. (1996). McNeil et al.
(1996) found that colouration in the organic cement of
agglutinated foraminifera changed progressively with
increasing temperature in Beaufort Sea boreholes. At
3467 m in the Immiugak A-06 borehole, FCI is 6.6. At
present, there are insufficient experimental and empirical
data to categorically correlate FCI with %VRo, but if
the FCI and %VRo data from Amauligak J-44 (McNeil
et al., 1996) are used for general comparison, then FCI
6.6 corresponds 0.6–0.65% vitrinite reflectance.
1042 L.R. Snowdon et al. / Organic Geochemistry 35 (2004) 1039–1052

Table 1
Rock–Eval/TOC data for Immiugak A-06 drill cuttings over the interval from 3000 through 3500 m generated using a Rock–Eval 6
(maximum oxidation temperature of 800 °C) and older data generated using a Rock–Eval II/TOC (maximum oxidation temperature of
600 °C)
Depth Qty Tmax S1 (mg HC/ S2 (mg HC/ S3 (mg CO2 / PI (S1/ TOC HI (mg HC/ OI (mg CO2 /g
(m) (mg) (°C) g rock) g rock) g rock) (S1+S2)) (%) g TOC) TOC)
Rock–Eval 6 analyses with oxidation to 800 °C
3000 20.0 433 0.15 0.68 4.95 0.18 1.18 58 419
3020 20.4 431 0.08 0.38 2.66 0.17 0.71 55 375
3040 20.0 429 0.09 0.59 1.33 0.11 0.85 89 156
3060 20.1 429 0.13 0.72 1.85 0.15 1.19 61 155
3080 20.1 430 0.16 0.69 1.78 0.19 1.12 62 159
3100 20.2 431 0.19 0.63 3.23 0.23 1.07 59 302
3120 20.2 428 0.16 0.67 1.60 0.20 1.18 57 136
3140 20.9 430 0.19 0.94 1.77 0.15 1.25 86 142
3160 20.5 425 0.14 0.62 1.54 0.15 0.91 89 169
3180 20.4 431 0.15 0.66 2.33 0.18 1.05 65 222
3200 20.8 431 0.11 0.70 2.22 0.14 1.18 59 188
3220 20.4 425 0.13 0.68 1.92 0.15 1.00 75 192
3240 20.3 429 0.61 6.51 2.30 0.09 5.34 123 43
3260 20.0 428 0.78 8.28 2.47 0.09 6.05 138 41
3280 20.1 429 0.70 5.04 4.96 0.12 4.70 108 106
3300 20.3 422 4.24 35.95 4.61 0.10 24.23 150 19
3310 20.2 419 4.62 50.35 2.33 0.08 21.31 238 11
3320 20.5 418 3.78 38.13 4.05 0.09 19.00 202 21
3340 20.5 428 1.18 8.19 3.34 0.13 6.16 134 54
3360 20.2 433 0.32 1.62 3.35 0.16 2.07 81 162
3380 20.5 436 0.44 2.23 3.22 0.16 2.49 92 129
3400 20.8 432 0.31 1.68 3.69 0.16 1.88 91 196
3420 20.4 436 0.18 0.88 1.62 0.17 1.26 71 129
3440 20.4 434 0.16 0.76 1.91 0.17 1.25 62 153
3460 20.7 425 0.14 0.66 1.84 0.16 0.85 84 216
3480 20.3 436 0.13 0.66 1.38 0.16 1.27 52 109
3500 20.8 436 0.14 0.74 2.32 0.16 1.26 59 184
Rock–Eval II analyses with oxidation to 600 °C
3000 – 437 0.18 0.66 3.83 0.21 1.14 57 335
3010 432 0.18 0.69 2.34 0.21 1.16 59 201
3020 553 0.09 0.76 2.56 0.11 0.57 133 449
3030 433 0.12 0.57 1.75 0.17 1.00 57 175
3040 575 0.12 1.20 1.53 0.09 0.73 164 209
3050 432 0.15 0.47 2.31 0.24 0.96 48 240
3060 433 0.18 0.85 2.28 0.17 1.15 73 198
3070 435 0.20 0.88 2.01 0.19 1.16 75 173
3080 441 0.18 0.88 1.74 0.17 1.12 78 155
3090 435 0.18 0.69 1.83 0.21 1.13 61 161
3100 438 0.21 0.63 2.67 0.25 0.98 64 272
3110 438 0.15 0.71 1.23 0.17 1.08 65 113
3120 435 0.20 0.74 1.78 0.21 1.13 65 157
3130 437 0.24 1.30 1.36 0.16 1.51 86 90
3140 432 0.23 1.66 1.65 0.12 1.26 131 130
3150 573 0.27 1.68 1.46 0.14 1.10 152 132
3160 585 0.22 1.43 1.53 0.13 0.95 150 161
3170 434 0.22 1.82 1.61 0.11 1.35 134 119
3180 436 0.21 0.79 1.97 0.21 1.09 72 180
3190 437 0.16 0.65 2.27 0.20 1.00 65 227
3200 434 0.16 1.05 1.95 0.13 1.18 88 165
3210 432 0.18 0.95 2.34 0.16 0.93 102 251
3220 431 0.22 1.24 1.87 0.15 1.03 120 181
3230 435 0.34 2.66 1.99 0.11 2.22 119 89
3240 432 0.81 9.58 2.09 0.08 5.64 169 37
 L.R. Snowdon et al. / Organic Geochemistry 35 (2004) 1039–1052 1043

Table 1 (continued)
Depth Qty Tmax S1 (mg HC/ S2 (mg HC/ S3 (mg CO2 / PI (S1/ TOC HI (mg HC/ OI (mg CO2 /g
(m) (mg) (°C) g rock) g rock) g rock) (S1+S2)) (%) g TOC) TOC)
3250 429 0.90 11.65 1.7 0.07 6.22 187 27
3260 428 0.97 11.28 1.91 0.08 6.25 180 30
3270 433 0.36 2.66 2.18 0.12 2.51 105 86
3280 435 0.73 4.74 3.7 0.13 4.24 111 87
3290 431 0.73 6.91 2.08 0.10 4.53 152 45
3300 428 5.06 48.03 4 0.10 14.92 321 26
3310 422 5.30 59.02 1.62 0.08 12.96 455 12
3320 421 4.72 49.24 2.91 0.09 16.13 305 18
3330 429 1.64 13.95 2.01 0.11 7.24 192 27
3340 430 1.47 12.70 2.7 0.10 6.89 184 39
3350 433 1.00 5.69 2.7 0.15 3.46 164 78
3360 433 0.39 2.10 2.07 0.16 2.09 100 99
3370 436 0.40 2.29 1.88 0.15 2.38 96 78
3380 437 0.48 2.40 2.12 0.17 2.38 100 89
3390 433 0.47 2.62 1.51 0.15 2.49 105 60
3400 437 0.39 1.93 2.43 0.17 1.85 104 131
3410 438 0.29 1.27 2.09 0.19 1.40 90 149
3420 438 0.22 0.79 1.36 0.22 1.15 68 118
3430 436 0.33 1.04 1.99 0.24 1.46 71 136
3440 439 0.21 1.09 1.66 0.16 1.25 87 132
3450 439 0.18 1.14 1.22 0.14 1.36 83 89
3460 521 0.21 1.20 1.93 0.15 0.72 166 268
3470 565 0.20 1.23 1.72 0.14 1.05 117 163
3480 438 0.27 1.23 1.57 0.18 1.40 87 112
3490 437 0.18 1.19 1.99 0.13 1.33 89 149
3500 439 0.16 0.83 2.03 0.16 1.23 67 165
*
A sample weight of 100  2 mg was used for all samples but these sample weights were not preserved with the archived data.

2.2. Organic geochemistry
Rock–Eval/TOC analyses were carried out on 100
mg aliquots of washed cuttings samples on a 10 m
spacing from the Immiugak A-06 well (Table 1, lower
section). The original analyses had been carried out us-
ing a Rock–Eval II/TOC instrument in which the sample
is pyrolyzed to 600 °C and then oxidized at the same
temperature of 600 °C. Analyses of a few of the high
TOC samples using a newly acquired Rock–Eval 6 in-
strument in which the oxidation oven was programmed
to ramp temperature between 400 and 800 °C yielded
higher TOC estimates. However, the continuous CO2
and CO traces available from this instrument indicated
that the oxidation was still not complete even at the high
temperature. A re-analysis of smaller samples (about 20
mg) with the same oxidation temperature maximum of
800 °C yielded even higher TOC contents (Table 1, up-
per section). For all the Rock–Eval analyses, the S2
pyrolysis response was essentially similar.
Selected samples with high TOC contents and high
HI values were extracted using a Soxhlet extractor and
azeotropic solvent system (chloroform:methanol, 87:13).
The extracted bitumen was fractionated into saturates,
aromatics and polar compounds (NSOs and asphalt-
enes; Table 2) using open column chromatography and a
series of elution solvents of increasing polarity.
Subsequent analysis of the hydrocarbon fractions
was done using gas chromatography (GC); (Fig. 3) and
GC-selected ion mass spectrometry (GC–MS, Fig. 4).
Additional analyses of the saturated hydrocarbon frac-
tion were carried out using GC-full scan mass spec-
trometry to try to identify the unusual, high intensity
peaks in both the gas chromatograms (Fig. 3) and the
mass chromatograms (Fig. 4). This technique collects a
full mass spectrum (Fig. 5) at a rate of about one per
second through the GC run and thus provides complete
electron impact fragmentation data for each of the GC
peaks. GC analysis was carried out using a Varian 3400
GC equipped with a DB-1 column (30 m  0.25 mm ID)
with a 0.25 lm coating thickness. GC–MS analyses were
done on a Micromass Autospec mass spectrometer
coupled to a HP 6890 GC equipped with a DB-5MS
column (30 m  0.32 mm ID) with a 0.25 lm coating.
2.3. Organic petrology
Further characterization of the lower part of the
Taglu Sequence was carried out on four samples (3240,
3300, 3310 and 3320 m) using organic petrographic
1044 L.R. Snowdon et al. / Organic Geochemistry 35 (2004) 1039–1052

Table 2
Soxhlet extract and column chromatography fractionation data for selected samples of drill cuttings for Immiugak A-06
Depth (m) TOC (%) Extract yield (mg/g TOC) Hydrocarbon yield (mg/g TOC) HC (%) Sat/arom pr/ph
3240 12.19 52.2 11.8 22.6 0.56 3.8
3300 31.47 123.7 21.7 17.5 0.26 7.7
3310 21.43 85.1 19.2 22.6 0.20 6.4
3320 16.60 121.0 40.9 33.8 0.27 4.3
‘‘Yield’’ parameters are normalized to TOC. Sat/arom is the ratio of saturated/aromatic hydrocarbons. pr/ph is the peak area ratio
of pristane/phytane.

pristane
#X09407 Immiugak A-06 3240m #X09406 Immiugak A-06 3310m

C 21
C 23

C 25
C 27

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65

#X09405 Immiugak A-06 3300m #X09404 Immiugak A-06 3320m

bisnorlupane

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
Retention time (minutes) Retention time (minutes)

Fig. 3. GC traces of saturate fraction of extracts. The large peak eluting near n-C29 at about 38 min is interpreted to be 17b(H)-23,28-
bisnorlupane on the basis of its chromatographic elution time and mass spectrum (Fig. 5). Additional peaks eluting near n-C19 to n-C20
have been identified as tricyclic diterpanes derived from plant resins.

techniques in order to help identify the organic matter
type, thermal maturity and probable depositional envi-
ronment of the coal-enriched units. Samples were pre-
pared for incident light microscopy by hand-picking and
then placing coaly cuttings particles (
5–10 mm diam-
eter) into a 2.5 cm diameter Teflon mold (3 cm deep) and
impregnating with epoxy. After hardening, the sample
was ground using carborundum grits of decreasing
coarseness, and then finally polished using slurries of
alumina (0.3 lm and then 0.05 lm) and isopropyl
alcohol.
A Zeiss Axioplan II microscope equipped with white
and UV light sources, AxioVision camera-image capture
system, photometer and grating monochromator was
used for imaging and fluorescence microspectrometry of
liptinite and hydrocarbon fluid inclusions (hcfi) in the
samples. An epiplan-neofluor 40x water immersion ob-
jective (NA ¼ 0.95), ultraviolet G 365 nm excitation fil-
ter, 395 nm beam splitter and 420 nm barrier filter (HBO
100 W Hg UV-light source) was used. Zeiss Lambda
Scan software was used to record, correct and average
spectra. A black body curve was used to correct spectra
 L.R. Snowdon et al. / Organic Geochemistry 35 (2004) 1039–1052 1045

X09407 Immiugak A-06 3240m X09407 Immiugak A-06 3240m X09407 Immiugak A-06 3240m
Detector Response

m/z = 177 m/z = 191 m/z = 217

X09406 Immiugak A-06 3310m X09406 Immiugak A-06 3310m X09406 Immiugak A-06 3310m
A D
Detector Response

m/z = 177 m/z = 191 m/z = 217

Retention time Retention time Retention time

Fig. 4. Selected ion monitoring mass chromatograms of saturated hydrocarbon fraction of extracts showing distributions of terpanes
(m=z ¼ 177 and 191) and steranes (m=z ¼ 217). The tricyclic diterpane peaks are the early eluting compounds visible in the m=z ¼ 191
trace and the large peak near the centre of the trace is 17b(H), 23,28-bisnorlupane (peak D). Mass spectra of lettered peaks are shown
in Fig. 5.

for background (i.e., spectral characteristics of the light
source, optical imaging system, photomultiplier and
monochromator). A standard tungsten lamp (3100 K)
was used as a reference radiator during background
correction. The system was standardized with fluoresc-
ing Plexiglas standards (kmax ¼ 504, 580 and 604 nm).
Photochemical alteration of the ‘‘well-sealed’’ hcfi did
not occur during spectral scanning. Two spectral pa-
rameters best characterize the fluorescence properties of
liptinite macerals and hcfi: (i) Lambda max
(kmax ¼ wavelength of maximum emission intensity in
nm) and (ii) R=G quotient (Q ¼ intensity650 nm /intensi-
ty500 nm ). A Leitz MPV II microscope with white and UV
light sources was used for evaluating per cent reflectance
in oil (% Ro) of vitrinite and for point count maceral
analysis. Glass standards (0.495%, 1.025% and 1.82%
Ro) were used for calibrating the microphotometric
system.
3. Discussion
3.1. Organic geochemistry
Different TOC and Hydrogen Index values were
produced by the Rock–Eval II (with TOC module) and
Rock Eval 6 pyrolysis systems. The initial Rock–Eval II/
TOC high Hydrogen Indices (>300 mg HC/g TOC) were
determined to be incorrect. The high HI values result
from the incomplete oxidation of the coals at 600 °C.
This analytical error in the denominator of the HI pa-
rameter leads to estimates of HI that are too high. When
the Rock–Eval 6 instrument was operated to 650 °C
(both for pyrolysis and oxidation stages), the estimated
TOC contents were higher than for those of the
Rock–Eval II/TOC machine. However, the Rock–Eval 6
instrument provides a continuous trace of the concen-
trations of CO and CO2 and it was apparent that when
the ballistic cool down of the oxidation oven began, the
evolution of CO2 , and hence the oxidation, was not
complete. A subsequent analysis of a smaller aliquot
(
20 mg rather than
100 mg) of sample with the oxi-
dation temperature extended to 800 °C yielded signifi-
cantly higher TOC contents and commensurately lower
HI values (Table 1). These last TOC estimates (up to

24%) are considered to be correct because the CO and
CO2 traces had returned to close to baseline before the
end of the oxidation step.
The Tmax values for Rock–Eval II and 6 are within the
same general thermal maturity range, although Tmax
values from the Rock–Eval 6 (418–436 °C) are slightly
lower than those noted in the initial Rock–Eval II/TOC
analysis (421–439 °C). Smaller sample sizes commonly
yield higher Tmax values in a Rock–Eval II instrument,
but this weight dependence is not observed in Rock–
Eval 6 instruments. The observed trend between the two
machines is the reverse of that expected for different
weights on a Rock–Eval II, and thus the different Tmax
ranges in the data from the two machines are not likely
due to the differences in sample weight. A more likely
1046 L.R. Snowdon et al. / Organic Geochemistry 35 (2004) 1039–1052

100 100

90
(A) 90 (B)
aX09406 Im
miugak A-06 3310m X09406 Immiugak A-06 3310m
80 Scan 137 80 Scan 178

70 70
Detector Response

60 60

50 50
233
40 40

30 30

20 20
233
261
10 10 276
247 262
0 0
60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320
100 100
177
(C) 177 (D)
90 X09406 Immiugak A-06 3310m 90 X09406 Immiugak A-06 3310m
Scan 641 Scan 652
80 80

70 70
Detector Response

60 60

50 50

40 40

30 30

20 192 20

10 369 10 369
341 341 385
384
0 0
60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400 420 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400 420
Mass Mass

Fig. 5. Background subtracted mass spectra of selected chromatographic peaks marked in Fig. 4. Note the – 29 ion (loss of ethyl side
chain) in A and – 43 (loss of isopropyl side chain) in B–D. Also note the intensity of m=z ¼ 177 and m=z ¼ 192 relative to m=z ¼ 191 in
C and D, both characteristic of lupanes.

source of error would simply be temperature calibration
on one or both of the machines. Both data sets clearly
show significant Tmax suppression (Snowdon, 1995) for
the coal-rich samples (3240–3350 m) relative to the
surrounding rocks (Table 1). The level of thermal ma-
turity may be inferred by interpolating the Tmax values
from the trend in the results from the intervals sur-
rounding the organic rich intervals. These data suggest
that the maturity at about 3300 m depth in the Immiu-
gak A-06 well are about the equivalent of 0.7% vitrinite
reflectance. This level of maturity is slightly higher than
that inferred from the actual measured vitrinite reflec-
tance and from the fluorescence and the foraminiferal
colouration data discussed below.
The carbon-normalized total solvent extract yield
ranges from 52.2–123.7 mg extract/g TOC (Table 2).
Hydrocarbons comprise about 18–34% of the total ex-
tracts (11.8–40.9 mg HC/g TOC). The data for both of
these parameters are consistent with marginal thermal
maturity. These values fall below the empirical ‘‘poten-
tial source’’ limit of Powell (1978), with only the deepest
of the samples falling within the category of ‘‘marginal’’
source potential. Note that the TOC contents reported
in Tables 1 and 2 for a given depth are highly variable
and this reflects the heterogeneity among separate
aliquots of the cuttings samples. That is, any given ali-
quot of material selected from the bulk sample may
contain highly variable proportions of coal particles
relative to the sandstone, shale and siltstone particles
that comprise the majority of the cuttings samples.
The pristane/phytane ratios of 3.8–7.7 (Table 2,
Fig. 3) are also consistent with marginal thermal matu-
rity for terrestrial organic matter, as is the predominance
of odd/even carbon numbered normal alkanes over the
C21 –C29 range (Fig. 3).
The mass chromatograms (Fig. 4) indicate the pres-
ence of significant amounts of tricyclic diterpanes in the
saturate fraction. These compounds have the C-ring
alkyl group attached at the 13 position and are derived
from plant resins. They are distinguished from the tri-
cyclic terpanes (cheilanthanes) which range from C19 to
C45 (Peters and Moldowan, 1993, p. 143) with the alkyl
group attached to the C-ring at the 14 position. Two C19
and two C20 tricyclic diterpenoid hydrocarbons have
 L.R. Snowdon et al. / Organic Geochemistry 35 (2004) 1039–1052
been tentatively identified based upon comparison of
mass spectra and other published data (Livsey et al.,
1984; Noble et al., 1986). The two C19 tricyclic terpanes
are 4b(H), 19-norisopimarane (the largest peak in the
mass chromatogram of m=z ¼ 177 for the sample from
3240 m) and fichtelite. Both have the molecular ion at
m=z ¼ 262 indicating C19 tricyclic compounds and
m=z ¼ 109 from rupture of the B ring. Norisopimarane
has a significant m=z ¼ 233 ion from the loss of an ethyl
group, whilst fichtelite has m=z ¼ 219 from the loss of an
isopropyl group. The two C20 tricyclic diterpenoids are
thought to be pimarane (or isopimarane) and abietane.
Both have a m=z ¼ 276 molecular ion indicating C20
tricyclic compounds, and a dominant ion at m=z ¼ 163
ion from the rupture of the A ring. Pimarane has a
significant ion at m=z ¼ 247 ion from the loss of an ethyl
group and abietane has an ion at m=z ¼ 233 from the
loss of an isopropyl group. Other diterpenoids are
present, but are in insufficient quantities for identifica-
tion based on mass spectra.
While the early eluting diterpane peak is also present
in significant amounts in samples from 3300 to 3320 m,
the m=z ¼ 177 mass chromatograms of these latter three
samples are dominated by a pair of peaks inferred to be
17a(H)- and 17b(H), 23,28-bisnorlupane (Figs. 4 and 5).
This compound is also the largest peak in the saturate
fraction gas chromatograms (Fig. 3). Identification of
the lupane compounds was similarly based on frag-
mentation patterns (Fig. 5) and comparison with liter-
ature results (Rullk€otter et al., 1982; Brooks, 1986a,b;
Curiale, 1991; Nytoft et al., 2002). Key fragments in-
clude the ion at m=z ¼ 177 which is significantly higher
than that at m=z ¼ 191 and the high abundence of the
ion m=z ¼ 192 relative to that of m=z ¼ 191. The oc-
currence of very large concentrations of 23,28-bis-
norlupanes in samples that are stratigraphically older,
and structurally deeper, than the Richards Formation is
highly significant for the interpretation of the source
rock-reservoir systems in the Beaufort–Mackenzie Ba-
sin. Previously, Brooks (1986a,b) inferred that the
Richards Formation (Eocene) was the most likely source
for almost all of the Tertiary oil and gas discoveries in
the basin because this rather unusual biomarker com-
pound was present in many of the discoveries but was
only observed over a restricted stratigraphic interval
within the Richards Formation. Curiale (1991) also used
Brooks’s results to infer an Eocene source for the hy-
drocarbons in the Kugmallit and Richards formations
and the presence of 28,30-bisnorhopane and/or oleanane
to indicate a Paleocene source for the crude oil in the
Reindeer and Moose Channel formations. The results
from the Immiugak A-06 well clearly demonstrate that
the same bisnorlupane compounds are also present in
high concentrations within at least one of the coaly in-
tervals in the lower Taglu Sequence. It would now ap-
pear that the presence or absence of bisnorlupanes in
1047
oils does not provide any constraint on whether the
source is the Richards Formation or older Eocene coals.
Indeed, the attribution of significant source potential
to the Richards Formation has always been enigmatic in
so far as the TOC content was lower than most source
rocks (typically about 1.5%, rarely more than 2%), and
the stratigraphic position of this unit, above the Paleo-
cene and earliest Eocene reservoirs in the southern
portion of the Delta area, added constraints to the
generation and migration history of this basin. If,
however, the coals in the Immiugak A-06 well represent
a significant source rock for many of the Tertiary dis-
coveries, then the apparent discontinuity between the
size and number of the oil and gas discoveries and the
marginal source rock quality of the Richards Formation
is no longer an issue. Furthermore, Taglu and Aklak
sands act as reservoirs and thus migration should not be
as much of a limiting factor in the effectiveness of an
Eocene-sourced petroleum system.
Because the organic matter content in the coals is
very high and the level of thermal maturity for the lower
Taglu Sequence would be expected to be somewhat
higher than the Richards Formation by virtue of its
lower stratigraphic position, the source potential for the
coaly section in this unit must be considered as probably
being much higher than that of the Richards Formation
which has typical TOC contents of about 1.5%. This is
especially true for the older Tertiary reservoir units in
the Reindeer and Moose Channel formations. The rel-
ative organic matter contents and maturity of lower
Taglu Sequence and Richards Formation also suggest
that the former must now also be considered as a po-
tential source for many of the Tertiary discoveries. The
lower Taglu Sequence must also be considered as a po-
tential source for reservoirs in the Kugmallit Formation,
above the Richards Sequence, given that vertical
migration has been documented in the Beaufort–
Mackenzie Basin (Snowdon, 1988). Clearly, additional
work will have to be done to determine whether the
bisnorlupane-bearing lower Taglu Sequence and Rich-
ards Formation can be chemically differentiated.
The picture is further complicated by the observa-
tions made on the Immiugak A-06 sample from 3240 m.
This sample, from only 60 m above the bisnorlupane
bearing coals, is also relatively organic rich (>5% TOC)
and probably represents a ‘‘coaly’’ interval, that is, one
in which the coaly material is dispersed or occurs in thin
beds that are not well resolved by the petrophysical
logging tools. The cuttings samples analyzed in this
study contain discrete coaly particles, but because of the
mechanical mixing of rock material during drilling and
recovery, any given sample of cuttings represents an
average of the rock material over some unknown ver-
tical interval. Regardless of this limitation, it is quite
clear that organic-rich, coaly intervals close to, but
above, 3300 m in the Immiugak A-06 well do not
1048 L.R. Snowdon et al. / Organic Geochemistry 35 (2004) 1039–1052

contain significant amounts of the bisnorlupane com- Table 4

pounds. Thus it is possible that the character of the Petrographic maceral and mineral analysis for coal particles
biomarker patterns observed in any given petroleum only in cuttings samples from 3240 to 3300 m depth in Gulf et al.
sample may be controlled by precisely which coaly in- 3240 m 3300 m
terval was most effective in expelling hydrocarbons. Depth (%) Depth (%)
Thus far, the bisnorlupanes have only been observed Vitrinite group
within the lower Taglu Sequence for a single well and Vitrinite A – high fluorescence 5.4 8.0
over a restricted stratigraphic interval within that well. Vitrinite A – low fluorescence 32.8 39.8
Until a significant number of additional samples are Vitrinite B – high fluorescence 6.0 4.6
systematically investigated, no definitive interpretations Vitrinite B – low fluorescence 22.0 20.6
or conclusions regarding the real effectiveness of this
Inertinite group
and other potential Paleocene and early Eocene sources Inertinite 2.5 3.0
can be made.
Liptinite group
3.2. Organic petrology Sporinite 5.5 5.6
Resinite 5.0 5.3
Cutinite 2.3 2.5
The four coal-dominated drill cuttings samples from
Exsudatinite 1.5 1.0
3240, 3300, 3310 and 3320 m depth in the Immiugak A- Matrix bituminite 2.5 2.0
06 well contain similar maceral and mineral components
(Tables 3 and 4). High and low intensity fluorescing Mineral
telovitrinite is the dominant component in both samples Pyrite 13.5 5.6
Fe-oxides 1.0 2.0
(66–70%) (Fig. 6), whereas liptinites account for about
15% of the samples. The liptinites primarily consist of Immiugak A-06. Percentages are based on 200 and 300
sporinite, resinite and cutinite macerals (Fig. 6); however point counts, respectively.
minor quantities of exudatinite (i.e., solid bitumen) are
also present, mainly occurring within microfractures in
vitrinite (Fig. 6). One significant difference among the hibit mainly a yellow fluorescence and have kmax and Q
samples is that the 3310 m sample contains shale parti- values (Table 3) generally correlative with an API
cles that are enriched in lipto-detrinite and Botryococ- gravity of
30–35 (Stasiuk and Snowdon, 1997).
cus-like, degraded alginite, and this could account for The maceral assemblage (i.e., high in liptinite; highly
higher HI. Inertinite macerals are present in only very gelified fluorescing vitrinite, very low in inertinite) in the
minor quantities ( 6 3%). Mineral matter is relatively coals is characteristic of peat deposition under the in-
abundant in the coal and consists almost exclusively of fluence of a high water table, and in some cases also
pyrite (Fig. 6). Habits and forms of pyrite are variable marine-influenced coastal deposition (Taylor et al.,
include cryptocrystalline, framboidal, massive (including 1998). The abundance of early organic replacive, bio-
infilling microfractures in vitrinite), euhedral and re- genic framboids, and late euhedral to massive diagenetic
placive of organic matter. One and two phase hydro- sulfides in the coals is also consistent with a marine-
carbon fluid inclusions which occur in cements in fine- influenced peat palaeodepositional environment, or, at
grained sandstone cuttings (also enriched in terrestrial least the effects of dissolved sulfate (i.e., sea water/fluids)
organic matter) were noted in association with the coal from a marine transgression over the peat deposit
cuttings (Fig. 6). The crude oils in these inclusions ex- shortly after its formation.

Table 3
Optical analysis for cuttings from Immiugak A-06
Depth (m) Vitrinite % Ro kmax (nm) sporinite Q – sporinite kmax (nm) crude oil Q – crude oil
3300.0 0.53 (pop 1) 590 1.1 540 0.65
3300.0 0.61 (pop 2)
3310.0 0.51 (pop 1) 585 0.86 –
3310.0 0.59 (pop 2)
3320.0 0.52 (pop 1) 590 0.95 –
3320.0 0.59 (pop 2)
3240.0 0.53 (pop 1) 590 1.0 510 0.47
3240.0 0.61 (pop 2) – – –
Vitrinite % Ro values were measured on two populations (see text).
For explanation of fluorescence data (kmax and Q) for sporinite and crude oil inclusions see methodology and discussion in text.
 L.R. Snowdon et al. / Organic Geochemistry 35 (2004) 1039–1052 1049

Fig. 6. Digital images of maceral (organic) and mineral components in coals from the Immiugak A-06 well at 3240 and 3300 m depth.
Image (a) was captured using a water immersion objective, plane polarized white incident light (ppl). Images (b)–(h) were taken under
water immersion, fluorescent light. (a) Highly gelified, sulphide-rich collovitrinite; ppl. (b) Fluorescing vitrinite showing exceptional
preservation of wood cellular structure possibly related to secondary cell wall thickening phenomenon. (c) Abundant resinite and
exsudatinite associated with telovitrinite and cutinite. (d) Massive resinite. (e) Sporinite-enriched detrovitrinite (old term desmocoll-
inite). (f) and (g) Cutinite-enriched vitrinite associated with fluorinite variety of resinite and fracture-filling exudatinite. (h) Fluorescing
crude oil inclusions in microfractures in sandstones associated with coal cuttings.
1050 L.R. Snowdon et al. / Organic Geochemistry 35 (2004) 1039–1052
The telovitrinite in the coals from the Immiugak A-
06 well is characterized by two distinct populations
based on reflectance (% Ro) and relative fluorescence
intensity during UV exposure (qualitative observation).
The first population has a mean of 0.51–0.53% Ro
(Table 3) and relatively high fluorescence intensity. The
second has a higher mean % Ro of 0.59–0.61 (Table 3)
and distinctly lower fluorescence intensity. Fluorescence
microspectrometry of sporinite (including pollen) mac-
erals within the coals yields maximum emission wave-
lengths and Q ratios of 585–590 nm and 0.86–1.1 nm,
respectively, are generally consistent with telovitrinite %
Ro values on the order of 0.60–0.65 (Ottenjann et al.,
1975; van Gijzel, 1981). Defining a thermal maturity/
coalification level based on vitrinite reflectance alone for
coals characterized by highly variable telovitrinite re-
flectance with high vitrinite fluorescence, high resinite/
liptinite content and high sulfur contents is often mis-
leading/problematic because the telovitrinite reflectance
is commonly suppressed (e.g., Hutton and Cook, 1980;
Wilkins et al., 1992), i.e., a lower level of thermal ma-
turity is indicated. However, the level of thermal ma-
turity inferred from both the measured vitrinite
reflectance and fluorescence properties is consistent with
that inferred by the foraminiferal colouration index
(FCI, McNeil et al., 1996) at about 0.6–0.65% vitrinite
reflectance.
The overall geochemical and petrological observa-
tions for the studied intervals of the Immiugak A-06 well
suggest that they should have some potential for gen-
erating and expelling liquid hydrocarbons despite being
coaly and hence primarily a source for gas. The liptinite
content of these coals is quite high (about 15%) and the
vitrinite is generally fluorescent, indicating some liquid
generation potential. Similarly, the Rock–Eval Hydro-
gen Index parameter exceeds 200 mg HC/g TOC for two
out of seven samples within the coal seams at about 3300
m depth. These observations then lead to the prediction
that the potential source rocks studied would be ex-
pected to produce mainly gas by virtue of their high
content of terrestrial organic matter dominated by vitr-
inite, but they would also be expected to generate, and
probably to expel, some amount of liquid hydrocarbons
as oil. If the gas to oil ratio were high enough for the gas
to accommodate all of the liquids, then, by definition
these liquids would be present in the form of condensate.
If the reactive portion of the liptinites at low levels of
thermal stress were resins, the expected liquid product
would tend to be dominated by two and three ring sat-
urated and aromatic compounds. The saturate fraction
GC traces for the 3300–3320 m samples show a very
small hump of unresolved compounds that corresponds
to sesquiterpanoids (C15 compounds), but little or no
evidence for a similar hump in the diterpenoids (C20 )
region (Fig. 3). Several discrete tricyclic diterpanes are
present in relatively high abundance, providing evidence
that the resin macerals have been at least somewhat ef-
fective in generating liquid hydrocarbon compounds.
4. Conclusions
Early Eocene coal-rich samples from 3300 to 3320 m
in the Immiugak A-06 well contain large amounts of the
biological markers 17a(H)- and 17b(H), 23,28-bisnorlu-
pane. These compounds were previously known only in
the lower part of the Eocene Richards Formation in this
basin and as such were considered to be a strong indicator
correlating many of the Tertiary oils and condensates to a
Richards Formation source rock. The discovery of large
concentrations of bisnorlupanes within at least some of
the coals in the lower Taglu Sequence suggests that this
older unit may well be a contributing, or even dominant,
source of much of the Tertiary hydrocarbons in the
Beaufort–Mackenzie Basin.
From an analytical standpoint, it may also be con-
cluded that great care must be taken when interpreting
high Hydrogen Index values in rocks rich in coal be-
cause of the potential for incomplete oxidation of these
samples in a Rock–Eval II/TOC instrument. Incomplete
oxidation in a Rock–Eval 6 instrument is easily detected
by the failure of the CO and CO2 traces to return to
baseline before the start of the ballistic cooling of the
oxidation oven.
A combination of the high liptinite content observed
during petrological point counting and Rock–Eval Hy-
drogen Index values in excess of 200 mg HC/g TOC
indicate that the coal-rich interval studied in the Immi-
ugak A-06 well would be expected to be dominantly a
gas source but with the potential for the generation and
expulsion of some liquid hydrocarbons.
Acknowledgements
Superb technical assistance was provided by Sneh
Achal, Marina Milovic, and Kim Dunn. Funding for this
research was provided by Anadarko Petroleum, BPA-
moco, Burlington Energy, Chevron-Texaco, Conoco-
Phillips, Devon Energy, EnCana, PetroCanada, and
Shell Canada. Critical reviews by Volker Dieckmann and
Nigel Mills provided helpful comments to improve the
manuscript and are gratefully acknowledged. This is
Geological Survey of Canada contribution 2003-181.
Associate Editor – Rolando di Primio
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