Mr.

Mohd Aqib

PLATE TECTONICS

Plates and their margins:

The crust of the earth essential consists of about 35 Km thick layer of solid rock
matter. The curst thickness varies form about 5 Km in the 70 to 80 Km in the mountainous
region of the Alps and the Himalays. Volcanism, earth quake, folding and faulting of rock
strata and recent elevation and depression of coastal areas suggest that the crust is not fully
rigid on the other hand the earth’s curst has been repeatedly deformed in the geologic past
and is subjected to movements at the present time.

Evidences derived chiefly from paleomagnetic studies and those of earthquake

waves show that, within the upper mantle there is a soft layer, which have plastically
because of increased temperature and pressure. This layer of the upper mantle is known as
Asthenosphere and is approximately 150 Km thick. The curst together with the upper most
portion of the mantle which overlies the asthenosphere constitute the lithosphere. The rigid
lithosphere is capable of floating over the Asthenosphere and is disjointed into large
segments or blocks extensively by faults or thrust. These blocks are known as Lithospheric
plates, which are in total system of plate motion involving the movement of the
lithospheric plates and the geologic activities associated with them is commonly referred
as plate tectonics.

Thus the concept of plate tectonics involve a world wide network of moving
lithospheric plates. The concept was postulated by American scientists Hess. The main
idea under lined the hypothesis of plate tectonic are the outcomes of the study of the
structure of the ocean flow and discovery of zones of the on mid-oceanic ridges basalt
MORB and zones of the absorption of the curst in trenches. This concept of plate tectonic
takes into account the hypothesis of continental drift and oceanic floor spreading.

IMPORTANT FEATURES OF PALTE TECTONIC:

1. A plate is large, rigid slab of rock, which moves slowly over the Asthenosphere.
2. The thickness of a plate is form 0 to 10 km at the ridges and 100 to 150 km
elsewhere.
3. Plate are of continental dimensions
4. The earth is composed of six major plates and a few dozens smaller plates

1. The Pacific plate

2. Antarctica plate
3. Eurasian plate
4. African plate
5. North American plate
6. South American plate
7. Indian plate
8. Australian plates

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5. The plates are continuously in motion both with respect to each other and to the
earth s axis of rotation. Each plate is capable of moving independently of its
surrounding plates.
6. The plates ma contain continental as well as oceanic surfaces of the six major
plates, five contain continents in the lithosphere, only sea- floor. Some of the
smaller plates may be entirely continental but all the large plates contain some sea
floor.
7. Virtually all seismicity, volcanicity around plate tectonic activity is localized
associated with different motion between adjacent plates.
8. Plates move with velocities ranging form 1 to 6 centimeter per year. Plates move
away from one another, past one another or towards one another.
9. Plate boundary is the surface trace of the zone of motion between two plates.
10. Plate margin is the marginal part of a particular plate. Two plate margins meet at a
common plate boundary. Where three plate boundaries meet, it is termed as a Triple
junction.

PLATE BOUNDARIES:

The plate boundaries are the surfaical trace of the zone of motion. The site of intense
geological activates which are mainly due to the movement of plates. It is indicated
three types of plate boundaries have been recognized on the basis of their movements
are as follows.

1. Divergent or constructive boundaries

2. Convergent or Destructive boundaries
3. Transform or conservative boundaries

1. Divergent boundaries.

These are called divergent because along these boundaries, the two plates,
which are in motion, move away from each other. As the two plates moves apart,
a fissure develops, allowing hot molten rock material to well up fro the mantel
(asthenosphere) produce new plate. The fissure represents the zone of spreading
and since the new curst is created by the up welling of materials from the
asthenosphere. This type of boundary is also known as Constructive boundary.

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The divergence of plates may take place in the middle of an ocean or in the

middle of continents.

a. Oceanic divergenc
A diverging plate boundary on the ocean floor is marked by the crest of the mid-
oceanic ridges. The lithospheric plates diverge at the crest of the mid-oceanic ridge. The
existence of a rift valley at the ridge crest is associated with basaltic volcanism.. the
volcanism appears to be the result of melting of the mantle beneath the ridge. The eruption
o lava creates new ocean floor within the rift valley. This mechanism that has produced
the floor of an ocean is called “ Sea floor spreading”.

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b. Continental divergence.
This is also known as continental rupturing. In the initial stages of continental
rupturing, a column of heated mantle begins to rise from deep beneath the
continental plate. This causes elevation of the continent. This column of hot mantle
rock is called ‘Mantle plume’. On to elevation the crust become thinner above the
uplift and the tensional forces cause the plate to fracture forming a ‘Rift valley’.
As the spreading of lithospheric plates continue the rift valley will lengthen and
deepen eventually admitting ocean water into the linear basin, thus forming a
narrow ocean between the diverging pieces of the original continent.

The great rift valley of East Africa is an excellent example of a rift valley becoming
a narrow linear sea with an outlet to the ocean.

2. Convergent Boundaries
This is zone along which two lithospheric plates are in motion towards each other.
The character of the boundary and the geological activities associated with them depends
on the types of plates involved in the convergence. There can be three type of situations
as:
a. Two plates capped by oceanic curst moving towards each other i.e
Ocean-ocean convergence.
b. One plate capped by oceanic curst and the other one by continental crust moving
towards each other i.e. Oceanic –continental convergence.
c. Two plates capped by continental crust moving towards each other i.e.
Continental-continental convergence or continental collision.

In such cases the more dense plate will normally be deflected beneath the less
dense one and will be destroyed and absorbed at depth. That is whenever the
leading edge of a plate capped with continental curst converges with oceanic curst,
the less dense continental material apparently remains floating. While the more
dense oceanic slab sinks into the asthenosphere. The region where an oceanic plate
descends in to the asthenosphere because of convergence is called a “Subduction
zone”. As the oceanic plate slides beneath the overriding plate, the oceanic plate
bends, there by producing a deep-ocean trench, adjacent to the zone of subduction.
Trenches formed in this manner may be thousands of kilometers deep.

a. Ocean-ocean convergence
Here two oceanic crusts come together and one plate bends downward beneath
the other. This phenomena is called Subduction. Subduction of the plate
forming the oceanic curst is the cause of the oceanic –trench, which is formed
immediately over the zone of subduction of the descending plate. At depths
between 150 to 200 kms melting of the descending plate takes place due to
frictional heat and higher than the surrounding rock, the magma bodies rise
slowly to the surface forming a curved line of volcanoes which form a string of
volcanic islands, parallel to the already formed oceanic trench, known as
‘Island arc’. Between the island arc and the continent lies a marginal ocean
basin. The eruption of magma take place, where the top o the ocean trench
varies. This distance is determined by the angle of subduction. Steeper the
subduction angle shorter is the distance between the arc and the trench similarly

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when the subduction angle is gentle the are-trench spacing also becomes great.
Example o Island arc the Philippines and Japan.

In such cases the more dense plate will normally be deflected beneath the less dense
one and will be destroyed and absorbed at depth. That is whenever the leading edge
of a plate capped with continental curst converges with oceanic curst, the less dense
continental material apparently remains floating. While the more dense oceanic
slab sinks into the asthenosphere. The region where an oceanic plate descends in
to the asthenosphere because of convergence is called a “Subduction zone”. As
the oceanic plate slides beneath the overriding plate, the oceanic plate bends, there

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by producing a deep-ocean trench, adjacent to the zone of subduction. Trenches

formed in this manner may be thousands of kilometers deep.

b. Ocean-ocean convergence
Here two oceanic crusts come together and one plate bends downward beneath the
other. This phenomena is called Subduction. Subduction of the plate forming the
oceanic curst is the cause of the oceanic –trench, which is formed immediately over
the zone of subduction of the descending plate. At depths between 150 to 200 kms
melting of the descending plate takes place due to frictional heat and higher than
the surrounding rock, the magma bodies rise slowly to the surface forming a curved
line of volcanoes which form a string of volcanic islands, parallel to the already
formed oceanic trench, known as ‘Island arc’. Between the island arc and the
continent lies a marginal ocean basin. The eruption of magma take place, where
the top o the ocean trench varies. This distance is determined by the angle of
subduction. Steeper the subduction angle shorter is the distance between the arc
and the trench similarly when the subduction angle is gentle the are-trench spacing
also becomes great. Example o Island arc the Philippines and Japan.

c. Oceanic –continental convergence

During a collision between an oceanic slab and a continental block, the continental
crust being less dense, the oceanic plate is forced to bend down beneath the
continental plate the magma that rises from the subduction zone forms a volcanic
arc, within the continental curst rather than an island arc at sea. That is upon
entering the hot asthenosphere, the downward moving oceanic plate and the water-
soaked sediments carried upon it begin to melt. The newly formed magma created
in this manner is less dense than the surrounding mantle rocks and consequently,
when sufficient quantities have gathered , the molten rock will slowly rise most of
the rising mama will be emplaced in the overlying continental curst, where it will
cool and crystallize at a depth of several kilometers. Because of the addition of
rising hot magma, the continental curst becomes thicken. A young mountain rang
is formed due to the isostatic uplift of the thickened curst.

Some times, the remaining magma will migrate to the surface where it can
give rise to numerous and occasionally explosive volcanic eruptions . the volcanic
Andes mountain are believed to have been produced in part by volcanic activity
associated with the subduction of oceanic lithosphere are ‘Volcanic arc’.

d.
Continental-continental convergence:

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This phenomenon is also known as continental collision. Here two continents move
towards each other. Initially their exists an ocean floor in between the two
continents. With the two continents coming closer the ocean basic gets reduced in
width and the ocean floor gets subducted under one continent will have a volcanic
are. Erosion of the newly formed volcanic arc would add large quantities of
sediment to the already sediment-laden continental margins. Continued subduction
of the ocean – floor an the narrowing of the ocean basin eventually bring he
continents into a collision. the ocean basin gets disappeared completely and the
sediment mass which had earlier accumulated in the ocean basin and fragments of
the volcanic arc, gets squeezed into complicated folds with thrust faults. the result
is a mountain range in the interior of a continent.

The Himalayan Mountains are thought to have been formed collision of the
Indian plate against the Eurasian plate. The Tethys sea disappeared and the
Himalayas came into existence in its place with the collision. Several other
complex mountain systems, including he Alps, Appalachians and the Urals are
thought to have formed in this manner.

3. Transform boundaries :

These are also known as conservative boundaries. here two plates slide past one
another without the destruction of curst or without the prediction of crusts. the two plates
slide past one another along a single fault or a group of parallel faults. the motion of the
plate is strike-slip along the fault, resulting what is called a Transcurrent or Transform
fault. These are accordingly known as Transform boundaries. In this case, little
interaction takes place between two plates on either side of the boundary.

Most transform faults are located in oceanic curst, but a few including the San-
andreas fault in California .

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CAUSES OF MOVEMENTS OF PLATES:

1. Formation of Oceanic curst:

It is known that new curst is formed in zones of spreading. since this curstal
formation is a continuous process, the new curst pushes the earlier ones form the
ridge and causes spreading of the lithospereic plate. This process is believed to
cause plate motion.

2. Rate of motion:

The formation of new curst at the mid-oceanic ridge is accompanied with an

absorption of the lighospheric plate is believed that, since spreading of plates at
ridge crest occurs at rates ranging from 1 to 6 cms per year but are consumed at the
rate of 5 to 15 cms per year at the oceanic trenches the plates must move to maintain
a balance between the two.

3. Temperature difference:
The unequal distribution of heat with in the earth generate large convection cells
with in the mantle. The warm , less dense material of the lower mantle rises very
slowly in the regions of oceanic ridges. as the material spreads laterally and begins
to sink back into the mantle, only to be reheated. The large low-density bulge which
rises in the regions of ocean ridge exerts a lateral gravitational pressure on the plates
on either side. this causes the plates to move.

4. Mantle convection:
Convection current condition in the mantle zone seems to cause plate motion
the mechanism of the convection current is as follows; the cold oceanic slab has a
greater density than the asthenosphere supporting if form below. As a plate begins
to descend at the oceanic trenches, the heavy sinking slab might pull the trailing

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lithosphere along thus causing the motion of the plate. This hypothesis is similar to
another curst which suggests that the elevated position of an ocean ridge could cause
the lithosphere to slide under the influence of gravity. These push pull models are
themselves a type of convection current. As mantle, material is forced aside which
then migrates toward the ride system. The cell is completed as molten rock moves
up form the asthenosphere to fill the gap in diverging oceanic plates.

IMPORTANT OF PALTE-TECHTONIC THEORY:

Plate tectonic theory explains several geological phenomena such as :

a. Origin and distribution of earth quake

b. Origin of mountain ranges of their distribution.
c. Formation of island arcs and oceanic trenches.
d. Distribution of volcanoes
e. Continental drift
f. Formation of mid-oceanic ridge.
g. Ocean-floor spreading etc.

Sea floor spreading:

Hess (1962) and Dietz (1961) proposed the ocean evolved by spreading of ocean
floor due to upwelling of the new materials, at the mid-oceanic ridges. mason (1958)
discovered magnetic anomaly strips in the floor of the pacific ocean of California . this is
because the earth’s magnetic fields had reversed direction reversal times in the past due to
which periodic reversals were cause. What actually occurs in the divergent plate boundary
is a set of phenomena known as Sea floor spreading.

As the plate recede from one another, hot and partially molten material rises from
the asthenosphere to fill the gap after the cooling of these material it becomes ridge by
loosing its heat through its surface to sea water. the long linear ridges elevated above he
surrounding sea floor due upwelling of the material form the asthenosphere are called mid-
oceanic ridges, because they occupy the central position in Atlantic and Indian ocean.

The formation of new curst will be compensated by the absorption of another plate
at the margin of continents and oceans. this phenomena of the absorption of the plate takes
place in a zone called Subduction zone.

the finding of paleomagnetic research confirm the seafloor spreading hypothesis.

the confirmation of seafloor spreading hypothesis lead to the explanation of the continental
drift and that the earth curst can be divided into major plates. (Consisting of both oceanic
and continental curst) moving relative to each other. Differential movement of these plates
is believed to account for most of the dynamic features on the earths curst.

Paleomagnetism:

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Paleomagnetism is the study of fossil magnetism of rocks. They study of the earth’s
magnetic field offers the most important evidence of the plate tectonics theory.

The earth’s magnetic field, which is generated in part by the rotation of the earth
about its axis, has a north pole and a south pole. These magnetic poles align closely but
not exactly with respective geographic poles. Invisible lines of magnetic force pass through
the earth and extend from one pole to the other.

The technique used o study ancient magnetic

field is based on the fact that certain rocks contain
minerals, which serve as fossil compasses. These iron
rich minerals such as magnetite are present in large
quantities for e.g. in lava flows of basaltic
composition when heated above a certain
temperature called the curies point, these magnetic
mineral lose their magnetism. However, when these
iron-rich grins cool below, their curie point (about
528° C) they become magnetized in the direction
parallel to the existing magnetic field. Once the
material solidify, the magnetism they possess will
remain frozen in this position and they point towards
the existing magnetic pole changes position, the rock magnetism will retain its original
alignment. Rocks formed thousand or millions of years ago thus indicate the location of the
magnetic poles at the time of their formation and are said to possess fossil magnetism or
Paleomagnetism.

Polar wandering

A study of lava flows conducted in Europe in the 1950s bought to notice that the
magnetic alignment in the iron rich minerals in lava flows of different ages was found to
vary widely. A plot of the position of the magnetic north pole through ages revealed that
during the past 500 million years, the position of the pole had gradually wandered from a
location near Hawaii northward through eastern Siberia and finally to its present location.
This was clear evidence that the magnetic poles had migrated through ages, an idea known
as polar wandering which in turns supports the theory of continental drift

Magnetic reversals:

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Another discovery in the field of Paleomagnetism came when geophysicists

learned that the earth’s magnetic field periodically reverse polarity that is the north
magnetic pole becomes the south magnetic poles and visa versa. The cause of this reversal
is apparently linked to the fact that a earth magnetic field changes intensity. During periods
when earth’s magnetic field is very peak some external influence such as suns spots activity
could possibly contribute to a reversal of polarity. After a reversal has taken place, the field
would rebuilt itself with opposite polarity. A rock solidify during one of the period s of
reverse plurality will be magnetized with the opposites polarity of those rocks being formed
today. When rock exhibit the same magnesium as present magnetic field, they are said to
possess normal polarity, while those rock exhibiting the opposite magnetism are said to
have reverse polarity. Using the (potassium) K-Ar (argon) method of radiometric dating,
the polarity of the earth’s magnetic field has been constructed for period of several million
years.

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