SOIL FERTILITY AND

FERTILIZERS

LECTURE 8
Soil Fertility and Productivity
Soil Fertility
• The capacity of a soil to provide
essential chemical elements in
adequate quantities and
proportions for the growth of
specified plants
• Understanding CEC is the single
most important concept in
understanding soil fertility
• Nutrient analysis of the soil
determines the potential of the
soil for supplying macro- and
micronutrients to plants during
the growing season
Soil Fertility and Productivity
Soil Productivity
• The capacity of a soil for
producing a specified plant
or sequence of plants under
a specified system of
management
– Soil fertility is only one
of the factors that make
a soil productive
Soil Fertility and Productivity
Other factors that make
a soil productive
• Moisture
• Aeration
• Absence of pests and
diseases
• Presence of micro-
organisms that support
plant growth
• Management practices
• Large amount of topsoil
Essential Nutrient Elements
• There are 18 nutrient elements that are considered
essential for plant growth.
• These are:
A. Macro Elements
1. From the atmosphere: C, H, O
2. From the soil: N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S
– in combination with other compounds
– in the complex structure of minerals
– in salts in the soil solution
B. Micro Elements
Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, B, Mo, Co
Cl – specific for coconuts
Ni – catalyst in the conversion of urea to NH4+
Essential Nutrient Elements
Forms of the element that are available
for plant use (Macro elements)
• Nitrogen – NH4+, NO3-
• Phosphorus – H2PO4- (dihydrogen phosphate
ion)
– HPO42- (hydrogen phosphate
ion)
• Potassium – K+
• Calcium – Ca2+
• Magnesium – Mg2+
• Sulfur – SO42-
Essential Nutrient Elements
Forms of the element that are available
for plant use (Micro elements)…
• Iron - Fe2+ (ferrous)
• Manganese – Mn2+
• Boron – H3BO3 (boric acid; hydrogen borate)
• Zinc – Zn2+
• Copper – Cu2+
• Chlorine – Cl-
• Molybdenum – MoO42- (molybdate)
• Nickel – Ni2+
• Cobalt – Co2+
Essential Nutrient Elements
Essential Nutrient Criteria:
1. Plants cannot complete their life cycle in the
absence/deficiency of any one of the nutrient
elements;
2. The nutrient is an integral component of a
plant structure and/or participates in one or
more metabolic processes in the plant; and
3. No other element can substitute for the
element if it is absent/lacking in supply.
• Its deficiency can only be corrected by
addition of that element.
Other Nutrient Elements
• Some plants apparently, either need or can have
some benefits from other elements such as:
– silicon, sodium, iodine, fluorine, barium, and
strontium.
• Not generally considered to be essential
elements for plant growth.
Sources of Nutrient Elements
• The essential nutrient elements are derived
from:
– Organic matter
– Minerals
– Air
– Water
• Sources of C, H, O:
– Carbon – CO2
– Hydrogen – H2O
– Oxygen – O2, H2O
Sources of Nutrient Elements
Nitrogen
• The air partly supply N:
– Biological N fixation
– When lightning converts it to NO3-
▪ The enormous energy of lightning breaks
nitrogen molecules and enables their atoms
to combine with oxygen in the air forming
nitrogen oxides
▪ These dissolve in rain, forming nitrates, that
are carried to the earth
• The major source of N is Organic matter;
– About 5% N
– Most minerals do not contain N.
 The
Nitrogen
ATMOSPHERIC

ATMOSPHERIC
NITROGEN
N2
NITROUS
OXIDE
Cycle
FIXATION N2O

AMMONIA
NH3
INDUSTRIAL
FIXATION
Volatilization

BIOLOGICAL
FIXATION (Commercial fertilizer)
(by legume plants) Animal
Plant Manures
Residues Plant Uptakes

ORGANIC
MATTER
NITRATE
NO3
AMMONIUM
NH4

LEACHING
LOSS

International Plant Nutrient

Institute.
http://anz.ipni.net/article/ANZ-
3235
Sources of Nutrient Elements
Phosphorus
• P is released from SOM;
– About 1% P
– Bound in phytin, phospholipids, and nucleic
acids.
• The major inorganic sources in the soil are:
– Acid-soluble P
– Calcium phosphate
– Aluminum phosphate
– Iron phosphate
 PHOSPHOROUS
CYCLE

Rain Geologic uplifting

Plants Weathering of
phosphate
from rocks

Runoff

Phosphate in solution
80% of the country’s
Chemical
surface have been
Phosphate precipitation stripped mined
in soil
Animals Detritus
settling to
bottom

Sedimentation=new rocks
Decomposers
Nauru: a phosphate
country
Sources of Nutrient Elements
Potassium
• Found in minerals like
feldspars and micas (90% of
soil K);
• Fixed inside of clay minerals
(9% of soil K);
• On the soil exchange sites
(1%); and
• In the soil solution (0.1%)

Feldspar Minerals made up

50% of the earth’s crust
Sources of Nutrient Elements
Sulfur
• Contained in OM;
– About 1%
• Present in minerals;
– i.e. gypsum and pyrite
• When released into the soil, Gypsum
the forms are:
– H2S, FeS, and SO42-

Pyrite
Sources of Nutrient Elements
Other Nutrient
Elements
• Other nutrient elements are
present in OM at very low
concentrations.
• Most comes from the
weathering of minerals: Hornblende
– Ca = found in
hornblende, plagioclase,
dolomite and calcite.
– Mg = occurs in
horblende, dolomite,
and biotite. Dolomite
Sources of Nutrient Elements
Other Nutrient Elements
• Micronutrients are derived from various
minerals:
Iron
• Among the most abundant of micronutrients;
– limonite, hematite, goethite, etc.
Chlorine
• Contained in minerals
• May also be supplied from:
– Salt sprays from oceans
– Irrigation water
Factors Affecting the Release
of Nutrients to Plants
1) Percentage saturation of the
exchange complex by nutrient
cation in question.
Ca2+ Ca2+ Mg2+Ca2+ Ca2+Na+
Ca2+Ca2+ 2+ Na +
2+ Ca2+
Mg2+ Mg Ca
NH +Ca 2+ Mg2+
Example: 2+
Ca 2+
Ca + 2+ 2+ 2+ 2+
4 +
NH4 Ca2+
Na Ca Ca Mg Ca NH4+
– if the percentage Ca saturation
of a soil is high, the
displacement of this cation is
comparatively easy and rapid.
Factors Affecting the Release
of Nutrients to Plants…
2) Influence of complementary adsorbed cations
• Al3+ > H+> Ca2+ > Mg2+ > K+ = NH4+ > Na+
• K+ - less tightly held by the colloids if the
complementary ions are Al3+ and H+ than
if they are Mg2+ and Na+.
• K+ more readily available for absorption by
plants or more prone to leaching in acid soils.
Factors Affecting the Release
of Nutrients to Plants…
3) Nutrient antagonisms
• K+ uptake by plants is limited by high
levels of Ca2+.
• High K+ levels - limit the uptake of Mg2+;
– even when significant quantities of Mg2+
are present in the soil.
Factors Affecting the Release
of Nutrients to Plants…
4) Effect of type of colloid
• The strength of adsorption of specific
cations varies with types of colloids.
– At a given percent base saturation (%BS),
smectites hold Ca2+ more strongly than
kaolinite .
• Smectite clays must be raised to about
70% BS before Ca2+ will exchange easily
and rapidly enough to satisfy most plants.
• Kaolinite clays exchange Ca2+ more readily
at a much lower %BS.
Mechanisms of Nutrient Uptake
Movement to the roots:
1) Root interception.
– Exposure to soil and new
supplies of nutrients
– Roots could contact 3% of
the soil or nutrients in the
soil.
Mechanisms of Nutrient Uptake
Movement to the
roots:…
2)Mass Flow
– Water absorbed by the root
creates a water deficit near
the root, more water moves
to the root carrying
nutrients with the water.
– Important for nutrients in
large quantities in the soil
solution - N, K, & Ca.
Mechanisms of Nutrient Uptake
Movement to the
roots:…
3)Diffusion
– Movement of nutrients due
to an imbalance of
concentration (diffusion
gradient)
Movement of ions from solution to root surfaces

Mass Flow
Diffusion

Root

Interception
Conditions Required for
Nutrient Uptake by Plants
1) Actively growing plants
– anything that affects the metabolism of the
plant will affect nutrient uptake.
2) Metabolic energy is required.
– Plant roots must be able to respire.
– Soils must have oxygen.
Conditions Required for
Nutrient Uptake by Plants
3) Root hairs are the
most active points
of nutrient uptake.
The Concept of Limiting Factor
• Plant growth is constrained by the essential
element (or other factor) that is most limiting
(Justus von Liebig’s Law of Minimum).

– In (a), P is represented as
being the factor that is
most limiting.
– In (b) when P is added,
the level of plant
production is raised until
another factor becomes
most limiting, in this case
N.
The Concept of Limiting Factor
Justus von Liebig’s Law of Minimum

…“Plant production can be no greater than

that level allowed by the growth factor
present in the lowest amount relative to the
optimum amount for that factor”.
Why fertility declines?

N, P, K
Crop harvest

N, P, K N, P, K

Volatilized Crop residue

N2 O removal

Burning of crop
Ca, Fe, Al Absorbed residues
Fixed
N, P, K
Minerals

Leached
Fertilizers
What is a Fertilizer?
• Any organic or inorganic
material or compound which
can supply one or more of the
essential nutrients needed by
plants for normal growth

Urea Ammonium Complete

46-0-0 phosphate 14-14-14
16-20-0
Fertilizers
Phosphorus (20%) Potassium (0%)
Other Terms Nitrogen (16%)

Fertilizer Grade
(Guaranteed Analysis)
• Guaranteed minimum analysis of
the plant nutrient in terms of
%total N, % available phosphoric
acid (%P2O5) and % soluble
potash (% K2O)
Fertilizers
Other Terms…
Fertilizer Ratio
• Relative proportion of each of the primary
nutrients N, P2O5 and K2O in a fertilizer material
• Example:
Fertilizer Fertilizer Ratio
14-14-14 1:1:1
12-24-12 ?
6-24-24 ?
20-10-0 ?
Fertilizers
Other Terms…
Filler
• Any substance added to fertilizer materials to
provide bulk, prevent caking or serve some
purpose other than providing essential plant
nutrients
Fertilizers
Classification of Fertilizers
• Fertilizers are broadly classified into Organic and
Inorganic/Chemical fertilizers

A. Inorganic/Chemical Fertilizer
• Any fertilizer product whose properties are
determined primarily by its content of mineral
or synthetic chemical compounds
• Usually comes in either granular or powder
form in bags and boxes, or in liquid
formulations in bottles
Fertilizers
Classification of Fertilizers…
B. Organic Fertilizers
•Any fertilizer product of plant and/or animal origin
that has undergone decomposition through
biological, chemical and or any other process
•Bio-fertilizers – microbial inoculants or groups of
micro-organisms which in one way or another,
render nutrients available to plants from sources
which the plants cannot tap themselves
Fertilizers
Classification of Fertilizers…
Advantages of Inorganic Fertilizers
• Release of nitrogen rapid
• Accurate source of nutrients
• Less bulky, hence, easier to transport
Fertilizers
Classification of Fertilizers…
Disadvantages of Inorganic Fertilizers
• Inorganic fertilizers if used carelessly can burn
your plants and distort the quality of your soil
• Using inorganic fertilizers would mean that
strict watering schedules have to be adopted
in order to retain the soil moisture
• Inorganic fertilizers are made up of elements
like potassium and phosphorus that come
from mines or saline lakes, thus, from limited
resources
Fertilizers
Classification of Fertilizers…
Advantages of Organic Fertilizers
• Improve the structure of the soil.
• Retain soil moisture
• Release nitrogen slowly and consistently
• Mobilize existing soil nutrients
• Do not burn the plants like some chemical
fertilizers
• Less subject to leaching
Fertilizers
Classification of Fertilizers…
Disadvantages of Organic Fertilizers
• Often, organic fertilizers, especially those that
contain animal and plant feces are
contaminated with pathogens
• The composition of organic fertilizers is
variable, thus it becomes a very dilute and
inaccurate source of nutrients compared to
inorganic type of fertilizers
• For profitable yields, significantly large
amounts of fertilizers should be used to cope
up with nutrient requirements
• Bulky
Common Approaches Used to
Determine Fertilizer Needs
1. Nutrient hunger signs on
growing crops (deficiency Healthy

symptoms) -N

• Principle: if plants do not get -P

enough of a particular nutrient
they need, the symptoms show -K

in the general appearance as

-Mg
well as in the color of the plant
• Typical Symptoms: leaf
discoloration, stunting, poor
yield and quality, complete crop
failure
Common Approaches Used to
Determine Fertilizer Needs
2. Plant Analysis
• Determination of the nutrient content of a
plant part or whole plant, sampled at a
specific stage of growth
• Assumption: The amount of a given nutrient
in the plant is related to the nutrient
availability in the soil
Common Approaches Used to
Determine Fertilizer Needs
3. Soil Tests
• Determination of the available
amounts of nutrients in the soil or its
chemical properties followed by
evaluation or interpretation and
formulation of fertilizer
recommendations
• Assumptions:
– Available amounts at sampling
time reflects the amounts available
during the cropping season
– Amount analyzed is a portion of
the total available amount to be
released
Common Approaches Used to
Determine Fertilizer Needs
4. Fertilizer Trials
• Comparison of several
treatments of fertilizer,
including a control, to
answer specific questions
under field conditions
• The comparison of plant
growth rate at different
fertilizer levels under
actual field conditions
reflects better the
influence of the
environment
Fertilizer Use
Proper Use of Fertilizers Involves:
a. Applying the right amount for the particular soil,
crop and condition
b. Applying at the right time
c. Applying by the right method or technique
THANK YOU