Morphology

Presented to in partial fulfillment of the requirements for

studying INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS COURSE

By
GROUP 5

Muhammad Rickza Fadila Sya’ban (1215030153)

Muhammad Aria Ekaputra Nuralam (1215030140)
Muhammad Nail Badar Anwar Syazili (1215030152)
Nanda Aidila Fitri Nabilah (1215030164)

ENGLISH LITERATURE DEPARTMENT

FACULTY OF ADAB AND HUMANITIES
STATE ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY “SUNAN GUNUNG DJATI”
BANDUNG
2021-AD/1443-H
Contents
Morphology..................................................................................................................................1
History.....................................................................................................................................3
What Exactly is Morphology?................................................................................................3
Morphological Scope...............................................................................................................4
Types of Morphological..........................................................................................................5
Morpheme Meaning................................................................................................................7
Lexical and Grammatical Morphemes..................................................................................8
Free and Bound Morphemes..................................................................................................9
Inflectional and Derivational Morphemes.............................................................................9
Derivational Affixes..............................................................................................................10
Inflectional Affixes Again.....................................................................................................10
Present Tense.........................................................................................................................11
Past Tense..............................................................................................................................11
Past Participle........................................................................................................................11
Present Participle..................................................................................................................11
Verb Forms............................................................................................................................11
Morphological Process..........................................................................................................12
Affixation...............................................................................................................................12
Prefixation.............................................................................................................................13
Suffixation..............................................................................................................................13
Circumfixation......................................................................................................................14
Infixation................................................................................................................................14
Modification...........................................................................................................................14
Reduplication.........................................................................................................................16
Adverb (Linguistics)..............................................................................................................16
Adjective................................................................................................................................17
Concession Relation..............................................................................................................17
History
The history of morphological analysis dates back to the ancient Indian linguist
Pāṇini, who formulated the 3,959 rules of Sanskrit morphology in the text Aṣṭādhyāyī
by using a constituency grammar. The Greco-Roman grammatical tradition also engaged
in -morphological analysis. Studies in Arabic morphology, conducted by Marāḥ al-
arwāḥ and Aḥmad b. ‘alī Mas‘ūd, date back to at least 1200 CE. When it was first
coined by German philosopher and poet in the nineteenth century, morphology had
absolutely nothing to do with language. It was first coined in a biological context but
finally in 1859, August Schleicher coined the term "morphology" in linguistics.

What Exactly is Morphology?

In linguistics, morphology is the study of words, how they are formed, and their
relationship to other words in the same language. It analyzes the structure of words and
parts of words such as stems, root words, prefixes, and suffixes. Morphology also looks
at parts of speech, intonation and stress, and the ways context can change a word's
pronounciation and meaning. Morphology differs from morphological typology, which
is the classification of languages based on their use of words, and lexicology, which is
the study of words and how they make up a language's vocabulary.
There is a book entitled Morphology in English by Zeki Hamawand mentions
that as a lexical word, morphology consists of two parts: morph referring to ‘form’ and
-ology referring to ‘study’. As a linguistics term, morphology is the study of how words
are built of form-meaning units. It studies the ways in which form alterations reflect
meaning distinctions. This book also mentions that Generally, Morphology aims to
describe the structures of words and patterns of word formation in a language.
Specifically, it aims to ;
i. Pin down the principles for relating the form and meaning of morphological
expressions,
ii. Explain how the morphological units are integrated and the resulting
formations interpreted, and
iii. Show how morphological units are organized in the lexicon in terms of
affinity and contrast.
 In another book entitled Morphology- The Descriptive Analysis of Words by
Eugene A. Nida mention that ‘Morphology is the study of morphemes and their
arrangements in forming words. The morpheme arrangements which are treated under
the morphology of a language include all combinations that form words or parts of
words. Combinations of words into phrases and sentences are treated under the syntax.’
Meanwhile there are several definitions of morphology according to experts,
including :
 Charles F. Hockett (1958 : 177) says: “Morphology includes the stock
or segmental morpheme and the ways in which words are built out of
them”.
 Geert Booij (2005) says : “Morphology, the study of the internal
structure of words, deals with the forms of lexemes (inflection), and with
the ways in which lexemes are formed (word-formation). New words are
made on the basis of patterns of form-meaning correspondence between
existing words. Paradigmatic relationships between words are therefore
essential, and morphology cannot be conceived of as ‘the syntax of
morphemes’ or ‘syntax below the word level’.”
 John Lions (1968) says : “….morphology deals with the internal
structure of words…”
 L. Bloomfield (1973) says : “By the morphology of a language we mean
the constructions in which bound forms appear among the constituents.”
 H.A. Gleason (1970) says : “….morphology is the description of the
more intimate combinations of morphemes, roughly what are familiarly
called ‘words’….”

Morphological Scope
Basically in morphology there are three scopes that must be understood, namely
morphemes, morphs, and allomorphs which will be explained as follows.
a. Morpheme

According to Chaer (1994: 146) morpheme is the smallest grammatical unit that
has meaning. Keraf (1984: 52) also provides a definition of morpheme as a unit that
participates in word formation and whose meaning can be distinguished. So it can be
concluded that a morpheme is the smallest meaningful grammatical or linguistic unit,
which can be in the form of affixes or words.
 b. Morph

Morph is a member of a morpheme whose distribution has not been determined.

For example, the /i/ in the word ‘kenai’ is a morph; morph is the concrete form or
phonemic form of the morpheme. (Kridalaksana, 1993: 141).
c. Allomorph

In linguistics, an allomorph is a variant phonetic form of a morpheme or a unit of

meaning that varies in sound and spelling without changing the meaning. The term
allomorph describes the realization of phonological variations for a specific morpheme.
The different allomorphs that a morpheme can become are governed by
morphophonemic rules. These phonological rules determine what phonetic form, or
specific pronunciation, a morpheme will take based on the phonological or
morphological context in which they appear.

Types of Morphological
In the book 'Language' by Edward Finegan, there are 3 types of morphological
systems that language has.
1. Isolating Morphology

Chinese is a language with isolating morphology—in which each word tends to

be a single isolated morpheme. An isolating language lacks both derivational and
inflectional morphology. Using separate words, Chinese expresses certain content that
an inflecting language might express with inflectional affixes. For example, whereas
English has an inflectional possessive (the boy’s hat) and what’s called an analytical
possessive (hat of the boy), Chinese permits only hat of the boy possessives. Chinese
also does not have tense markers, and on pronouns it does not mark distinctions of
gender (he/she), number (she/they), or case (they/them). Where English has six words—
he, she, him, her, they, and them—Chinese uses only a single word, though it can
indicate plurality with a separate word. The sentence below illustrates the one-
morpheme-per-word pattern typical of Chinese:
 Even more than Chinese, Vietnamese approximates the one-morpheme-per-word
model that characterizes isolating languages. Each word in the sentence below has only
one form. You can see that the word tôi is translated as I, my, and we. Note that to say
‘we’ Vietnamese pairs chúng and tôi (the words for ‘PLURAL’ and ‘I’). Like Chinese,
Vietnamese lacks tense markers on verbs and case markers on nouns and pronouns, as
well as number distinctions (though it can indicate plurality with a separate word).

Some languages that tend to minimize inflectional morphology nevertheless

exploit derivational morphology to extend their word stocks in economical ways.
Indonesian, for example, has only two inflectional affixes, but it utilizes about two
dozen derivational morphemes, some of which we’ve seen in this chapter.

2. Agglutinating Morphology

Another type of morphology is called agglutinating. In agglutinating languages,

words can have several prefixes and suffixes, but they are characteristically distinct and
readily segmented into their parts—like English announce-ment-s or pre-affirm-ed but
unlike sang (SING + ‘PAST’) or men (MAN + ‘PLURAL’). Turkish has agglutinating
morphology, as shown in this example. (Hyphens represent morpheme boundaries
within a word.)

3. Inflectional Morphology

Many languages have large inventories of inflectional morphemes. Finnish,

Russian, and German maintain elaborate inflectional systems. By contrast, over the
centuries English has shed most of its inflections, until today it has only eight remaining
ones—two on nouns, four on verbs, and two on adjectives. When new nouns, verbs, and
adjectives are added to English or when a child learns new words, the words are
extremely likely to be inflected like the examples listed, and the eight inflectional
morphemes of English are thus said to be productive.

Grammatical Functions of Inflections Consider the sentences below. They

contain exactly the same words, but they express different meanings.
1. The farmer saw the wolf.
2. The wolf saw the farmer.
These sentences illustrate how English exploits word order to express meaning:
different orders communicate different scenarios about who did what to whom. When
semantic facts such as who did what to whom are expressed by word order rather than
by inflection, it is not a morphological matter but a syntactic one.
From the long explanation above, it is concluded that by studying morphology
we can find out the true meaning of a word, how words are formed, and how to arrange
words to produce good and correct language. Although animals can communicate,
animals do not have the ability to use language. Humans are the only creatures in this
world who can use language, therefore morphology is important for us to study.

Morpheme Meaning

A morpheme can be defined as a minimal unit having more or less constant meaning and
more of less constant form. (‘More or less’ because... see below.)
For example, linguists say that the word buyers is made up of three morphemes {buy}+
{er}+{s}. The evidence for this is that each can occur in other combinations of
morphemes without changing its meaning. We can find {buy} in buying, buys, and {er}
in seller, fisher, as well as buyer. And {s} can be found in boys, girls, and dogs.
The more combinations a morpheme is found in, the more productive it is said to be.
Note the terminology: Braces, { } indicate a morpheme. Square brackets, [ ] indicate a
semantic characterization. Italics indicate a lexical item.
1. Morphemes can vary in size: neither the number of syllables nor the length of
a word can indicate what is a morpheme and what isn’t. For example,
Albatross is a long word but a single morpheme, -y (as in dreamy ) is also a
single
2. Just as linguists have had success dissecting phonemes into combinations of
distinctive features, so they have viewed morphemes as made up of
combinations of semantic features. For example, we can analyze a
word like girls in terms of both its morphological and its semantic structure:
 Morphological: girls = {girl} + {s}
Semantic: {girl} = [-adult; -male; +human, ...] + {s} = {PLU} = [plural]
[More on this when we get to the topic of Semantics.]
3. Two different morphemes may be pronounced (and even sometimes spelled)
the same way. For example, the –er in buyer means something like ‘the one
who,’ while the –er in shorter means something like ‘to a greater degree
than.’ The first –er always attaches to a verb, while the second –er always
attaches to an adjective. It makes sense to consider these two different
morphemes that just happen to sound the same. (The first is called the
agentive morpheme {AG} sinceit indicates the agent of an action; the second
is called the comparative morpheme {COMP} since it indicates the
comparative degree of an adjective.)
4. We can’t always hold to the definition of a morpheme as having unchanging
form. For example, when we consider words like boys, girls, shirts, books,
we conclude that –s is the plural morpheme (symbolized {PLU}.) But what
about words such as men or women? Here plurality is indicated not by adding
–s but by changing the vowel in the stem. Yet we still want to say that men
is, morphologically, {man} + {PLU}, even though the form of {PLU} is
quite different in this case. In the same way, it seems sensible to say that
went = {go} + {PAST}, just as walked = {walk} + {PAST}, even though in
the first case {PAST} involves a morphological change in form quite
different from the usual adding of –ed.

5. Sometimes it is very difficult to identify morpheme boundaries. For example,

the word hamburger originally meant {Hamburg} = ‘a city in Germany’ +
{er} = originating from.’ But probably most people now understand the word
as meaning {ham} = ‘ham’ + {burger} = ‘hot patty served on a round bun.’

Lexical and Grammatical Morphemes

Lexical morphemes are those that having meaning by themselves (more accurately, they
have sense). Grammatical morphemes specify a relationship between other morphemes.
But the distinction is not all that well defined.
Nouns, verbs, adjectives ({boy}, {buy}, {big}) are typical lexical morphemes.
Prepositions, articles, conjunctions ({of}, {the}, {but}) are grammatical morphemes.
Free and Bound Morphemes
Free morphemes are those that can stand alone as words. They may be lexical
morphemes ({serve}, {press}), or grammatical morphemes ({at}, {and}).
Bound morphemes can occur only in combination—they are parts of a word. They may
be lexical morphemes (such as {clude} as in include, exclude, preclude) or they may be
grammatical (such as {PLU} = plural as in boys, girls, and cats).

Inflectional and Derivational Morphemes

We can make a further distinction within the set of morphemes that are both bound and
grammatical. Bound grammatical morphemes (those that don’t have a sense by
themselves and, additionally, always occur in combinations) are commonly known as
affixes. They can be further divided into inflectional affixes and derivational affixes.
Here is some of the evidence for the distinction between inflectional and derivational
affixes (the book has more):

Inflectional Affixes Derivational Affixes

-All are suffixes -May be either
suffixes or prefixes
-Have a wide range of application. E.g. - May have a wide
or narrow range
most English nouns can be made
plural, with {PLU}
-All native to English (since Old English -Many were adopted from
Latin,
was spoken around 500-1000 AD) Greek, or other
language

Inflectional Affixes
English has only eight inflectional affixes:
{PLU} = plural Noun -s
boys
{POSS} = possessive Noun -’ s
boy’s
{COMP} = comparative Adj -er
older
{SUP} = superlative Adj -est
oldest
{PRES} = present Verb -s
walks
{PAST} past Verb - ed
walked
{PAST PART} = past participle Verb - en
driven
{PRES PART} = present participle Verb -ing
driving

Notice that, as noted above, even irregular forms can be represented morphologically
using these morphemes. E.g. the irregular plural sheep is written as {sheep} + {PLU},
even though the typically form of {PLU} is not used here.
Similarly, better = {good} + {COMP}; drove = {drive} + {PAST}.

Derivational Affixes
There are an indefinite number of derivational morphemes. For example, the following
are some derivational suffixes:
{ize} attaches to a noun and turns it into a verb: rubberize
{ize} also attaches to an adjective and turns it into a verb: normalize
{ful} attaches to a noun and turns it into an adjective: playful, helpful
{ly} attaches to an adjective and turns it into an adverb: grandly, proudly
A different {ly} attaches to a noun and changes it into an adjective: manly, friendly
English also has derivational prefixes, such as:
{un}, {dis}, {a}, {anti}, all of which indicate some kind of negation: unhappy, dislike,
atypical, anti-aircraft.

Inflectional Affixes Again

PLU} plural nounds are repsented as root + {PLU}, whether or not {-s} is actually
added to the root.
{POSS} possessive nounds are root + {poss}, whether or not {-s} is added. It’s a
historical accident that both these affixes sound the same.
{COMP} and {SUP}. comparative and superlative adjtectives. happier = {happy} +
{COMP}; happiest = {happy} + {SUP}. Arguably, most beautiful = {beautiful} +
{SUP}
The remaining inflectional affixes are attached to verb stems, forming present and past
tenses, and present and past participles:
Webster’s dictionary defines a participle as “a word having the characteristics of both
verb and adjective; especially an English verbal form that has the function of an
adjective and at the same time shows such verbal features as tense and voice and
capacity to take an object.”
Our examination of inflectional affixes thus leads us into a discussion of the various
morphological forms that verbs can take, though this topic can’t be fully explored until
we deal with the topic of Syntax.

Present Tense
{PRES} present tense forms are root + {PRES}. But there is only a surface affix when
there is a 3rd person singular subject. That’s to say:
John loves Mary = {love} + {PRES} = {love} + {-s}
You love Mary = {love} + {PRES} = {love} + {Ø}
However, modal verbs – can/could, shall.should, will/would, may/might and must—
show an absense of this third person singular –s.
John may love Mary.
When a modal verb occurs in a sentence, it is always ther first verb form and is always
followed by an uninflected verb form.

Past Tense
{PAST} past tense verb forms. John walked = {walk} + {PAST}.
drove ={drive} + {PAST}
In English, only the first verb form is inflected for tense. For example:
I think; but I have thought; and I am thinking [??]

Past Participle
{PAST PART} driven = {drive} + {PAST PART}
A past participle always follows a form of the auxiliary verb have (in a simple active
sentence). (And if both a modal and the auxiliary have occur in the same sentence, have
follows the modal: We may have gone.
They have walked home, but not They walked home. [past tense]
Gone, come, hit, walked are all past participles

Present Participle
{PRES PART} drinking = {drive} + {PRES PART}
Present participles always occur with an -ing suffix. In a simple active sentence, the
present participle always follows a form of the auxiliary verb to be, as in They were
laughing.
If both the auxiliary have and the auxiliary be occur in the same sentence, the form of be
always follows the form of have: We have been eating, not *We are have eating.
Verb Forms
Believe it or not, verbs in English are perfectly systematic. Consider:
Someone may have been knocking at the door

1. knocking is the main verb, since it is the right-most verb.

2. It is a present participle, because it immediately follows a form of be.
3. been is an auxiliary verb, because it is not right-most.
4. It is a past participle, because it immediately follows a form of have.
5. have is an auxiliary verb, because it is not right-most.
6. It is also uninflected, since it follows a modal (may).
7. may is a modal, because it lacks the third person singular –s.

8. It is inflected for present tense, since the first and only the first verb in a simple
sentence in English is inflected for tense.

And last, why should we know about morphemes? the answer is because teaching of
morphemes unlocks structure and meaning in words. so learning morphemes It is very
useful to have a strong awareness of prefixes, suffixes and root words.
Morphological Process

Definition: 
A morphological process is a means of changing a stem to adjust its meaning to fit its
syntactic and communicational context. Most languages that are agglutinative in any
way use suffixation. Some of these languages also use prefixation and infixation. Very
few languages use only prefixation, and none employ only infixation or any of the other
types of morphological processes listed below.

Affixation

Definition: 
Affixation is the morphological process whereby an affix is attached to a root or stem.

A root is the portion of a word that is common to a set of derived or inflected forms, if

any, when all affixes are removed, is not further analyzable into meaningful elements,
being morphologically simple, and carries the principle portion of meaning of the words
in which it functions. If a root does not occur by itself in a meaningful way in a
language, it is referred to as a bound morpheme.
A stem is the root or roots of a word, together with any derivational affixes, to
which inflectional affixes are added. A stem consists minimally of a root, but may be
analyzable into a root plus derivational morphemes. A stem may require an inflectional
operation (often involving a prefix or suffix) in order to ground it into discourse and
make it a fully understandable word. If a stem does not occur by itself in a meaningful
way in a language, it is referred to as a bound morpheme.

Examples: 
(English)

In English, the plural morpheme suffix is added to job, rat, and kiss to form the

following forms:

 jobs
 rats
 kisses

Prefixation

Definition: 
Prefixation is a morphological process whereby a bound morpheme is attached to the
front of a root or stem. TheThe kind of affix involved in this process is called a prefix. A
prefix is an affix that is joined before a root or stem. A bound morpheme is a
grammatical unit that never occurs by itself, but is always attached to some other
morpheme.

Examples: 

The prefix un- attaches to the front of the stem selfish to form the word unselfish.

Suffixation

Definition: 
Suffixation is a morphological process whereby a bound morpheme is attached to the
end of a stem. The kind of affix involved in this process is called a suffix. An affix is
a bound morpheme that is joined before, after, or within a root or stem. A suffix is an
affix that is attached to the end of a root or stem.
Examples: 
(English)

 The past tense suffix -ed attaches to the end of the stem walk to form the past
tense verb walked.

Circumfixation

Definition: 
Circumfixation is a morphological process whereby an affix made up of two separate
parts surrounds and attaches to a root or stem.

Infixation

Definition: 
Infixation is a morphological process whereby a bound morpheme attaches within
a root or stem.

The kind of affix involved in this process is called an infix.

Examples: 
(Phillipines - Tagalog)

The focus marker -um- is a infix which is added after the first consonant of the root.

 bili: root ‘buy’
 -um-: infix ‘AGT’
 bumili: word ‘bought’

Modification

Definition: 
Modification is a morphological process which produces an alteration within
a root or stem.

Examples: 
(English)
  The root man is modified when it it undergoes the pluralization that results in the
form men.

Kinds: 

 Substraction

Subtraction is a morphological process of modification that removes one or more

segments from a root or stem.

Examples: 

(French)

In French, the masculine form of adjectives is analyzed by some as being produced from
the feminine form by the removal of a consonant, thereby exhibiting a process of
consonant subtraction.

 Suppletion
Suppletion is the replacement of one stem with another, resulting in an allomorph of
a morpheme which has no phonological similarity to the other allomorphs.

Examples: 
The following table illustrates stem suppletion:

 The following table illustrates affix suppletion:

Morphological Regular, Suppletive affix

process nonsuppletive
affix
Addition of pluralcat—cats cherub—cherubim
suffix ox —oxen
Reduplication

Definition: 
Reduplication is a morphological process in which a root or stem or part of it is
repeated.

Examples: 
Singular Plural
pingan 'dish' pingpingan 'dishes'
talon 'field' taltalon 'fields'

Kinds:

Adverb (Linguistics)

Definition: 
Here are two senses for adverb:

1. An adverb, narrowly defined, is a word belonging to a class of words which

modify verbs for such categories as:
o time
o manner
o place
o direction
2. An adverb, broadly defined, is a word belonging to a class of words which
modify any constituent class of words other than nouns, such as:
o verbs
o adjectives
o adverbs
o phrases
o clauses
o sentences
Under this definition, the possible type of modification depends on the class of the
constituent being modified.

Discussion: 
The general class adverb is a mixture of very different kinds of words, which cover a
wide range of semantic concepts and whose syntactic distribution is disparate. The
definition of the lexical category adverb is language-specific, based on syntactic
distribution.

Many words traditionally called adverbs in English, such as degree words (very,
awfully) and negatives (not), are set up as distinct word-classes in linguistic studies.

Adjective

Definition: 
An adjective is a word that belongs to a class whose members modify nouns. An
adjective specifies the properties or attributes of a noun referent.
Discussion: 
Some languages have no formally distinct category of adjectives. In such languages,
property concepts are expressed as either nouns or verbs.

An adjective generally:

 occurs in a noun phrase or as a stative predicate

 may be intensified, and
 may take comparative and superlative degrees.

Concession Relation

Definition: 
A concession relation is a relation of unexpectedness between propositions. Some
proposition(s) in the relation are expressed as unexpected (the contraexpectation) in
light of some other proposition(s) (the concession).
Reference

Morphology in English by Zeki Hamawand PDF

Morphology- The Descriptive of Analysis Words by Eugene A. Nida PDF
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)
http://staffnew.uny.ac.id/upload/132107096/pendidikan/Book+one+for+Int.pdf
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allomorph
http://christysitorus21.blogspot.com/2016/03/summary-of-material-
mophology.html#:~:text=It%20is%20a%20study%20of,formed%20(word
%2Dformation)