Mendocino County General Plan V.

Seismic Safety Element

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS OF EARTHQUAKE HAZARDS

Statewide Considerations.

California is called earthquake country. It is located on what is known as the Pacific “ring of
fire,” the volcanic belt which roughly coincides with a line drawn around the edge of the Pacific
Ocean (the circum-Pacific seismic belt). Eighty percent of the world’s earthquakes occur along
this belt. Other areas situated along this belt, such as Japan and the Aleutian Islands, have frequent
earthquakes but, for the last 60 years, California has experienced a potentially destructive
earthquake on the average of one every two years, according to the California Division of Mines
and Geology.

Earthquakes are caused by movement of crustal material as the rocks of the earth adjust to tectonic
forces. Recent geological data gathered from investigation of the world’s ocean floors indicate
that the surface of the earth is composed of a number of more or less rigid plates. These plates are
“floating” on a “plastic” zone of molten rock material. The frequency of earthquakes is highest
where two plates are being pushed against each other or where one plate is overriding another.
The stresses built up in the rocks as the plates are pushed into each other are released when the
strength of the rock is exceeded, resulting in an earthquake. Faults are usually manifested on the
surface as zones of sheared and dislocated rock.

The American Plate includes both North and South America and extends from the Mid-Atlantic
ridge to the western coast of the continents. The San Andreas Fault is a part of the western
boundary of the American Plate, according to some geologists. The crustal material west of the
San Andreas Fault is part of the Pacific Plate which is moving northwest.

Earthquakes cause various geological processes that can cause severe damage to structures and
danger to people. The Alquist-Priolo Special Studies Zones Act requires that the California
Division of Mines and Geology prepare Special Study Zone maps which delineate all potentially
and recently active faults which constitute potential hazards to structures.

Faults crisscross the surface of the earth. Most have not moved for hundreds of thousands or even
millions of years and are considered inactive. Others show evidence of historic activity or have
moved in the recent geologic past; these are considered active faults. A fault may be from several
feet to several hundred miles long. Displacement occurs when the earth on one side of a fault
moves in relationship to the earth on the other side.

Seismic hazards involved are not limited to the fault trace where the surface evidence of
movement can be viewed. The hazards can be grouped into four main categories: ground shaking,
surface faulting, ground failure, and seismically induced water waves. Each of these natural
phenomena is examined briefly in the following paragraphs.

Earthquake magnitude is measured at the point on the earth’s surface directly above the point of
origin of the earthquake. This point is called the epicenter. The Richter Scale is at present the

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most common measure of Magnitude. The Modified Mercalli Scale describes earthquake
intensity. The two scales are compared below, as both are referenced by this report.

TABLE 1
COMPARISON OF MAGNITUDE AND INTENSITY
Richter Magnitude Modified Mercalli
Intensity
2 I-II
3 III
4 IV-V
5 VI-VII
6 VII-VIII
7 IX-X
8+ X-XII
Description
Usually detected only by instruments
Felt indoors
Felt by most people, slight damage
Felt by all; many frightened and run outdoors; damage
minor to moderate
Everybody runs outdoors; damage moderate to major
Major damage
Total and major damages

A potentially active fault is defined as any fault which has been active during Quaternary time (last
2,000,000 years). An exception is made when a Quaternary fault has been determined from direct
evidence to have been inactive before Holocene time (last 11,000 years). The average interval
between potentially damaging earthquakes (Magnitude 6.5 or greater on the Richter Scale) is not
predictable within definite limits.

Ground Shaking.

Earth tremors and shaking are felt far beyond the actual area of faulting and cause the greatest
damage from an earthquake. With continuation of present locational and building practices, the
Division of Mines and Geology has estimated that damage in California from ground shaking could
be 21 billion dollars between 1970 and 2000. Ground shaking may be accompanied by minor
earth movements. If differential movement across a foundation exceeds an inch, the combined
effects of shaking and movement on a structure can be catastrophic. The extent of damage will
depend somewhat on design and construction. Problems can arise from any one or a combination
of the following:

1. Failure of structure due to shaking.

2. Foundation failure due to soil bearing failure, including liquefaction.

3. Differential settlement of structure due to soil compaction.

Surface Faulting (Fault Rupture).

While considerable attention is given to locating surface faults (because this is visible evidence of
their existence and invaluable in many respects) it is important to note that less than one percent of
earthquake damage is caused by surface faulting, according to the California Division of Mines

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and Geology. Faults must be identified because a structure built over a fault trace will be ruptured
if earth movement occurs.

Ground Failure.

Earthquakes and landslides are the most common hazards in California and landslides may be
induced by seismic activity. The greatest chance of ground failure or slope failure is near the
epicenter of an earthquake and will depend additionally on the state and kind of rock materials.
(Morton and Streitz, 1967). Water absorption, quality of the soil, cleavage and orientation of
rocks are factors. Liquefaction occurs when sufficiently strong ground shaking shakes saturated,
granular unconsolidated material. Failure on slopes of 1% to 2% has occurred. Figures 1 and 2
illustrate some of the most common types of ground or slope failure.

Figure 1 -- Soil creep, a slow downhill creep of soil and weathered over burden.

Seismically Induced Water Waves (Tsunamis and Seiches).

Tsunamis (often miscalled tidal waves) are ocean waves generated by earthquakes, by large
submarine landslides, or by volcanic eruptions. Tsunamis affect only coastal areas and streams
emptying into the ocean. In the deep ocean the wave length from crest to crest may be hundreds of
miles long although the wave height from trough to crest may be only a few feet. A Tsunami cannot
be seen from the air or felt aboard ship in deep water. As a tsunami enters the sloping region of
the continental shelf and its shallow water, the wave length diminishes and wave height greatly
increases. Waves reaching heights of more than 100 feet have been reported. The northern
California coast was struck by a severe tsunami after the Alaskan earthquake of 1964. This was
the most destruction reported in 100 years. Damage at Albion River was reported at half a million
dollars and at Noyo River, one million. Total damage in California was over thirteen million
dollars and thirteen lives were lost.

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Process Definition and Characteristics Illustration

Rockfall and The rapid descent of a rock mass, vertically from a

debris fall cliff or by leaps down a slope. The chief means
by which taluses are maintained.

Rockslide and The rapid, sliding descent of a rock mass down a

debris slide slope. Commonly forms heaps and confused,
irregular masses of rubble.

Slump The downward slipping of a coherent body of rock

or regolith along a curved surface of rupture. The
original surface of the slumped mass, and any flat-
lying planes in it, become rotated as they slide
downward. The movement creates a scarp facing
downslope.

Debris flow The rapid downslope plastic flow of a mass of

debris. Commonly forms an apronlike or
tonguelike area, with a very irregular surface. In
some cases begins with slump at head, and
develops concentric ridges and transverse furrows
in surface of the tonguelike part.

Variety A debris flow in which the consistency of the

Mudflow substance is that of mud: generally contains a large
proportion of fine particles, and a large amount of
water.

Figure 2. Processes involved in some kinds of slope failure or mass-wasting.

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Seiches are water waves induced by earth movement occurring within enclosed lakes, reservoirs,
bays and rivers. They generally have an amplitude of one foot or less but in shallow areas or
where the water is constricted, waves as great as 20 or 30 feet can occur (McCullock, 1966).

The process of assessing the hazards from tsunamis and seiches is difficult and imprecise at this
time. However, there is a potential for catastrophic occurrence where the phenomenon has
occurred in the past.

Structural Safety in Earthquake Risk Areas

Table 2 equates risk with certain types of buildings and indicates added costs to reduce risk to
acceptable levels. It shows that certain types of buildings may be very much more costly in high
risk areas than in safe or minimum risk areas. Although the information is very general, it is a
useful guide and demonstrates the need for considering the seismic safety factors in land use
planning.

The California Council on Intergovernmental Relations in their “General Plan Guidelines,

September 1973”, has defined the following terms.

“Acceptable Risk: The level of risk below which no specific action by local government is
deemed to be necessary.”

“Unacceptable Risk: Level of risk above which specific action by government is deemed
to be necessary to protect life and property.”

“Avoidable Risk: Risk not necessary to take because individual or public goals can be
achieved at the same or less total ‘cost’ by other means without taking the risk.”

The Joint Committee on Seismic Safety of the California Legislature has recommended a scale of
acceptable risk. This scale is presented in Table 2.

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TABLE 2
A SCALE OF ACCEPTABLE RISKS
Importance Level of Kinds of Structures Extra Project Cost
Factor Acceptabl Probably Required to
e Risk Reduce Risk to an
Acceptable Level
1 Extremely Structures whose continued functioning is critical, or No set percentage (whatever
low1 whose failure might be catastrophic: nuclear reactors, is required for maximum
large dams, power intertie systems, plants attainable safety)
manufacturing or storing explosives or toxic
materials.
2 Slightly Structures whose use is critically needed after a 5 to 25 percent of project
higher than disaster: important utility centers; hospitals, fire, cost.3
under level police, and emergency communication facilities; fire
12 stations; and certain bridges and overpasses that are
part of a critical transportation element; also smaller
dams.
3 Lowest Structures of high occupancy, or whose use after a 5 to 15 percent of project
possible disaster would be particularly convenient: schools, cost.5
risk to churches, theaters, large hotels, and other high-rise
occupants buildings housing large numbers of people, other
of the places normally attracting large concentrations of
structures4 people, civic buildings, secondary utility structures,
extremely large commercial enterprises, most roads,
alternative or non-critical bridges and overpasses.
4 An The vast majority of structures: most commercial and 1 to 2 percent of project
“ordinary” industrial buildings, small hotels and apartment cost, in most cases (2 to 10
level of buildings, and single-family residences percent of project cost in a
risk to the minority of cases).6
structures
Source: Meeting the Earthquake Challenge, Final Report to the Legislature, State of California, by the Joint
Committee on Seismic Safety, January 1974. Part One: A Comprehensive Approach to Seismic Safety, p. 9.

1
Failure of a single structure may affect substantial population.
2
Failure of a single structure may affect substantial population.
3
These additional percentages are based on the assumption that the base cost is the total cost of the building or
other facility when ready for occupancy. In addition, it is assumed that the structure would have been designed and
built in accordance with current codes. Moreover, the estimated additional cost presumes that structures in this
acceptable-risk category are to embody sufficient safety to remain functional following an earthquake.
4
Failure of a single structure would affect primarily only the occupants.
5
These additional percentages are based on the assumption that the base cost is the total cost of the building or
facility when ready for occupancy. In addition, it is assumed that the structures would have been designed and built
in accordance with current, correct, and applicable codes. Moreover, the estimated additional cost presumes that
structures in this acceptable-risk category are to be sufficiently safe to give reasonable assurance of preventing
injury or loss of life during an earthquake, but otherwise not necessarily to remain functional.
6
“Ordinary risk”: Resist minor earthquakes without damage; resist moderate earthquakes without structural
damage, but with some non-structural damage; resist major earthquakes of the intensity or severity of the strongest
experienced in California, without collapse, but with some structural as well as non-structural damage. In most
structures, it is expected that structural damage, even in a major earthquake, could be limited to repairable damage
(Structural Engineers Association of California).

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