UNIT-1 Unit-2: Journey To A Successful In-Sem Exam 2020

JOURNEY TO A SUCCESSFUL IN-SEM EXAM 2020
Total Marks:30
UNIT-1 18
Topics UNIT- 2 23
Topics
1st MILESTONE 1st MILESTONE

1. Introduction to Thermal Engineering
1. Concept of work, Energy and Power 2. Types of Systems
2. Forms of Energy 3. Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
3. Renewable and Non-renewable 4. First law of Thermodynamics
Energy Sources 5. Second Law of Thermodynamics
4. Energy conversion Devices 6. Compare Refrigerator and Heat Pump
7. Third Law of Thermodynamics
2nd MILESTONE
2nd MILESTONE
5. Thermal (Steam) Power Plant 8. Introduction to Heat Transfer
6. Hydroelectric Power Plant
9. Heat Conduction
7. Nuclear Power Plant
8. Solar Power Plant 10. Heat Convection
9. Photovoltaic (PV) cell or Solar Cell 11. Heat Radiation
10. Geothermal Power Plant 12. Heat Exchangers
11. Wind Energy
12. Hydrogen Energy
13. Biomass Energy 3rd MILESTONE
14. Tidal energy
13. Steam Generators Boiler
15. Grades of Energy
14. Classification of Boiler
15. Water Tube Boiler
16. Fire Tube Boiler
3rd MILESTONE
16. Pumps
4th MILESTONE
17. Compressors
18. Hydraulic Turbines 17. Internal Combustion Engines
(IC Engine)
18. Classification of IC Engines
19. F
our Stroke Petrol Engine (Spark
Ignition S.I. Engine)
20. F
our Stroke Diesel Engine
(Compression Ignition C.I. Engines)
21. Two Stroke Petrol Engine
22. Comparison IC Engine
23. Compressed Natural Gas CNG
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UNIT-1 | 1st MILESTONE
U N I T
Introduction of Energy
Sources & Its Conversion
1. Concept of Work, Energy and Power
Work
Work is defined as the product of force applied (F) and displacement (d) of the object. Work
can be obtained by following formula, when F Newton force acts on the body which dis-
places body by distance d meter.
W = F´d Nm or Joule
Example: A force of 30 N is applied on an object, which moves that object 3 meters in the
same direction of the force. What is the work done by force?
Solution: Work done W= 30 N ×3 m = 90 Joule (J)
Power
Power is defined as the rate at which work is done. Power can be obtained by the following
formula, amount for work done in unit second.
P=W/t (Joule/ second) or watt

When 1 Joule work is done in 1 second represents 1watt power.
The SI unit of power is watt (W).
Power may be represented in kW, MW or kJ/min.
Energy
Energy is defined as the capacity or ability to do work.
The SI unit of energy is joule (J).
100 g
1 Joule
One joule represents

the energy needed to
lift an object weighting 1m
one Newton (N) to the
height of one meter (m) W=1N
100 g W=1N
On earth 1N=100g Weight of 1Newton Weight of 1Newton

on floor lifted 1m by a
force of 1 newton
work = 1 joule
Joule
A Joule is a metric unit equal to a newton meter or the amount of work done when a force
of one newton is moved by 1 meter. It measures all forms of energy including heat.
Example: 60W light bulb represents 60 Joule light energy per second.
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One Calorie (Cal)

It represents heat which will rise the temperature of 1 g of water by 1° C at normal atmo-
spheric pressure.
1 Cal = 4.184 Joule
2. Forms of Energy
Kinetic Energy
It is defined as energy due to the motion of the molecules. It is represented as
1
KE = mV 2
2
where, m is mass in kg ,
v is velocity in m/s
Potential Energy
It is defined as the energy stored in an object and is measured by the amount of work done.
PE = m g h
where, m is mass in kg
h is height in m
g is 9.8 m/s2
Mechanical Energy
Other forms of energies are: chemical energy, electrical energy, magnetic energy, nucle-
ar energy, elastic energy, gravitational energy, thermal heat energy etc.
Energy
Can be
Kinetic Energy Potential Energy
Energy comes Energy is stored to
Energy of movement from moving be used later Stored Energy
Thermal Energy Chemical Energy

Energy of moving particles (heat) Energy stored in the fuel
we experience energy in different ways

Mechanical Energy Elastic Energy
Energy of objects in motion Energy stored in objects
Sound Energy
that are stretched
forms of energy we can hear
Electrical Energy Nuclear Energy
Energy of moving particles moving Light Energy Energy stored in centre

though a wire forms of energy our eyes can detect of the particles
Magnetic Energy Gravitational Energy
Magnetic energy is the energy associated Energy stored in an object when it is above
with the potential energy of electrical the earth surface
charges inside a body.
Example: A 1000 kg truck is lifted by garage hoist to 2 meters above the ground in 15 sec-
onds. Find the power delivered to the truck.
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Solution
Force acted F = m ´ g = 1000 ´ 9.81 = 9810 N
Work Done W = F ´ d = 9810 N ´ 2 m = 19620 Nm = 19620 J
Power Delivered to Truck P = Work done /time = 19620 J / 15s = 1308 J / s = 1308 W
Example: If a boy lifts his 40 kg body by distance of 0.25 m in 2 seconds, then what is the
power delivered by him?
Solution
Work Done W = F ´ d = mg ´ d
= 40 kg ´ 9.81´ 0.25 m
= 98.1 J
Power Delivered by boy P = Work done /time = 98.1 J / 2s
P = 49.05 Watt
3. Renewable and Non-renewable Energy Sources

Renewable Energy
The energy which is available freely in nature and never exhausts is called as Renewable En-
ergy. It is also known as Non-Conventional Energy sources.
These are cleanest sources of energy means that it does not directly produce greenhouse
gas emissions or air pollutants. The most used renewable energy sources such as solar ener-
gy, wind energy, hydro energy, biomass etc.
Non-Renewable Energy
The energy which is exhaustible and it takes millions of years to form is called as Non-Renew-
able Energy. It is also known as Conventional Energy sources.
These are natural resources that are available in a limited amount and cannot be remade.
Renewable Energy Non-Renewable Energy
Solar Energy
Fossil fuel Oil
Coal
Hydropower Energy Biomass Energy
Energy Energy
The Fuel of Life The Fuel of Life
Nuclear
Natural Gas
Wind Energy
Geothermal Energy
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UNIT-1 | 2nd MILESTONE
Renewable Energy (Non-Conventional) Non-Renewable Energy (Conventional)
Available freely in nature and never exhausts Exhaustible and takes millions of years to form
Pollution free sources Causes different types of pollution
Environment friendly Adverse impact on environment
Low operating cost High operating cost
Ex.Wind energy, Hydro energy, Solar energy Ex. Coal, Fossil Fuel, Natural Gas
4. Energy conversion Devices

We know that one form of energy can be converted to another form using appropriate de-
vices. During this conversion, all the input energy is converted into some form of output.
However, all the energy that we put in may not come out in the desired form.
Electric bulb is energy conversion device which produces light (which is the desired form of
output from a bulb), but we also get heat from the bulb (undesired form of energy from an
electric bulb). Therefore,energy flow into and out of any energy conversion device can be
summarized in the diagram below.
Useful energy output

Energy
Energy Input Conversion
Energy dissipated to
Device
the surroundings
When all forms of energy coming out of an energy conversion device are added up, it will
be equal to the energy that is put into a device. All the power producing devices obeys law
of conservation of energy.
5. Thermal (Steam) Power Plant

Thermal Power Plant produces electrical energy by the use of high pressure and high temperature
steam formed in the boiler.
Water is supplied to the boiler where coal burns and generate a large amount of heat energy.
Due to the combustion of fuel a large amount of heat energy formed convert water into
high pressure and high temperature steam.
High Pressure steam expand and rotate steam turbine (mechanical energy) hence produces
electrical energy.
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Turbine
Boiler Electric Generator
Steam
Combustion
gases to Chimney
Water
Cooling
Fuel Heat Warm water Tower
Combustion Condenser
Air
Pump
Makeup Cooled
Feed water pump water water
Construction and Working of Thermal (Steam) Power Plant

The major components of the steam power plant and their functions are:
Boiler: It is a closed vessel made up of steel. It converts the water into high pressure, high
temperature steam. It contains the furnace inside where the combustion of coal takes place.
Coal is fed to furnace and combustion of coal generates a large amount of heat which turns
feed water into high pressure high temperature steam.
Turbine: It is the mechanical device which converts the kinetic energy of the high-pressure
steam to the mechanical energy by rotation of turbine blades.
Generator: It is connected with the turbine shaft and converts the mechanical energy of the
turbine to the electrical energy.
Condenser: It condenses (vapour to liquid) the steam that comes out from the turbine. It
converts the low-pressure steam to water. It is connected to the cooling tower.
Cooling Tower: It is a tower which contains cold water. Cold water is circulated into the
condenser for the cooling of the residual steam from the turbine.
Chimney: It is used to release the hot burnt gases or smoke from the furnace to the
environment.
Feed Water Pump: It is used to circulate the feed water to the boiler.
The Site Selection of Thermal (Steam) Power Plant depends upon

Cost of the land
Population density of the land
Availability of water sources
Availability of fuel
Scope for the future demand
Availability of transportation facility
Availability of labor
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Advantages of Thermal (Steam) Power Plant

Less land area is required as compared with the hydro power plant
Coal is cheaper than petrol and diesel fuel
Respond quickly to the load
Cost of power generation is low
Steam formed can be used for different process industries
Can be installed near the load center
Disadvantages of Thermal (Steam) Power Plant

The running and maintenance cost are comparatively high
Low overall the efficiency of a plant, 35 -41%
Exhaust hot flue gases contribute to global warming
Causes air and water pollution
Large quantity of water is required
Time for installation of plant is more
6. Hydroelectric Power Plant

Hydroelectric Power Plant produces electrical energy by the use of kinetic energy of water.
Water is stored in the dam (potential energy) and when water flows under gravity through
pipes (pen stocks) gets kinetic energy. This high velocity water passes over turbine blades
causes rotation of blades (mechanical energy). As the turbine is connected to a generator it
produces electrical energy.
Head Race
(Potential Energy) Dam
Surge tank
Total Head
Tunnel
Runner
(Mechanical Energy)
Bucket
Shaft
Trail Race
Pen Stock
Jet of
(Kinetic Energy) Nozzle Water
Construction and Working of Hydroelectric Power Plant

The major components of the hydroelectric power plant and their functions are:
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Dam: It is a concrete barrier across the way of the river. The catchment area behind the
dam creates a huge water reservoir. The trash rack is provided to filter the water before it
flows through the penstock. Water has potential energy stored due to head H.
Penstock: It is a steel pipeline of suitable diameter connected between dam and powerhouse.
Water flows down from reservoir to powerhouse through the penstock. It gives kinetic
energy to water. Nozzle increases the velocity of water flow.
Powerhouse: It consist of water turbines which converts kinetic energy of water into
mechanical energy. This turbine is connected to generator shaft which converts mechanical
energy into electrical energy.
Tail race: It is a flow of water discharged from the turbine to the river.
Surge tank: It is a protective system, which used to protect the penstock from bursting out
due to sudden variation of flow of water.
Advantages of Hydroelectric Power Plant

Clean and free renewable source of energy
Operation cost is less, hence cost of power generation is low
No pollution
It can be used for irrigation purpose
Less skilled operators are required
Longer life
Disadvantages of Hydroelectric Power Plant

Time required for installation of plant is much large
Installation cost is high
Power generation depends on the availability of water
Aquatic life gets adversely affected
7. Nuclear Power Plant

Nuclear Power Plant produces electrical energy by the use of nuclear fission chain reaction
of radioactive material. Nuclear fission is a nuclear reaction that produces energy through
the nucleus of an atom splits into smaller lighter nuclei and produces free neutrons and
releases a large amount of energy that can be harnessed to produce electricity.
Nuclear energy through fission can released 1 million times more energy per atom than
fossil fuel In a nuclear chain reaction, a heavy isotope like Uranium-235, thorium, plutonium,
U-233, U-238 are used because it produces a high amount of energy. When U235 strikes one
neutron, it produces alternative three neutrons and releases a large amount of energy.
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Nuclear chain reaction
Control Rod Heat Exchanger
Fuel Rod
Turbine
Moderator Pressuriser Electric Generator
Steam
Cooling
Condenser Warm water Tower
Water
Coolant
Reactor Pump
Pump
Makeup Cooled
Feed water pump water water
Construction & Working of Nuclear Power Plant
Nuclear reactor: It is heavily insulated primary circuit of the plant where nuclear fission of
unstable heavy uranium-235 takes place. Moderators graphite, water, deuterium and con-
trol rods (cadmium, boron) keeps nuclear reaction under control.
Moderator reduces the moderator reduces speed of neutrons and control rods absorb the
neutrons. A large amount of energy liberated in the reactor is transferred to the circulating
coolant of high boiling point.
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Heat exchanger: High Pressure heated coolant transfer the heat to the water flowing in
heat exchanger and generates steam.
Steam turbine: In steam turbine, the high pressurized steam from the heat exchanger is
expanded on turbine blades develops mechanical energy.
Generator: The shaft of the steam turbine is connected to the shaft of the generator and
the mechanical energy of the steam turbine is converted into electrical energy.
Condenser: It condenses (vapour to liquid) the steam that comes out from the steam tur-
bine. It converts the low-pressure steam to water. It is connected to the cooling tower.
Cooling Tower: It is a tower which contains cold water. Cold water is circulated into the
condenser for the cooling of the residual steam from the turbine.
Coolant pump: After transferring the heat in heat exchanger coolant is again returned back
to the nuclear reactor with the help of a coolant pump.
Advantages of Nuclear Power Plant
Does not contribute to global warming
Does not emit greenhouse gas emissions
Very low fuel cost
Low fuel quantity reduces mining and transportation cost
Performance of plant is good and very long life
Disadvantages of Nuclear Power Plant

Environmental and health issues
Non-renewable energy sources
High capital cost
Safe disposal of radioactive waste is very difficult and expensive
Skilled man power required
Cannot respond quickly to load variations
Local thermal pollution affects marine life
8. Solar Power Plant

Introduction to Solar Energy
Solar energy is the light energy radiated from the sun. It is the most abundant renewable
energy source in the world. The earth surface receives energy from sun in the form of elec-
tromagnetic radiations. Solar energy on the earth is at considerably low density and hence
it cannot be used directly for power generation.
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The device used to collect and concentrate solar energy is called as Solar Concentrating
Collector. They are of two types:
(i) Flat Plate Collector- (Low temp. range 70-80 oC)

(ii) Parabolic Collector -(Higher above Temp. 100 oC)
Solar radiation 40 OC
Insulated metal box
Water in Glass cover

Water out Glass cover
Air space
Absorber plate
80 OC Insulation
Flow tube
Absorber plate
Flat Plate Collector

Flat-plate collectors are installed facing the equator. The angle of the collector plate is close
to the latitude of the location (+/- 15o).
Transport fluid can be water because of good thermal properties such as high volumetric
heat capacity but it freezes during winter. So, antifreeze mixtures can be used instead of
pure water.
These are the main components of a typical flat-plate solar collector:
Black surface: It absorbs incident solar energy.

Glazing cover: a transparent layer that transmits radiation to the absorber, but prevents
radiation and convective heat loss from the surface.
Tubes: It contains heating fluid to transfer the heat from the collector.
Support structure to protect the components and hold them in place.
Insulation: It covers sides and bottom of the collector to reduce heat losses.
Advantages of the Flat-Plate Collectors

Easy to manufacture
Low cost
Collect both beam and diffuse radiation
Permanently fixed (no sophisticated positioning or tracking equipment is required)
Little maintenance
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Parabolic Collector
Central Parabolic
Heat Pipe Reflector Parallel Rays
Parabolic Shaped
of Sunlight
Reflective Trough Fluid
out Glass Envelope
Parabolic Coating Absorber Tube
or Mirrors N with selective
surface
Collector Supports`
Rotational Fluid IN
Axis
A parabolic trough is a solar thermal collector which has curved shape as a parabola, cov-
ered with a polished metal mirror.
The incident sunlight is focused along with the focal line, where objects are kept for heating.
For example in a solar cooker- food is placed at the focal line of a trough.
The trough is usually aligned on a north-south axis, and rotated to track the sun as it moves.
Parabolic trough concentrators have a simple geometry.
Heat transfer fluid -Thermal oil runs through the tube to absorb the concentrated sunlight.
This increases the temperature of the fluid to approx. 400 °C.
The largest solar thermal power systems using parabolic trough is 354 MW plants in Cali-
fornia.
S. No Parameter Flat-plate collector Concentrating collector
1. Absorber area Large Small (comparatively)
2. Insulation intensity Less More
Working fluid tempera- Low temperatures 70- High temperatures above

3.
ture 80oC 100oC
Material required by
4. More Less
reflecting surfaces
Use for power genera-
5. Cannot be used Can be used
tion
6. Need of tracking system No Yes
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Introduction to Solar Power Plant

There are two methods to generate electricity from solar energy.
a) Direct Method– Photovoltaic Cells
b) Indirect Method- Solar Thermal plants
Photovoltaic Cells
It uses large areas of photovoltaic cells, known as PV or solar cells, to directly convert sun-
light into usable electricity by using semiconductors. These cells are usually made from
silicon alloys. These are commonly installed on the roof.
These PV Panels come in various forms- Crystalline solar panels and Thin-film solar panels
They tend to generate DC current with voltages up to 1500 V, hence need DC into AC con-
vertor system.
Solar PV panels are made from semiconductor materials, like a form of silicon. When pho-
tons from sunlight hit the semiconductor material, free electrons are generated which can
flow through the material to produce a direct electrical current. This is known as the pho-
to-effect.
Solar Power Plant

Turbine
Hot Water Freon Steam
Generator
Heat Condenser
exchanger
Liquid Freon
Feed pump Feed pump
Flat Plate Collector: Sunlight incident on flat plate collector heats the water flowing inside
tube and temperature range 70-80 0C can be achieved.
Heat Exchanger: Heat absorbed by the hot water in the flat plate collector is transferred to
the liquid freon (low boiling point) in heat exchanger and produces Freon steam.
Turbine: A high pressure, high temperature Freon steam is expanded on turbine blades
which develops mechanical energy, by rotating turbine shaft.
Generator: The shaft of the turbine is connected to the shaft of the generator & the me-
chanical energy of the turbine is converted into electrical energy.
Condenser: The exhaust freon steam from the turbine is condensed to liquid freon in
condenser and it is returned back to a heat exchanger with the help feed pump.
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Water Feed Pump: After heat exchange in heat exchanger water is again returned back to
Flat Plate collector with the help of the water feed pump.
Advantages of Solar Power Plant
Clean and free renewable Source
Less maintenance
Simple in construction and design
Doesn’t cause any direct or indirect pollution, environment friendly
Disadvantages of Solar Power Plant

High initial cost
Need large battery storage as during day only power is produced
Power produced depends on weather condition (Clouds affect performance adversely)
Solar Thermal Applications

Hot water usage for bathing, washing and laundry
Pre-heat for boilers
Space heating for commercial buildings
Solar steam generation for industrial process
Degreasing and phosphating in the metal finishing industry
Solar drying in food, wood, leather
9. Photovoltaic (PV) cell or Solar Cell

A Solar cell or Photovoltaic cell: It is a device that converts the light energy directly into elec-
tricity by the photovoltaic effect. When a light incident on cell its electrical characteristics such
as current, voltage and resistance changes. The voltage induced by the PV cell depends on
the intensity of light incident on it.
The common single junction silicon solar cell can produce a maximum voltage of 0.5 to 0.6 Volts.
Solar cells are usually connected in series and parallel circuits. Multiple solar cells arranged
in group, forms a solar photovoltaic panel or module.
Top contact
Light rays Toughened Glass
Anti-reflective
coating (ARC)
+
n-type silicon (phosphorus doped)
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
pn-junction electrical field - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
e- e- e-
- p-type silicon (boron doped)
Bottom contact
Thin slice of n –type semiconductor is cut and coated with a very thin layer of p –type. This
is required for the sun rays to penetrate & reach the junction. When the sunlight strikes the
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junction, it generates excess free electrons and e.m.f. across junction.

When the semiconductor material absorbs light, the electrons of the material starts
emitting. This happens because the light consists of small energize particles called photons.
When the electrons absorb the photons, they become energized and starts moving into
the material. Because of the effect of an electric field, the particles move only in one
direction and develop current.
Photo-voltaic system has a digital tracker that follows the location of the sun, charge
controller –regulates the voltage drawn from the panel and inverter- convert DC to AC and
vice versa.
Advantages of Solar Cell

No moving parts
Reliable, modular, durable
Almost no maintenance
Located anywhere at remote areas as well as where an electrical network is not available
Long life 15-20 years
Disadvantages of Solar Cell

High initial cost
Low efficiency 15-25 %
10. Geothermal Power Plant

Geothermal energy- A heat derived by water or steam from an internal heat of the earth
is called as geothermal energy. Geothermal energy can be used for heating or cooling or to
generate electricity.
Dry Steam Power stations

Dry steam stations are the simplest and oldest design. In Dry Steam Power stations only dry
steam is reached to the surface of the earth even though water/liquid may be present in the
ground reservoir. This dry steam collected at the surface has a steam of 150 °C or above this
temperature. This dry steam is expanded over turbine blades to generate electricity.
Flash Steam Power stations
Flash Steam stations are the most common type of power stations that use geothermal
reservoirs of water with temperatures greater than 180 °C. The hot water flows up through
wells in the ground under its own pressure.
As it flows upward, the pressure decreases and some of the hot water boils into steam. The
steam is then separated from the water and this separated steam used to run the turbine
and generate electricity. Any leftover water and condensed steam are injected back into the
reservoir.
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Binary Cycle Power Stations
Binary cycle power stations are the most recent development, where fluid temperatures as
low as 57 °C can be used. The moderately hot geothermal water is passed over a secondary
fluid with a much lower boiling point than water.
This causes the secondary fluid to flash vaporize, which then drives the turbines. This is the
most common type of geothermal electricity station being constructed. The thermal
efficiency of this type of station is typically about 10–13%.
Turbine
Electric Generator
Cooling
Condenser Warm water Tower
Pump
Makeup Cooled
Feed water pump
water water
pump
Geothermal zone
Production well Injection well
Binary Cycle
Binary Cycle Geothermal
GeothermalPower
PowerPlant
Plant
The hot water from the production well is circulated through the heat exchanger where heat
gets transferred from hot water to organic fluid (Propane and Isobutene) having low boiling.
The organic fluid converts into steam due to heat transfer and rotates turbine blades. As the
turbine is connected to a generator, generates electricity.
Advantages of Geothermal Power Plant

Relatively environment-friendly
Produce large amounts of energy
Low operating cost
Renewable and sustainable source
Low noise work
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Disadvantages of Geothermal Power Plant

Geographical limits -found in selected areas
Installation cost is high
Difficulty in transportation due to remote location
Seismic instability
11. Wind Energy

Wind is caused by huge convection currents in the Earth’s atmosphere due to solar heat energy.
The kinetic energy of wind (speed range 10-40 kmph) is used to drive wind turbine blades, produc-
es electricity.
Traditionally this energy was used for milling grain and pumping water but today is most
commonly used to create electricity.
Parts of Wind Turbine

Blades: The main part of the wind turbine is the blade. When the wind is flowing over
blades it lifts and rotates blade and rotor.
Gear box: It connects the low-speed shaft to the high-speed shaft and increases the rota-
tional speeds. It is connected to the generator to produce electricity.
Electromagnetic Generator: It produces AC electricity.
Nacelle: It is a box which is placed at top of the tower, contains the gear box, low and high-
speed shafts, generator, controller, and brake.
Rotor blade
Brake
Gearbox
Generator
Electric
Controls
Rotor
hub with Nacelle
blade pitch Yaw System
mechanism
Tower
Grid
Foundations Connection
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Working of Wind Turbine
A high-speed wind rotates turbine hence rotor which produces a torque on a low-speed
shaft.
The low-speed shaft transfers the energy to a gearbox, high-speed shaft and generator,
which are enclosed in the nacelle for protection.
The low-speed shaft connects to the gearbox, which has a set of gears that increase the
output speed of the shaft to approximate speed of 1500 rpm of frequency 50 Hz.
The high-speed shaft is then connected to the generator, which converts the rotational mo-
tion to AC voltage.
Advantages of Wind Turbine

Free, clean and renewable source of energy
No CO2 emissions
Low maintenance
Disadvantages of Wind Turbine

Low energy density
Initial cost of the plant is high
Mostly located away from the city so more transmission losses
12. Hydrogen Energy

Hydrogen is available in abundance in water and reduces pollution caused due to conven-
tional fuels. Hydrogen produces a large amount of energy by combustion.
Hydrogen can be prepared from caustic soda commercially and economically. So, hydrogen is
used as fuel for power production. Hydrogen is stored as a compressed gas or liquefied state.
Hydrogen Fuel Cell
A fuel cell is made up of an anode, a cathode and electrolyte (H2SO4 acid or KOH alkali). A
fuel cell works by passing hydrogen through the anode and oxygen through the cathode.
At the anode (Fuel Electrode)- the hydrogen molecules are split into electrons and pro-
tons. The protons pass through the electrolyte membrane, while the electrons are forced
through a circuit, generating an electric current and excess heat.
At the cathode (Oxidant Electrode) - protons, electrons & oxygen combine to produce water
molecules.
Fuel cells are also scalable. Individual fuel cells can be compiled on one another to form
stacks. Fuel cell systems vary greatly in size and power.
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Fuel Cells can be used in
a) Portable systems such as a smart phone battery recharging

b) Large-scale such as engine in electric vehicles
With acidic H2SO4 Chemical Reactions:
® 2H+ + 2 e-
At Anode: H2 ¾ ¾
1
At Cathode: O2 + 2 H+ + 2e- ¾ ¾
® H2O
2
Thus in fuel cell H2 and O2 is supplied to produce water H2O, Heat and Electrical Energy.
Electric Cuirrent
Fuel In Air In
e-
H2O
H+
e-
H2
O2
H+ Unused
Excess Gases
H2O Out
Fuel
Anode Cathode
Electrolyte
Advantages of Hydrogen Fuel Cell

Low-to-zero emissions
High efficiency
High reliability
Fuel flexibility
Energy security
Durability
Scalability
Quiet operation
Limitation of Hydrogen Fuel Cell

Highly flammable
Storage difficulty
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13. Biomass Energy

Biomass energy is the energy generated from organic material. Biomass resources are de-
rived from cultivated fields, human/animal wastes and its conversion into liquid fuels.
Biofuels are combustible fuels created from biomass. Crops such as sugarcane and corn
are used to create biofuels. And as plant matter can be regrown, it’s a renewable source of
energy.
When biomass is burned, the chemical energy in biomass is released as heat. Biomass can
be burned directly or converted to liquid biofuels or biogas which can be used as fuels.
Energy Content: A cut grass contains 4 million joules/Kg (or Mega joules MJ/kg) Wood con-
tains around 15 MJ/kg.
Biofuels such as sunflower oil contain as much energy as petrol.
Biofuels are grouped into 3 categories:

(i) First generation biofuels are produced from food crops for ethanol.
(ii) Second generation biofuels produced from cellulosic materials such as wood grasses
and inedible parts of plants.
(iii) Third generation biofuels are produced using the lipids production from algae.
Forms of Biomass
Biodiesel: It is an oil produced by extracting naturally occurring oils from plants and seeds.
It can replace normal diesel in cars, trucks and ships. It’s usually blended to reduce pollution
from diesel engines.
Bioethanol: It is an alcohol-based biofuel produced by fermenting plants and can be used
in vehicles. It is used in high-performance cars.
Landfill gas and Biogas: Sewage and agricultural waste is put into high-temperature di-
gesters. The gas is then collected and used as fuel.
Processes of Energy Conversion from Biomass

Various processes involved in the preparation of biofuel and biomass energy are
Direct Combustion: In this direct combustion process biomass is burnt in the presence of
air and produces heat energy and by products.
This heat energy can be used for different applications such as space and water heating, indus-
trial processing and electricity generation.
Wide range of shapes of furnace are available to burns various types of biomass from vege-
tables to municipal wastes.
Pyrolysis: In this method a wide range of materials such as plastics, rubbers and all types
of organic materials can be heated to high temperature of 500 oC -900 oC in a huge closed
vessel with absence of air (oxygen).
Byproduct of pyrolysis method includes:

a) Gases: Mixtures of CO, H2, CH4, CO2 and N2
19
b) Liquid: Acetic acid, Methanol

c) Solid: Pure Charcoal
Gasification: It is the process of partially burning and partially heating the biomass. It
produces a flammable gas mixture of hydrogen, carbon monoxide, methane and other
non-flammable by products.
Anaerobic Digestion: When wet sewage sludge, animal dung and green plants are allowed
to decompose in a sealed tank under anaerobic (oxygen-free) conditions biogas is produced.
Biogas produced by anaerobic digestion depends on the type, temperature and pH of bio-
mass mixture. The gas produced is a mixture of 50-70% plants take methane and CO2. Hu-
man and Animal waste takes 10-12 days time while sewage and plants comparatively long
time to produce biogas. The residue left after digestion is a potentially valuable fertilizer
or compost.
Fermentation: It is the process of decomposition of an organic compound by using
micro-organism (bacteria,yeast,enzymes). Commonly known example of fermentation is
the conversion of grains and sugar crops into ethanol and CO2 by using natural yeast. This
process is carried out about 30 -35 oC in acidic conditions. It takes 40-50 hours to complete
fermentation.
Application of biomass
Waste organic biomass can be Agriculture, food and petrol
residues
directly used as domestic fuels. Biomass lignacellulosics: herbs,
bush, etc.
Forest-based biomass and wood-
waste treatment
Biogas is used as domestic fuels Biomass Municipal solid waste (paper /
carbon)
in gas stoves like LPG. Municiapl solid waste
(paper / cardboard, town cleaning).
Biogas can be used to run the

engines, boilers and turbines. Biotechnology processes (Enzymes,
Conversion bacteria)
Chemical processes
processes Thermo-chemical processes
Methane gas produced from Thermal processes
Physical processes
biogas plants can be used to
run the gas engines and farm
machineries.
Eco-fuels [clean fuels] (Bio-ethanol,
Bio-diesel)
It is used for heating the water. Biofuel & Electricity
Polymer products
Energy Synthesis gas and oils
Chemical and pharmaceutical
products
14. Tidal Energy

Tidal energy is the energy obtained from tides which converts hydro energy into electricity.
Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the gravitational
forces exerted by the moon and the sun and the rotation of the earth.
Tidal stream generators make use of the kinetic energy of moving water to run turbines.
20 WhatsApp +91 9673567922
Tidal Power Plant

Tidal energy is produced by the use of tidal energy generators. These large underwa-
ter turbines are placed in areas with high tidal movements and designed to capture the
kinetic motion of the ebbing and surging of ocean tides to produce electricity.
During high tide the water level in the sea is higher than basin water level so water flows
from sea to tidal basin through reversible water turbine and turbine rotates. The shaft of
the turbine connected to a generator which produces electricity.
During low tide the basin water level is higher than sea water level so water flows from ba-
sin to sea through reversible turbine & turbine rotates. Hence it produces electricity.
Advantages of Tidal Power Plant

Pollution free
Operating cost very low
Renewable, free and clean source
Low environmental impact
Disadvantages of Tidal Power Plant

High capital investment
Suitable in specific locations only
Power generations twice per day
15. Grades of Energy

a) High-grade energy
b) Low-grade energy
High-Grade Energy: Electrical and chemical energy is high-grade energy, because this
energy is concentrated in a small space. Even a small amount of electrical and chemical
energy can do a great amount of work. The molecules or particles that store these forms
of energy are highly ordered and compact and thus considered as high-grade energy. High
grade energy such as electricity is used for high grade applications like the melting of metals.
Low-Grade Energy: Heat is low-grade energy. Heat energy can be used to do work such as
heater boiling water, but it rapidly dissipates. The molecules, in which this type of energy
is stored (air and water molecules), are more randomly distributed than the molecules of
21
carbon in coal. This disordered state of the molecules and the dissipated energy are classified as
low-grade energy.
E xercise - 1.1
Questions based on 2nd Milestone
Scan using
FORTFLAG app
for detailed
solution.
Q 1. Explain steam (Thermal) power plant with neat sketch. State advantages and limitations.
Q 2. Explain nuclear power plant with neat sketch.
Q 3. Explain hydroelectric power plant with neat sketch.
Q 4. Explain flat plate collector with sketch.
Q 5. Explain solar photovoltaic working principle and draw sketch of solar power plant.
Q 6. Explain solar power plant with neat sketch. State any 4 solar thermal applications.
Q 7. Draw neat sketch of parabolic collector. State advantages of it over flat plate collector.
Q 8. Write short note on photovoltaic cell (Solar Cell).
Q 9. State different types of geothermal plant. Explain binary geothermal energy power plant
With neat sketch.
Q 10. Explain wind energy and horizontal axis wind mill (Wind power plant) with energy
Extraction.
Q 11. What are different sources of biomass energy? Briefly state ways of extracting biomass
Energy and application of biomass energy.
Q 12. Explain working principle of high / low tide in tidal power plant with sketch.
Q 13. Explain use of hydrogen as source of energy.
Q 14. With neat sketch explain working of hydrogen fuel cell.
Q 15. Briefly explain high- and low-grade energy.
STEPS & Numerical based on

FORMULA Work, Power and Energy.
Input Power = Volume of gas or amount of coal consumed

Output
Overall efficiency =
Input
Power P = 2pNT /60
where, N = speed in RPM and T= Torque in Nm
1
Wind Power = r A V3
2
Where ρ= Density of air, A = Area covered by blade, V= Speed m/s
22 WhatsApp +91 9673567922
UNIT-1 | 3rd MILESTONE
E xercise - 1.2
Numerical based on 2nd Milestone
Scan using
FORTFLAG app
for detailed
solution.
Q 1. A steam power Plant has coal Consumption of 165 Tons Per Hour. Calorific Value of Coal is
3500 kcal / kg. If the power generation is 250 MW, Find overall efficiency of the plant. Use
relation 1 kcal = 4.18 kJ.
Q 2. A
small generating plant of 100 KW capacity uses gas of a calorific value of 4000 KJ / m3. The
volume of gas required per hour when the plant is running at full load condition is 450 m3 /
hr. Find:
(i) Input Power and
(ii) Overall Efficiency of the plant.
Q 3. A Steam power plant has coal consumption of 16200 Kg/hr with calorific value of coal as
17793.9 kJ/kg. If the speed of steam turbine is 1000 rpm and generated torque is 477464.8293Nm.
Find: (i) Input power (ii) Output power (iii) Efficiency.
Q 4. Steam power plant has coal consumption of 16300 Kg/hr with calorific value of coal as
17793.9 kJ/kg. If the speed of steam turbine is 1100 rpm, radial distance is 1.5m and
generated force is 318309.8862 N. Find: (i) Generated torque (ii) Input power (iii) Output
power (iv) Efficiency.
Q 5. Determine the power in the wind if the wind speed is 20 m/s and blade length is 50 m
Air density ρ = 1.23 kg/m3.
16. Pumps
Pump is a device which converts mechanical energy of a motor into pressure and kinetic
energy of the fluid. It transfers the fluid from a low level to higher level by converting me-
chanical energy into hydraulic energy.
Classification of Pumps
Pumps
Rotodynamic pumps Positive displacement pumps
Low head Medium head High head Reciprocating Rotary pumps
(very high pressure pumps)
Centrifugal Centrifugal Pistan pump Gear pump

Axial pumps pump pump
(propeller) Plunge pump Screw pump
Mixed flow Radial type Diaphragm pump Vane pump
type
23
Centrifugal Pump
Centrifugal pump is a hydraulic machine which converts the mechanical energy into pres-
sure energy by using centrifugal force acting on the fluid.
Construction and Working of Centrifugal Pump

Impeller: It is a rotor which is provided with a series of backward curved blades/ vanes. It is
mounted on a shaft which is usually connected to motor. The motor provides the required
input energy to rotate the impeller.
Casing: The impeller is enclosed in the watertight casing with a delivery pipe on one side
and suction pipe on the suction side which are connected by the eye of impeller. It is de-
signed in such a way that it helps in converting the K.E. of fluid into pressure energy.
Suction pipe: The pipe which connect sump to eye of impeller is called suction pipe. The
sump carries liquid to be lifted by the pump. The suction pipe at its inlet is provided with
strainer & foot valve. The function of strainer is to prevent the entry of any waste material
like sand, leaves etc. The foot valve is non-return valve which allows the flow of water only
in upward direction.
Delivery pipe: The pipe which connects the outlet of pump to delivery point is called deliv-
ery pipe. A delivery valve is provided to regulate the supply of liquid from the pump to the
delivery pipe.
Priming: is the process in which the impeller of a centrifugal pump will get fully submerged
in liquid without any air trap inside.
Delivery
Pipe
Casing
Hd Delivery Delivery pipe
Impeller Valve
Suction pipe Electric motor

Hs Eye of Suction
Pump Pipe
Sump
Casing
Foot Valve and
Strainer
All centrifugal pumps rotate usually at 1750 or 3500 RPM inside a casing. The impeller is
always submerged in water, and when the pump is operational the impeller spins rapidly.
24 WhatsApp +91 9673567922
The centrifugal force applied to the water from this rotation forces the water outside of the
casing. The velocity imparted to the liquid by the impeller is converted to pressure energy
or head whereas Hs suction head and Hd discharge head.
Advantages of Centrifugal Pump
Simplicity
Low power consumption
Relatively inexpensive
Used for domestic/commercial purpose
Low maintenance
Weight saving
Disadvantages of Centrifugal Pump
Poor suction power
Produces cavitation
Corrosion
Can’t deal with viscous fluids like mud and waste
Can’t be able to work at High Speed
Applications of Centrifugal Pump
Agricultural and irrigation purpose
In petroleum installation to pump oil
Hydraulic control system
Transfer raw material
Pumping of water in buildings
Fire fighting
17. Compressors
A compressor is a mechanical device that increases the pressure of air / gas by reducing its
volume (compressing) driven by the prime mover such as electric motor or IC engine. This
compressed air is stored in storage tank called as receiver.
25
Classification of Compressors
Compressor
Types
Positive
Dynamic
Displacement
Rotary Reciprocating Centrifugal Axial
Diaphragm Double Acting Single Acting
Lobe Screw Liquid Ring Scroll Vane
Reciprocating Compressor
Single acting reciprocating Compressor: A reciprocating compressor in which suction and

compression takes place on only one side of piston is called Single Acting Reciprocating Compressor.
Main Components of the reciprocating compressor are suction and discharge valves,
piston-cylinder arrangements and receiver. Vales are operated due to pressure difference
while piston reciprocate inside cylinder powered by motor.
Low pressure
air intake
High pressure
air exhaust
Cylinder
s s=stroke
Piston
Connecting
rod
Crank
Suction Stroke Delivery Stroke
Suction Stroke: When the piston moves downwards, the pressure inside the cylinder falls
below the atmospheric pressure. Due to this pressure difference the inlet valve gets opened
and air is sucked into the cylinder, at inlet pressure until the piston completes the suction
stroke.
26 WhatsApp +91 9673567922
Delivery stroke: When piston moves upwards, the pressure inside the cylinder goes on
increasing, when it becomes greater than atmospheric pressure suction valve closes. Fur-
ther upwards movement compresses air till it reaches the discharge pressure. At this
stage, the discharge valve gets opened and air is delivered to the receiver.
At the end of delivery stroke a small quantity of air is left in the clearance space. As the pis-
ton starts its suction stroke this air expands.
At this stage, the inlet valve gets opened as a result of which fresh air is sucked into the cyl-
inder and the cycle is repeated.
Pressure ratio is the ratio of discharge pressure to suction pressure of air and compressed
air is discharged at rate m3 /min specified as CMM.
Advantages of Reciprocating Compressor

Good for small application
Uses no / little power when unloaded
Cheap and simple to operate
Operates over a wide range of pressures
Disadvantages of Reciprocating Compressor

Noisy
More maintenance
Not good for larger applications
Oil-free air units are expensive
Applications of Reciprocating Compressor

Oil refineries, gas pipelines, chemical plants, natural gas processing plants
Refrigeration plants
Blowing of plastic bottles
18. Hydraulic Turbines

A water / hydraulic turbine is a rotary machine that converts kinetic energy and pressure
energy of water into mechanical work.
Classification of Hydraulic Turbines
(i) Based on Head and Discharge:
High head (> 50m) , Medium head and Low head (<10m)
High discharge, Medium discharge and Low discharge
(ii) Based on the action of water on moving blades: Impulse turbine and Reaction turbine
(iii) Based on the direction of flow: Tangential flow, Axial flow and Mixed flow
(iv) Based on position of shaft: Horizontal and Vertical
27
Pelton Turbine
Braking jet
Bucket
Casing
Nozzle
Runner
Bucket
Spear
Casing
Nozzle
The main components of pelton wheel turbine are nozzle, runner, bucket, casing and brake
nozzle.
Turbine rotor (runner) has a double cup shaped buckets attached uniformly on its periph-
ery.
The water stored at the high head is allowed to flow through the penstock (K.E.of water) and
reaches the nozzle of the pelton turbine.
The nozzle increases the K.E. of the water and directs the water in the form of jet. The jet of
water from the nozzle strikes the buckets (vanes) of the runner. This makes the runner to
rotate at very high speed.
The quantity of water striking the vanes or buckets is controlled by the spear present inside
the nozzle.
The generator is attached to the shaft of the runner which converts the mechanical energy
(i.e. rotational energy) of the runner into electrical energy.
To stop the turbine, the flow of water through a nozzle is stopped completely. And through
braking nozzle, jet of water strikes back of bucket which acts as hydraulic brakes.
Advantages of Pelton Turbine

Simple in construction and easy maintenance
Can be prepared out of metal, plastic, ceramic materials
To derive more power multiple jet (2 to 6) can be used
Disadvantages of Pelton Turbine

Used when high hydraulic head and low flow rates are available
lot of head loss for low discharge
Not suitable for low-pressure stream by a high flow rate
28 WhatsApp +91 9673567922
E xercise - 1.3
Questions based on 3rd Milestone
Scan using
FORTFLAG app
for detailed
solution.
Q 1. Explain construction and working of centrifugal pump. State advantages, limitations &
applications.
Q 2. Explain construction and working of reciprocating compressor.
Q 3. Explain construction and working of pelton turbine.
Q 4. Give classification of hydraulic turbines.
29

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JOURNEY TO A SUCCESSFUL IN-SEM EXAM 2020

1st MILESTONE 1st MILESTONE

P=W/t (Joule/ second) or watt

One joule represents

On earth 1N=100g Weight of 1Newton Weight of 1Newton

One Calorie (Cal)

Thermal Energy Chemical Energy

we experience energy in different ways

Energy of moving particles moving Light Energy Energy stored in centre

Magnetic Energy Gravitational Energy

3. Renewable and Non-renewable Energy Sources

Renewable Energy Non-Renewable Energy

Renewable Energy (Non-Conventional) Non-Renewable Energy (Conventional)

Pollution free sources Causes different types of pollution

Environment friendly Adverse impact on environment

Low operating cost High operating cost

4. Energy conversion Devices

Useful energy output

5. Thermal (Steam) Power Plant

Construction and Working of Thermal (Steam) Power Plant

The Site Selection of Thermal (Steam) Power Plant depends upon

Advantages of Thermal (Steam) Power Plant

Disadvantages of Thermal (Steam) Power Plant

6. Hydroelectric Power Plant

Construction and Working of Hydroelectric Power Plant

Advantages of Hydroelectric Power Plant

Disadvantages of Hydroelectric Power Plant

7. Nuclear Power Plant

Nuclear chain reaction

Control Rod Heat Exchanger

Construction & Working of Nuclear Power Plant

Advantages of Nuclear Power Plant

Does not contribute to global warming

Does not emit greenhouse gas emissions

Very low fuel cost

Low fuel quantity reduces mining and transportation cost

Performance of plant is good and very long life

Disadvantages of Nuclear Power Plant

8. Solar Power Plant

(i) Flat Plate Collector- (Low temp. range 70-80 oC)

Water in Glass cover

Flat Plate Collector

Black surface: It absorbs incident solar energy.

Advantages of the Flat-Plate Collectors

S. No Parameter Flat-plate collector Concentrating collector

1. Absorber area Large Small (comparatively)

2. Insulation intensity Less More

Working fluid tempera- Low temperatures 70- High temperatures above

6. Need of tracking system No Yes

Introduction to Solar Power Plant

Solar Power Plant

Hot Water Freon Steam

Feed pump Feed pump

Disadvantages of Solar Power Plant

Solar Thermal Applications

9. Photovoltaic (PV) cell or Solar Cell

junction, it generates excess free electrons and e.m.f. across junction.

Advantages of Solar Cell