1.

0 Principles of communication systems

1.1 General communication system

Communication is the transfer of information from one place to another.

This should be done
 as efficiently as possible
 with as much fidelity/reliability as possible
 as securely as possible  

Communication System: Refers to Components/subsystems act together to accomplish

information transfer/exchange.

Figure 1.1 Communication system

1.2 Trends in Communication Technology

Telecommunication
Telecommunications involve the use of electrical devices such as the Telegraph, telephone and
tele-printer, as well as use of microwave, radio, fiber optics, satellite and Internet
communications.
1794: Non-electric telegraph was invented by Claude Chappe
1809: A crude telegraph was invented by Samuel Soemmering
1837: Telegraph; first electronic comm. system which transfer information in form of dots,
dashes and spaces (Morse codes).
1843: Fax was invented by Alexander Bain
1876: Telephone; transfer human conversation (Alexander Graham Bell & Thomas A. Watson).
1897: Gugliemo Marconi demonstrated that it was possible to establish a continuous
communication stream with the ships that were sailing, by means of radio waves.
1980:  Cellular mobile communication. 1G- 1980s, 2G-1991, 3G- 1998, 4G- 2008, 5G-ongoing
21st century: Internet of Things

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 Radio
1894: First Wireless Radio Signal (Guglielmo Marconi).
1920: AM Radio Broadcasting.
1933: FM modulation (Edwin Howard Armstrong).
1992: Satellite Radio
1994: Internet Radio

Television
1936: TV Broadcast; FM broadcasting.
1948: Cable TV
1977: DTH (Direct to Home)
1998: Internet TV

Computer
Computer is any device that aids humans in performing various kinds of computations or
calculations.
1940-1950: First Generation
1955-1960: Second Generation
1960s: Third Generation
1960s: Fourth Generation (Microcomputers, GUI)
1981: Portable computers (Laptops, Notebooks)
21st century: Artificial Intelligence, Virtual reality, Cloud Computing,

Internet
1993: Invention of Web.
21st Century: Internet of Things(IoT), E-commerce, social media, Big Data, Unified
Communications 

Bell Systems

In 1877, the American Bell Telephone Company, named after Alexander Graham Bell, opened
the first telephone exchange in New Haven, USA. Use of the Bell System name initially referred
to those early telephone franchises and eventually comprised all telephone companies owned
by American Telephone & Telegraph, referred to internally as Bell Operating Companies, or
"BOCs".

In 1899, American Telephone & Telegraph (AT&T) acquired the assets of its parent, the
American Bell Telephone Company. Originally, American Bell had created AT&T to provide long
distance calls between New York and Chicago and beyond. AT&T became the parent of
American Bell, and thus the head of the Bell System, because regulatory and tax rules were
leaner in New York than in Boston, where American Bell was headquartered. Later, the Bell
System and its moniker "Ma Bell" became a term that referred generally to all AT&T companies
of which there were four major divisions.

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 1.3 Information and communications technology (ICT)

ICT is an extended term for information technology (IT) which stresses the role of
unified communications and the integration of telecommunications (telephone lines and
wireless signals), computers as well as necessary enterprise software, middleware, storage, and
audio.

The term ICT is also used to refer to the convergence of audio-visual and telephone

networks with computer networks through a single cabling or link system. There are large
economic incentives (huge cost savings due to elimination of the telephone network) to merge
the telephone network with the computer network system using a single unified system of
cabling, signal distribution and management.

1.4 Radio Frequency (RF) spectrum

Radio frequency (RF) is any of the electromagnetic wave frequencies that lie in the range
extending from around 3 kHz to 300 GHz

ELF : 0 – 3 kHz. Point to Point communications (Long distance).

VLF : 3 – 30 kHz. Point to Point communications (Long distance).
LF : 30 – 300 kHz. Point to Point communications (Long distance and Navigation).
MF: 300 kHz – 3 mHz. Radio Broadcasting(AM).
HF: 3 – 30 mHz. “Shortwave” Broadcasting. Amateur, Point to Point data. Maritime Voice/Data.
Aeronautical Communications(Aircraft to Aircraft, Aircraft to Ground, Aircraft to Satellite).
VHF : 30 – 300 mHz. Police, Fire, Public Service mobile, Amateur. Satellite. Analog TV. FM
Broadcast.
UHF : 300 – 3,000 mHz (3 gHz) Police, Fire, Public Service communications, Cellular
SHF : 3 – 30 gHz Radar. Satellite. Telemetry. Microwave links
EHF : 30 – 300 gHz Radar. Satellite. Microwave links.

1.5 Analog and Digital Communication Systems

Analog and digital signals are used to transmit information, usually through electric signals. In

both these technologies, the information, such as any audio or video, is transformed into
electric signals. The difference between analog and digital technologies is that in analog
technology, information is translated into electric pulses of varying amplitude. In digital
technology, translation of information is into binary format (zero or one) where each bit is
representative of two distinct amplitudes.

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 Digital Communication System
Advantage :
 inexpensive digital circuits
 privacy preserved (data encryption)
 can merge different data (voice, video and
data) and transmit over a common digital
transmission system
 error correction by coding
Analog Communication System
Disadvantages :
 expensive analog components : L&C
 no privacy
 can not merge data from diff. sources
 no error correction capability

Disadvantages : Advantages :

 larger bandwidth  smaller bandwidth

 synchronization problem is relatively  synchronization problem is relatively
difficult easier

1.6 Regulatory Authorities

1.6.1 International Telecommunication Union (ITU)

The International Telecommunication Union, originally founded as the International Telegraph

Union, is a specialized agency of the United Nations that is responsible for issues that concern
information and communication technologies. ITU functions include the following;
 Coordinates the Use of the Radio Spectrum
 Promotes Cooperative Satellite Orbit Assignment
 Improves Telecommunication Infrastructure
 Develops Worldwide Technical Standards
 Supports Telecommunication Education

The ITU coordinates the shared global use of the radio spectrum, promotes international
cooperation in assigning satellite orbits, works to improve telecommunication infrastructure in
the developing world, and assists in the development and coordination of worldwide technical
standards.

The ITU consists of three sectors:

 Radio communication (ITU-R) -- ensures optimal, fair and rational use of the radio
frequency (RF) spectrum
 Telecommunication Standardization ( ITU-T ) -- formulates recommendations for
standardizing telecommunication operations worldwide
 Telecommunication Development (ITU-D) -- assists countries in developing and
maintaining internal communication operations

The ITU is active in areas including broadband Internet, latest-generation wireless technologies,
aeronautical and maritime navigation, radio astronomy, satellite-based meteorology,
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 convergence in fixed-mobile phone, Internet access, data, voice, TV broadcasting, and next-
generation networks.

ITU, based in Geneva, Switzerland, is a member of the United Nations Development Group. Its
membership includes 193 Member States and around 700 Sector Members and Associates.

1.6.2 Uganda Communication Commission (UCC)

The functions of the Commission shall be-

 to monitor, inspect, license and regulate communications services;
 to allocate and license the use of radio frequency spectrum and to process applications for
the allocation of satellite orbital locations;
 to supervise and enforce the conditions of those licenses;
 to establish a tariff system to protect consumers from excessive tariff increase and avoid
unfair tariff competition;
 to draw up, establish, amend and enforce a national numbering plan and perform block
number allocations;
 to conduct, or authorize any person to conduct under supervision, technical evaluation
relating to communications services;
 to set national communications standards;
 to ensure compliance with national and international communications standards and
obligations laid down by international communication agreements and treaties to which
Uganda is a party and to issue certificates of compliance in relation thereto;
 to regulate interconnection and access systems between operators and users of
telecommunications services;
 to establish and run frequency and other monitoring stations;
 to receive and investigate complaints relating to communications services and to take
necessary action upon them
 to promote the interests of consumers and operators as regards the quality of
communications services and equipment;
 to promote research into the development and use of new communications techniques and
technologies including those which promote accessibility of hearing impaired people to
communication services;
 to improve communications services generally and to ensure equitable distribution of
services throughout the country;
 to ensure that basic network operators provide leased lines for value added and other
services as may be appropriate;
 to safeguard the rights of operators and enforce the performance of their obligation;
 to grant operators’ rights to utilize public rights of way to construct facilities for the
provisions of services regulated by the Commission, and to be responsible for coordination
with the relevant bodies to effort compulsory purchase or utilization of private property for
the provision of these service for public use;
 to promote competition, including the protection of operations form acts and practices of
other operators that are damaging to competition, and to facilitate the entry into markets of
new and modern systems and services;
 to regulate interconnection and access systems between operators and users of
telecommunications services;
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  to advise the Government on communications policies and legislative measures in
respect of the Provision and operation of communication services;
 to represent Uganda’s communications sector at national and international fora and
organizations relating to its functions and to coordinate the participation of any
interested groups;
 to represent the Government at international conferences and other organizations in
the field of communications services to which Uganda is a member;
 to collaborate with educational institutions in order to promote specialized education in
the field of communications;
 to establish, manage and operate a communications services training centre;
 to establish and administer a fund for rural communications development

1.7 Modulation:

It is the process by which the characteristics of a wave or a signal (carrier wave) are varied in
accordance with the message or information signal (modulating signal). The characteristics of
the wave include phase, frequency and amplitude.

Carrier wave: It is the continuous high frequency signal used for carrying the message or
information signal more efficiently.

Baseband Signal: This is the information signal, the bandwidth is always a positive quantity so
the bandwidth of this signal is fm.
 
Passband Signal: This is the modulated signal, the multiplication of the Baseband Signal with a
sinusoid carrier signal translates the whole thing up to f c. This signal extends in range from (-f c -
fm ) to (fc + fm.). The passband signal bandwidth is double that of the baseband signal.
 
Reasons for modulation
1. Antenna efficiency: Generally for antenna to be efficient, it must be large compared to
the signal ware length. The one of higher frequency permits antenna structures of a
reasonable size and cost.
2. Frequency translation: An input signal maybe translated to its assigned frequency band
of transmission or radiation. Modulation process makes frequency translation possible.
3. Bandwidth modification: The BW of input signal may be increased or decreased by the
modulation process as required by the application. By reducing BW permits more
efficient use of spectrum at the cost of signal fidelity and Increasing BW provides
increased immunity to transmission channel disturbances at the cost of less efficient use
of the spectrum.
4. Signal multiplexing: In a given transmission system it may be necessary or desirable to
combine several different signals in to one base band signal for distribution. Modulation
provides the vehicle for such multiplexing.
5. To offer several services simultaneously: Modulations allows several radio stations, TV
systems, cellular GSM telephone, etc. to operate at the same time in a given area by
assigning different carrier frequencies to various radio stations.
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