Radio Transmitters

A radio transmitter takes the information to be communicated and converts it to an electronic

signal compatible with the communication medium. Typically this process involves carrier
generation, modulation, and power amplification. The signal is then fed by wire, coaxial cable,
or waveguide to an antenna that launches it into free space. This chapter covers transmitter
configurations and the circuits commonly used in radio transmitters, including oscillators,
amplifiers, frequency multipliers, and impedance matching networks.

Transmitter Fundamentals

The transmitter is the electronic unit that accepts the information signal to be transmitted and
converts it to an RF signal capable of being transmitted over long distances. Every transmitter
has four basic requirements.
1. It must generate a carrier signal of the correct frequency at a desired point in the
spectrum.
2. It must provide some form of modulation that causes the information signal to
modify the carrier signal.
3. It must provide sufficient power amplification to ensure that the signal level is
high enough to carry over the desired distance.
4. It must provide circuits that match the impedance of the power amplifier to that of
the antenna for maximum transfer of power.

Transmitter Configurations

The simplest transmitter is a single-transistor oscillator connected directly to an antenna. The

oscillator generates the carrier and can be switched off and on by a telegraph key to produce the
dots and dashes of the International Morse code. Information transmitted in this way is referred
to as continuous-wave (CW) transmission. Such a transmitter is rarely used today, for the Morse
code is nearly extinct and the oscillator power is too low for reliable communication. Nowadays
transmitters such as this are built only by amateur (ham) radio operators for what is called QRP
or low-power operation for personal hobby communication.

The CW transmitter can be greatly improved by simply adding a power amplifier to it, as
illustrated in Fig. 8-1. The oscillator is still keyed off and on to produce dots and dashes, and the
amplifier increases the power level of the signal. The result is a stronger signal that carries
farther and produces more reliable transmission.

The basic oscillator-amplifier combination shown in Fig. 8-1 is the basis for virtually all radio
transmitters. Many other circuits are added depending on the type of modulation used, the power
level, and other considerations.
High-Level AM Transmitters.

Fig. 8-2 shows an AM transmitter using high-level modulation. An oscillator, in most

applications a crystal oscillator, generates the final carrier frequency. The carrier signal is then
fed to a buffer amplifier whose primary purpose is to isolate the oscillator from the remaining
power amplifier stages. The buffer amplifier usually operates at the class A level and provides a
modest increase in power output. The main purpose of the buffer amplifier is simply to prevent
load changes in the power amplifier stages or in the antenna from causing frequency variations in
the oscillator.

The signal from the buffer amplifier is applied to a class C driver amplifier designed to provide
an intermediate level of power amplification. The purpose of this circuit is to generate sufficient
output power to drive the final power amplifier stage. The final power amplifier, normally just
referred to as the final, also operates at the class C level at very high power. The actual amount
of power depends on the application.

Now, assume that the AM transmitter shown in Fig. 8-2 is a voice transmitter. The input from the
microphone is applied to a low-level class A audio amplifier, which boosts the small signal from
the microphone to a higher voltage level. (One or more stages of amplification could be used.)
The voice signal is then fed to some form of speech-processing(filtering and amplitude control)
circuit. The filtering ensures that only voice frequencies in a certain range are passed, which
helps to minimize the bandwidth occupied by the signal.

Most communication transmitters limit the voice frequency to the 300- to 3000-Hz range, which
is adequate for intelligible communication. However, AM broadcast stations offer higher fidelity
and allow frequencies up to 5 kHz to be used. In practice, many AM stations modulate with
frequencies up to 7.5 kHz, and even 10 kHz, since the FCC uses alternate channel assignments
within a given region and the outer sidebands are very weak, so no adjacent channel interference
occurs.

Speech processors also contain a circuit used to hold the amplitude to some maximum level.
High-amplitude signals are compressed and lower-amplitude signals are given more
amplification. The result is that over modulation is prevented, yet the transmitter operates as
close to 100 percent modulation as possible. This reduces the possibility of signal distortion and
harmonics, which produce wider sidebands that can cause adjacent channel interference, but
maintains the highest possible output power in the sidebands.

After the speech processor, a driver amplifier is used to increase the power level of the signal so
that it is capable of driving the high-power modulation amplifier. In the AM transmitter of Fig.
8-2, high-level or collector modulation (plate modulation in a tube) is used. As stated previously,
the power output of the modulation amplifier must be one-half the input power of the RF
amplifier. The high-power modulation amplifier usually operates with a class AB or class B
push-pull configuration to achieve these power levels.

Low-Level FM Transmitters.

In low-level modulation, modulation is performed on the carrier at low power levels, and the
signal is then amplified by power amplifiers. This arrangement works for both AM and FM. FM
transmitters using this method are far more common than low-level AM transmitters.

Fig. 8-3 shows the typical configuration for an FM or PM transmitter. The indirect method of
FM generation is used. A stable crystal oscillator is used to generate the carrier signal, and a
buffer amplifier is used to isolate it from the remainder of the circuitry. The carrier signal is then
applied to a phase modulator such as those discussed in Chap. 6. The voice input is amplified
and processed to limit the frequency range and prevent over deviation. The output of the
modulator is the desired FM signal.
 A typical FM transmitter using indirect FM with a phase modulator.

Most FM transmitters are used in the VHF and UHF range. Because crystals are not available for
generating those frequencies directly, the carrier is usually generated at a frequency considerably
lower than the final output frequency. To achieve the desired output frequency, one or more
frequency multiplier stages are used. A frequency multiplier is a class C amplifier whose output
frequency is some integer multiple of the input frequency. Most frequency multipliers increase
the frequency by a factor of 2, 3, 4, or 5. Because they are class C amplifiers, most frequency
multipliers also provide a modest amount of power amplification.

Not only does the frequency multiplier increase the carrier frequency to the desired output
frequency, but also it multiplies the frequency deviation produced by the modulator. Many
frequency and phase modulators generate only a small frequency shift, much lower than the
desired final deviation. The design of the transmitter must be such that the frequency multipliers
will provide the correct amount of multiplication not only for the carrier frequency, but also for
the modulation deviation. After the frequency multiplier stage, a class C driver amplifier is used
to increase the power level sufficiently to operate the final power amplifier, which also operates
at the class C level.

Most FM communication transmitters operate at relatively low power levels, typically less than
100 W. All the circuits, even in the VHF and UHF range, use transistors. For power levels
beyond several hundred watts, vacuum tubes must be used. The final amplifier stages in FM
broadcast transmitters typically use large vacuum tube class C amplifiers. In FM transmitters
operating in the microwave range, klystrons, magnetrons, and traveling-wave tubes are used to
provide the final power amplification.

SSB Transmitters.

A typical single-sideband (SSB) transmitter is shown in Fig. 8-4. An oscillator signal generates
the carrier, which is then fed to the buffer amplifier. The buffer amplifier supplies the carrier
input signal to the balanced modulator. The audio amplifier and speech-processing circuits
described previously provide the other input to the balanced modulator. The balanced modulator
output — a DSB signal — is then fed to a sideband filter that selects either the upper or lower
sideband. Following this, the SSB signal is fed to a mixer circuit, which is used to convert the
signal to its final operating frequency. Mixer circuits, which operate as simple amplitude
modulators, are used to convert a lower frequency to a higher one or a higher frequency to a
lower one.

An SSB transmitter.

Typically, the SSB signal is generated at a low RF. This makes the balanced modulator and filter
circuits simpler and easier to design. The mixer translates the SSB signal to a higher desired
frequency. The other input to the mixer is derived from a local oscillator set at a frequency that,
when mixed with the SSB signal, produces the desired operating frequency. The mixer can be set
up so that the tuned circuit at its output selects either the sum or the difference frequency. The
oscillator frequency must be set to provide the desired output frequency. For fixed-channel
operation, crystals can be used in this local oscillator.
However, in some equipment, such as that used by hams, a variable frequency oscillator
(VFO) is used to provide continuous tuning over a desired range. In most modern
communication equipment, a frequency synthesizer is used to set the final output frequency.

The output of the mixer in Fig. 8-4 is the desired final carrier frequency containing the SSB
modulation. It is then fed to linear driver and power amplifiers to increase the power level as
required. Class C amplifiers distort the signal and therefore cannot be used to transmit SSB or
low-level AM of any kind, including DSB. Class A or AB linear amplifiers must be used to
retain the information content in the AM signal.

Digital Transmitters.

Most modern digital radios such as cell phones use DSP to produce the modulation and related
processing of the data to be transmitted. Refer to Fig. 8-5. The serial data representing the data to
be transmitted is sent to the DSP, which then generates two data streams that are then converted
to RF for transmission. The data paths from the DSP chip are sent to DACs where they are
translated to equivalent analog signals. The analog signals are filtered in a low-pass filter (LPF)
and then applied to mixers that will up-convert them to the final output frequency. The mixers
receive their second inputs from an oscillator or a frequency synthesizer that selects the operating
frequency. Note that the oscillator signals are in quadrature; i.e., one is shifted 90° from the
other. One is a sine wave, and the other is a cosine wave. The upper signal is referred to as the
in-phase (I ) signal and the other as the quadrature (Q) signal. The output signals from the mixers
are then added, and the result is amplified and transmitted by the power amplifier (PA). Two
quadrature signals are needed at the receiver to recover the signal and demodulate it in a DSP
chip. This configuration works for any type of modulation as all of the modulation is done with
mathematical algorithms. You will learn more about this technique in Chap. 11.

Modern digital transmitter.

Carrier Generators
The starting point for all transmitters is carrier generation. Once generated, the carrier can be
modulated, processed in various ways, amplified, and finally transmitted. The source of most
carriers in modern transmitters is a crystal oscillator. PLL frequency synthesizers in which a
crystal oscillator is the basic stabilizing reference are used in applications requiring multiple
channels of operation.

Crystal Oscillators

Most radio transmitters are licensed by the UCC either directly or indirectly to operate not only
within a specific frequency band but also on predefined frequencies or channels. Deviating from
the assigned frequency by even a small amount can cause interference with signals on adjacent
channels. Therefore, the transmitter carrier generator must be very precise, operating on the exact
frequency assigned, often within very close tolerances. In some radio services, the frequency of
operation must be within 0.001 percent of the assigned frequency. In addition, the transmitter
must remain on the assigned frequency. It must not drift off or wander from its assigned value
despite the many operating conditions, such as wide temperature variations and changes in power
supply voltage, that affect frequency. The only oscillator capable of meeting the precision and
stability demanded by the UCC is a crystal oscillator.

A crystal is a piece of quartz that has been cut and ground into a thin, flat wafer and mounted
between two metal plates. When the crystal is excited by an ac signal across its plates, it vibrates.
This action is referred to as the piezoelectric effect. The frequency of vibration is determined
primarily by the thickness of the crystal. Other factors influencing frequency are the cut of the
crystal, i.e., the place and angle of cut made in the base quartz rock from which the crystal was
derived, and the size of the crystal wafer. Crystal’s frequencies range from as low as 30 kHz to
as high as 150 MHz. As the crystal vibrates or oscillates, it maintains a very constant frequency.
Once a crystal has been cut or ground to a particular frequency, it will not change to any great
extent even with wide voltage or temperature variations. Even greater stability can be achieved
by mounting the crystal in sealed, temperature-controlled chambers known as crystal ovens.
These devices maintain an absolute constant temperature, ensuring a stable output frequency.

Typical Crystal Oscillator Circuits.

The most common crystal oscillator is a Colpitts type, in which the feedback is derived from the
capacitive voltage divider made up of C1 and C2. An emitter-follower version is shown in Fig.
8-6. Again, the feedback comes from the capacitor voltage divider C1–C2. The output is taken
from the emitter, which is un-tuned. Most oscillators of this type operate as class A amplifiers
with a sine wave output. JFETs are also widely used in discrete component amplifiers.

Occasionally you will see a capacitor in series or in parallel with the crystal (not both), as shown
in Fig. 8-6. These capacitors can be used to make minor adjustments in the crystal frequency. As
discussed previously, it is not possible to affect large frequency changes with series or shunt
capacitors, but they can be used to make fi ne adjustments. The capacitors are called crystal
pulling capacitors, and the whole process of fi ne-tuning a crystal is sometimes referred to as
rubbering. When the pulling capacitor is a varactor, FM or FSK can be produced. The analog or
binary modulating signal varies the varactor capacitance that, in turn, shifts the crystal frequency.

Overtone Oscillators.

The main problem with crystals is that their upper frequency operation is limited. The higher the
frequency, the thinner the crystal must be to oscillate at that frequency. At an upper limit of
about 50 MHz, the crystal is so fragile that it becomes impractical to use. However, over the
years, operating frequencies have continued to move upward as a result of the quest for more
frequency space and greater channel capacity, and the UCC has continued to demand the same
stability and precision that are required at the lower frequencies. One way to achieve VHF, UHF,
and even microwave frequencies using crystals is by employing frequency multiplier circuits, as
described earlier. The carrier oscillator operates on a frequency less than 50 MHz, and
multipliers raise that frequency to the desired level. For example, if the desired operating
frequency is 163.2 MHz and the frequency multipliers multiply by a factor of 24, the crystal
frequency must be 163.2/24 5 6.8 MHz. The term overtone is often used as a synonym for
harmonic. Most manufacturers refer to their third overtone crystals as third harmonic crystals.

Frequency Synthesizers

Frequency synthesizers are variable-frequency generators that provide the frequency stability of
crystal oscillators but with the convenience of incremental tuning over a broad frequency range.
Frequency synthesizers usually provide an output signal that varies in fixed frequency
increments over a wide range. In a transmitter, a frequency synthesizer provides basic carrier
generation for channelized operation. Frequency synthesizers are also used in receivers as local
oscillators and perform the receiver tuning function.

Using frequency synthesizers overcomes certain cost and size disadvantages associated with
crystals. Assume, e.g., that a transmitter must operate on 50 channels. Crystal stability is
required. The most direct approach is simply to use one crystal per frequency and add a large
switch. Although such an arrangement works, it has major disadvantages. Crystals are expensive,
ranging from $1 to $10 each, and even at the lowest price, 50 crystals may cost more than all the
rest of the parts in the transmitter. The same 50 crystals would also take up a great deal of space,
possibly occupying more than 10 times the volume of all the rest of the transmitter parts. With a
frequency synthesizer, only one crystal is needed, and the requisite number of channels can be
generated by using a few tiny ICs.

Over the years, many techniques have been developed for implementing frequency synthesizers
with frequency multipliers and mixers. Today, however, most frequency synthesizers use some
variation of the phase-locked loop (PLL). A newer technique called digital signal synthesis
(DSS) is becoming more popular as integrated-circuit technology has made high-frequency
generation practical.

Phase Noise
An important specification and characteristic of any signal (carrier) source, crystal oscillator, or
frequency synthesizer is phase noise. Phase noise is the minor variation in the amplitude and
phase of the signal generator output. The noise comes from natural semiconductor sources,
power supply variations, or thermal agitation in the components. The phase variations manifest
themselves as frequency variations. The result is what appears to be a sine wave signal source
that has been amplitude and frequency modulated. Although these variations are small, they can
result in degraded signals in both the transmitter and the receiver circuits.
Power Amplifiers
The three basic types of power amplifiers used in transmitters are linear, class C, and switching.

Linear amplifiers provide an output signal that is an identical, enlarged replica of the input.
Their output is directly proportional to their input, and they therefore faithfully reproduce an
input, but at a higher power level. Most audio amplifiers are linear. Linear RF amplifiers are
used to increase the power level of variable-amplitude RF signals such as low-level AM or SSB
signals. Most modern digital modulation techniques such as spread spectrum, QAM and
orthogonal frequency division multiplex (OFDM) require linear amplification to retain the
modulating signal information. Linear amplifiers are class A, AB, or B. The class of an amplifier
indicates how it is biased.

Class A amplifiers are biased so that they conduct continuously. The bias is set so that the input
varies the collector (or drain) current over a linear region of the transistor’s characteristics. Thus
its output is an amplified linear reproduction of the input. Usually we say that the class A
amplifier conducts for 360° of an input sine wave.

Class B amplifiers are biased at cutoff so that no collector current flows with zero input. The
transistor conducts on only one-half, or 180°, of the sine wave input. This means that only one-
half of the sine wave is amplified. Normally, two class B amplifiers are connected in a push-pull
arrangement so that both the positive and negative alternations of the input are amplified.

Class AB linear amplifiers are biased near cutoff with some continuous collector current flow.
They conduct for more than 180° but less than 360° of the input. They too are used primarily in
push-pull amplifiers and provide better linearity than class B amplifiers, but with less efficiency.

Class A amplifiers are linear but not very efficient. For that reason, they make poor power
amplifiers. As a result, they are used primarily as small-signal voltage amplifiers or for low-
power amplifications. The buffer amplifiers described previously are class A amplifiers.

Class B amplifiers are more efficient than class A amplifiers, because current flows for only a
portion of the input signal, and they make good power amplifiers. However, they distort an input
signal because they conduct for only one-half of the cycle. Therefore, special techniques are
often used to eliminate or compensate for the distortion. For example, operating class B
amplifiers in a push-pull configuration minimizes the distortion.

Class C amplifiers conduct for even less than one-half of the sine wave input cycle, making them
very efficient. The resulting highly distorted current pulse is used to ring a tuned circuit to create
a continuous sine wave output. Class C amplifiers cannot be used to amplify varying-amplitude
signals. They will clip off or otherwise distort an AM or SSB signal. However, FM signals do
not vary in amplitude and can therefore be amplified with more efficient nonlinear class C
amplifiers. This type of amplifier also makes a good frequency multiplier as harmonics are
generated in the amplification process.
Switching amplifiers act like on/off or digital switches. They effectively generate a square wave
output. Such a distorted output is undesirable; however, by using high-Q tuned circuits in the
output, the harmonics generated as part of the switching process can be easily filtered out. The
on/off switching action is highly efficient because current flows during only one-half of the input
cycle, and when it does, the voltage drop across the transistor is very low, resulting in low power
dissipation. Switching amplifiers are designated class D, E, F, and S.

Linear Amplifiers

Linear amplifiers are used primarily in AM and SSB transmitters, and both low- and high-power
versions are used. Some examples follow.

Class A Buffers.
A simple class A buffer amplifier is shown in Fig. 8-21. This type of amplifier is used between
the carrier oscillator and the final power amplifier to isolate the oscillator from the power
amplifier load, which can change the oscillator frequency. It also provides a modest power
increase to provide the driving power required by the final amplifier. Such circuits usually
provide milliwatts of power and rarely more than
1 W. The carrier oscillator signal is capacitively coupled to the input. The bias is derived from
R1, R2, and R3. The emitter resistor R3 is bypassed to provide maximum gain. The collector is
tuned with a resonant LC circuit at the operating frequency. An inductively coupled secondary
loop transfers power to the next stage.
High-Power Linear Amplifiers.
A high-power class A linear amplifier is shown in Fig. 8-22. A power MOSFET may also be
used in this circuit with a few modifications. Base bias is supplied by a constant-current circuit
that is temperature-compensated. The RF input from a 50-V source is connected to the base via
an impedance-matching circuit made up of C1, C2, and L1. The output is matched to a 50-V load
by the impedance-matching network made up of L2, L3, C3, and C4. When connected to a
proper heat sink, the transistor can generate up to 100 W of power up to about 200 MHz. The
amplifier is designed for a specific frequency that is set by the input and output tuned circuits.
Class A amplifiers have a maximum efficiency of 50 percent. Thus only 50 percent of the dc
power is converted to RF, with the remaining 50 percent being dissipated in the transistor. For
100-W RF output, the transistor dissipates 100 W. Efficiencies of less than 50 percent are
typical. Commonly available RF power transistors have an upper power limit of several hundred
watts. To produce more power, two or more devices can be connected in parallel, in a push-pull
configuration, or in some combination. Power levels of up to several thousand watts are possible
with these arrangements.
Class B Push-Pull Amplifiers.

A class B linear power amplifier using push-pull is shown in Fig. 8-23. The RF driving signal is
applied to Q1 and Q2 through input transformer T1. It provides impedance-matching and base
drive signals to Q1 and Q2 that are 180° out of phase. An output transformer T2 couples the
power to the antenna or load. Bias is provided by R1 and D1

For class B operation, Q1 and Q2 must be biased right at the cutoff point. The emitter-base
junction of a transistor will not conduct until about 0.6 to 0.8 V of forward bias is applied
because of the built-in potential barrier. This effect causes the transistors to be naturally biased
beyond cutoff, not right at it. A forward-biased silicon diode D1 has about 0.7 V across it, and
this is used to put Q1 and Q2 right on the conduction threshold.
On the positive half-cycle of the RF input, the base of Q1 is positive and the base of Q2 is
negative. The Q2 is cut off, but Q1 conducts, linearly amplifying the positive half-cycle.
Collector current flows in the upper half of T2, which induces an output voltage in the secondary.
On the negative half-cycle of the RF input, the base of Q1 is negative, so it is cut off. The base of
Q2 is positive, so Q2 amplifies the negative half-cycle. Current flows in Q2 and the lower half of
T2, completing a full cycle. The power is split between the two transistors.
Class C Amplifiers

The key circuit in most AM and FM transmitters is the class C amplifier. These amplifiers are
used for power amplification in the form of drivers, frequency multipliers, and final amplifiers.
Class C amplifiers are biased, so they conduct for less than 180° of the input. A class C amplifier
typically has a conduction angle of 908 to 150°. Current flows through it in short pulses, and a
resonant tuned circuit is used for complete signal amplification.

Biasing Methods.
Fig. 8-25(a) shows one way of biasing a class C amplifier. The base of the transistor is simply
connected to ground through a resistor. No external bias voltage is applied. An RF signal to be
amplified is applied directly to the base. The transistor conducts on the positive half-cycles of the
input wave and is cut off on the negative half-cycles. Although this sounds like a class B
configuration, that is not the case. Recall that the emitter-base junction of a bipolar transistor has
a forward voltage threshold of approximately 0.7 V. In other words, the emitter-base junction
does not really conduct until the base is more positive than the emitter by 0.7 V. Because of this,
the transistor has an inherent built-in reverse bias. When the input signal is applied, the collector
current does not flow until the base is positive by 0.7 V. This is illustrated in Fig. 8-25(b). The
result is that collector current flows through the transistor in positive pulses for less than the full
180° of the positive ac alternation.
In many low-power driver and multiplier stages, no special biasing provisions other than the
inherent emitter-base junction voltage are required. The resistor between base and ground simply
provides a load for the driving circuit. In some cases, a narrower conduction angle than that
provided by the circuit in Fig. 8-25(a) must be used. In such cases, some form of bias must be
applied. A simple way of supplying bias is with the RC network shown in Fig. 8-26(a). Here the
signal to be amplified is applied through capacitor C1. When the emitter-base junction conducts
on the positive half-cycle, C1 charges to the peak of the applied voltage less the forward drop
across the emitter-base junction. On the negative half-cycle of the input, the emitter-base
junction is reverse biased, so the transistor does not conduct. During this time, however,
capacitor C1 discharges through R1, producing a negative voltage across R1, which serves as a
reverse bias on the transistor. By properly adjusting the time constant of R1 and C1, an average
dc reverse-bias voltage can be established. The applied voltage causes the transistor to conduct,
but only on the peaks. The higher the average dc bias voltage, the narrower the conduction angle
and the shorter the duration of the collector current pulses. This method is referred to as signal
bias

Of course, negative bias can also be supplied to a class C amplifier from a fixed dc supply
voltage, as shown in Fig. 8-26(b). After the desired conduction angle is established, the value of
the reverse voltage can be determined and applied to the base through the RFC. The incoming
signal is then coupled to the base, causing the transistor to conduct on only the peaks of the
positive input alternations. This is called external bias and requires a separate negative dc
supply.
Another biasing method is shown in Fig. 8-26(c). As in the circuit shown in Fig. 8-26(a), the bias
is derived from the signal. This arrangement is known as the self-bias method.
When current fl ows in the transistor, a voltage is developed across R1. Capacitor C1 is charged
and holds the voltage constant. This makes the emitter more positive than the base, which has the
same effect as a negative voltage on the base. A strong input signal is required for proper
operation. These circuits also work with an enhancement mode MOSFET.

Frequency Multipliers.
Any class C amplifier is capable of performing frequency multiplication if the tuned circuit in
the collector resonates at some integer multiple of the input frequency. For example, a frequency
doubler can be constructed by simply connecting a parallel-tuned circuit in the collector of a
class C amplifier that resonates at twice the input frequency. When the collector current pulse
occurs, it excites or rings the tuned circuit at twice the input frequency. A current pulse flows for
every other cycle of the input. A tripler circuit is constructed in exactly the same way, except that
the tuned circuit resonates at three times the input frequency, receiving one input pulse for every
3 cycles of oscillation it produces (see Fig. 8-28).
Multipliers can be constructed to increase the input frequency by any integer factor up to
approximately 10. As the multiplication factor gets higher, the power output of the multiplier
decreases. For most practical applications, the best result is obtained with multipliers of 2 and 3.

Another way to look at the operation of a class C frequency multiplier is to remember that the
non-sinusoidal current pulse is rich in harmonics. Each time the pulse occurs, the second, third,
fourth, fifth, and higher harmonics are generated. The purpose of the tuned circuit in the collector
is to act as a filter to select the desired harmonic.

In many applications, a multiplication factor greater than that achievable with a single multiplier
stage is required. In such cases, two or more multipliers are cascaded. Fig. 8-29 shows two
multiplier examples. In the first case, multipliers of 2 and 3 are cascaded to produce an overall
multiplication of 6. In the second, three multipliers provide an overall multiplication of 30. The
total multiplication factor is the product of the multiplication factors of the individual stages.