CHAPTER – 01

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Objectives of the research

The main objectives of this research study is an endeavor to present history of

Buddhism and political activism in Jummaland, Bangladesh focusing and outlook of

Jummaland Buddhist history and political matter. This research project will fulfill the

necessary of the learners is the familiar with the crisis.

Usually no one is opposed to natural and usual migration of people from one part of a

country to another, sometime to other countries, as it is said to be very much a part of

the process of economic development of the country. Such migration usually provides

equal an opportunity, in the share of fruits of development, to people irrespective of

their race, religion, culture etc. But the type of migration that gives benefit to a section

of people at the cost of others is taken to be undesirable and does not deserve

appreciation from the concerned corners. There are thirteen Indigenous national

minorities groups (Jumma) in the Chittagong Hill Tracts /Jummaland.

They are Chakma, Marma,Tripura, Tanchangya, Murang, Boam, Kumi, Kyang,Chak,

lusai, Riyang,Usai and Panko. among them The Chakma , Marma, Tanchangya and

Chak are Buddhists and others belong to Hindus and Christian. Majority are Buddhists

and forms 85 percent of the population among the indigenous groups in the Chittagong

Hill Tracts (CHT) / Jummaland.

1
1.2 Introduction to Bangladesh

The Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) or Jummaland1 is a Buddhist dominated and

Buddhist governed region and was independent and free from outside control up to the

British period of occupation. It is situated in Bangladesh bordering Assam and upper

Myanmar (Burma) in the east, Arakan in the south, the Chittagong district in the west,

and the Indian state of Tripura in the north and its total extent is 5093 square miles or

13,190.87 square km.2

The largest district of Bangladesh until its creation, was Bandarban district. In

November, 1983, for the sake of convenience in administration, another new district

named Khagrachari was created. The Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) or Jummaland

region now thus comprises three hill districts namely, Rangamati hill districts,

Bardarban hill districts and Khagrachari hill districts. This paper takes into

consideration the entire region of the Chittagong Hill Tracts or Jummaland and will be

used to imply all the three hill districts of the area. Jummaland has been comprised of

14 divisions, 46 districts, 26 municipals, 376 sub-districts, 1950 villages council and

2950 villages and there are have three traditional king (local called raja).

Geographically, the Chittagong Hill Tracts contrasts greatly with the generally alluvial

monsoon flooded plains of the rest of Bangladesh, as the name indicates, it is largely a

land of hills, ravines and cliffs covered with dense forests and creeper Jungles. The

forest area covers about 66 percent of the total area of the Chittagong Hill Tracts and

accounts for 52 percent forestry, contributes 44 percent to the districts gross income.

Indeed, the geographical condition favored the Chittagong Hill Tracts to be endowed

1
Voice of CHT,UNDV-2017 by Parbattya Bhikkhu Sangha Bangladesh-Sri Lanka Branch…p..01
2
Voice of Jummaland-U.S.Special English by editor-in-chief Ven.Dr.Rashtrapal Mahathero..p..16

2
with vast natural resources like, wood, timber, bamboo, sandstone, limestone, oil, gas,

coal etc, and impact, some of the country‟s key industries are based on the forest

resources of the Chittagong Hill Tracts.

Among them, the Karnafuli paper and Rayon mills at Chandraghona, wooden and

timber factory at Kaptai, Kaptai boat building industrial corporation, Rangamati

dockyard at Rangamati are a few worth mentioning here. The country‟s largest hydro 3-

electric project is also situated at Kaptai.

The soils and slopes of the region are specially suited for tea and rubber plantation.

Fruits, especially banana, pineapple jackfruits are produced abundantly and are supplied

to other parts of the country. A huge quantity of fish caught from Kaptai reservoir is

exported to Chittagong and other parts of the country. Besides, its topography and

natural vegetation resulting in an unimaginable scenic beauty attracts a large number of

tourists from home and abroad. However, The Chittagong Hill Tracts /Jummaland is as

constrained as is endowed with resources, so far as its development is concerned. Only

about 6 percent of the land outside reserve forest is suitable for intensive cropping.

Moreover, frequent occurrence of slopes makes it suitable only for shifting cultivation

which requires a vast area of land even for subsistence farming. This shifting cultivation

(locally called “Jum” cultivation), in turn, destroys natural vegetation and in the course

the otherwise forested hills get naked causing serious damage to flora and fauna.

Furthermore, constant tree cutting for domestic and commercial purpose is adding to the

course of deforestation. The terrains are especially unsuitable for human habitation and

road communication and thus, hinder the developmental and commercial activities. It

3
Bangladesh Tribal Bhikkhu Sangha-Sri Lanka published by publication section, Colombo 04,..p..01

3
needs to be mentioned here that the Chittagong Hill Tracts or Jummaland is the least

densely populated area in the country.

Like in respect of geographical feature, Jummaland / the Chittagong Hill Tracts also

represent a sharp contrast to the rest of the country with regard to its people. Unlike the

plain districts of Bangladesh, the Chittagong Hill Tracts is predominantly inhabited by

ethnic minorities composed of thirteen4

main indigenous Jumma namely, The Chakma, Marma, Tripura,Tanchangya, Riang,

Khyang, Mro, Lusai, Chak, Bonjogi, Pankho, Khumi and Kuki. According to 1981

census, tribal people constitute about 60 percent of the total Jummaland population of

the Chittagong Hill Tracts, the rest of the population being Bengalis illegally

resettlements by Bangladesh government, mostly illegally migrations Muslims. The

local Jummaland people demanded to Bangladesh government immediately outside

illegally Muslims from Jummaland but Bangladesh government was agreement,

Unfortunately until no resettlement illegally Muslims from Jummaland.

The Jumma tribal people, also called hill men, have traditionally made their omes in the

hilly regions, identified themselves with pride as hill men and as sons of the soil. Their

physical feature, religion, life style and language are different from those of the majority

Bengali people in the plains. Usually fair complexioned, short but well statured, this

tribal people belong to Tibeto-Burman origin. They speak their own dialect or language

and some of them have their own scripts. Two-thirds of the tribes are Buddhist and the

rest are Hindus, Christians and animists.

4
Bangladesh Tribal Bhikkhu Sangha-Sri Lanka published by publication section,Colombo 04, p..14

4
The Jumma tribes, irrespective of their groups have a common and rich cultural

heritage. They prepare their own clothes with artistic designs, build their own houses,

and artistically make their baskets and house hold materials, manufacture agricultural

appliances, drinks etc. And it is not surprising that until recently, practically all the

tribal families were self sufficient in terms of their household requirements. Almost all

the tribes are fond of music. Their songs, dances accompanied by different musical

instruments, add much to the richness of their distinct culture. Unfortunately, however,

this rich tribal culture of the Chittagong Hill Tracts is now on the verge of extinction

because of the influence of other cultures and some other factors.

Formerly, The Chittagong Hill Tracts presently Jummaland was a part of Chittagong

district in 1786 A.D. Perhaps because of its unique geographical condition and the type

of people inhabiting it, and for that matter, with the special attention to bring it in line

with other districts in the context of development that, the Chittagong Hill Tracts was

separated from Chittagong district in 1860 A.D. with the status of an independent

district under the administration of a superintendent, in 1867 A.D. the official

designation of the officer-in-charge of the district was changed from Superintendent to

Deputy commissioner5. In 1891 A.D. it again lost its importance and was reduced to the

status of a sub-division in charge of an assistant commissioner. In 1900 A.D, it was

again raised to the status of a district with a special regulation. It was in the same year

that the district was divided into three circles namely, The Chakma circle with Chakma

raja or king known as popular Chakma Chief of King and also others same such as,

Bomang circle and Mong circle, each circle being placed under the jurisdiction of a

tribal chief who was responsible for revenue collection and for regulation of internal

5
The Chittagong Hill Tracts Regulation/Jummaland 1900 by British government -1900,p..12

5
affairs of his area. It needs to be mentioned here that the special regulation of 1900 A.D.

forbids people from the plains to settle down in the Chittagong Hill Tracts/Jummaland,

In 1920 the 1900 A.D6. Regulation was amended giving the district a special status of

an excluded area with an administration different from other regulation districts. The

prime objective of the amendment was to give special protection to the Indigenous tribal

population of the area. In 1947 A.D. on the eve of partition of indo-Pak subcontinent,

the Chittagong Hill Tracts or Jummaland was placed under the jurisdiction of Pakistan.

since the emergence of Bangladesh in 19717. it has been and is very much a part and

parcel of Bangladesh.

Along with the progress in history of its administration, the Chittagong Hill Tracts

/Jummaland has been witnessing major changes in the context of development, such as

changes, however, presented both positive and negative impacts on its socio-economic

structure. On the one hand, it is gradually and increasingly getting the touch of modern

civilization while, on the other hand, it is losing much its traditional glories. As

mentioned earlier, geographically the Chittagong Hill Tracts or Jummaland belongs to

hills, and plan land also mostly hills uplands and forests and is inhabited predominantly

by tribal people or Jumma people as well as Jumma nation. as a result, it‟s historical

development had been different from that of the vast low-lying alluvial plains land of

Bangladesh. Its unique features have drawn the attention of people interested in socio-

economic development of the region. Again, probably because of its uniqueness that for

6
Ibid…….p..14
7
Betar Bangla-Bengali by Assistant editor Abdulbari and kaji salaha uddin, Dhaka-1207,p..23

6
long the Chittagong Hill Tracts / Jummaland has been witnessing a history of relative

negligence and backwardness as compared to the rest of Bangladesh.8

The subsequent discussion attempts to highlight the present socio-economic condition

(development) of the Jumma people of the Chittagong Hill Tracts /Jummaland in its

geographical and historical perspectives. Population since the turn of the century

Chittagong Hill Tracts has been witnessing a rapid change in population in terms of

growth and composition. The following table shows that in 1901 A.D. the population of

the Chittagong Hill Tracts /Jummaland was 124,762. Since then it increased manifold

and by 1981A.D, it reached to 746,026.year 1901

Year 1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1974 1981

Population 153830 17324 212922 247053 287274 38507 508179 745026

124762 3 9

Percent age 12.6 22.9 16.0 16.3 34.0 32.0 46.8 Increase

of – 23.2 .

Table: 1 Govt. of British India

A deeper look into the above table reveals that after 1951 AD. the rate of growth of

population has been more than the one during the previous periods. It shows that after

the emergence of Pakistan, population of the Chittagong Hill Tracts/Jummaland has

increased more rapidly than it did during the British Periods. Such a relatively abnormal

growth in population may be considerable due to migration, into the Chittagong Hill

Tracts, of people (mostly Bengali Muslims) from the plain district of Bangladesh. The

8
Ibid…….p..67

7
Bengali Muslim People illegally bring by Bangladesh military government in 1979 to

1990. In 1947A.D, on the eve of partition tribal or Jumma population of the Chittagong

Hill Tracts constituted 97.5 percent while, Bengali population constituted only 2.5

percent. In 1951 A.D, the Bengali population (non-jumma or non-tribal) became 9

percent in 1961A.D, about 12 percent and in 1981A.D.almost 40 percent of the total

population of the Chittagong Hill Tracts/Jummaland the proposition of Bengali

immigration into the Chittagong Hill Tracts or Jummaland can be treated to be valid if

we take the net migration figures for the district (Jummaland region). According to the

Statistical Year Book of Bangladesh, 1980 the life time net migration into the area from

1951 to 1974 has totaled 103,536. As has been mentioned earlier the plains land of

Bangladesh is predominantly inhabited by Jumma people, Bengalis.

Any internal migration (within the country) should naturally be caused by the Bengali

people. Increase of life time net migration figure of the Chittagong Hill Tracts

/Jummaland is thus, the result of influx of Bengalis from other districts9.

We do not have published data regarding the population of the Chittagong Hill Tracts /

Jummaland for recent year. But unconfirmed sources say that by now more than 4 Lakh

Bengali migrants from other districts of Bangladesh have already resettle down in

different parts of the Chittagong Hill Tracts /Jummaland. This non- tribal or Bengalis

influx into the Chittagong Hill Tracts/Jummaland has reached its momentum in the late

seventies and early eighties. It is said that truck loads of people (mainly landless people

and marginal farmers) from other districts were brought into the Chittagong Hill Tracts

or Jummaland and were settled in different places.

9
Bengali Book (Bangla Boi) by Chakma,Binay Kumar, Publised by Rangamati-1999, p..11

8
They were allotted cultivable as well as hilly lands, otherwise owned or used by the

Jumma people10. Moreover, grants and loans in different forms for reasonable periods

of time were also said to have been given to settlers (Bengali poor Muslims) to facilitate

their settlement. It is however, also said that some of the families tried to flow back to

their ancestral homes as they found it different to adjust to the environment totally new

and sometimes, hostile to them. Many could not do this as because they were kept under

careful supervision, although the present government is understood to have officially

stopped further settlement of non-Jumma or Muslims Bengalis people in the Chittagong

Hill Tracts /Jummaland, the flow is still on at a private level.

But whatever may be the intensity and nature of such migration, it is a fact that it has

added multiple problems to the already existing problems of the Chittagong Hill Tracts

/Jummaland. It has created severe dislocation not only in tribal or Jumma people society

and economy but also in the total socio-economic setup of the Chittagong Hill Tracts

/Jummaland as a whole. Not only economic hardship, but also social evils like, theft,

burglary, clash and other forms of immoral activities (which were practically non-

existent earlier) are making deep inroads into the tribal or Jumma society.

Usually no one is opposed to natural and usual migration of people from one part of a

country to another, sometime to other countries, as it is said to be very much a part of

the process of economic development of the country. such as migration usually provides

equal an opportunity, in the share of fruits of development, to people irrespective of

their race, religion, culture etc. But the type of migration that gives benefit to a section

of people at the cost of others is taken to be undesirable and does not deserve

10
Chakma Psrichiti by Sugata Chakma, published by Bargang Publications, 1st Edition-
October,1983,p..82

9
appreciation from the concerned corners. There are thirteen indigenous national

minorities groups (Indigenous Jumma or Jumma nation) in the Chittagong Hill

Tracts/Jummaland.

They are Chakma, Marma,Tripura, Tanchangya, Murang, Boam, Kumi, Kyang,Chak,

lusai, Riyang, Usai and Panko. Among them The Chakma , Marma, Tanchangya and

Chak are Buddhists and others belong to Hindus and Christian. majority are Buddhists

and forms 85% percent of the population among the indigenous groups in the

Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT)/Jummaland.

1.3 History of Bangladesh

Bangladesh is a unitary and sovereign republic known as the People‟s Republic of

Bangladesh. It emerged as an independent nation on 26th March 1971. The nine-month

long war of liberation was declared by Shaheed President Ziaur Rahman and culminated

in the victory of Bangladeshi forces11 over the Pakistani occupiers on 16 December

1971. This region was under Muslim rule for five and a half centuries since the

thirteenth century, under British rule for two centuries since 1757A.D, and remained a

province of Pakistan between 1947 to 1970 . President Jiluor Rahman is now the head

of state and Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina the head of the government.

The state language of Bangladesh is Bangla. The national anthem of Bangladesh

comprises the first ten lines of the song “Amar Sonar Bangla” by world poet

11
Betar Bangla by Assistant editor Abdul bari and kaji salaha, published by Dhaka-1207, p..58

10
Rabindranath Tagore. The national flag of the Republic consists of a red colored circle

resting on a green rectangular background.12

The emblem of the Republic is the flower Shapla (water lily, nymphaea nouchali)

resting on water having on each side sheaf of paddy surmounted by three connected

leaves of jute with two stars on each side of the leaves.

The capital city of Bangladesh is Dhaka. The currency is known as taka (Tk) divided

into 100 paisa. The citizens of Bangladesh mostly Bangali Muslims are known as

Bangladeshi. The local time is 6 hours ahead of GMT.

Anthropologists agree that Bangladesh has historically been a land of many races. long

before the arrival of the Aryans in the 5th and 6th centuries BC, the Bengalis were

already racially mixed and on that count the Aryans described them as Sankaras or

hybrid people. The ancestors of present-day inhabitants of Bangladesh have therefore

emerged from the fusion of such diverse races the Austric, Dravidian, mongoloid,

homo-alpine, Mediterranean brown, and Aryans and so on.

The earliest historical reference to organized political life in the Bangladesh region is

usually traced to the writings on Alexander‟s invasion of India in326 BC.

The Greek and Latin historians suggested that Alexander the great withdrew from India

anticipating a valiant counter-attack from the gangaridai and Prasioi empires which

were located in the Bengal region.

12
Ibid….p..80

11
historians maintain that these empires were succeeded by the Maura (4th to2nd century

BC), the Guptas (4th -5th century A.D), the empire of Sasanka (7thcentury A.D), the Pala

empire (750-1162 A.D) and the Senas (1162- 1223A.D). from the 13th century A.D, the

Buddhist and Hindu rulers were swamped by the flood of Muslim conquerors and the

tide of Islam continued up to the 18th century. sometimes there were independent rulers

in Bengal like those of the llyas shahi and husain shahi dynasties, while at other times

they ruled on behalf of the imperial seat of Delhi13. From the 15th century, the

Europeans-Portuguese, Dutch, French and British traders- exerted an economic

influence over the region. The British political rule over the region began in 1757 AD.

when the last Muslim ruler of Bengal nawab siraj-ud-daulah was defeated at the battle

of palashi.

The ancient name of Bangladesh is known as east vanga or Bengal which was a part of

vanga. The vanga at that time were divided into five parts such as north vanga, west

vanga, east vanga (modern Bangladesh), middle vanga and asam. Indeed a vast part of

India was under vanga. various rulers such as mourja, kushan, gopta, pala, sena, turki,

mougal governed over vanga. The last Buddhist group in East vanga (Bangladesh) was

pala. before pala most of the rulers were hindus. when palas dominated some parts of

vanga then they occupied a part of east vanga as well. during the reign of Dhammapala,

most parts of vanga and east vanga came under the control of palas. subsequently the

palas were attacked by Hindus senas. As a result the golden Buddhists civilization of

13
Bijak (Chakma historical strory Chakma and Bengali) by Bijoy, Chakma, published by Minoti Prava,
Dewan Bazar , Chittagong, December-1981, p..19

12
palas was ruined for good and the whole of vanga and east vanga became a Hindu

dominated kingdom.14

Many Buddhist were killed and those who were living alive were converted forcibly to

Hinduism. subsequently Hindus senas were attacked by the Muslim rulers. When the

outside Muslim invader moguls established its colonial rule in India, east vanga

(modern Bangladesh) came under their control and east vanga was established as colony

by defeating the Hindus king Hindus were converted to Islam and that is how the

Bangladesh came to be known as the third largest Muslim state in respect of population

among the Muslim countries. However the Chittagong Hill Tracts Buddhist king15were

able to retain the Buddhist identity that was not possible for vanga even east vanga

Buddhist king. still CHT/Jummaland is known as a Buddhist dominant region at south

east corner in Bangladesh.

And the people still carrying on the struggle to keep up their identity hold on the

ancestral lands and to establish democratic rights. In the 5th century A.D, the Chinese

pilgrim fa hien tamralipti (west bengal,India) and found 24 Buddhist monasteries,

Huen-Tsang visited different parts of Bengal in 7th century A.D.

In samatala (comilla, noakhali district of present Bangladesh), he found 30 Monasteries

over 2000 monks belonging to sthavira sangha, in karnasuvarna (Northern bengal) 10

monasteries with 2000 monks belonging to Sammityas school. besides in tamralipti

Hensu found only 10 monasteries with 1000 monks belonging to Sarvastivada School.

14
Ibid……..p..25
15
Chakma Parichiti by Sugata Chakma, Published by Bargang Publications, 1st Edition, October-1983,
Rangamati, Jummaland, p..8

13
In Pundravardhana (according to Mr. Cunninggham it is Mahastan, located 7 miles

north of present Bogra district of Bangladesh), he found 20 monasteries with 3000

monks belonging to Mahayana and Sthavira School. This fact also corroborated by

many others account recorded by many Chinese pilgrims who visited Bengal in the

following period of time.

Some of these monasteries were turned into world famous universities such as

somapuri, taxila, udantapuri and vickramasila etc. in the pala periods(750-1150 A.D),

Buddhism reached the height peak under the assistance of pala kings as gopala,

Dharmapala and Devapala etc. generally, the reign of the pala was called the golden age

of Buddhism in Bangladesh. They were devout Buddhist and under their patronage

several world famous monasteries as somapura mahavihara, shalban vihara, paharpur

maha vihara,vickrampuri mahavihara, pandit vihara etc. were established in

Bangladesh.

Under their rules, the greatest scholar Ven. Acariya Sri Jnana or Atisa of Bengal (982-

1050 A.D) played an important role to propagate Buddhism. Following the decline of

the Palas, the sovereignty of Bengal went into the hand of the Senas. But their rules did

not last long and Bengal soon came under the Muslim occupation.

1.3.1 The State Organs

The People‟s Republic of Bangladesh is a unitary, independent and sovereign republic

comprising three basic organs, such as the executive, the legislature and the judiciary.

The President is the head of state and is elected by the members of parliament 16. The

16
Ibid…….p..22

14
President acts in accordance with the advice of the Prime Minister and the supreme

command of the armed forces vests with him.

1.3.2 The Government

The executive power of the republic is exercised by or on the advice of the Prime

Minister, who commands the support of the majority members of parliament and is

appointed by the President. other ministers, state ministers and deputy ministers are

appointed as per wish of the Prime Minister. The Prime Minister nominates the cabinet

members from among parliament members and up to one tenths of the total from

outside the parliament. The cabinet is collectively responsible to the parliament. The

government is unitary in structure and parliamentary in form. 1.5: The Parliament

The Parliament or Jatiya Sangsad has 300 seats17. at present, all the members are

directly elected. The tenure of the parliament is five years. also 50 women M.P selceted

by prime minister.

The parliament is a sovereign body with a separate secretariat. The speaker, along with

the deputy speaker, chief whips and panel of chairman run the sessions of parliament.

The parliamentary sessions are summoned by the president within two months of the

expiry of a session.

17
Bangladesh Facts by Md.Jalal Uddin Ahmad, Published by Modern Publising House, Dhaka-
November,1990, Dhaka-1209,p..45

15
1.3.4 The Judiciary

At the apex of the country‟s judiciary stands the supreme court. It consists of the high

court division and the appellate division. The supreme court serves as the guardian of

the constitution and enforces the fundamental rights of the citizens.

There are subordinate courts at district and upazila (sub-district) levels as well as special

courts and tribunals such as the administrative tribunal,family courts, labors tribunal,

land, commercial, municipal and marine courts, tribunals for checking repression on

women and children and for speedy trial of cases related to terrorism.

1.3.5 The Administration

The elected political leaders govern Bangladesh with the aid of a permanent

bureaucracy. The ministers remain at the helm of ministries or divisions,which are

manned by civil servants recruited by the public service commission.

The country is divided into six administrative divisions (namely Dhaka division,

Chittagong division, Rajshahi division, Khulna division, Barisal division and Sylhet

division), each composed of districts. There are 64 districts of Bangladesh, which are in

turn divided into upazila (sub-districts).

At present, there are 469 upazila (sub-districts) each divided into union council, mouzas

and villages at the lowest tier.

16
1.4 Introduction to Jummaland

Jummaland was located in the Southeast Asia and Indian sub-continent with nearest

south east corner in Bangladesh. It‟s has been comprised of forteen divisions, forty six

districts, towenty six municipal councils, three hundred seventy six sub-districts, one

thousand nine hundred fifty villeges councils,and tow thousand nine hundred fifty

model villages and 4998 villages in Jummaland.

Also Bangladesh government running three hill districts and there are three cercle chief

of called Chakma raja, Bhomang raja, and mong raja and with three local hill districts

administrative government body and more than towenty seven sub-districts also more

that ten thousand fifty five villages and there are have three traditional raja(king).

According to Bangladesh government record. The land lies between 21 degree to 40

degrees and 23 degree to 47 degrees north latitude and 91 degree to 40 degrees and 92

degree to 42degrees east longitude. It shares borders with Myanmar on the south and

southeast, India on the north and northeast and Chittagong and Cox‟s Bazaar district of

near Bangladesh on the west.

1.4.1 Geographical Feature of Jummaland

Jummaland, south-eastern part of near Bangladesh comprises a total land area of

97,278.13 sq. km. which is about one-tenth of the total land area of the nearest of

Bangladesh. It is a unique territory with hill mountains and beautiful landscapes in stark

contrast to the alluvial, monsoon-flooded plains and completely different in physical

features from Bengali Muslims people, agricultural practices and soil conditions from

the rest of the country and also socio-economically and culturally stretching along the

17
present day Indo-Burma-Bangladesh border – is slightly smaller that East Timor (5,376

sq. miles) and bigger that Lebanon (4,036 sq. miles). It roughly runs from north to south

for 300 km.

1.4.2 The Political Background View in Jummaland

The roots of the Parbatya Chattagram Jana Sanghati Samiti (United People‟s party of

the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) or Jummland) can be traced to the Jummo Students

Association and the Parbatya Chattagram Upajatiya Kalyan Samiti (United People‟s

Welfare and Development Party of Jummaland) that were organized in the 1960s in

what was then –East Pakistan. The organizations agitated on behalf of the 100,000

native Jummo people displaced by the construction of the Kaptai dam, seeking

rehabilitation and compensation. After the creation of Bangladesh in 1971,from

Pakistan. (That time East and West Pakistan), East Pakistan now Bangladesh.

Representative of Jummaland such as Jummo Chakma politicians Mr. Charu Bikas

Chakma and Mr. Manabendra Narayan Larma sought autonomy and recognition of the

rights of the peoples of the region.Mr. Larma and others protested the draft of the

constitution of Bangladesh, although the Constitution recognized the ethnic identity but

Mr. Larma and others wanted full sovereignty and separation from Bangladesh. The

government of Bangladesh policy of recognized only the Bengali culture and the

Bengali language and designating all citizens of Bangladesh as Bengalis. In talks with

Jummaland delegation led by Mr.Manabendra Narayan Larma, the Bangladesh

country‟s founding leader Sheikh Mujibur Rahman insisted that the ethnic groups of the

Jummaland adopt the Bengali identity.

18
1.4.3 Who Owns Land in Jummaland?

Competition among institutions takes place within an ambivalent legislative structure.

The Constitutional legitimacy of the Hill District Council Acts of 1989 and the CHT

Regional Council Act of 1998 have been challenged in the Bangladesh Supreme Court

through two writ petitions. In 2010, the High Court termed the CHT Regional Council

Act and some sections of HDC Acts as unconstitutional (PCJSS, 2013: 22). The

petitioners alleged that having a separate regional council for the CHT violates the

unitary framework of the Bangladesh republic. They also alleged that the „reservation of

the office of chairperson of the CHT Regional Council and that of the hill district

councils solely for „tribals‟ and the authority of the circle Chiefs to grant permanent

resident certificates relegate the Bengali inhabitants of the region to “second class”

citizens and thus, offend the equal rights or non-discrimination clauses of the

Constitution.‟ (Roy, 2004:119-120). The government appealed against the High Court‟s

verdict in the Supreme Court. Roy (2004) indicates that Constitutional amendment was

necessary to recognise the „special administrative status of the CHT and of the cultural

identities‟ for endorsing legitimacy to the Accord, and to the laws and institutions that

have emerged with it. However, none of these statuses have been recognised in the

Constitution so far. There are also contradictions between the Accord and Acts that

evolved to implement the Accord (for instance, Land Dispute Resolution Act 2001

discussed in the previous section).

Besides legislative contradictions and institutional competition, delayed implementation

or non-implementation of some important clauses of CHT Accord occur due to

contestation among the national political parties. During the signing of the Accord, the

19
AL- led government assuredCJSS that the Accord would provide a Constitutional

guarantee if AL attained the requisite majority in Parliament in future, which they

lacked at that time. BNP (Bangladesh Nationalist Party) and JI (Jamat e Islami), the

opposition parties when the Accord was signed, rejected the CHT Accord arguing that it

was a threat to the independence and sovereignty of the country as it contradicted with

the Constitution of Bangladesh (M.A.Uddin 2010: 27). BNP and its allies constituted

the government in 2001, and the implementation of the accord was delayed (ibid.). The

AL- led Grand Alliance Government have been in power since 2008 with a two-thirds

majority but Parliament did not provide Constitutional recognition to the CHT Accord.

Ambiguity in land system in CHT is often labelled as a problem of non-recording or

non-legibility. Land ownership in CHT is ambiguous as no survey has been carried out,

which makes the status of state owned land as well as individually owned land

contentious. The first Cadastral Survey (plot by plot survey) was conducted, during

British rule, between 1888 to 1944, in all of Bangladesh excluding CHT. The survey

procedures consist of preparing, detailed maps of all the fields in a village for settlement

of land revenue and preparation of records of rights. The survey and settlement

operations are maintained in documents knows as „Land Records‟. The preliminary

record writing consists of preparation of the dag chitha and the preliminary records of

right i.e. jamabandi and tenant‟s khatian. A piece of land within one boundary is

possessed by one person or persons jointly. Every plot of all settled or unsettled land is

given a number called dag no. The dag chitha or Field-index (plot register) is written

according to the Serial Number ofthe fields in the village. Different khatians had been

prepared during different surveys. For example, C.S. Khatian was prepared during the

cadastral survey (1892-1898) under the Bengal Tenancy Act, 1885; S.A. Khatian was

20
prepared during the State Acquisition Survey under the State Acquisition and Tenancy

Act, 1950; R.S. Khatian was prepared during the Revisional Survey (1925-1930); and

B.S. Khatian was prepared during the Bangladesh Survey.74

Judicial and administrative institutional actors confirmed that no surveys have been

carried out in CHT that follow the legal administrative procedure. Laws, such as the

State Acquisition and Tenancy Act and other laws regarding land survey75, are not

applicable in CHT, therefore, the enactment of a „special‟/another law is essential for

conducting a land survey in CHT (Judge, Joint District Judge Court, Khagrachhari).

There was no law enacted for carrying out any survey in CHT, hence, the khatians,

math-khasara or „survey materials‟ have been created without any

law74Source:ChanceryLaw Chronicles Bangladesh Online Case La Database

http://www.clcbd.org/lawdictionary/160.html, accessed: October 2014.

The rules and Acts that cover the survey in Bangladesh are Survey Act, 1875, Survey

and Settlement Manual 1935, the State Acquisition and Tenancy Act 1950 , the Tenancy

Rules 1955, the Technical Rules 1957, Land Administration Manual 1990being

specified.76 Hill people own plough lands with khatians i.e. Rights of Records, but these

khatians were given out without following all necessary procedures involved in land

survey. Thisweakens hill people‟s claim over land by having khatians. However, some

survey procedures have been carried out in CHT, as evidenced in the creation of the

mauza maps, giving serials of the plots with a dag number and updating the jama-bandi

or the land record book (last updated in 1964). Two surveyors (Land office,

Khagrachhari) stated that land titles, record books and math-khashra were updated

during Pakistan period in 1956 and 1964. In Chakmachari, the villagers andHeadmen

21
mentioned of „survey‟ or „jarip‟ being carried out in 1954/55 and 1964/65. The

institutional actors (Bengalis and hill communities) could not specify or describe what

set of procedures that were followed. It was apparent that the institutional actors have

different positions in referring to that sets of procedures as survey or not as they differ

in their position in attaching validity to land documents issued based on that. The

ambiguities surrounding the „survey‟ and the strength of land documents relate to the

land contestation and politics of recognising land rights.

This raise another question, in absence of a proper survey, how was it possible to

identify khas land for state acquisition and to settle Bengalis? Some institutional actors

(DC and surveyor) I interviewed at the Land Office claimed and insisted that

„government‟ distributed khas land to Bengali settlers which were identified by using

the survey map. However, some institutional actors stated there was no khas khatian

(volume with records of khas land) indicating khas lands in CHT and it was not possible

to identify khas lands from any document(interview with Additional District Magistrate

and AC Land) 77. Differences in statements regarding the possibility of identifying khas

lands from maps or volumes reflect institutional actors‟ views and their positioning in

land politics78.

When Bengalis were settled in CHT under the settlement program, during the second

military regime, in 1984, the government took an initiative to conduct a land survey in

CHT by passing the 1984 Ordinance. But in 1986, two survey staff were allegedly

abducted by the Shanti Bahini. Thereafter, the project was stopped by a statutory

regulatory order (SRO) dated 22/10/88. In 2010, as described in the previous section,

22
the Chairman of the Land Commission sent notification to the Land Ministry to start the

survey process which was stopped after protests.

The rules and Acts that cover the survey in Bangladesh are Survey Act, 1875, Survey

and Settlement Manual 1935, the State Acquisition and Tenancy Act 1950 , the Tenancy

Rules 1955, the Technical Rules 1957, Land Administration Manual 1990.

There is no khas-Khatian book in CHT which is available in all other districts in

Bangladesh according to the AC Land of Khagrachhari Sub-district Office. The AC

Land identified it as a major problem in terms of land acquisition and distribution in

CHT. However, there is an estimation of total khas land available in Khagrachhari in

Land Office, and according to surveyor in that office there is a survey map (1964/65) on

which all khas lands are indicated.

One of the high official at Land Office disclosed to me about non-existence of khas

khatian and that khas land was not identified to settle in the Bengali settlers by telling

me to turn-off my recorder.

23
24
1.5 Introduction to Political Activism

Scholars of democracy started to study the concept of political activism in the 1960s

(Campbell 1960; Almond and Verba 1963). The first comparative studies pointed out

the nexus between citizens and the political system, while highlighting its main patterns.

In 1963, Almond and Verba, comparing and contrasting the patterns of political

attitudes in five countries, determined that political culture and political participation

were at the base of a healthy democracy. The work mapped orientations towards the

political system and the policy process, and how individuals conceived of themselves as

political actors. Among the different types of political culture, only the participant

version (civic culture) was compatible with democracy, because it supported the

principles and rights at the base of any democracy (Lipset 1994). Since then, the idea

that societies differed in their political culture has expanded, as confirmed by different

comparative studies in the following decades (see Verba and Nie 1972; Marsh 1977;

Verba, Nie and Kim 1978; Barnes and Kaase 1979; Jennings and van Deth 1989).

Across the literature from those years, "political engagement" and/or "public

involvement in decision making" represent the cornerstones on which democracy takes

root and structures its consolidation. Although some scholars question whether it is time

to update the definition of political participation (Fox 2014; van Deth 2014), because

there is a continuous expansion of the modes of action, engagement and involvement

continue to be key components in the definition of political activism.

Then, what is political participation? Adopting an etymological point of view, the term

participation refers to the act of taking part in person in the decision-making (Sartori

1987, 113). Thus, political participation can be seen as the bridge to connect citizens to

25
the political class. In fact, "Political participation affords citizens in a democracy an

opportunity to communicate information to government officials about their concerns

and preferences and to put pressure on them to respond" (Verba, Schlozman, and Brady

1995, 37). In this view, political participation represents a basic condition of

democracy, where citizens, through their political activities, try to have an impact on the

decisions made by political leaders (Dahl 1971) and at various levels of the political

system (Marsh and Kaase 1979). Although participation in democratic decision making

provides personal benefits to those who engage in this activity, and citizens have the

right to express their views about happening in the public sphere, not all individuals

choose to participate. Moreover, not all forms of participation are relevant to improve

the relationship between citizens and rulers in terms of responsiveness (see Zittel and

Fuchs 2007).venincenzo Memoli and Francesca Vassallo, Political Activism Research

Among more middle-range theories, socio economic resources, as income, education

and age (see Verba, Nie and Kim 1978) or time, money and skills, allow citizens to get

engaged in politics, since it is easier for them to afford it (Rosenstone and Hansen

2003). Other theoretical perspectives discuss motivation that leads people to political

participation (Armingeon 2007), mobilizing networks (Verba et al. 1995), in terms of

social capital (Putnam 2000) or mobilization agencies, as parties, civic associations or

churches, which recruit people to participate (Teorell 2003).

In recent years, several researchers have shown that the democratic feficit recorded at

the end of the last millennium (Norris 1999) continues to characterize the more

established democracies (Bellucci and Memoli 2012): political institutions have not

helped citizens to participate in the decision making process. As confirmed by the low

support received from the public opinion, the political class as well as government

26
institutions have slowed down citizens‟ political participation. In fact, “citizens who

remain dissatisfied are more likely to abstain from the political process at least in terms

of conventional participation, even if the negative effects of dissatisfaction for the In

general, it is claimed that democracy reqicipate in the political life of their If party

identification has been decreasing over time (Dalton 2013), partisan conflict has

intensified. Parties are more salient to citizens, and where party polarization is strong,

citizens tend to become more partisan (Lupu 2015). This trend does not characterize all

cohorts: younger citizens might believe less in parties, thus renouncing to affiliate and

to vote. Yet, new repertories of participation could make the youth more likely to attend

demonstrations or sign petitions (Dalton 2009). The media would undoubtedly

contribute to that, especially the new type of media. As some scholars have written, the

Internet is indispensable for campaigns and the electoral process (Bimber and Davis

2003), because it represents a new way of participating in elections and public affairs

(Chadwick and Howard 2008). Thus, more internet access among younger generations

can turn into more political interest and engagement in the future (Mossberger 2009).

Among similar conventional modes of activism, citizens may write to politicians trying

to influence the political agenda or political outcomes, but thismode to participate

requires more skills. Still, citizens tend to contact politicians inproximity to an election,

with the goal of expressing their political voices, even where democracy is not

consolidated (Michelitch 2012) or where freedom of speech is still limited (see Shyu,

2010).

Although conventional participation appears to have decreased over time and across

activities, citizens do not shy away from politics. Probably, they are only looking for a

new way to access the public sphere (Dalton 2009), and the advent and growth

27
ofunconventional activism has played a big part in the on-going understanding of how

citizens participate politically.

1.5.1 The Shift Towards Protest

The development of political behavior research took a turn in the 1970s. Reflecting the

time, political behavior scholars began focusing on the possible variety of political

actions that could indeed be measured and studied. In the aftermath of Verba and

Almond‟s contribution (1963), researchers in comparative political behavior expanded

the type of political actions included in the sphere of political engagement. Citizens

were already confirmed voters, volunteers in political campaigns and party members

above anything else, but this vision of activism was clearly limited as many societies in

the 1970s experienced protest activity and social rebellion as a reaction to a social

political model that was not up to date. In this context, Samuel Barnes and Max Kaase‟s

work (1979) changed the game of political behavior studies. While recognizing the

innovative approach of Verba and Almond with the survey based assessment of political

engagement, the volume underlined the need to add newer forms of political activities

to the typical repertoire of possible actions among citizens. Protest and unconvention-

ality became an equally important focus of research. If protest based activism was pre-

viously considered an anti-systemic expression of political behavior, not deemed wor-

thy of analysis, over the last four decades it has certainly become an important topic of

study across disciplines and countries. A follow up volume to Barnes and Kaase‟s con-

tribution (Jennings and van Deth 1990) confirmed the new path in the study of com-

parative political behavior and quantitative analysis in the research on political activ-

ism.Many publications have highlighted the increase in protest activity once scholars

28
started to measure it. A growth in unconventionality over time and across countries has

reaffirmed the relevance of such activity in political behavior (Norris 1999, 2002, 2006;

Inglehart and Catterberg, 2002; Rucht 2007; Dalton 2014). If political scientists had

mostly focused on individual level analysis of unconventional activism, sociologists

opted to incorporate collective action and group organization into the development of

social movements analysis. Individual citizens as well as groups of people were in-

volved in confrontational actions (Dalton and Kuechler 1990; Kriesi et al. 1995, as ex-

amples on Europe in particular), outside of the realm of voting and parties.

The empirical measure of protest has equally changed as scholars refined their re-search

designs. Some of the initial disagreements in the field centered on the

difference.Vincenzo Memoli and Francesca Vassallo, Political Activism Researchence

between protest activity and protest potential. Citizens certainly revealed higher levels

of potential to engage in protest (Jenkins, Wallace, and Fullerton 2008), but consistently

lower levels of unconventional action (Barnes and Kaase, 1979; Jennings and van Deth

1990). As surveys could only measure self-reported protest activism, meth-odological

debates on actual measures of protest led to new choices on how to quanti-fy people‟s

challenging or disrupting political activities. Many international surveys studying

political behavior included variables to measure protest. There are indeed dif-ferent

types of measures, and they have evolved over time, based upon methodologi-cal,

theoretical and practical questions. For instance, the World Values Survey intro-duced

five separate questions to assess unconventionality: signing a petition, partici-pating in

lawful demonstrations, joining in a boycott, participating in unofficial strikes,

occupying a building, damaging property, and engaging in personal violence. The last

two items often are not measured any longer as they tend to have a very low response

29
rate, but all the others are frequently present in international surveys such the Europe-an

Social Survey or the Eurobarometer. Other well-known surveys include some of the

same measures, showing the shift in focus, from hard (disruptive) protest towards soft

(non confrontational) protest, in light of doubts about the actual validity of the self re-

ported data on illegal activities such as political violence. More recently, newer forms of

unconventionality have also been added to the list of protest actions considered. Po-

litical consumerism (Stolle, Hooghe, and Micheletti 2005) is an example of the evolu-

tion of challenging activities in advanced democracies, with individuals expressing their

political views by boycotting certain products, outside of the typical realm of institu-

tionalized political activism, such as voting or fundraising for a candidate. In the end,

the empirical assessment of protest has evolved, first from a violent action to a peace-ful

activity of disruption, and later to an innovative addition to political unconvention-ality

as newer forms of political expression developed.

In this context, the updated understanding of protest behavior has allowed scholars to

focus on quantity and quality of unconventionality. By all means, the typical protest-er

has normalized (Van Aelst and Walgrave 2001), encouraging more diverse individu-als

to embrace protest in different forms and bringing unconventionality closer to rou-tine

political behavior. More diverse participants in protests have also been credited with a

possible elimination of inequalities in activism, especially in comparison to con

ventional forms of political engagement (Marien, Hooghe, and Quintelier 2010).

Participation in a street demonstration is certainly not viewed as a particularly

challenging action any longer, but as an example of a well-planned effort to intensify

the impact of people‟s dissatisfaction, without waiting for elections. The quality of

30
unconventionalactivism has improved overall participation in politics, rewarding new

types of issues and citizens with new needs.

In response to a justified multiplication of new protest measures, scholars studying

unconventionality introduced the use of scales. As a better way to assess the relevance

of multiple protest activities, studies employed the inclusion of more individual

measures into a coherent index, where different preferences for diverse protest activities

could be assessed and incorporated (Jenkins et al. 2008; Vassallo 2010; Quaranta

2013b; Dalton 2014). In addition to individual protest levels in specific type of actions

(for instance, boycotts, demonstrations, strikes, etc…), countries and citizens could be

identified by their overall level of unconventionality, a score that incorporated the

individual unconventional actions into a meaningful scale. Countries with different

preferences for certain types of actions could be better compared, because the equiva

lence of separate protest measures (for instance, a boycott vs. a street demonstration)

cannot be assessed convincingly.

In addition to discussions on potential and action in unconventionality, explaining

protest also became a main focus for the research. Barnes and Kaase (1979) had

primarily focused on a few demographic variables to predict unconventionality, later

scholars continued to assess the relevance of the same individual predictors while

testing for continuity. Men were and remained more likely to engage in a protest

activity than women (Jennings and van Deth 1990), but the normalization of protest has

con-tributed to close this gap (Van Aelst and Walgrave 2001; Marien et al. 2010). Age

con-firmed to be a consistent predictor of unconventionality for younger citizens across

generations (Melo and Stockemer 2014; Caren, Ghoshal and Ribas 2011). Leftist

31
ideology equally retained its relevance in explaining why certain individuals are more

prone to embrace a challenging political action over voting (Torcal, Rodon, and Hierro

2016). With the progression in the research on protest, more scholars investigated new

potential predictors or motives to explain the selection of street marches or building

occupations for certain individuals. Some examples for this type of research focus are

Gurr‟s volume on relative deprivation theory (1970) and the impact of citizens‟

grievances when they feel deprived, a trend in the research that has reappeared in the

aftermath of the 2008 economic recession (Kern, Marien, and Hooghe 2015). Other

con-tributions identified institutional elements at the country level as possible variables

in the choice of protest: Nam (2007) explained the relevance of a strong legislature and

Quaranta (2013a) focused on the level of decentralization of a country. Tilly and

Tarrow‟s investigation of contentious politics (2007), Meyer‟s book on the politics of

pro-test (2007), Tarrow‟s work on social movements and contentious politics (2011), as

re-cently as Dalton and Welzel‟s publication on the new normal assertive citizens (2014

Memoli and Francesca Vassallo, Political Activism Researchare all examples of the

significant expansion of the acknowledged relevance of uncon-ventionality in the realm

of political behavior studies.

The new conventionality of protest is now a new boundary to be tested with more

disruptive actions in a new context, such as the digital realm.

4. A New Approach to Engagement: Digital Activism With the change of times and

behaviors, new technology became the latest innova-tion to affect the way citizens

become politically active. The significance of the techno-logical evolution has quickly

32
supported the creation of a new subfield in political behavior research: internet and

politics. As voters, candidates, movements, campaigns and citizens embraced the

possibilities of online political communication and action, scholars debated whether

digital activism was real activism and whether the technology was more of an obstacle

than an incentive for participation.

Political Facebook pages, Twitter posts, or Instagram photos were easy evidence of

political debates, but less accepted activities in political activism. Regardless of whether

the focus was on conventional or unconventional participation, quick posts on a political

issue, rewets of a political announcement or a like on a candidate‟s YouTube video did

not fit in the frame of political activism. Scholars such as Gladwell (2010) hinted at the

lack of meaning in the many online political contributions. In particular, the so called

issue of “slacktivism” emphasized the lack of real effort on the part of political

participants in comparison to previous political activists. The advent of smart phones

reinforced the discussion on new forms of political expression when mathematical

algorithms are already selecting the types of website access a user is interested in. The

major complaint against digital activism is not quantity, but actually quality. Quantity in

online activities is viewed as a measure of poor quality, with individuals clicking on

many possible political posts, without necessarily assessing the actual contribution of a

new post or a specific tweet. Online participation has the potential of being empty and

in the end disempowering, as citizens contribute hastily to many political debates

without the proper knowledge or understanding of the issue. In brief, easy participation

does not mean better political activism.

33
On the other side of the debate, some scholars have promptly pointed out the many

benefits of recent online activism, even across countries (Shirky 2011). Digital activism

has reinvigorated participation among younger generations in particular and has equally

expanded the profile of the political participants. Beyer (2014) has presented evidence

on how even online communities not dedicated to politics can become politically

34
 CHAPTER – 02

LITERATURE REVIEW

History of India, From Beginning to 1525 A.D by Vidyadhar Mahajan M.A, Ph. D,

seventh edition, published by S. Chand and Company Limited, Ram Nagar, New Delhi-

110055, India, 1990

The history of Buddhism in Jummaland has been ancient time from generation to

generation bearing by the indigenous Jumma people and political condition has been

changed by the British government period as well as Jummaland has independency state

run by local inhabitant powerful king Chakma raja Janbox kha18 about four century

A.D. The Buddhism has numerous rites or rituals, especially Theravada Buddhism.

Nowadays the rites are showing various aspects of changes. This is because culture,

public‟s awareness, social condition and surrounding environment have changed in

comparison with the Buddha‟s time. However, it does not mean the root of Buddhism

changes as following the passage of time. In spite of those many changes, Buddhism

well maintains the Dhamma with Vinaya19 and Theravada countries constant exertion.

One of the aim of this an analytical study of history of Buddhism and political activism

in Jummaland, Bangladesh is to bring about better understanding of ancient Buddhist

history culture with political condition in Jummaland as well as presently developing

cordial relations between the community of Jumma indigenous people and sangha

activities in the world. The main expected contribution is to better strengthen the cordial

relationship between the Buddhism and political the two systems.

18
An ancient time, Jumma Chakma king (raja),kingdom of Jummaland, mugaul period and purtugise
period four century A.D
19
According to Tripitaka, Vinaya pitaka who has following rule of sangha community as well as
Theravada and Mahayana and, Tantrickayana, vajjarayana etc….

35
The Association for Land Reforms and Development (ALRD) was translated by

Bengali in 26-29 June 2015, by Jummaland Headman Network Association (JLHNA)

for book named was Jummaland Land Management and People Duties has been

statement Jummaland was totally 14 divisions, 46 districts, 26 municipal councils, 376

sub-districts, 1909 villages councils, 2950 model villages. 4998 villages Published by

Advocate Rajib Chakma20 and Justice Vhabotosh Dewan21, Jummaland Bar Council

(JLBC) in 2015,

House No.1/3, Black-F, Lal Matiya, Dhaka-1207 A About Jummaland book was

published by Jummaland International Human Rights Council (JLIHRC) with

International Friendship Foundation (IFF) in 1997,Rangamati, on 10th Nov. 1997

Jumma national condolences day its statement that Jummaland parliament was has been

350 M.P with President and Prime Minister of Jummaland (Added Appendices-2.1)

The Politics of International Economic Relations sixth edition book edited by Joan

Edelman spero, The Doris Duke Charitable Foundation and Jeffrey A.Hart22,Indiana

University, on published by Thomson and Wadsworth ,Australia,Canada, Mexico,

Singapore, Spain, United Kingdom, United States in 2003,Wadsworth and Thomson

Learning, 10 Davis Drive, Belmont, CA 94002-3098, USA. It‟s A New Horizon in the

History of Jummaland (Chittagong Hill Tracts) statement that the politics and

international relations for Jummaland political activities as well as history and so more

discuss about Jummaland matter. Ethnic Groups in Conflict book by Donald L.

Horowitz 1985, published by University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles,

20
Justice of Rangamati Judge court, Jummaland
21
Advocate of Rangamati Judge court, Jummaland
22
Professor of Political Science at Indiana University, Bloomington, where he has taught international
politics since 1981, also he is many books writer

36
California, Printed by The Regents of the University of California Press, 1985, USA. Its

statement that the an Ethnic Groups in Conflict in Jummaland as well as Bangladesh.

America Religions and Religion book by Albanese, Catherine L, Third edition,

published by Wadsworth Publishing Company, 2014, New York, USA. Its statement

that the book religion history about United State of America also writing to history of

Buddhism and political activism in Jummaland, Bangladesh.

A Short History of Chakma Raj Family by Raja Bhubanmohan Roy, published by

Chakma Raja Bhubanmohan Roy, 1919, printed by Chittagong press, 1919, British East

India. The Chakma language developing in technology book by Mr. Bivuti Chakma

(Suz Moriz) in 2018, Printed and published by Jummland International Literature

Council (JLILC) on 15th June 2018. Its state that this book related to Jummaland social,

economic and language, political views in Jummaland.

Bangladesh Basic Facts by M. Shamsher Chowdhury, published by external publicity

wing, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, government of the People‟s Republic of Bangladesh.

Printed by Rieko printing and packaging, 170 Arambagh,Dhaka-1000, Bangladesh

Kalpana Chakmar Diary by Jumma Hill Women‟s Federation, published and printed

Dhaka press, 12 June 2001, Dhaka-1207, Bangladesh.

All India Chakma Cultural Conference, 1992, by Lalit kumar Chakma, printed by

Agartola press,1992, India An Advanced History of India by R.C. Majumdar, published

and printed by St. Martin‟s press, New York, 1969, USA

Bangladesh Quarterly, Vol.24, No.4 by Syed Mahhabur Rahman, April-June2004,

published by the Department of Films and publications, Ministry of Information,

37
government of the People‟s Republic of Bangladesh, 112, circuit house road, Dhaka-

1000, printed by Habib press Ltd, Dhaka-1000, Bangladesh

Bhikkhu, Karuna Lankar, A New Horizon in the History of Chittagong Hill Tracts

Published by peace campaign group, New Delhi, 15th Sep.2018, India

The writing a faulty literature review is one of many ways to derail an analytical study

of history of Buddhism and political activism in Jummaland, Bangladesh a dissertation.

If the literature review is flawed, the remainder of the Ph.D dissertation may also be

viewed as flawed, because a researcher cannot perform significant research without first

understanding the literature in the texts and field. an experienced thesis examiners that

knows this. In a study of the practices of various dissertation examiners, such as Prof.

Dr. Pradanendu Bikash Chakma, Rangamati Science and Technology University, CHT,

Bangladesh.www.rmstu.gov.bd, and Prof. Parmabitana etc. in this fact, examiners

typically started reviewing a dissertation with the expectation that it would pass, but a

poorly conceptualized or written literature review often indicated for them that the rest

of the dissertation might have problem. On encountering an inadequate literature

review, examiners would proceed to look at the methods of data collection, the analysis,

and the conclusions more carefully.

Given the importance of literature reviews in both dissertations and journal articles, it

may be surprising that so many of them are faulty. Many literature reviews in

manuscripts submitted for publication in journals are also flawed the so many surprising

there is not more publication information on how to write a literature reviews. The

purpose of this an analytical study of history of Buddhism and political activism in

38
Jumaland, Bangladesh guide is to collect and summarize the most relevant information

on this literature review.

I begin with a discussion of the purpose of a review, presently taxonomy of literature

and various journals and so many booklets and discuss the steps in conducting a

quantitative or qualitative literature review. A discussion of common mistakes and a

framework for the self-evaluation of literature reviews concludes the article. 23

Conducting a literature review is a common knowledge is a means of demonstrating

about a particular texts and field of study, including vocabulary, theories, key variables

and phenomena, and its methods and history. Finally, with some modification, the

literature review is a legitimate and publishable scholarly document. Apart from the

above reasons for writing a review i.e. proof of knowledge, a publishable journals

document, and the identification of a research scientific reasons for conducting a

literature reviews are so many plays a role in following.

A. Delimiting the research problem,

B. Seeking new lines of inquiry,

C. Avoiding fruitless approaches,

D. Gaining methodological insights,

E. Identifying recommendations for further research, and

F. Seeking support for grounded theory

Focus the an analytical study of history of Buddhism and political activism in

Jummaland, Bangladesh the first thesis is will be submit to the university of Sri

23
Ibid…….p.430

39
Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka. The first characteristic is the focus of the reviews are four

potential foci such as research outcomes, research methods, theories and practices or

applications. The literature reviews that focus on research outcomes are perhaps the

most common. In fact, the dissertation is a historically record this university. almost 40

percent of the total population of the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT). The proposition of

bengali immigration into the Chittagong Hill Tracts can be treated to be valid if we take

the net migration figures for the district (region). According to the Statistical Year Book

of Bangladesh, 1980 C.E (Page -85) the life time net migration into the area from 1951

to 1974 has totaled 103,536. As has been mentioned earlier the plains land of

Bangladesh is predominantly inhabited by Bengalis. Any internal migration (within the

country) should naturally be caused by the Bengali people.

Increase of life time net migration figure of the Chittagong Hill Tracts is thus, the result

of influx of Bengalis from other districts.

We do not have published data regarding the population of the Chittagong Hill Tracts

for recent years. But unconfirmed sources say that by now more than 4 Lakh Bengali

migrants from other districts of Bangladesh have already settle down in different parts

of the Chittagong Hill Tracts/Jummaland24. This non- tribal or Bengalis influx into the

Chittagong Hill Tracts has reached its momentum in the late seventies and early

eighties. It is said that truck loads of people (mainly landless people and marginal

farmers) from other districts were brought into the Chittagong Hill Tracts and were

settled in different places.

24
UNDV-2017, Jummaland International Bhikkhu Sangha Sri Lanka, p..3

40
They were allotted cultivable as well as hilly lands, otherwise owned or used by the

Jumma or tribal people. Moreover, grants and loans in different forms for reasonable

periods of time were also said to have been given to settlers (Bengali Poor Muslims) to

facilitate their settlement. It is however, also said that some of the families tried to flow

back to their ancestral homes as they found it different to adjust to the environment

totally new and sometimes, hostile to them. Many could not do this as because they

were kept under careful Supervision, although the present government is understood to

have officially stopped further settlement of non-tribal or Muslims Bengalis people in

the Chittagong Hill Tracts, the flow is still on at a private level. But whatever may be

the intensity and nature of such migration, it is a fact that it has added multiple problems

to the already existing problems of the Chittagong Hill Tracts. It has created severe

dislocation not only in tribal or Jumma people society and economy but also in the total

socio-economic setup of the Chittagong Hill Tracts as a whole. Not only economic

hardship, but also social evils like, theft, burglary, clash and other forms of immoral

activities (which were practically non-existent earlier) are making deep inroads into the

tribal or Jumma society.

41
 CHAPTER - 03

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This study investigates the mutually constitutive processes of notions of identity,

history and nature in Jummaland by taking into account rules, regulations, patterns as

well as practices. Drawing on social anthropological approaches, I study claim-making

and actual property practices, particularly looking at the processes of conflicts. Social

anthropological approaches to the study of political rights, identity and competing rights

with focus on social relation and social embeddedness of institutions and rules (Mccay

2002, Hann 1998). Comaroff and Roberts (1981: 5) study dispute processes from

processual dimension that focuses on interactions and how individual‟s actions are

constrained by others‟ actions, and located within shared networks of relations. Through

their ethnographic work of dispute processes, they find that normative repertoires play a

significant part in justifying claims, arguments, actions and decisions, whereas rules are

negotiable.

This research takes an ethnographic approach in investigating patterns, social relations,

and practices while contextualizing cases of political conflict within wider social

settings. Rules exist in social action; however, people are constantly engaged in the

process of interpretation of rules (May 2001). There is interplay between social norms,

behavior, actions and practices, as practices take place in certain contexts. Practices are

understood as interpretation and re-interpretation of what the rules mean. My aim is to

grasp both the actions and the meanings. Overall, the study adheres to Giddens‟

structuration theory which maintains that action and structure are mutually constituted.

His theory goes beyond giving primacy to either agency or structure (Giddens 1984).

42
He suggests structure is both the medium and the outcome of action/social practices.

Structure enables and constrains action; at the same time, his theory stresses that action

reproduces and transforms structure within wider social settings. This study focused on

understanding how claims are made in dispute processes by different sets of actors over

politics, as well as the underlying conditions of strategies, practices and the outcomes.

Moreover, to understand how disputants and institutional actors render certain property

and authority claims as legitimate, this study included a historical analysis of changing

rules and authority structure in CHT10. History is an important category of analysis in

tracing changes in Jummaland. It allows contemporary processes of state formation to

be explored within a broader historical context.

The research methodology that was used to collect the data for this dissertation was an

extensive survey of literature from the Internet as well as in libraries in Bangladesh that

relate in general to Buddhism in Bangladesh, and in particular to Buddhism in

Chittagong Hill Tracts(CHT) /Jummaland25. Google, email, books, newspaper and

people also various social, political, religious and cultural resources etc. were used for

data collection. Collected data were analyzed and presented in a logical sequence.

Below is the general structure that is commonly used. After collecting the data, the

relevant data to this dissertation was organized in a logical sequence.

Research Problem and objectives of this study focus on history, Buddhism and political

issues in Jummaland. The research problem was identified as the problems of Buddhism

in Chittagong Hill Tracts.

25
Ibid….p.5

43
 CHAPTER - 04

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Background

On August 15, 1947, India gained independence from the British. Its land area was

32,87,263 square kilometer. The populations was 87,9500,000 in 2003. The Capital is

New Delhi. Mahatma Gandhi, known as the father of the nation in India helped

Jawaharlal Nehru to become the first Prime Minister of independent, India. The

Republic of India was founded on January 26, 1950. The first General Election in an

independence India was held in 1951; fourth General Election in 1967. Dr. Zakir

Hussain became President of India26, and he died. in 1969, V.V. Giri became President

of India in 1969. The beginning of the first five year Plan in India took place in1952. In

1966, Prime Minister of India Lal Bahadur Shastri died in Tashkent,and Indira Gandhi

became Prime Minister of India.

Pakistan gained independence in August 14, 1947 from the British.27 Mahammad Ali

Jinnah became the first Prime Minister of Pakistan and alsothe father of the nation of

Pakistan. Its land area is 7,96,095 square kilometer. The populations is 12,4800,000, an

the Capital is Islamabad.

Mahammad Ali Jinnah promised to maintain the “Special Area” status for the

Chittagong Hill Tracts or Jummaland. The first constitution of Pakistan adopted in 1956

retained the status of “Excluded Area” as granted by the 1900 Act, but in the revised

26
An Advanced History of India by R.C.Majumdar , H.C. Raychaudhuri and Kalikinkar Datta, St.
Martin‟s Press, New York, 1967, p..990
27
Ibid….p.992

44
constitution of 1962 the phrase “Excluded Area” was deleted and instead of Chittagong

Hill Tracts was mentioned as a “Tribal or Indigenous Jumma Area”, though Mahammad

Ali Jinnah assured Jummaland CHT people to safeguard their rights but subsequently he

did not keep his word.

A plan to make Chittagong Hill Tracts as a Muslim majority area commenced. Pakistan

had after all, been created to protect Islam, but while Pakistan was a Muslim state, it

was certainly not homogeneous. It had tribalareas along the boarder with Afghanistan

and in the northern mountains. Thepeople were Muslim and their autonomy was

formally recognized by the Pakistan government.

But it is a matter of regret that however autonomy for 97 percent Jumma People of

Chittagong Hill Tracts was not formally recognized. Indeed the Pakistan authority did

not recognize autonomy for CHT Buddhist peoples asthey are not Muslim.

Subsequently Pakistan authority wanted to implement aplan to make CHT a Muslim

majority as well as to destroy the Buddhist identity in turn. The Chittagong Hill Tracts

Frontier Police Regulation of 1881 was repealed and the hill people police force

ended.28

Pakistan was to be comprised of the Muslims majority areas of India, by thislogic the

Chittagong Hill Tracts with a 97 percent non-Muslim population would have been

included in India. Therefore a Buddhist delegation under the leadership of Sneha Kumar

Chakma went to Delhi and met then congress leaders; even a person was sent to

Mahatma Gandhi requesting to include Chittagong Hill Tracts with India, but

28
Ibid…p.994

45
unfortunately Jummaland/CHT was annexed to Pakistan ignoring the Rule of India

Act,1947 and since then Bangladesh was known as East Pakistan.

In 1960, the Pakistan government authority built a hydro-electric project inKaptai,

Chittagong Hill Tracts overlooking Jummaland /CHT Buddhists opinion that “CHT

regulation of 1900 Act was neglected”.

In provision of 39, it is said that the deputy commissioner shall consult withthe chief

(Hill Buddhist king) on important matters affecting the administration of Chittagong

Hill Tracts”. The hydro-electric dam created ahuge Kaptai lake roughly in the center of

the CHT and because of this dam100,000 Buddhists lost their lands and 40 percent the

arable valley lands ofCHT were inundated, more than 70,000 Buddhists migrated to

India. Todaythey are living in Arunachal Pradesh. They have never gained

Indiancitizenship for themselves or even for children born in India. Other

uprootedpeoples were dispersed within Jummaland / CHT. The Chakma king palacealso

sank under water.

In fact, the CHT Buddhists economic backbone was broken down after building

hydroelectric dam project. A a result, CHT Buddhists excessivelysustained damage

economically as 54,000 acre fertilized lands and 40percent arable lands inundated as

well. Lisian Barnat, an archeologist and a philologist denaise Barnat remarked that

about the future of CHT peoples that “A large hydro-electric dam power plant is being

constructed on the Karnafully river, which should provide enough power to electrify

Chittagong Hill Tracts or Jummaland.

46
Extensive irrigation would become possible and with it would come a complete change

in social and economic patterns for the local inhabitants.Migrants from other parts of

the province will probably increase in numbers and may ultimately inundate the hill

Jumma peoples”. As a matter of fact,the tragic plight of CHT Buddhists Peoples

commenced since the Kaptai hydro-electric dam Project. Thus the successive Pakistan

government rulers very tactfully abolished the rights and status of the Chittagong Hill

Tracts and imposed a tyrannical rule upon the Jummaland / CHT Buddhists. The

twenty-five years rule of Pakistan was an unbearable one.

1.1: The Final Phase (1935-1947), British India and Jummaland Critical

The civil disobedience campaign dragged on till May 1934, when it was virtually

abandoned by the Indian congress. Once more, the Congress decided, as in 1922, to

work the reforms introduced by the Act of 1935 to which reference has been made to

Act of 1947. It swept the polls in elections held at the beginning of 1937, so far as the

predominantly Hindu seats were concerned.

The Muslims desired to form a coalition ministry with the congress in each province,

but the congress refused to admit into the ministry any one who did not subscribe to its

creed. This decision widened the cleavage between the Congress and the Muslim

League and Mr. Jinnah, who had hitherto been favorably disposed towards the congress,

and had once vehemently protested against the view that India was not a nation,

publicly declared that the “Muslims can expect neither justice nor fair play under

congress government”. 29

29
Ibid…..p.985

47
This sentiment was now shared by the majority of Muslims. Mr. Jinnah became the

unquestioned leader of the Muslim community, and was elected each year as President

of the Muslims League, which soon rallied round it the great bulk of Muslims all over

India. In 17th August 1947 declared by Mountbatten Boundary commission Jummaland

region part of Pakistan country as tow nation theory Muslims people areas majorities in

Pakistan and Hindu majorities people areas India but Jummaland 98% Non-Muslims

Indigenous Jumma people majorities areas part of India according to two nations theory.

Mr. Jinnah Ali illegally captured Jummaland on 21th August 1947. also Jummaland 15th

August 1947 rising new Indian flag in Jummaland capital in Rangamati with district

administration but Pakistani army illegally get down Indian flag from Jummaland on

21th August 1947 This days lost Jummaland independently livelihood.

The Indian congress formed ministries in seven out of eleven provinces which had also

become a congress province as the ministers and the majority of members of its

Legislative Assembly had identified themselves with the congress policy. As their

administration was highly successful, the congress rapidly grew in popularly, its

membership increasing from less than half a million at the beginning of 1936 to five

million by the end of 1939. But soona “left wing” developed in the Congress, and its

great strength became manifest when its leader Subhas Chandra Bose defeated even

Gandhiji‟s nominee for the Presidency. When the moderate section ultimately forced

Subhas Chandra Bose to resign, he formed a new party, the “Forward Bloc” and this

open split considerably weakened the power and prestige of the congress.

Nevertheless the congress ministries successfully worked the reforms, and the political

situation was fairly tranquil until the outbreak of the second world war in 1939, when

48
the congress took exception to the fact that India was dragged into the war without her

consent. A strong declaration was issued by the working committee of the congress

refusing “co-operation in awar which is conducted on imperialist lines”. The committee

also asked the British government to state whether their war aims included the

elimination of imperialism and the treatment of India as a free nation. As no satisfactory

reply was forthcoming, all the congress ministries resigned in October- November,

1939. When the Germans were carrying everything before them, the congress offered

more than once to co-operate in the war effort, if at least a provisional national

government were set up at the centre.

The utmost concession on the side of the government was contained in the Viceroy‟s

statement of August 8th, 1940.30He refused to concede the national government as “its

authority is denied by large and powerful elements in India‟s national life”, which

obviously referred to the Muslims. But he offered the following:

(01). To set up, after the war, a representative body to devise a new constitution for

India

(02). To enlarge the Viceroy‟s Executive Council by nominating additionalIndian

members and

(03). To Appoint a War Advisory Council consisting of Representatives ofBritish

India and Indian States31

30
Ibid….p.986
31
Ibid…..p.986

49
The Indian congress regarded this “august offer” as quite unsatisfactory, and

inaugurated, in October, 1940, an individual civil disobedience campaign under the

leadership of Mahatma Gandhi.

This deadlock continued for a year and a half. At last when the Japanese, after

overrunning Malaya, were rapidly advancing in Myanmar, the British made a

conciliatory gesture. On 8th March, 1942, Rangoon fell, and three days later, it was

announced that Sir Stafford Cripps, a member of the British cabinet, would be sent out

to India. Sir Stafford Cripps virtually repeated the August offer. He promised dominion

status and a constitution making body after the war was over, but held out no hope of

any immediate change in the government of India. The congress as well as the Muslim

League refused his offer, and the Sir Stafford Cripps Mission (March-April, 1942)

ended in complete failure.

Throughout these negotiations, the congress could not count on the support of the

Muslim League. Mr. Jinnah now repudiated the “democratic system of Parliamentary

government on the conception of a homogeneous nation and the method of counting

heads” as impossible in India, and publicly expressed the view that neither minority

safeguards nor separate electorates could save the Muslims from the Congress Raj at the

center.32

When the congress ministries in the provinces resigned, the Muslim League observed a

day of deliverance and thanksgiving throughout India.

32
Ibid….p..886

50
In January 1940, Mr. Jinnah declared that the Hindus and Muslims formed two separate

nations “Who both must share the governance of their common motherland”. Three

months later, in the Lahore session of the Muslim League (March, 1940), he declared

that the Muslim nation must have a separate independent state. In other words, he now

advocated the establishment of Pakistan or a federation of the Punjab, North-West

Frontier or Afghan Province, Kashmir, Jummaland / Chittagong Hill Tracts(CHT),

Sindu and Baluchistan in a sovereign state. As well as Jummaland.

The idea had been first brought into prominence by a group of young Muslims at the

time of the Round Table Conference, but had found no support, and was characterized

by Muslim leaders as “a student‟s scheme” ,“Chimerical and impracticable” . Even the

modified proposal of Sir Muhammad Iqbal for a loose federation of Pakistan,

comprising one or two Muslim states, with the rest of India, first made in 1930, and

repeated in 1939, had not been widely accepted. The idea of Pakistan as a sovereign

state was revived by Mr. Jinnah, and was formally endorsed by the Muslim League in

1940, from that date all attempts at reconciliation between the Indian Congress and the

Muslim League foundered on this issue of Pakistan.

The Government could also now plausibly refuse the Congress demand for national

government on the ground that the Muslims were opposed to it.1On August 8, 1942, the

All-India Congress Committee adopted a resolution in favor of starting a mass struggle

on the widest possible scale. Although the Congress had not made any actual

preparations, the Government decided to strike immediately. In the early hours of the

morning of August 9, all the Congress leaders were arrested and the Congress was

declared an illegal body. As there was no definite organization and a complete lack of

51
leadership, violent riots and assaults and sporadic disorders, such as the cutting of

telegraph and telephone lines, damaging railway tracks, stations, etc, occurred on a

large scale in different parts of India. The government again adopted strong measures of

repression including firing from aero planes.

According to official estimates more than 60,000 people were arrested, 18,000 detained

without trial, 940 people killed, and 1,630 people were injured through police or

military firing during the last five months of 1942.33

The outward manifestation of unrest in India was considerably reduced by these

repressive measures, but the British Government was soon faced by another serious

danger. Subhas Chandra Bose, who had escaped from India in 1941, made contacts with

Germany and Japan. When the Japanese conquered the Malay Peninsula, a large

number of Indian soldiers fell prisoners into their hands. Under an agreement with the

Japanese government, Bose, now called Netaji (Leader), organized them into an Azad

Hindu Force or Indian National Army. He inaugurated the government of free India at

Singapore, and in 1943 his solders advanced with the Japanese army up to the very

frontier of India. On 6th May, 1944, Gandhi was released from prison on grounds of

health.

He held a series of discussions with Mr. Jinnah but no agreement was reached. Lord

Wavell, who succeeded Lord Linlithgow as Governor General in October 1943, flew to

London in March 1945, and came back with the proposal that the Members of his

Council with the exception of the Viceroy and Commander-in-Chief, should be Indians

selected from amongst the leaders of Indian political parties, on a basis of parity

33
Ibid……..p.988

52
between Muslims and the so-called caste Hindus. He summoned a conference at Simla

on 25th June 1945, to select the personnel, but it broke down as the Congress and the

Muslim League could not come to an agreement.

Not long after this, the Labour Party came into power in Britain, the new British

Government made an earnest effort to end the political deadlock in India. They decided

to hold fresh elections of Indian Councils, both Central and Province, to reconstitute the

Viceroy‟s Executive Council, Immediately after the elections, with Indian members as

proposed in March, and to summon a constitution making body as soon as possible. The

elections held at the beginning of 1946, resulted in a sweeping victory for the Congress

in respect of the General seats and for the Muslim League in respect of Muslim seats.

The Indian National Army organized by Bose surrendered to the British after the

collapse of Japan, and a number of its officers were tried in India for treason. This was a

highly impolitic step on the part of the Government, as it gave the Indian people a

complete picture of an organization of which they had hitherto known very little. A

wave of enthusiasm swept the country, and demonstrations were held in a number of

cities. On 18th February 1946, the ratings of the Royal Indian Navy rose in open mutiny

which, for a few days, assumed serious proportions.34

On 19th February 1946, the British Prime Minister announced that three members of the

Cabinet would visit India “to promote, in conjunction with the leaders of Indian

opinion, the early realization of full self-government in India”. Later on 15th March

1946, he referred to complete independence as possible goal of Indian constitutional

development, if Indians so chose. The Cabinet Mission arrived at Delhi in March 1946,

34
Ibid…..p.989

53
and held a series of conferences with the leaders of the Congress and the Muslim

League. As no agreement was possible between them, the Mission issued a statement on

16th May 1946, giving in broad outline their idea of the future government of India and

laying down the procedure for framing a detailed constitution.

The cabinet mission recommended a federal type of government for the whole of India

including the states. The federal government would deal with foreign affairs, defense

and communication, and the other powers would be vested in the provinces and states.

British India was to be divided into three groups of Provinces such as one: comprising

the Punjab, the North-West Frontier Province, Sindu and Baluchistan . Second:

comprising Bengal and Assam and Third the rest. The Union Constitution was to be

framed by a Constituent Assembly of 296 members elected on a communal basis by the

Provincial Legislative Assembles, and the representatives of States which joined the

Union, while the representatives of the three groups of Provinces were to meet

separately to draw up the constitution of the Provinces in each group.

Each Province was given the right to opt out of the federal union after the first election

of its legislative council under the new constitution.

The Cabinet Mission further recommended the establishment of an interim national

Government by the reconstitution of the Viceroy‟s Executive Council from among the

leaders of the different parties.35 On 6th June 1946, the Muslim League accepted the

Cabinet Mission‟s proposals, reiterating that the attainment of the goal of a complete

sovereign Pakistan still remained the unalterable objective of the Muslim in India. The

35
Ibid…….p.989

54
Indian Congress rejected the Viceroy‟s proposal for an interim Government, but agreed

to participate in the Constituent Assembly in order to frame the constitution. The

Cabinet Mission left India on 29th June 1946.

The Muslim League demanded that the Viceroy should proceed with his scheme for an

interim Government even though the Congress would not take part in it. This is the

Viceroy refused to do, for he had already declared that it was to be a Government of all

the parties who had accepted the Cabinet Mission‟s plan. There were also sharp

differences between the Muslim League and the Congress over the interpretation of the

Cabinet Mission‟s Plan. after a somewhat acrimonious controversy, the Muslim League

formally withdrew its acceptance of the Cabinet Mission‟s plan. The Viceroy thereupon,

in accordance with his previous declaration, reconstituted his Executive Council without

any representative of the Muslim League. This complete triumph of the congress

provoked a violent reaction among separatist Muslims, and the Muslim League fixed

upon 16th August 1946, as the day of “Direct Action”. On that day, while some of the

supporters of the league contented themselves with demonstrations of a peaceful type,

arowdy section in Calcutta got completely out of control. A number of Hindus were

killed and their houses and shops were looted and burnt. Soon the Hindus retaliated and

for a number of days the streets of Calcutta were the scene of communal riots of the

worst type.

Neither the Muslim League Ministry, nor the Governor and the Viceroy, who were

ultimately responsible for law and order, took adequate steps to stop the hideous

violence that disgraced the name of the first city of modern India.1

55
On 2nd September 1946, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru and his colleagues were sworn in as

members of the Viceroy‟s Executive Council. Soon after this, the Hindus of a number

of villages in the district of Noakhali and the adjoining part of Comilla suffered terribly

from raids organized by bands of armed men belonging to the other community. This

provoked reprisals in Bihar, where large numbers of Muslims received the same

treatment at the hands of the Hindus. Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru flew to Bihar, and the

congress Ministry there took vigorous steps to suppress the disturbances.

The Executive Council of the Viceroy, under the guidance of Nehru, worked like a

Cabinet and changed the whole spirit and outlook of Indian government. Lord Wavell,

whose power thus became almost non-existent, now sought to bring in the League

members as a counterpoise in the name of communal parity.36

He told Pandit Nehru that the league had agreed to join the constituent assembly, and

reconstituted the Executive Council by including members of that organization. The

introduction of this new element destroyed the team spirit of the Council, as the League

members openly repudiated the idea of collective responsibility. What was worse, the

League did not join the constituent Assembly, and Mr. Jinnah made the startling

disclosure that it had never agreed to do so. It was an awkward situation for the

Viceroy, and the British Government did nothing to improve it when it declared, on

December 6, 1946, that if the Muslim League did not join the Constituent Assembly,

the decision of this body could not be implemented by the British Government, so far at

36
Ibid…..p..991

56
least as it affected the Provinces with a Muslim majority. Nevertheless, the Constituent

Assembly met on 9th December 1946, without the members of the Muslim League.37

Babu Rajendra Prasad was elected President, and various committees were appointed to

draft the different parts of the Constitution. The tense atmosphere continued till 20th

February 1947, when the British Government made an important announcement of

policy. It declared its intention to quit India by June 1948, and appointed Lord

Mountbatten Viceroy of India to arrange for the transfer of authority from British to

Indian hands.

This momentous proclamation evoked hearty enthusiasm all over India, save in the

ranks of the Muslim League, which once more resorted to “Direct Action”. Riots broke

out all over the Punjab and soon extended to the North-east Frontier Province, and

lootings, arson, murder and violence occurred on a large scale over a wide area. These

successive communal outbreaks had a very unfortunate consequence. The Hindus and

the Sikhs, who had hitherto been strongly in favor of a United India, now gradually

came to realize its impracticability, and demanded partition of the Punjab and Bengal if

the Muslims refused to join the constituent assembly.

Lord Mountbatten assumed office as Viceroy on 24th March 1947, and on 3rd June

broadcast the famous declaration laying down “the method by which Power will be

transferred from British to Indian hands”. The main points of this new procedure or

policy may be summed up as follows.

37
Ibid…p..990

57
(01). If the areas with a majority of Muslim population so desired, they should be

allowed to form a separate Dominion, and a new Constituent Assembly would be

set up for that purpose. But in that case there would be a partition of Bengal and

the Punjab if the representatives of the Hindu majority districts in the Legislatures

of those Provinces so desired.

(02). A referendum would be taken in the North-West Frontier Province to ascertain

whether it should join Pakistan or not.

(03). The district of Sylhet would be joined to the Muslim area in Bengal after the views

of the people had been ascertained by a referendum.

(04). Boundary Commissions would be set up to define the boundaries of the Hindu and

Muslim Provinces in Bengal and the Punjab.

(05). Legislation would be introduced in the current session of Parliament for

immediately conferring Dominion Status on India (or the two Dominion if

partition is decided upon), without any prejudice to the final decision of the

Constituent Assembly in this respect.

This historic pronouncement was received with mixed feelings by the public. The

Hindus and nationalists of all persuasions deplored the vivisection of India, while the

Muslims of the League were not fully satisfied with the “truncated and moth-eaten

Pakistan”, as Mr. Jinnah once described it.

It was, however, generally agreed that the new scheme offered the best practicable

solution of the Indian problem, so far as it could be envisaged at the moment.

58
Accordingly both the Congress and the League accepted it, and the partition of the

Punjab and Bengal was affected by two Commissions appointed by the British

Government, with Sir Cyril Radcliffe as Chairman of both.

The Indian independence Bill passed by the British Parliament on the 1st July 1947,

without any dissent, fixed upon 15th August 1947, as the date of the transfer of

authority. Accordingly, at midnight on 14-15th August 1947, a special session of the

Constituent Assembly was held in Delhi. It solemnly declared the independence of India

as a part of the British Commonwealth had appointed Lord Mountbatten the first

Governor General of the new Indian Dominion38.

Mr. Jinnah was choice as the first President of Pakistani government and also

choice as the first Governor General of Pakistan, which soon took steps to summon its

own Constituent Assembly. 15th August 1947,which saw the end of the long-drawn

National Struggle against British rule is a red-letter day in the history of India, and the

date, will ever remain engraved in the hearts of millions of the people.

4.2 The Indian State of New India

General Policy

The position of the Indian States in independent India was foreshadowed by the cabinet

mission, which used the following words in its statement of 16th May 1946. “It is quite

clear that with the attainment of independence by British India, whether inside or

outside the Commonwealth, the relationship which has hitherto existed between the

38
An Anvanced histry of India by R.C. Majumdar, H.C. Raychaudhuri, M A C, Millan, St. Martin‟s
Press, New York, 1967, p..457

59
Rulers of the States and the British Crown, will no longer be possible. Paramount can

neither be retained by the British Crown nor transferred to the new Government”. At the

same time the states were ready and willing to co-operate in the new development of

India.

The precise form which their co-operation will take must be a matter for negotiations

during the building up of the new constitutional structure, and it by no means follows

that it will be identical for all the states.

The Cabinet Mission recommended that such as namely

(01). There should be a Union of India, embracing both British India and the

Jummaland, which should deal with the following subjects: Foreign Affairs,

Defense and Communications and should have the powers necessary to raise the

finances required for the above subjects.

(02). The States should retain all subjects and powers other than those ceded to the

Union39.

The position was further elucidated as follows by the Cabinet Mission in its

Memorandum on States Treaties and Paramount presented to the Chancellor of the

Chamber of Princes on the 22nd May 1946. When a new fully self-governing or

independent Government comes into being his Majesty‟s Government will cease to

exercise the powers of Paramount. This means that the rights of the States which flow

from their relationship to the Crown will no longer exist and that all the rights

surrendered by States to the Paramount power will return to the States. Political

39
Ibid….p..987

60
arrangements between the States on the one side and the British Crown and British

India on the other hand, will thus be brought to an end.

The void will have to be filled either by the States entering into a federal relationship

with the successor Government or Governments in British India, or failing this, entering

into particular political arrangements with it for them.

The Rulers of the States agreed to accept the Cabinet Mission‟s plan. Their viewpoint

was shown as follows in a resolution passed by the Standing Committee of the Chamber

of Princes on the 29th January 1947, such as Namely;

(01). The entry of the States into the Union shall be on no other basis than that of

negotiation and the final decision will rest with each State, which can only be taken

after consideration of the complete picture of the constitution.

(02). All the rights surrendered by the States to the Paramount power will return to the

States. The proposed Union of India will, therefore, exercise only such functions in

relation to the States in regard to Union Subjects as are assigned or delegated by them to

the Union. Every State shall continue to retain its sovereignty and all rights and powers

except those that have been expressly delegated but it. There can be no question of any

powers being vested or inherent or implied in the Union in respect of the States unless

specifically agreed to by them.

61
(03). The Constitution of each State, its territorial integrity and the succession of its

reigning dynasty in accordance with the law, custom and usage of the State, shall not be

interfered with by the Union or any part thereof.40

But after the declaration regarding the partition of India some of the bigger States like

Travancore and Hyderabad pleaded that they could not accept the original plan to which

they had given their assent on the basis of a United India. They even thought that they

were entitled to declare their independence in the changed situation, and talked of

entering into treaty relations as between one sovereign State and another.

The leader of the Muslim League supported this new attitude, but it did not Accord with

the views of the Congress leaders and other prominent Politicians. In a meeting held on

the 15th June 1947, the All-India Congress Committee stated that they could not “admit

the right of any State in India to declare its independence and to live in isolation from

the rest of India”. Such a declaration, in the opinion of Mahatma Gandhi, was

tantamount to a declaration of war against the free millions of India.

Pandit Nehru said that, any recognition of any such independence by any foreign power,

whichever it may be and whatever it may be, will be considered an unfriendly act. In a

statement of 17th June 1947, Dr. Ambedkar asserted that according to certain aspects of

British Constituent Law and also international Law, there were some flaws in the

cabinet mission‟s memorandum regarding lapse of paramount. His view was that the

States will be sovereign States to the extent they are, but they cannot be independent

States so long as they remain under the suzerainty, as they must be, either of the Crown,

if India remains a Dominion, or of the Successor State, if India becomes independent.

40
Ibid…………p..801

62
Sardar Patel took charge of the Indian States Department created by the Government of

India, on the 5th July 1947, to deal with matters arising between the Central Government

and the Indian States. Following his advice as well as that of Lord Mountbatten, all the

states, with a few exceptions, decided, on 25th July 1947, to accede to the Indian Union

in accordance with an Instrument of Accession which provided that, pending the

promulgation of a constitution by the constituent assembly, in which the states would be

adequately represented, the dominion parliament would legislate for the according

States in matters relating to defense, external affairs, communications and other

ancillary subjects.41

The policy of the government of the Indian dominion regarding the States proved

successful in most cases. Their relations were regulated by two processes. one was the

merger of the smaller states either into a unit administered by the central government, or

into the neighboring provincial administrations, as for example the merger of the eastern

states into the province of orissa. And the central province and of the Deccan state and

the Gujarat state into the Bombay administration. The other process was that of the

integration of a number of States into bigger administrative combinations, as for

example the United State of Matsya (18th March 1948), the United State of Kathiawar

(Saurashtra) (15 February 1948), the United State of Rajasthan (25th March 1948), the

United State of Vindhya Pradesh (4th April 1948), the United State of Gwalior, Indore

and Malwa (Madhya Bharat Union 28th May 1948),and the Patiala and East Punjab

State Union (15th July 1948), the administration of a Union of 21 States, known as

Himachal Pradesh, and Cutch, together having a total area of 19,061 square miles,

passed under the control of the Center.

41
Ibid…….p..805

63
There still remained some small States and also a few major States unaffected by the

processes mentioned above, regarding such major States the policy of the Government

of the Indian Union was stated in the Dominion Parliament on the 15th March 1948, by

Mr. N.V. Gadgil (Indian Minister of Works), speaking on behalf of Sardar Patel. There

is no desire on our part, in any way, to compel or coerce them into merger or

integration. If they wish to remain as separate autonomous units, we would have no

objection, but if the Rulers and the people of any these States desire to merge with the

neighboring Province or form a Union with the neighboring States on a voluntary basis,

obviously the Government of India cannot say no it is clear, however, that in these

States, which remain separate units, there would be continuous popular pressure for the

grant of full responsible government. hope the rulers of these States will appreciate the

necessity of retaining the affection and goodwill of their subjects by timely concessions,

rather than futile resistance to popular demands our policy in regard to them remains

their continued autonomous existence unless both the Rulers and the people desire

otherwise.

Along with the modifications in the pattern of an old structure, there took place a

considerable transformation of the inner setup of the States and a reorientation in the

attitude and policy of the Rulers towards their peoples. Not only did they introduce

various measures for improving the economic condition of their respective areas, but

practically every State, as the White Paper on Indian States, issued by the Government

of India in July 1948, noted that announced its intention to grant full responsible

government, and in a vast majority of them power has already have been transferred to

the people. The same document significantly notes that a bloodless revolution has been

brought about, on the one hand by the operation of democratic forces unleashed by

64
freedom, and on the other by the patriotic attitude of the Rulers who have been quick to

appreciate the change.

The State of Junagadh and a few adjoining States joined the United State of Kathiawar

(Saurashtra), (31st December 1948), Mayurbhanj merged into Orissa, Kolhapur into the

Bombay Province, and Rampur and Banarasi into the Uttar Pradesh. Cochin was

amalgamated with Travancore.

The biggest Union of Indian States, and one of the biggest political and administrative

units of India, known as the “Greater Rajasthan Union”, was inaugurated on 30th March

1949. It has within its fold 15 ancient Rajput State with an area of 120,000 square miles,

a population of about 13millions, and an annual revenue of about 10 crores of rupees.

The great State of Baroda merged into the Bombay Province on 1st May 1949, and

Bhopal, Cooch Bihar, Tripura and Manipur passed under the Central administration.

Thus before the end of November 1949, the integration of Indian States was completed

with the exception of Hyderabad and Kashmir.

The Hyderabad and Jummaland a settlement with Hyderabad, which has a special

position as the biggest State in India and having a Muslim ruler over a very large Hindu

population, raised highly intricate issues. On the 29th November 1947, Hyderabad

entered into one year‟s Standstill Agreement with the Indian Union to maintain the

status quo which had existed before 15th August 1947.

In the opinion of Syed Kasim Razvi, President of the Majlis Ittehad-ul-Muslimin,

Jummaland leader Mr. Sheneha Kumar Chakma told to Indian new government

Jummaland want to Join in India, part of Indian state.

65
The Standstill Agreement in no way interfered with the status of Hyderabad as an

independent sovereign State, while Paramount was buried deep once for all, But the

Government of India felt that from considerations of defense, internal security, and

economy, India would remain exposed to grave dangers with an independent

Hyderabad. An independent State completely landlocked within the heart of another is,

they noted in their White Paper on Hyderabad, an unheard of proposition.

Besides this fundamental point of divergence between India and Hyderabad, some

newly arisen internal and external factors further complicated the situation. The

activities within the State of the Majlis Ittehad-ul-Muslimin and of the Razakars (un

recognize organization), under the leadership of Kasim Razvi, and incidents on the

borders of the Indian provinces of Madras, Central Provinces and Bombay, were a

standing menace to peace and harmony, and caused much anxiety in the minds of

responsible people in different quarters. All negotiations between Hyderabad and the

Indian Union from January 1948, proved abortive. The Nizam‟s Government refused to

accept the suggestion made by the Governor-General on behalf of the Government of

India for Hyderabad‟s accession to the Indian Dominion, and also another suggestion of

the Government of India for the introduction of responsible government in the State.

During the final phase of the negotiation in June1948, a Draft Agreement was drawn up.

On the 18th June 1948, three days before his departure from India, Lord Mountbatten

appealed to the Nizam to accept the Draft Agreement, but to no effect.

On the Hyderabad government‟s rejection of the Draft Agreement, the Government of

India put some economic pressure on the former. But this did not improve matters. The

forces that worked against accession to the Indian dominion held a position of vantage

66
in that State and made warlike preparation, such as an increase in the State Army, the

formation of irregular armies, and the smuggling of arms and ammunition from abroad

with the help of foreign adventurers.

Further, the growing violence of the Razakars inside Hyderabad State and in the border

tracts of the Indian Union seriously menaced law and order. So the Govrnment of India

reiterated their demand for immediate disbandment of the Razakars, and also asked the

Nizam to facilitate the return of the Indian troops to Secunderabad, where they had been

stationed before their withdrawal early that year according to the Standstill Agreement.

The Nizam, who had already appealed to the United Nations against India, would not

accept these terms. At this the Government of India informed the Nizam‟s Government

in a final letter on 11th September 1948, that they now considered themselves free to

take whatever action they thought necessary to restore law and order.

The Indian troops marched into the Hyderabad State on 13th September1948.The

Government of India declared that it was not an “act of war” but a mere “police Action”

intended to restore peace and tranquility inside the State and a sense of security in the

adjoining Indian territory. at 4.30p.m. on 18th September 1948, Major-General El

Edroos, Commander, Forces of the Hyderabad State, surrendered on behalf of the

Nizam to Major General J.N. Chaudhury, Commander of the First Armoured Division

of the Indian Army. Kasim Razvi was arrested and the Razakar organization was broken

up. The Laik Ali Ministry, which had filed complaint against India before the Security

Council, resigned on 17th September 1948, and the Nizam cabled on 22nd September

1948, to the effect that he had withdrawn the Hyderabad case from the Security Council

67
and that the delegation sent there by the outgoing Ministry had no authority to represent

him or his State.

Restoration of peace and order being considered by the Indian Government he first and

foremost need of the hour, the affairs of Hyderabad were placed under the control of

Major General J.N. Chaudhury, as Ministry Governor, to be assisted by a staff of Civil

Officers. The Nizam readily accepted the new situation and offered his full co-

operation. Order and tranquility were gradually established by effective administrative

measures.

On 26th January 1950, Hyderabad acceded to the Indian Union. As a result of the

reorganization of States in 1956, to which reference will be made later in detail,

Hyderabad as a separate State, has now ceased to exist. The Kashmir and Jummaland /

CHT want Independent state While the Hyderabad problem seemed to be nearing

solution, the situation in the State of Kashmir and State of Jummaland remained grave

and critical. Situated in the extreme north of the Indian subcontinent, this State covers

an area of 84,471 km in Kasmir and Jummaland 93,94 83.00 km. On the north-east it is

bordered by Tibet, on the north by Chinese Turkestan (Sinkiang, and on the north-west

by the Soviet Republic of Turkestan and by Afghanistan. On its western border lies

Pakistan, and to the south it touches Pakistan and the Dominion of India. The census of

1941recorded that the total population of the State was 4021,615, of whom 77.11per

cent were Muslims, 20.12 per cent Hindus and 2.77 per cent Sikhs and Buddhists. In

view of geographical contiguity and the greater numerical strength of the Muslims in

this State, Pakistan was naturally anxious to bring it under her influence.

68
The State of Kashmir and State of Jummaland was subjected to repeated tribal raids

from across and within the Pakistan area soon after the partition. On the rapid advance

of the raiders up the Jhelum valley road, threatening even Sri Nagar, Jummaland capital

city of Rangamati, Govt. of Jummaland, want freedom from Bangladesh, the

Government of Jammu and Kashmir sought assistance of the government of the Indian

Dominion. On 26th October the Maharaja of kasmir joined Indian union and Jummaland

king want try join formally acceded to the Indian Union, and this step was fully

approved by Indian govt. Muhammad Abdullah, leader of the All Jammu and Kashmir

National Conference, an organization enjoying a large measure of popular confidence

and support in the State. The Government of India, while accepting this accession as a

provisional step, expressed the view that the future of Kashmir should be decided in

accordance with the popular will ascertained by means of plebiscite or referendum.

The first contingent of Indian troops reached Kashmir by air on the morning of 27th

October 1947. On 31st October 1947, an interim Emergency Administration was formed

with Sheikh Muhammad Abdullah as its head, which with the help of Indian forces,

successfully resisted tribal raids, believed to be encouraged and supported by Pakistan,

whose sympathies were for the Azad Kashmir Government, an organization opposed to

the new Government in Kashmir. On 31st December 1947, the Indian Union sent a

memorandum to the Security Council of the United Nations urging the latter to call

upon Pakistan (a member State), to put an end immediately to the giving of such

assistance, which is an act of aggression against India. After fruitless efforts at

mediation for about five months the United Nations sent a Commission to study things

on the spot.

69
This Commission reached India in July 1948 and on 13th August 1948, suggested a

Cease fire agreement between India and Pakistan. The Indian Union agreed, but the

Pakistan Government was not prepared to accept the cease fire resolution without

attaching certain conditions which were unacceptable to the Commission.

The presence of Pakistan troops in Kashmir territory was now admitted by the Pakistan

Government, and the relations between the two Dominions grew extremely strained.

Happily good sense ultimately prevailed, and one minute before midnight on 1st January

1949. a mutual Cease fire agreement was concluded between the Governments of the

Indian Union and Pakistan. Hostilities ceased and Admiral Nimitz was appointed

United Nations Administrator for the plebiscite. It was hoped that the future of the State

of Jammu and Kashmir would be determined by a plebiscite held under satisfactory

conditions.

In April 1950, the Security Council appointed Sir Owen Dixon as the United Nations

Representative, in place of the U.N. Commission, to help the parties for the expeditious

and enduring solution of the dispute which has arisen between the two Governments in

regard to the State of Jammu and Kashmir.

But his efforts proved to be of no avail. On his request to the relieved, the Security

Council appointed Dr. Frank Graham as United Nations Representative on 30th April

1951. The latter‟s efforts were also fruitless.

In 1952, a Constituent Assembly met in Jammu and Kashmir to frame a constitution for

the State. In February 1954, the accession of the State to India was ratified by the

Constituent Assembly, and in November 1956, it adopted a constitution legalizing the

70
status of Jammu and Kashmir as a unit of the Indian Union. The Constituent Assembly

dissolved itself on 26th January 1957, after the formal inauguration of the new

constitution. On 26th July 1957, Bakhsi Ghulam Mohammad was sworn in as Prime

Minister of Jammu and Kashmir. Yuvaraj Karan Singh was elected unopposed for

another term of office as Sadar-i-Riyasat of Jammu and Kashmir.

Two days before this date, the Security Council passed a resolution calling for a status

quo in Kashmir. A resolution sponsored in the Security Council by four countries such

as Britain, Australia, Cuba and the United State of America for sending United Nations

forces to Kashmir for the solution of her problem was vetoed by the U.S.S.R. on 20th

February 1957, the deputation of Gunnar Jarring of Sweden, President of the Security

Council, with instructions to explore the possibilities for settlement of the Kashmir

dispute and report to the Security Council before 30th April 1957, did not produce any

concrete result. The revival of the Dr. Graham Commission by a resolution of the

Security Council was likewise abortive.

The Kashmir problem has been before the Security Council for more than a decade, but

no solution has been reached. In the absence of the requisite conditions, and in view of

the continuance of Pakistan‟s aggression in a portion of the State, the question of a

plebiscite is now dead so far as the Government of India is concerned. It is significant to

note that the Constituent Assembly of Jammu and Kashmir has itself declared the

accession of the State to India as final.42

42
Ibid…….p..809

71
On 27th August 1965, units of the Pakistani forces invaded Indian Territory, after

irregular forces had infiltrated into Kashmir earlier in the same month.for fuller details

of these events, and of the subsequent Tashkent declaration of Indian dominion. Also

Jummaland has declared under Indian union in 1972, Bangladesh was illegally captured

in whole Jummaland. Jummaland central government body and administrations rules

was also destroy after Jummaland authority was went to background under leadership

father of Jumma nation Mr. Manabendra Narayan Larma, all known as M.N. Larma .

4.3 Section One

4.3.1 The Nature of Buddhism in Jummaland

Jummaland people are follower Theravada Buddhism from an ancient time and

generation to generation. Jummaland people mostly majority is Buddhist 91% in whole

Jummaland. Also others religion has been have modern time. Jummaland is located in

the Southeast Asia and comprised of 46 hill districts and there 14 division and more that

376 sub- districts,26 municipal councils, local known as Mousa (village areas about 5

villages)and 1950 villages councils and 2950 model villages and 4998 villages also

there are have three long time according to Portuguese time traditional Raja (king). The

land lies between 21 degree to 40degrees and 23 degree to 47 degrees north latitude and

91 degree to 40 degrees and 92 degree to 42 degrees east longitude. It shares borders

with Myanmar on the south and southeast, India on the north and northeast and

Chittagong and Cox‟s Bazaar district of Bangladesh on the west.

72
Geographical Feature of Jummaland:

Jummaland, south-eastern part of near Bangladesh comprises a total land area of

93,278.13 sq. km. Which is about one-tenth of the total land area of the nearest of

Bangladesh. It is a unique territory with Hill Mountains and beautiful landscapes in

stark contrast to the alluvial, monsoon-flooded plains and completely different in

physical features, agricultural practices and soil conditions from the rest of the country

and also socio-economically and culturally stretching along the present day Indo-

Burma-Bangladesh border-is slightly smaller that East Timor (5,376 sq. miles) and

bigger than Lebanon (4,036 sq. miles). It roughly runs from North to South for 300 km.

The terrain in the Jummaland is part of the great hill mass – an offshoot of the

Himalayan range- occupying parts of India, Myanmar and Bangladesh. The hills inside

Jummaland rise up to a maximum of 4,000 feet, with the ranges running generally

northwest to southeast and dividing the area into a number of large valleys. The valleys

are covered for the most part with dense virgin forest, interspersed with small

waterways and swamps of all sizes and description. According to Chacomas declared

independence in 1763 C.E.

Jummaland comprise seven valleys formed by the Feni, Karnapuli, Chengi, Mayani,

Hajolong, Sangu and Matammuri rivers and their tributaries. The ranges of hill, plain

and mountain area of Jummaland rise steeply thus looking far more at the 1638 C.E,

Portuguese accord with Chacomas impressive that what their height would imply and

extend in long narrow ridges. There are numerous hills, ravines, mountain and cliffs

covered with dense vegetation. Geographically the Jummaland can be divided into two

broad ecological zones such as hilly valleys and agricultural plains.

73
The highest packs on the northern side are Thangnang, Langliang and Khantiang while

those on the southern side are Ramu, Taung, Keokradang,Tahjindong, Mowdok Mual,

Rang Tlang and Mowdok Tlang,Tahjindong are is 4632 ft, highest peak in Jummaland

as well as whole south east Asia with Bangladesh.

Jummaland is rich in natural flora (orchids etc) and fauna such as Elephant, Tiger, Bear,

Wild Boar, Various kinds of monkeys, barking deer, wild goat and various kinds of

birds and alpine flora is very common in the country. The highest mountain in

Jummaland is known as “Jamasuk”. The name “Jama” is one of the renowned and

famous native Jummo Chakma indigenous people who live in that time and meditation

practice, mediator of Jummaland. In native Jummo Chakma language “Suk” mean

mountain, for instance the name of the mountain became famous as “Jamasuk”. It‟s also

mentioned in the Jummo folklore about him and mountain. The biggest river in

Jummaland is known as “Bargang” which is also known as “Karnapuli”. The biggest

lake is called as “Kaptai Lake”.

Jummaland has a mild hot wet climate. April to May are the hottest months of the year

where average temperatures of the months range from 50 degree F to 80 degree F.

Average temperature in the cold seasons is below 25 degree F. In the cold seasons,

temperatures fall as low as freezing point of water in the higher parts mountains.

Average annual rainfall is 70 degree to 110 inches. The southern part of Jummaland

gets more due to the storms come from Bay of Bengal with Indian ocean.

Rangamati: Rangamati is the capital city of Jummaland and most favorite tourist place.

It is about 220 Km from capital city Dhaka of Bangladesh and 77 Km away from

Chittagong city, which is second biggest city in Bangladesh. It is also called “Lake

74
City” as it is situated at beside of Kaptai Lake. It is well connected by road

communication system with Chittagong city, others Jummaland city name such as

Khagrachari, Bandarban, Naniarchar, Kaptai, Khaukhali, Ramghar, Dighinala, Pan

chari, Jurachari, Barkall, Ruma, Tanchi and etc.also well connected water-systems of

transportation with a dozen of towns and sub-town and hundreds of Jummo villages. On

the east of Rangamati connected water-way with international border of Mizoram state

of India.

4.3.2 Population of Jummaland:

In a population census of 1872 to until 1952, the Jumma population was found that 98%

and only 2% of population were non-Jummas of Jummaland.

But due to demographic engineering by the Moguls, British, Pakistani and Bangladeshi

government, this overwhelming majority declined majority declined drastically and that

reduced to 51.4% of Jummas population in1991. The total population was 9,74,445 in

1991 census. The populations of Jummas 501,144 and non-Jummas 473,301in1991. The

population of the present Jummaland is circa approximately 2011 about 2.5 million and

3.5million in 2015. The Jummas peoples are follower Theravada Buddhism in

Jummaland.

This research combines a history textual and field study. For the history textual study,

the various historical books and various kind of journals and reports is a main primary

source and field study survey of field.

75
The Jummas are real pure Buddhists, As well as known as Sakya clean. Unfortunately,

Bengali Muslims illegally resettle by Government of Bangladesh in the Jummas use

cultivation land near villages and proper areas in the Jummaland.

The following census is the evidence of illegally resettle by Bengali Muslims in the

Jummaland.

Year Native Indigenous Jummas, Non-Jummas (illegal Muslims

Settlers)

1941 98.5% 1.5%

1951 91% 9%

1961 88% 12%

1974 77% 33%

1981 58.6% 41.4%

1991 60.32% 39.68%

2000 51.4% 49%

2011 52.5% 50%

2015 52.7% 51%

Table 2 : 1941 Sensus of British India

4..3.4 Jumma Peoples:

The Jummas Peoples are of Sino-Tibetan descent belonging to the Mongoloid Race.

They are Follower of Theravada Buddhism from an ancient time. From the time

76
immemorial the Jummaland have been the home of thirteen indigenous Jummas ethnic

groups.

They are collectively identified themselves as the jummo Peoples or Jumma nation.

They are thirteen native Jummo national groups such as Chakma, Marma, Tanchangya,

Chak, Tripura, Murung, Boam, Khumi, Mro, Lushai, Khyang, Bawm, and Pankho.

4.3.5 Jumma Identity Crisis:

It is easy to say identify a Jumma National in the streets of Dhaka, Saver, Chittagong

and Cox‟s Bazaar or elsewhere, because the Jummas peoples are distinct and different

from the Bengali Muslims population of Bangladesh in respect of race, languages,

culture, religion, ethnicity, complexion, body structure and colour of skin. There are

diversities amongst the ethnic Jumma groups themselves too, which have their own

distinct languages, customs, cultural heritage, religious beliefs and systems of social

organization. But national ideology is common as Jumma nations and free Jummaland.

The Jumma peoples are the main responsible to “Free Jummaland, from the Islamic and

terrorist government in Bangladesh since last six decades. The Jumma nations are the

right persons to put the Jummaland issue on the table of the United Nations, by the

above distinct, therefore easily recognizable. But there are many other ways in which

the Jumma people could be identified. For example, the method to find out the identify

of a Jumma is by hearing someone speak Bengali or English with a Jumma accent. But

one has to be familiar with the accent first. One sure way to know a Jumma is to

understand that he has a Jumma name since no other racial group will adopt one. But

one has to be familiar with Jumma names first.

77
Globalization makes the countries of the world more and more like each other in every

respect. Lager economics and more advanced civilizations are encroaching upon other

smaller economics and less developed civilizations. States and cultures are unable or

unwilling to stem the tide. Some languages like English and French, especially English,

have mostly replaced native tongues of a large number of nations around the world. It

has become the lingua franca of many countries and the second language of many more

others. It has become the language of diplomacy, commerce and science. English has

become the international language of choice. This is a phenomenon in which

interternalization threatens other cultures and identities.

4.3.6 Some facts in the Jummaland:

A. Islamisation Policy through Transmigration of Bengali Muslims Settlers: history

shows that the Jummaland policies of the government of Bangladesh. The influx of

outsider Bengali Muslims settlers into the Jummaland had been started since creation of

Pakistan in 1947. Later on East Pakistan bloody war was creation of Bangladesh in

1971, vigorous Islamisation policies had made the situation worse that ever before.

State-sponsored migration of Bengali Muslims settlers into the Jummaland, providing

land, for making homes and others various kinds of land grant, cash and rations. Since

1979, the government of Bangladesh officially started to settle Bengali Muslims settlers

from the Bangladesh others part of districts in the Jummaland to outnumbering the

Jumma peoples and for using the settlers as human shield. This program was continued

in secret, the international communities were not aware of this program till mid1980s.

More than 400,000 Bengali Muslims settlers were transferred into Jummaland (1979-

78
1989), today‟s continued settles by Bengali Muslims families from others undeveloped

districts places in Bangladesh.

Example, Noakhali, Borishal, Commilla, Seylet, Foridpur etc. the Bangladesh

government declared that each Bengali Muslims settlers family would be given 7.5

acres of lands and ration for unlimited period.

Indeed, no cultivable land was vacant for settlement so the Bengali Muslims settlers

started to forcibly occupy the land of native Jumma indigenous peoples. The above

mentioned statistics proves the real facts

in Jummaland. Bangladesh Army camps set up whole CHT 2400 With Illegally

resettlement Muslims Bangali families by Bangladesh government to Jummaland.also

Bangladesh military camps 1500.

1st Step: 1979-1980

1. Tabalchari 1810 Muslim families 2. Ram Ghor 3589 families 3.Khawkali 2792

families 4. Lama 7438 families 5. Alikadom 750 families 6. Vasannya Ahdam 1408

families 7. Langgudu 8225 families 8. Bogastor 2772 families 9. Nangkongchari 1965

families. =31,149 families.

2nd Step: 1981-1982

1. Panchari 2375 families 2. Ghorangapara 458 families 3. Aboya 916 families 4.

Alutila 3178 families 5. Burighat 1633 families 6.Baibonchora 418 families 7.

Boromerung 2220 families 8.Atorokchora 2078 families 9. Kacholong 416 families

79
10.Bhusonchora 1705 families 11. Shuvolong 518 families12.Kengrachori 502 families.

= 16,417 families.

3rd Step: 1982-1983

1. Ahvoya 317 families 2. Lakhichari 1500 families 3. Bangalkaliya

2. 716 families 4. Chombi faitong 2301 families 5. Kamalchari 2272

families. = 7106 families.

4th Step: 1984-1985

1. Sindukchori 446 families 2. Babuchora 812 families. =1258families. 1st step to

4th step totally 55,930 Bengali Muslims families illegally resettlement by Bangladesh

government.

In 2001, Khagrachari hill district and Rangamati hill district muslims Bengalis illegal

settlers ration cards Khagrachari 26,220, Rangamati1605 ration cards totally ration

cards 27,825 illegally bangalis families and in 2012, 37,127 Muslims families illegally

resettlement by Bangladesh government. In 1979 to 2012 Muslims familes

55,930+37,127= 93,057 Muslims families enter directed supported by Government of

Bangladesh also non-government illegally military supported 51,532 Muslims Bangalis

families resettlement to Jummaland. 93,057+51,532= 144,589 Bangalis Muslims

families illegally resettlement with military 4500 camps, 3500 BGB camps, 2300 police

camps, 5400 para military camps, 1500 navy camps, 130 air force camps safe guard

always safety only Bengali Muslims community in Jummaland. It‟s main problem and

crisis in Jummaland.

80
The illegal Bengali Muslims Settlers with backed Bangladesh military holds 13th times

genocide in Jummaland, but until no Justice. In Jummaland settlers collaboration

Bangladesh Army, about 250,000 innocent indigenous Jumma native individual

peopleskilled illegally.

4.3.7 Theravada Buddhism, Buddhist Rite and Rituals

The “Bijok” is the history in Jumma Chakma language. So, the “Jumma Chakma Bijok”

is the chronological history of the Jumma nation. About hundred of Jumma Chakma

history books written by different authors and in different languages and in different

periods.But very few writers we can found amongst the Jumma Chakma, that is lack of

education and historical experiences. Some of the authors wrote that he/she belong from

Jumma national Chakma nation or Sakya, but some evidence knew about the religious

historical background of the Jumma Chakma national or Sakya national. Some of the

authors Muslims wrote about their origin that he/she knew nothing about Jumma

Chakma national or Sakya national historical background as well as religious historical

background of them that just to be very create a problem for political and religious

interest for his/her own nation or party or religion or country. Some of the authors wrote

that just collected some reports, recorded by the own government. Some authors wrote

an article about their origin that just he visited few Jumma Chakma national villages.

Here, you will get wide ranges of resources about their origin, both from religious as

well as Jumma national historical background about the Sakyas or Chakma Jummas.

According to the Jumma Chakma historian, the ruler of the Royal Chakma Jummaland

Kingdom was most powerful ever than others Raja (king) in this region in the 6th

81
century. As per as Jumma Chakma historian as well as early Buddhist historical evident

that the Jumma Chakma national Raja Bijoygiri, belong from Champa or

Champaknagar (now Bhagalpur in west Bengal, India) in the Kingdom of Anga which

was Bengal (now west Bengal and Bihar); came and settled down in the present

Jummaland, along with his Jumma Royal family and large military troops. His father,

Raja Samargiri,who was belong from Sakya clean and was most powerful ruler of

kingdom of Anga in the early 6th century BC. He had two sons, named was Prince

Bijoygiri /Vijoybhahu went to tamaralipti Ceylon with his followers and settled there

estabhished own kingdom and Prince Udaigiri stayed in his own land Jummaland. That

times there is no any human inhabitant in the 5.1: presently Jummaland.

A Short History of Jummaland:

Portuguese (350-550 A.D)

Gupta period (550-651 A.D)

Sena period (651-850 A.D)

Pala period (850-1150 AD), the golden era of Buddhism

Moguls‟ period (1151-1351 A.D),

Ducht period (1351-1560 A.D), in 1638 CE, Purtuguese accord of Chacomas Nabab

period(1560-1750 A.D),in1715CE,Agreement Chacomas with British British

period(1750-1860 A.D),in1763CE, declared independence ChacomasThe Creation of

Jummaland 1860 by the raid of frontier native Jumma indigenous tribes act, 1860.

Previous Jummaland names were Karpas Mahal (karpas mean cotton that

times many product of cotton) in 1715-1860 A.D.

First superintendent of this land (karpas mahal) Jummaland, Captain Mr.

Macgrath (1860-1867A.D)

82
First deputy commissioner of this Jummaland, Mr. T.H.Lewin (The designation

superintendent changed into deputy commissioner in 1867)

Special administrative system called Jummaland regulation: 1900 (1 of

1900A.D)

Jummaland declared excluded area in 1920 A.D.

Mong circle created in 1782, run by Mong Raja (King) communities of Marmas in

Northern part of Jummaland.

Excluded Jummaland area turned into Jummo native indigenous tribes land in 1962 in

Pakistan period.

Those who were appointed as administrator in Jummaland from the British period to till

now are as following.

British Period: Kingdom of Royal Chakomas, Independencely livelihood

S.L. No. Name of Person Period of Time

01. Capt. Magrath 1860-1863 A.D.

02. G.C.Cilby 1864-1865 A.D.

03 Capt. T.H.Lewin 1866-1869 A.D.

04) Mr. E.Raity 1869-1870 A.D.

05 Capt. T.H.Lewin (11) 1870-1874 A.D.

06. Mr. A.W.Power 1875-1876 A.D.

07. Mr. Z.Anderson 1876-1877 A.D.

08. Capt. A.E.Gorson 1877-1881 A.D.

83
09. Mr. L.R.Forbes 1881-1884 A.D.

10. Mr. C.A.S.Redford 1884-1886 A.D.

11. Mr. C.Owen 1886-1887 A.D.

12. Mr. L.R.Forbes (11) 1887-1891 A.D

13. Mr. C.S.Murray 1891-1893 A.D.

14. Mr. R.H.S.Hutchinson 1893-1894 A.D.

15. Mr. C.S.Murry (11) 1894-1996 A.D.

16. Mr. R.H.S.Hutchinson (11) 1996-1900 A.D.

17. R.A.S. Stephenson 1900-1902 A.D.

18. Mr. R.H.S.Hutchinson (111) 1902-1904 A.D.

19. Mr. R.A.S.Stephenson, C.B.I.C.I.E 1904-1906 A.D.

20. Mr. R.H.S.Hutchinson (IV) 1906-1910 A.D.

21. Mr. O.Manson 1911- 1918 A.D.

22. Mr. A.S.W.Haris 1918-1920 A.D.

23. Mr. C.G.B.Steven 1920-1927 A.D.

24. Mr. Rai Bahadur S.C.Basu 1927-1929 A.D.

25. Mr. A.S.Hands I.C.S. 1929-1931 A.D.

26. Mr. S.K.Ghesh I.S.C. 1931-1934 A.D.

27. Mr. Subimal Dutta I.S.C. 1934-1937 A.D.

28. Mr. W.H.J. Christi I.S.C. 1937-1947 A.D.

Table 3: British Govt. of India

84
Pakistan Period: Simply Independencely Kingdom of Jummaland

S.L. No. Name of Person Period of Time

01. Major L.H.Niblett 1947-1950 A.D.

02. Lt. Col. J.H.Hune 1950-1953 A.D.

03 Mr. M.H. Shah 1953-1954 A.D.

04) Major L.H.Niblett (II 1954-1956 A.D.

05 Mr. S.A.Agha C.S.P. 1956-1958 A.D.

06. Mr. M.A.Kareem Iqbal C.S.P. 1958-1960 A.D.

07. Mr. H.D.Chowdhury C.S.P. 1960-1963 A.D.

08. Mr. S.Z.Khan C.S.P. 1963-1964 A.D.

09. Mr. M.S.Rahaman C.S.P. 1964-1966 A.D.

10. Mr. L.R.Khan C.S.P. 1966-1969 A.D.

11. Mr. H.T.Imam C.S.P. 1969-1970 A.D.

Table 4 : Government of Pakistan, 1970

Bangladesh Period: Republic of Jummaland illegally occupied in 1971-till

S.L. No. Name of Person Period of Time

01. Janab Aminul Islam 1971-1971

02. Janab M.E.Sharif 1971-1972

03. Janab Jinnat Ali 1972-1973

04. Janab Sharafat Ullaha 1973-1974

05. Janab A.M.A. Kadir 1974-1976

06. Janab Ali Haider Khan 1976-1983

85
07. Janab A. Malek 1983-1985

08. Janab Mohammad Saphikul Islam 1985-1990

09. Janab Mohammad Aftab Uddin Khan 1990-1992

10. Janab Mohammad Hasam 1992-1996

Table 5 : Government of Bangladesh, 1996

It is worth mentioning here that designation of the rulers was changed in different

periods to Superintendent and Deputy Commissioner also Assistant Commissioner Etc.

The period of time in which the designations changed is given following.

S.L. No. Name of Person Period of Time

01. Superintendent 1860-1866 A.D.

02. Deputy Commissioner 1866-1891 A.D.

03. Assistant Commissioner 1891-1900 A.D.

04. Superintendent 1900-1920 A.D.

05. Deputy Commissioner 1920- 1947 A.D.

06. Deputy Commissioner 1947-till now.

Table 6:Govt. of British India, 1947

Repeat of Jummaland Jumma Indigenous native area in 1964 in Pakistan period. First

two Jumma indigenous native members were elected of democratic system in East

Pakistan legislative assembly in 1954. They are Mr. Kamini Mohan Dewan and Mr.

Birendra Kishore Roaza. They are Buddhist.Creation of Kaptai Lake in 1960 by

86
government of Pakistan. Area of about 356 sq.miles (Dist. Gazt.) and dam has been

created at Kaptai sub-district (upazila).

Jummaland modern named previous name was the Chittagong Hill Tracts(CHT).

Presently used Jummaland (former CHT).

Bandarban District created in 1981.

Rangamati District created in 1983 and

Khagrachari District created in 1983.

Creation of Jummaland Development Board in 1976 with views to ensure

the development activities in the Jummaland areas.

Creation of Bandarban Local Government Council on 6th March 1989 (later

renamed as Bandarban Hill District Council).

The historical peace accord signed between government of Bangladesh and Parbatya

Chattagram Jana Sanghati Samiti (United People‟s Party of the Chittagong Hill Tracts

(UNPCHT or Jummaland United National People‟s Party) on 2nd December 1997.

The creation of Jummaland Regional Council or CHT Regional Council on 24th May

1998. The creation of Ministry of Jummaland Affairs or Ministry of Chittagong Hill

Tracts Affairs on 15th July 1998.

The first district headquarters of Jummaland was Chandraghona. Presentlycapital city

of Rangamati in Jummaland.

In 1881 A.D, the British Indian Government had divided the Jummaland into Three

circles (Division) according to the jurisdiction of the Rajas, there are three Rajas

87
(kings) in Jummaland named such as (01).The Jumma Chakma Raja in Rangamati

(Jumma Chakma Administration division) run by Jumma Chakma Raja in middle part

of Jummaland. Also known as capital city of Rangamati in Jummaland.

(02). The Jumma Bohmang Raja in Bandarban Jumma Administration division. Run by

Jumma Bohmang Raja, Marma, Tanchagya, Chak and Rakhain others communities in

southern part of Jummaland. And(03). The Mong Raja in Khagrachari Jumma

Administration division. Run by Mong Raja, Marma, Tripura and others communities in

northern part of Jummaland. Jummaland Kings (Rajas) all were are Buddhists. They are

built many Buddhist monasteries in Jummaland.

(01). The Jumma Chakma Raja:

About there are Jumma Chakma Raja past over 50th Jumma Chakma Raja. Present ruler

of Raja Devasish Roy 51th43 and presently Jumma Chakma Raja since 1971. Born

1959, he was installed as Jumma Chakma Raja, after his father opted to remain in

Pakistan in 1971, with his uncle as regent till 1977, he is a lawyer by profession and has

served as a special Assistant to the Chief Advisor of Bangladesh government with the

rank and status of a State Minister during the 2006-2008 Bangladesh political crisis, he

was in charge of the Ministry of Jummaland or Chittagong Hill Tracts Affairs and the

Ministry of Forest and Environment, he served in the interim caretaker government in

2008.As per constitutional norms and practices of the country, at the end of each term,

an interim neutral caretaker government takes over to oversee free and fair election to

hand over power to the next elected politicians, married RaniTatu Roy, born 1963, died

43
Chakma kingdom, www.royal chakma.com, /www.voice of jummaland.com,,,p..1/4

88
in 1998, and has issue.Rajkumar Tribhuvan Aryadev Roy, born in1990, declared Crown

Prince in 200344.Rajkumari Ayetri Aradhana Roy, born in 1994.

(02). The Jumma Bohmang Raja:

In 1599 AD, The Maharaja Maung Rajagree, the King of Arakan led to the capitulation

of “Hainthawadee” or Kigdom of Pegu.

The “Nainda Bayin‟ The king of Pegu was defeated and perished in the war.

The beautiful young doughter of Nainda Bayin, Thien Daw Hnang and minor Prince

Maung Saw Prue were taken to “Mrawk U” , The capital of Arakan, as captive along

with other booties. Some 3000 families from Pegu followed the scion of their ruler and

settled in Arakan.

Later, the successor of Maung Rajagree and then Arakanese King Mong Khyai Maung

married the princes and appointed his brother-in-law “Maung Saw Pru” as the governor

of annexed Chittagong in 1614. The 3000 families that accompanied the captive prince

were allowed to settle in the region around Chittagong. The present Marma

communities are the descendents of these groups. They are living all parts of

Jummaland.

The “Bohmong” Title:

In 1620 A.D45, for resisting the Portuguese invasion with extreme course and valor, the

Arakanese King Mong Kha Mauang conferred the title of “Bohmong” to Maung Saw

44
Ibid……p..1/4
45
www.voice of juumaland, Bohmong Raja / Circle Chief, p..4/8

89
Pru, which means the Great General. After the death of Bohmong Maung Saw Pru, two

successors retained the Bohmong title.During the time of “Bohmong Hari Ngyo” for his

extreme bravery to recapture the Chittagong from Moguls in 1720, the Arakanese King

Chainda Wizia conferred on him the grand title of “Bohmong Gree” meaning “The

great Commander-in-Chief”46.

In the face of growing Moguls presence and weakened of Arakanese dominance, the

Bohmong yielded to the demand of Moguls as payment of yearly tributes as he felt

insecure on the heel of Arakanese pull out.Then the Bohmong continued to enjoy their

political supremacy through the Moguls to the British colonial reign till 1860 A.D,

when the Jummaland was formally annexed to the British Indian Empire and declared

into a full-fledged division district.

On the 15th Bohmong circle Chief Raja Aung Shwe Prue Chodhury in Bandarban

southern part of Jummaland. 16th Bohmong Raja K.S.Pru Chodhury. Presently 17th47

Bohmong Raja Bohmangree U Shaw Prue Chowdhury is the king of the Bohmong

Jumma circle who is more than 69 years old.

(03). The Jumma Mong Raja in Khagrachari:

The History:

The War and Settlement: The Marma communities, led by the Mong Raja Chief were

originally Burmese who lived in 16th century. After they are travel who fled to escape

unrest in the 16th century came in Jummaland.

46
Ibid…..p…4/8
47
www.voice of jummaland/www.bandarbancercleraja.com/bohmong kingdom , p..1/2

90
Northern parts of Jummaland. The Mong Raja was then one of many Jummos

indigenous Chiefs who ruled the separate and distinctive cleans of the Jummaland.

Which were known as northern parts of Jummaland. Also they are living all parts of

Jummaland.

Ruled by native Jumma indigenous Chief (Raja or king) predates the British incursion

into India, but the administrative role of the modern Raja was formalized under colonial

rule. The British faced strong and effective military opposition to their invasion of the

Jummaland, sustaining heavy losses due to the difficulty of the Jummaland terrain and

the relative power of the Jumma Chakma military. following their victory in 1882, the

British neutered this opposition by sub-dividing the Jummaland region into three

separate divisions (circles) such as mentioned above matter.

Today, Khagrachari Jumma Mong Raja region is a diverse and multicultural area, and

the Jumma Mong Raja (King) native indigenous Chief provides the services of

traditional government to communities of Jumma native indigenous Chakma, Marma,

Tripura and non-Jummas illegal Bengali Muslims settlers in northern part of

Jummaland. Presently Jumma Mong Raja Saching Prue Chodhury was confirmed as

8th48 Mong king (Raja) and continued his rule today. The young Raja aims to create a

modern Jumma Mong Circle administration division that serves and represents all

residents of the name of place Khagrachari, the northern 49part of Jummaland.

48
www.voice of jummaland/www.mongrajakhagachari.com ,p..2/6
49
Ibid……3/8

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4.3.8 The Buddhism influenced in Jummaland:

The historically and traditionally Jummaland is a land of religious harmony and

coexistance. But there are have some ancient record and evidence that Lord Buddha

came to vanga (old name pundrabardhan and samathot) and has two disciple of Lord

Buddha‟s Vangissar and Rakkhita who native birth place in samathot near

Jummaland.during Buddha‟s life time and also during the time of emperor ashoka. after

the great demise of Lord Buddha, the first Buddhist council was held in Rajagaha under

the patronage of king Ajatasatru to preserve the teachings of Lord Buddha for the years

to come.

The second Buddhist council was held at Vaisali during the region of king Kalasoka one

hundred years after the Parinibbana of the Lord Buddha.

The 3rd Buddhist Council was held in Pataliputra during the king Ashoka(218-260)

during this period, the people practice their own way.

The flourishing of Buddhism in Jummaland started from Gupta period and early

centuries of the Christian era. It has been clear that the Buddhism was the flow of

Mahayana principles, Fa-hein mentioned in his itinerary (399-414 AD) about the

Kingdom of Champa on the Southern bank of the Ganga when he came across much

evidence of living Buddhism which was mostly Mahayana. In the 7th century Hiuen-

Tsang, the famous Chinese pilgrim in visited India, recorded various accounts of the

persecution of Buddhism by Sasankha, the king of Gouda (north western part of Bengal

near Jummaland). He recorded Mahayana Buddhism in various parts of Jummaland

with some Stobira schools. From the 7th to 12th centuries the Mahayana school found a

92
golden era in Vanga with Jummaland. Great Buddhist monasteries in Paharpur,

Somapura, Jagaddal, Vikramapur, Moinamoti and Salban were established the reign

Vanga and Jummaland.Famous scholars like that Sri Atisha Dipankar, Shilabadra,

Shantiraksit appeared in Jummaland and their scholastic works were towards the

Mahayana school, which ultimately absorbed Tantrism. The Buddhist lost the basic

principles of Buddhism in Jummaland. But some have basic Buddhist teaching in

Jummaland.

During the 15th century (according to Dr. Heinz Bechert) one member of the Royal

family named “Keyakcu” of Cakaria near Jummaland went to Moulmein or Arakan in

Burma and was ordained there under the tutelage of Ven. Seyado Sharbu Mahanayaka

Thero. His named was Ven. Chandrajyoti Bhikkhu and stayed for 20 years in Burma to

study the scriptures. He is after came to Chittagong near Jummaland and established

temple in Sitakunda hill and Haidgaon. But but he failed to organize Buddhist Sangha

in Jummaland. The people of Jummaland remained darkness about Theravada

Buddhism50. In the 19th century Dr. B.M. Barua writes that Mahayana Buddhism which

was prevailing in eastern India comprising Chittagong and Jummaland also Tripura. but

mixture of tantric faith, Hinduism and animism religious cults. As a result monks did

not observe vinaya rules and aities too lost their real Buddhists ideals. They used to

observe many rites and rituals which have no connection with a Buddhist tradition51.

50
www.buddhism in Bangladesh…..P..9
51
Ibid…….p..12

93
4.3.9 The Historical Movement Buddhism in Jummaland:

The historical critical moment in Jummaland, most Ven. Saramittra Nayaka Thero of

Arakan came to visit India on a pilgrimage. He was well-versed in Arakanese, Sanskrit

and Pali. In the meantime the Jumma Chakma Kingdom was a feudal State under the

British government and its ruler was Queen Kalindi Rani (1830-1873 A.D). She invited

Most Ven. Saramittra to the royal palace in Rajanagar that time capital city of

Jummaland. Presently,Rangunia sub-district of Chittagong, there has South East Asian

oldest Buddhist monastery name was Sakyamuni Raj Vihara built by Jumma Chakma

royal patron. 15th A.D, Also has been Raja Bhuvan Mohan High School in Rajanagar.

In 1864 A.D, Ven. Saramittra again came to Jummaland with his disciple Sangha in

order to give full ordination to who are like to ordain as Bhikkhu in the Jummaland. He

established Theravada school Buddhism in Jummaland.

4.3.10 The Early History of Buddhism in Jummaland

The early history of Buddhism in Jummaland divited as follows Primitive Era (1300-

1600 AD): The primitive era of the indigenous Jumma Chakma literatures can be

divided into two sections namely 01.oral literature and 02. written literature. In the oral

literature section, we can include the ubageet (ballad songs) that are used by the

gengkulies (singers).

These songs were not written like in early Indian civilization, which is called Gurukul

(native tradition). The Gengkulies would be learning these songs from generation to

generation in oral literatures The history of the indigenous Jumma Chakma proves the

94
fact that they were more than five hundred years old with powerful administration in

Myanmar. Later, on they migrated into Chittagong,

Bangladesh in 1314-1315 AD. Therefore, the Ballad songs52 might be considered to

have been established about 13th to 16th centuries. Lateron, many Arabian and French

words were used by the indigenous Jumma people Chakma.

The primitive literatures of the indigenous Jumma Chakma were such as: (01).The

Radhaman-Dhanpudi Fhala (based on historical love-story) (02). The Chadigang Chara

Fhala (historical events of leaving Chittagong) (03). The Laksmi Fhala or Gojen Lama

(based on the cosmological theories) and (04). The Larvuya Fhala (The historical events

of leaving Myanmar).

The Radhaman-Dhanpudi Fhala is very popular among the young generation of the

indigenous Jumma people. According to the Gengkuli‟s explanation, there are seven

Chapters in the historical Radhaman-Dhanpudi Fhala such as (01). The Jum-Kava

Fhala (Cutting of Jums) (02). The Bargi-Lora Fhala (Catching a kind of bird –bargi)

(03). The Geela-Para Fhala (Collecting a kind of forest fruit (uneatable) (04).The Phool-

Para Fhara (Collecting a kind of forest flowers) (05). The Lui-Chaga Fhala (catching of

a big fish) (06).

The Rannya-Vera Fhala (visiting of the former jums) and (07). The Mela-Kadha Fhala

(wedding of conversation).

The Chadigang-Chara Fhala also consists of many chapters with detailed explanations

and incidents of leaving Chittagong. The third laksmi fhala or gojen-lama fhala explains

52
www.voice of jummaland/traditional songs/P..3/9

95
the cosmological views on how the world and beings came into existence of the above

mentioned literatures, some are printed; and some are hand written, specially the old

historical books. It is very difficult to prove when these primitive literatures were

established. They had Tallikshastra (Tantric legends) that were found written on palm

leaves.

Now a days the oza-boidya (a person who are propitiate the lower gods and ghosts,

spirits and for magic) also can be seen. People are still using those tallikshastra.

Middle Era (1600-1900 AD): This literature can also be divided into two divisions,

namely such as: (01). Those related to religion and (02). Those connected with society.

during this time, the literal language used in these literatures was influenced by many

words like Arabic, French, Dutch, Hindi and Bengali.The Bengali words were deeply

rooted which cannot be separated. In this period, Laksmi, Ramayana, Mahabharata and

others also influenced these literatures. The former religious texts Agartara was also

related with Buddhism comprising explanation of Karma theories, in this world and

next world etc.

Chibcharan, who was spiritualist of the indigenous Jumma Chakma was a poet. he

wrote the “Gojena-Lama”, an excellent legend, which was written about in 1777 AD.

The legends have 7 sections. In these legends53, the Gojena was considered to be the

enlightened one. Dharma is explained as karma and nibbana can be attained through

karma. Regarding this philosophy, there are many debates among the authors and

scholars. Some scholars believe that “It was Theravada Buddhism point of view”. But

53
www.voice of jummaland/traditional rules,..P..2/4

96
indigenous Jumma Mr. Suhrid Chakma has pointed out that it was Mahayana point of

view.

There are many Barah-Masi (twelve month) legends found i.e. Chandavi Barah-Mas,

Miyavi Barah-Mas, Kaleswari Barah-Mas, Rangpudi Barah-Mas, Kirbyavi Barah-Mas,

Ranjanmala Barah-Mas, Tanyavi Barah-Mas, Ma-Bap Barah-Mas (twelfth month of

mother and father) and etc. In these legends, many Bengali words are used.

4.3.11 Pre-Buddhist Culture of Jummaland

The pre Buddhist culture of Jummaland is most significant of the Jumma indigenous

people in south east asian region as well as Indian sub continant.Pre Buddhist culture

such as in Jummaland kingdom of Shakya (1st king Shakya 595 C.E), (2nd king

Sudannya 685 C.E), (3rdking Langgoldon 700 C.E), (4th king Kuddrajit 785 C.E), (5th

king Sumuddrajit 1110-1125 C.E), (6th king Shamol 1125-1132 B.C.E), (7th king

Chappakoli 1132-1153 C.E), (8th king Sadang Giri 1153-1186 B. C.E), (9th king

Changyasur 1186-1196 B. C.E), (10th king Chandasur 1196-1200 B.C.E), (11st king

Sumesur 1200-1230 C.E), (12th king Vimjoy 1230-1290 B.C.E), (13th king Vijoy Giri

1290- 1385 B.C.E), (14th king Udoy Giri 385-1460 B. C.E), (15th king Shakoliya 1460-

1400 B.C.E), (16th king Manik Giri 1400-1470 B. C.E), (17th king Madhaliya 1470-

1575 B.C.E), (18th king Rama Thongja 1575-1635 B. C.E), (19th king Kamal shege

1635-1695 B.C.E), (20th king Rathana Giri 1695-1716 B. C.E), (21st king Khala

Thongja 1716-1799 B.C.E), (22nd king Chakkradon- 456-495 A.D), (23rd king

Cheiladhabeng-495-546 A.D), (24th king Sheimattya – 546-578 A.D), (25th king

Arunjuk- 578-595A.D), (26th king Ghagattya or Chotungja-595-620 A.D), (27th king

aisang-620-676 A.D), (28th king Marikkya-676-710 A.D), (29th king Kodomthongja-

97
710-775 A.D), (30th king Radongja- 775-800 A.D), (31st king Sureshsuri-800-875 A.D),

(32th king Jhonu-875-905 A.D), (33rd king Sathuya Bhoruya-905-975 A.D), (34th king

Dhabana-975-1012 A.D), (35th king Dharma-1012-1070 A.D), (36th king Moggollya-

1070-1110 A.D), (37th king Jubhol-1110-1195 A.D), (38th king Fhothe Kha-1195-1235

A.D), (39th king Shei mosthho Kha- 1235-1285 A.D), (40th king Sukhdev-1285-1314

A.D), (41th king Shei dholot kha-1314-1375 A.D), (42th king Jhanbox kha 1782 A.D),

(43th king Thob bhor Kha- 1800 A.D), (44th king Jhobbhor Kha-1809 A.D), ( 45th king

Dharmabox Kha-1882 A.D), (46th king Queen Kalindi Rani-1887 A.D), (47th king

Horich Chandra Roy-1900 A.D),(48th king Bhuban Mahon Roy-1919A.D), (49th king

Nalinakka Roy-British period-1925) (50th king Tridip Roy-Pakistani period-1947), (51th

king Barrister Debashish Roy-Bangladesh period- 1977 still-),_1.1

Sources:-_1.1. Email: ihrc.jummolandworld.wide@gmail.com

Present Era (1900 up to now): The indigenous Jumma Chakma Rani Binita Roy edited a

quarterly newspaper named “Gourika” from Rangamati in 1935-1952 AD. In this

publication, the indigenous Jumma Chakma artist Mr. Chuni Lal Dewan wrote first

Indigenous Jumma Poem. Later on, a Journal entitled “Parbatya Banee” was edited by

Mr.Biraj Mohan Dewan in 1967. In this publication, many writings were done by

indigenous Jumma Mr. Mukunda Chakma, Mr. Salil Roy, Mr.Bira Kumar Tanchangya

and others. After that, the first novel inindigenous Jumma Chakma language entitled

“Rangamatya” was published by indigenous Jumma Mr. Sugata Chakma in 1970. Since

then, we can see several publications either through associations or publishing in the

Indigenous Jumma Chakma community. But present publications are concerned only

with political events.

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Many graduate and postgraduate degree holders among the indigenous Jumma Chakma

have published or written on their own on social, religious, economic and political and

other conditions1.

4.4 Section Two:

4.4.1 Introduction of Theravada Buddhism

The introduction of Theravada Buddhism in Jummaland has basic matter, Jummaland

people from immemorial time with from generation to generation protection and

followers Theravada Buddhism. The doctrine of dependent origination (paticca

samuppada) possesses an important position among the basic teachings of the

Theravada Buddhist doctrine. This can be proved by several incidents coming down in

the Buddhist literature. The Buddha, on reaching full enlightenment, had spent a week

seated on the foot of the Bodhi tree, and had, during the three phases / of the night,

reviewed the dependent origination from its beginning to the end and vice versa. The

very first sermon heard by the Sariputta qand Moggallana, the two chief disciples of

Buddha, from the Arahant Assaji. Was bassed on the development origination or the

theory of course and effect. Both these occasions are depicted in the book on Discipline

– Mahavagga pali. The Maha Nidana sutta of the Digha Nikaya reveals that the beings

move about in the samsaric existence, because they fall into continuous turmoil owing

to their ignorance of this facet of the doctrine.

The words dependent of origination (paticca-samuppada) mean the arising of a

phenomenon on accounts of another phenomenon. The universe as well as all things

existing in it has been originated due to something or other, in association with

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something, and as a consequence of something. Various views prevailed in the

contemporary religious beliefs regarding the origin of beings and the world. The view

that they were created by the Maha Brahama or other supreme god.

(issaranimmanahetu) was a principle one among them.

It was accordingly opined that the birth and death, misery and comfort atc. of the

beings, the activity discernible and operating in the objective world such as sun and

moon, sunlight in the rain happen due to the creation of some supreme being like the

god and the Brahmas. Some of persons who did not accept the theory of creation stated

that the birth, death, misery and comfort of the beings are the consequences of deeds,

both meritorious and evil, committed during previous existences (pubbekatahetu).

Meanwhile, some others proclaimed that beings were born and expire not due to my

cause but fortuitously (adhicca samuppanna).

Developing on this, persons held the theory of pre-determination (niyativada0, and

taught that during a specified period of time, birth and death occurred and misery and

comfort ensue continuously at last leading to cessation of the progress in the samsaric

existence (niyati samgati bhava hetu). The thinkers of the Upanishad who contemplated

more profoundly on the world and the beings, were inclined towards an unchanging

concept of the self, and established themselves in the theory of externalism

(sasvatavada). Still others turned their attention to the exact opposite, and presented the

theory of annihilation (ucchedavada), pronouncing that there was no birth after death

and that there were no existences that could be termed as here and hereafter.

The lord Buddha obtained a grasp of all these teachings prevalent at that time and

disclosed that none of them were true. He exposed the extremist characteristics of all

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those teachings and preached that the dependent origination (paticca samuppada) or the

phenomenon of cause and effect was the truth that exists for ever. Explaining the

prevalence of the dependent origination in all things, the Nidana samyutta described it

by a general formula or a short method.

“Asmim sati idam hoti”- when this exists, this happens. “Imassa uppada idamuppajjati”-

when this is born this too is born. Buddhism does not accept the existences of a single

entity on its own. The pronoun this conjures up two phenomena related to east other in

some way, or two relatable things or occasions. Thereby, it displays the reality of the

existing things and has demonstrated the absence of such phenomena in a similar

manner.

The world is full of suffering. The end of the temporary satisfaction deemed is

happiness is long standing suffering. The concept of suffering is the absolute truth of

this world. Four main sections that grew around it are termed as the four noble truths.

Targeting its accuracy as the objective and

embellished with the prefix “Ariya” noble its title four noble truths has been formed.

The doctrine about the truth realized in full at the foot of the sacred Bodhi tree was

inducted through the preaching of the ammacakkappavattana sutta to the group of five

ascetics at Isipatana of Benaris. The noble truth is analyzed into four categories in the

following manner;

I. Suffering (Dukkha)

II. The arising of suffering (Dukkha samudaya)

III. The cessation of suffering (Dukkha nirodha)

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 IV. The way leading to the cessation of suffering (Dukkhanirodha gamini

patipada)

i. The first noble truth (Dukkha-suffering)

The unsalutory sensation, physical or mental, is known as suffering. It includes ideas

such as dissatisfaction and tolerance. Man in his normal life receives happiness. They

are depicted separately as the happiness of family life (gihi sukha), the happiness of the

life of a recluse (pabbajita sukha), the happiness of sense pleasures (kama sukha), the

happiness of renunciation (nekkhamma sukha), the happiness (kayika sukha), the

mental happiness (manasikha sukha), etc.. but all of them are temporary.

The happiness derived from them in a short while, may sometimes transform itself into

a suffering more intense then that existed before. A person with a would receives some

comfort by scratching it forgetting the pain for a moment. But within a short while,

blood starts to flow from the would because of the scratching. Then pain and suffering

more agonizing than before will afflict him. The happiness that we receive is like that.

In order to demonstrate that the happiness received from sensual pleasure is of

temporary duration and insubstantial, it has been compared to a piece of bone devoid of

flesh and blood, to a dream, and to a dressed taken on hire. The Buddhist doctrine

emphasizes the need to understand the reality of life, so that through it one can

comprehenend that craving such as for sensual pleasures yields only a temporary

comfort, and focuses on their rejection, earning thereby eternal happiness.

Birth is a suffering, decay is a suffering, sickness is a suffering, death is a suffering,

companionship with the undesirables is a suffering, the separation from the loved ones

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is a suffering, the failure to achieve the desired objects is a suffering and so more its

called sorrows. The Buddhism explains about temporary and momentary happiness as

well as about an eternal and supramundane happiness. The wise man understands that

the temporary happiness is actually miserable, because no satisfaction or relief is

derived specifically in relation to the current state. The achievement of understanding in

this manner is the path to the supra-mundane happiness Therefore, it is known as the

first noble truth.

ii. The second noble truth (the arising of suffering)

The person who realizes that actually there is suffering, examines as to how it

originates. If suffering can be compared to a sickness, the skilled and experienced

physician will firstly diagnose the symptoms of the sickness in association with such

symptoms he will examine the cause of that illness.

The Buddha had demonstrated that this craving (tanha), that produces reexistence and

re-becoming, is bound up with passionate greed and finds fresh delight in extinction

here and there, is the cause for the arising of suffering. It is three fold such as: 1.

Craving for the sense – pleasures (kama tanha), 2. Craving for re-existence and re-

becoming(Bhava tanha)and 3. Craving for non-existence (Vibhava tanha). According

to it is not difficult to comprehend that the cause of suffering or the life in the samsaric

existence, is craving.

iii. The third noble truth (cessation of suffering)

If there is something arising due to a cause, it should disappear after the annihilation of

that cause. If suffering has arisen owing to craving, the end of suffering should follow

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the annihilation of craving- hetum paticca sambhutam- hetu bhamga nirujjhati. So the

Buddha preached this doctrine to the nun sela. The extinction of suffering (dukkha

nirodha) is the extinction annihilation, abandoning of and liberation and detachment

from craving. The most sublime perfection of the Buddhist doctrine is this cessation of

suffering.

The fourth noble truth (The path leading to the cessation of suffering).

When the Buddhist doctrine teaches that the cessation of suffering is the supreme

happiness or Nirvana, there should exist a programme of action or amethodology that

should be followed for the purpose. This is known as the Middle path. It is middle

because there are two extremes that one should not traverse. One extreme is depicted as

the indulgence in the pleasures of the senses (kamasukhallikanuyoga). Its nature is low,

common, the way of the ordinary people, ignoble and is conducive to ruination.

(Attakilamathanuyoga) the second extrme brings the same type of results and consists

of self mortification. The middle path is far renounced from both these extremes and

gives eye of wisdom. It extinguishes the heat of delilements and leads to supreme

wisdom and enlightenment.

This path is composed of eight categories such as;

1. Right Understanding (Samma ditthi)

2. Right Thought (Samma sankappa)

3. Right Speech (Samma vasa)

4. Right Action (Samma kammanta)

5. Right Livelihood (Samma ajiva)

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 6. Right Effort (Samma vayama)

7. Right Mindfulness (Samma sati)

8. Right Concentration (Samma Samadhi)

This Eight fold path specially is prefixed by Samma because one should progress

onwards only by following the path of purity explained in the Buddhist doctrine. Its

ofjective is to differentiate it from other dispensations. This code of practice known as

the noble eight fold path was first preached by the Buddha to the five monks including

the monk kondanna. It was possible to win their disposition towards the noble path of

the doctrine, only after the removal of wrong beliefs and wrong understanding that were

active within their minds. It emphasizes that it is essential to regard right understanding

or separation from wrong views as the first step in the path, because traversing in the

dark without fair understanding is not the progress along the path of deliverance.

In some instances the Buddhist path of deliverance is depicted in three Steps such as;

1. Ethical conduct (Sila), 2. Mental discipline (Samadhi) and 3. Wisdom

(Panna). In some places it is five fold such as namely; 1. Faith (Saddha),Effort (Viriya),

3. Mindfulness (Sati), 4. Concentration (Samadhi),and 5. Wisdom (Panna).

In still other contexts, it is depicted as ten-fold by adding right intellect (Sammanana)

and right emancipation (Samma vimutti) to the eight mentioned above. It is natural for

differences, additions and reductions toappear in the characteristics of the path

according to the character and intentions of the followers. When we consider the

ordinary uninitiated society avoiding such specific instances, it is essential to first

develop through ethical conduct (Sila) physical and verbal good conduct. From this it is

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expected to regularize the reactions displaced by the individual towards the external

world. Secondly, mental discipline should be established. The entire gamut of activities

including the use of the faculties and breathing in and out etc. should be arranged with

deep concentration, and the trances (Dhyana) should be attained through undistracted

mental repose. These are good effects obtainable in this step.

The final step is wisdom (panna). The understanding of the reality of all phenomena or

the knowledge devoid of nomenclatures of beings persons transcending the practical

world, acquired through the comprehension of the three charcterists (Tilakkhana)

belong to this step. The individual reminisces repeatedly that there are no other steps to

proceed further, no other noble life-pattern to be followed, and no other defilements to

be destroyed. He will never again enter the samsaric existence. He is known as the

noble being who has achieved Nibbana (supreme blessing).

The main three characteristics (Tillakkhana), the highest fruition of the perfectly

exemplary Buddhist life is the comprehension of the prevalent and obscure reality of

the being and the world. Man can never understand the correct nature of anything as

long as he is beset with passion, hatred and folly. A person who wears blue spectacles

sees everything in the blue hue.The visual consciousness is based on the eye and a

visible form. Through coordination between them arises contact and through it

sensation which is comfortable, painful or intermediate. Because of this sensation, an

individual will create an inaccurate conception about the objects of sensefaculties.

owing to this reason, he grasps all things that are objects of the six faculties- such as; 1.

Eye, 2. Ear,3. Nose, 4. Tongue, 5.Sound and 6. Body or mind,Inaccurately as eternal,

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permanent, auspicious and happy. While progressing in the Buddhist path of discipline,

one must be free from these grasps.

Accordingly, the following three characteristics should be specifically understood

within the path leading to Nibbana, to the effect that are following;

1. There is nothing in this world that is perpetual, permanent and eternal;

2. The aforesaid transience or change causes grief in the person who does not

expect them to happen.

3. There is nothing that can be regarded as “I” or Mine wherever there is

transience and sorrow.

Others ways such as; 1. Anicca (Impermanence) 2. Dukkha (Suffering) and 3.

Anatta (No-soul).

1. Anicca: according to Buddhism, the universe and everything in the universe are

neither created by god nor are they fortuitious. They are result of an agglomeration

of causes. If a cause is perpetual or permanent, it cannot mature or evolve. In the

same tone, if the cause is impermanent and temporary, its effect cannot be

permanent or eternal. The understanding of these basic factors is considered as the

first step towards the comprehension of the three characteristics. All phenomena are

divided into two sections such as; 1. Compound (Samkhata) and 2. The

Unconditioned (Asamkhata),. The nibbana is asamkhata (absolute) because it is not

a phenomenon born out of a collection of causes. All else, either with or without

consciousness are compound as they have arisen owing to a union of causal fectors.

If there is a phenomenon that has arison owing to some cause, its effect too is

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 eliminated as soon as the cause does not exist any more. The eye is impermenant. Its

changes from moment to moment. The form or matter is impermenant.

2. Dukkha (Suffering): The phenomena that create disquiet and dissatisfaction within

an individual such as birth, decay, sickness, death, separation from the loved ones,

union with disagreeable persons,frustration in the achievement of desired objects

are included in the truth of suffering. This is the nature of all phenomena. If

something is of the nature of impermanence, there is also suffering. In practical life,

man, like all beings, goes after happiness and abhors misery. He was goes after the

temporary happiness is embroiled, again and again in suffering. The firm grasp

with egos tic pride of all forms, sensations, perceptions, mental formations and

consciousness that are identified diversely and beautifully by naming them with

whatever appellation or clan names, is conducive to suffering, disquiet or

dissatisfaction. This is explained in the truth of suffering that is the second one of

the omnipresent three chracteristics.

Anatta (No-soul): The meaning of the word “Atta” (Atma) is self.The word Anatta

(Anatma) expresses exactly its opposite-that there is nothing that can be named as self.

Many religions refer to a creator of the universe. The creator, delineated as brahma,

Isvara, pajapati and god according to each religion, creates the world and the beings.

According to some of them, that which is termed as the external body and the spiritual

Atma is taken separately. They state that after death the external body is destroyed

leaving the atma untouched; and that at the end of its round of existences it unities with

the universal soul. Those religions and philosophies mention that the only thing that

remains after the dissolution of the body is the atma.

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The Theravada Buddhism in main in Jummaland. The Theravada radition spread all

Jummaland from ancient time.Sources: Email: updfp.jummoland@gmail.com

4.4.2 The Spread of Buddhism in Ancient Time

The Buddhism spread in Jummaland from the most an ancient time. It is generally

recognized that the advent of Gautama Buddha‟s dharma, the exalted one occurred in

the sixth century B.C. his appearance was in an extremely complex social environment.

According to the belief of the Brahmins, the Maha Brahma is recognized as the overlord

of everything. It is also believed that the Vedas came forth from the Maha Brahma. The

vedas were maintained by the Bramanas from generation to generation. Accordingly,

details on the origin of society also were presented in conformity with the vedas. It was

the tradition of the most ancient people of the an ancient time. The society of the

immemorial time organized as it was according to the Brahmanic teaching, was replete

with diverse dissimilarities. It appears that those dissimilarities were elementarily

created based on the caste system. According to the previously stated Brahmanic view

of the origin of society, there were four castes, such as 1.Brahmana, 2. Kashtariya 3.

Vaisya and 4. Sudra. This caste system is known as caturvarna. In the beginning varna

denoted the color of man‟s skin. The people such as various named as original Aryans

who migrated to an ancient India from central asia circa 1500 B.C. can be considered as

possessing a clear complexion. The orginal residents of India at the time bore a dark

complexion. The age of the establishment of orginal settlements in India by the Aryans

who came from Central Asia is considered to be the most ancient epoch in the

civilization of Bharata. They have treated these black skinned original inhabitants

whom they encountered as lowly. Thus at the beginning, differences in pigmentation

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portrayed a communal division. The views that the Aryans were noble and the non-

noble Aryans were lovely were created at the beginning itself, but appeared to have

undergone changes gradually.

Earlier the Aryan non-aryan division was in conformity with skin colour. However,

when the Aryan civilization became organizationally established the division of varna

assumed another dimension. In that process, importance was given to the organization

of society based on economic activities. The society of the immemorial time organized

as it was according to the Brahmanic teaching, was replete with diverse dissimilarities.

It appears that those dissimilarities were elementarily created based on the caste system.

According to the previously stated Brahmanic view of the origin of society, there were

four castes such as 1. Brahmana 2.Kashtriya 3. Vaisya and 4. Sudra. This caste system

is known as satuvarna. In the beginning varna denoted the color of man‟s skin. The

people such as the original Aryans who migrated to India from central Asian region

circa 1500 B.C, can be considered as possessing a clear complexion. The original

residents of India at the time bore a dark complexion. The age of the establishment of

original settlements in India by the Aryans who came from central Mongolian is

considered to be the most ancient epoch in the civilization of Maha Bharata. They have

treated these black skinned original inhabitants whom they encountered as lowly. Thus

at the beginning, differences in pigmentation portrayed a communal division. The views

that the Aryans were noble and the non-Aryans were lovely were created at the

beginning itself, but appeared to have undergone changes gradually. Earlier the Aryan

non-Aryan division was in conformity with skin color. However, when the Aryan

civilization became organizationally established the division of Varna assumed another

dimension. In that process, importance was given to the organization of society based

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on economic activities accordingly the caste system emerged. Man‟s superiority or

inferiority was determined in accordance with the caste. Caste is determined by birth.

People born to caste which were considered to be noble obtained grater privileges in

society. Those born to castes considered as low were sometimes disowned even of basic

human rights. The highest places in society was enjoyed by the Brahmin caste. They

were highly privileged and highly honored. They presented themselves as leaders of

societies around The world. There was no opportunity for a person of any other caste to

become a priest. This privilege entirely belonged to the Brahmins, and it was utilized by

them as a tool to subjugate the people of other caste. They acted as the representatives

of the all powerful Maha Brahma, the lord of everything. The Brahmins were the

educated section living in society. They also were consultants of the state as well as

advisers of society and government.

At most times they were also teachers. The knowledge of the three Vedas such as 1. Rig

2. Yajur and 3. Saman, Atharvan were the preserve of the Brahmins. The Brahmin adept

in these three vedas was recognized as Vedagu. In this manner, the Brahmamins who

had assigned to themselves the supreme position in the Indian society of that time and

presently. The society of Jummaland was follower Theravada Tripitaka as well as in

2017 ,whole Tripitaka version was translation to owned Chakma Jumma languges from

Pali to English with English to Bengali and Bengali to Jummo Chakma languge and

100th Birth anniversary of most Venerable Sadhanananda Mahathero (Bana Bhnate) on

2nd to 8th Janurary 2019, opend Whole holy Tripitaka Apps google internet from Rajban

Bihar, Rangamati, Jummaland,Bangladesh. Presently in Jummaland have about seven

thusand Theravada monks and about six hundred monastery and protection Theravada

tradition generation to generation by Jummo indigenous native people.

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4.4.3 Arahanths In Jummaland

Background of Arahanths Monks

The arahanthns in Jummaland is the most holy Buddhist monks it's an ancient times.

Adding up to twelve characteristics. When the knowledge of the reality which was

twelve fold was revealed, I affirmed to the world that I have reached the supreme

enlightenment. Thus the sight of wisdom was revealed to me. Freedom of my mind is

undisturbed. This is my last birth. Now I do not have a rebirth. Thus the Buddha

explained that profound doctrine to the team of five ascetics such as 1. Kondanna 2.

Wappa 3. Assaji 4.Bhaddiya and 5. Mahanama . To the ascetic Kondanna who listened

to this Dhammacakkappavattana sutta, according to Theravada, dawned the eye of

vision which was free of the dirt and defilements of sins. He comprehended that

whatsoever had the nature of existence, it also possessed the nature of destruction at this

instance the ascetic Kondanna gained knowledge about the four noble truths and hences,

he was named as Anna Kondanna by the Buddha, ordination was granted to him by the

Buddha by addressing him, come o monks, engage in the path of the noble conduct for

the elimination of suffering. This is called Ehi Bhikkhu Pravujja. From this ordination

onwards he was known as Anna Kondanna.

The rainy season approached by this time. The Buddha spent the first retreat at Isipatana

during the first year of his enlightenment. The Buddha described the noble doctrine to

the other four ascetics, all six, including the Buddha partook food from alms collected

by going from house to house. On the first day after the Full moon day of July month ,

the ascetics Vappa reached the sotapatti plane, while on the second, third and fourth

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days, the ascetics Bhaddiya, and Mahanama and Assaji respectively reached the same

status of sotapatti. They too received full ordination through –ehi bhikkhu pravajjya.

On the fifth day the Buddha expounded the Lakkhana sutta on their behalf at the end of

the discourse, the team of five monks realized the doctrine, and exterminating

defilements reached Arahanthhood, thus having the luck to become the first Arahanths

of the Buddha‟s dispensation. The dhamma cakkappavattana sutta which had been

sought and realized by the Buddha, and expounded to the team of five ascetics as well

as to the infinite number of deities and Brahmas, described the existence of the world,

and reasons for it as well as the cessation of the world and the glorious philosophy on

the path approaching towards that purpose. This philosophy is on the supreme noble

truths, which had been so far hidden by ignorance. As if a ruined city covered with

jungle had been rediscovered, the Buddha had searched and identified it, first realizing

its profundity and had expounded it for the emancipation of humanity that was engulfed

in ignorance. None of the religious teacher who appeared in india as founder of regious

were cognizant of this middle path. Therefore it had been recognized as a doctrine never

heard before-pubbe ananussutesu dhammesu. This sutta can be named as the essence of

Buddhist Philosophy.

4.4.4 The First Team of Sixty Arahanths

In that time there was Mr. Yasa, the son of the trade leader of Benaris, he was

disenchanted with the harshness of household life. He came to lord Buddha, listened to

the Dhamma, was pleased and received ordination.

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Thereafter his closest friends, Vimala, Subhahu, Punnaji and Gavampati-the foursome

listened to the Dhamma, were pleased and sought ordination. They received higher

ordination and reached Arahanthhood. Receiving this information, fifty friends of Mr.

Yasa came and were ordained. They listened to the Dhamma and with the realization of

the truth reached Arahanthhood.

Thus with the elapse of six months from enlightenment, by the full moon day of the

month of November, there were sixty Arahanths in the dispensation.

The trade leader of Benaris, father of Mr. Yasa, came in search of his son, listened to

the discourse of the Buddha and sought refuge in the Triple gem, and became the first

lay-devotee who sought refuge in the Triple gem in the dispensation. On his invitation,

the Buddha and the monks partook of alms and preached a sermon, having listened to

which Yasa former wife and Sujatha, the trade leader‟s wife reached the state of

sotapatti and sought refuge in the Triple gem. These two women were the first female

lay devotees in the dispensation who sought refuge in the Triple gem.

At the end of the first year, lord Buddha remained at Isipatana for one more month, and

addressed the first team of sixty Arahanths-

- “O monks, please walk in the villages and towns for the benefit and welfare of

many people, with compassion towards the world, for the prosperity and wellbeing

of gods and human beings. Let not two of you proceeded on the same path.

“Expound the doctrine that is benign at the beginning, middle and end, meaningful,

comprehensive in every way and pure. Describe the holy life”.

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Lord Buddha so advised and encouraged the first team of sixty Arahanths, and sent each

of them in a separate road for the propagation of the Dhamma. The lord Buddha

travelled alone to the village of Senani in the region of Uruvela. This was the first

mission of the dispensation of the Lord Buddha. Its objective was to transmit the pure

massage of the true doctrine to the largest number of people as quickly as possible. In

Jummaland ancient time lived monk name jom he was lived deeply jungle he made

small cottege and daily collected food rice nearly village and deeply meditation done

and people believed that he is get Arahanthhood at 16th century also he written book

Charchapoda . The village cow boy one day was seen that days rainy season so much

rain continues but his robe no any water with his body also river running big water full

any people didn‟t go to market some people very sorrowful living for food but those

people met the monk and take advice he told to you are go to market no any problem.

After those men safety went to market and back come safety also his have extra spiritual

power. His name was shiv Charon . another one is named Jom. He is was lived alone

deep forest he is get arahanthhood believe the local people. His meditation place named

Jomsuk. Jom is his named and suk meaning top hill, presently famous forest monastery

estbhilished there named Jomsuk Buddhist Meditation Center and Forest Monastery.

Also presently another monk name Sadhananda Bhante people known Bana Bhante he

was lived forest twelve year after he comed local forest near village Dighinala Bana

Bihar. The local name Bana mean forest so that he lived in forest or Bana after people

called to Bana Bhante. He has died in 2012,his body has in his monastery in Rangamati

Raj Bana Bihara, daily people about 1500/2000 visitor visited his monastery. Thus

taking different ways and roads in their progress and spreading the message regarding

the Dhamma by grapevine communication can be identified as a clear stage of the

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commencement in the history of world communication. Those holy Arahanths travelling

along different routes, explained the Dharmma to those who met them on the way, and

made arrangements for their ordination.

Thereafter, these groups too were sent on different routes. It is clear that this

methodology followed by the Buddha to disseminate the new message about the peace

world for Dharma among the people as well as awas a great success around the world.

4.4.5 The Lay Life and Festival in Jummaland

The Indigenous Jumma Chakma people live in town and village. village is called

“Adham” and having very fine houses, which are built entirely by wood, bamboo and

brick with the platform floor raised some 5/6 feet above the ground. This is called

“Moja-Ghar” (upper-house) and the other is called “Matya-Ghar” (ground house). both

of the houses are made with machan (platform). Normally they establish a village

nearby the riverbank at open pace hillock. Their houses are similar in all indigenous

Jumma communities.

Pouses of the north-east Asian people are also the same. The indigenous Jumma

Chakma house is divided into five compartments namely such as:

(01). A open roof platform is in front of verandah and is called “Ejor”. (02).

Chanah (front verandah) (03). Chingavah (drawing room) (04). Pijor (kitchen) and (05).

Ojeleng (back verandah).

In 1960, the indigenous Jumma people‟s Chakma raja palace was submerged under

waters by the Kaptai Hydro-Electric Dam, and then he built a Bungalow near

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Rangamati town. Likewise the indigenous Jumma Chakma build bungalows in the city.

during the British period, the British people also used to build bungalows. At present,

the indigenous Jumma Chakma people make their houses in a permanent fashion.

4.4.6 The Life Style of Jummaland

If we observed the history of the indigenous Jumma people, we can see the Chakma

lived on the bank of riverside and towns earlier. A traditional story of the indigenous

Jumma Chakma states that Prince Bijoygiri marched six days and six nights crossing

many rivers, lakes and oceans to establish territorial victory. After a successful victory

of the neighboring countries, they settled down near the Saprei-River as the

capital,years later, their dominance and power decreased by the invasion of neighboring

raja.

The king and then they shifted their capital into the north (upper Myanmar). They lived

there for more than five centuries and at that period, some of them learnt “Jum-Chash”

(shifting cultivation).

During the period of king arun 1333-1334 AD, a Burmese King attacked the Chakma

King and the Chakma country was divided into many parts. Therefore they could not

live there, and came to cox‟s bazaar, Ramu and Saplai-kul, now named Chakmar Kul,

from the bank of Kalandar River and finally they settled down in Alikadam, where the

Lama Police Station, and in Sukbhilash now north padua, South Rangunia and

Bandarban, Bangladesh. Alongside shifting cultivation, the indigenous Jumma Chakma

people practiced plough cultivation both in the hill side and plain land. Presently, they

are engaged in business as well a long struggle for over two decades the insurgency in

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Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) / Jummaland officially ended through signing of a Peace

Accord on December 02,1997 between the Govt. of Bangladesh and Parbattya

Chattagram Jono Samhati Samitee (PCJSS)/ United People‟s National Party of

Jummaland/CHT. The political culture of Jummaland continues to revolve around

CHT/Jummaland and ethno-centric issues. All Jummas regional political parties are

currently engaged in power-politics to maintain their influence over area and

population. Internal political parties want to full freedom state from Bangladesh.

4.4.7 The Present Situation in Jummaland

Present situation in Jummaland is there is no good situation. The 2nd December 1997,

Dhaka, Bangladesh government of People Republic Under the framework of the

Constitution of Bangladesh and keeping full and firm confidence in the sovereignty and

integrity of Bangladesh, to uphold the political, social, cultural, educational and

economic rights of all the people of Chittagong Hill Tracts region and to expedite

socioeconomic development process and to preserve and respect the rights of all the

citizens of Bangladesh and their development, the National Committee on Chittagong

Hill Tracts54, on behalf of the government of the People‟s Republic of Bangladesh, and

Parbatya Chattagram Jana Sanghati Samity, on behalf of the inhabitants of Chittagong

Hill Tracts, have reached the following agreement in four parts (A, B, C, D):

A). GENERAL

1. Both the sides have recognized the need for protecting the characteristics and

attaining overall development of the region considering Chittagong Hill Tracts as a

54
Ministry of Chittagong Hill Tracts Affairs websides…..p..3/6

118
 tribal inhabited region. Both the parties have decided to formulate, change, amend

and incorporate concerned acts, rules and regulations as soon as possible according

to the consensus and responsibility expressed in different sections of the agreement.

a) An Implementation Committee shall be formed to monitor the implementation

process of the agreement with the following members: A member nominated

by the Prime Minister: Convener

b) Chairman of the Task Force formed under the purview of the agreement:

c) Member

President of Parbatya Chattagram Jana Sanghati Samiti: Member The

agreement shall come into effect from the date of the signing and execution by

both the sides. This agreement shall remain valid from the date of its effect

until all the steps are executed as per the agreement.

B). CHITTAGONG HILL TRACTS LOCAL GOVERNMENT COUNCIL/HILL

DISTRICT COUNCIL

Both sides have reached agreement with regard to changing, amending, incorporating

and omitting the Hill District Local Government Council Acts1989 (Rangamati Hill

District Local Government Council Act 1989, Bandarban Hill District Local

Government Council Act 1989, Khagrachhari Hill District Local Government Council

Act 1989) and its different sections which were in existence before this agreement came

into being, as below:

1. The word “Jumma /tribal” used in different sections of the Council Acts shall stay.

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2. The name “Hill District Local Government Council” shall be amended and the name

of council shall be “Hill District Council.”

3. “Non-tribal permanent residents” shall mean a person who is not a tribal but has

legal land in the hill district and generally lives in the hill district at a specific

address.

4. a) There shall be 3 (three) seats for women in each of the Hill District Councils.

One third (1/3) of these seats shall be for non-tribal.

b) Sub-sections 1,2,3 and 4 of section 4 shall remain in force as per the original

act.

d) The words “deputy commissioner” and “deputy commissioner‟s” in the

second line of sub-section (5) of section 5 shall be replaced by “circle chief”

and “circle chief‟s”.

e) Following sub-section shall be added in section 4: Whether a person is a non-

tribal shall be determined, along with the identity of non-tribal community to

which he belongs, by the concerned Circle Chief on the provision of

submission of certificate from concerned Headman/Pourasabha

chairman/Union Paris had chairman and no person can be a candidate for the

office of the non-tribal member without a certificate from the concerned Circle

Chief in this regard.

It is narrated in section 7 that a person elected chairman or member shall make an

oath or announcement before the Divisional Commissioner of Chittagong. By

amendment of it there shall be incorporated that the members shall make oath or

announcement before “ a Justice of High Court Division” instead of “Divisional

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Commissioner of Chittagong”. The words “to Divisional Commissioner of Chittagong”

will be replaced by “as per election rules” in the fourth line of section 8.

7. The words “three years” shall be replaced by “five years” in the second line of

section 10.

8. There shall be a provision in section 14 that if the office of the Chairman falls

vacant or in absence of the Chairman, a tribal member elected by other members

of the Council shall preside and perform other responsibilities.

9. The existing section 17 shall be replaced with the sentences as mentioned below:

A person shall, under the law, be eligible to be enrolled in the electoral roll, if (1)

he is a citizen of Bangladesh; (2) he age is not less than18 years; (3) he is not

declared mentally unsound by any competent court; (4) he is a permanent resident

of Hill District.

10. The words “determination of electoral constituency” shall be added in the sub-

section (2) of section 20.

11. There shall be a provision in sub-section (2) of section 25 stating that the

chairman and in his absence a tribal member elected by other members shall

preside over all the meetings of the council.

12. As the entire region of Khagrachhari district is not included in the Maung circle,

the words “Khagrachhari Maung Chief” in section number 26 of Khagrachhari

Hill District Council Act shall be replaced by the words “Maung Circle Chief and

Chakma Circle Chief.” Similarly, there shall be scope for the presence of Bomang

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 Chief in the meeting of Rangamati Hill District Council. In the same way, there

shall be provision that the Bomang Circle Chief can attend the meetings of

Bandarban Hill District Council meetings if he wishes or is invited to join.

13. In sub-section (1) and sub-section (2) of section 31 there shall be a provision that

a chief executive officer equivalent to the status of a deputy secretary shall be the

secretary in the Council and there shall be provision that the tribal officials would

be given priority for this post.

14. a) There shall be a provision in sub-section (1) of section 32 that for the proper

conduct of its affairs the Council may, with the approval of the government,

create posts of various categories of officers and employees.

b) Sub-section (2) of section 32 shall, by amendment, be made as follows:

The Council can, in accordance with regulations, appoint class three and class

four employees, and can transfer, suspend, dismiss, remove or can impose

any other punitive action on them. But provided that the priority of the tribal

inhabitants must be maintained in case of the said appointments.

c) There shall be provision in the sub-section (3) of section 32 stating that: The

government can, in consultation with the Council, appoint other officers as

per regulation and can transfer, suspend, dismiss, remove or can impose any

other punitive action on them.

15. In sub-section (3) of section 33 “as per regulation” shall be mentioned.

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16. The words “or any other way determined by the government” placed in the third

line subsection (1) of section 36 shall be omitted.

17. a) The original law shall be in force in the fourth paragraph of sub-section (1) of

section 37.

b) “As per rules” will be included in Sub-section (2), sub-sub-section (d), ofsection

37.

18. Sub-section (3) of section 38 shall be repealed and by amendment, the sub-section

(4) shall be framed as follows: At any time before the expiry of the financial year, if

deemed necessary, budget may be formulated and sanctioned.

19. In section 42 the following sub-section shall be added: The Council with the fund

received from the government shall formulate, initiate and implement development

projects on the subjects transferred and all the development works initiated at the

national level shall be implemented by the concerned ministry/department through

the Council.

20. The word “government” placed in the second line of sub-section (2) of section 45

shall the replaced with the word “Council”

21. By repealing the sections 50, 51 and 52, the following section shall be made: The

government, if deemed necessary, may advice or order the Council, in order to

ensure conformity with the purpose of this Act. If the government is satisfied with

definite proof that anything done or intended to be done by the Council, or on

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 behalf of the Council, is not in conformity with law, or contrary to public interest,

the government may seek information and clarification and give advice or

instruction to the Council on the concerned matters in writing.

22. In sub-section (3) of section 53, the words “if the period of super session is

completed” shall be repealed and “within ninety days of super session” shall be

incorporated before the words “this Act”.23. The words “of the government” in the

third and fourth lines of section 61 shall be replaced with the words “of the

ministry”

24. a) By amendment, sub-section (1) of section 62 shall be made as follows:

Notwithstanding anything contained in any Act for the time being in force, all

members of the rank of Sub-Inspector and below of Hill District Police shall be

appointed by the Council in manner laid down by regulations, and the Council

may transfer and take disciplinary action against them as per Procedure laid

down by regulations; provided that in the manner of such appointment tribals

shall be given priority.

b) The words “subject to the provision of all other laws for the time being in force

"placed in the second line of sub-section (3) of section 62 shall be repealed and

substituted by the words “as per rules and regulation”.

25. The words “providing assistance” will remain in third line in section 63.

26. Section 64 shall be amended as follows:

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 a) .Not withstanding anything contained in any law for the time being in force, no

land, including those land suitable for giving settlement, within the boundaries

of Hill District shall be given in settlement including giving lease, purchased,

sold and transferred without prior approval of the Council; provided that this

provision shall not be applicable in case of areas within the reserved forests,

Kaptai Hydroelectricity Project, Bethbunia Earth Satellite Station, State-owned

industries and factories and lands recorded in the name of government.

b) .Not withstanding anything contained in any law for the being in force, no lands,

hills and forests within the control and jurisdiction of the Hill District Council

shall be acquired or transferred by the government without consultation and

consent of the Hill District Council.

c) The council can supervise and control functions of Headman, Chainman, Amin,

Surveyor, Kanungo and Assistant Commissioner (land).

d). Fringe land in Kaptai Lake shall be given settlement on priority basis to original

owners.

27. Section 65 shall be amended as follows: Not withstanding anything contained in any

other law of for the time being in force, responsibility of collecting land

development tax shall be entrusted in the Council and the said tax collected in the

District shall remain in the account of the Council.

28. By amendment of section 67 it shall be made as follows: If deemed necessary for

coordination of activities between the Council and government authorities,

governmentor the Council shall put specific proposal on certain matter(s) and

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 functions may be coordinated by mutual correspondence between the Council and

the government.

29. By amendment of sub-section (1) it shall be made as follows: The government in

consultation with the Council can, by notification in the official gazette, make rules

for carrying out the purposes of this Act and even after the rules had been made, the

Council shall have special right to file petition for reconsideration of the rules.

30. a) In the first and second paragraphs of sub-section (1) of Section 69, the words

“prior approval of the government” shall be omitted and the following part

shall be added after the words “can do” in the third Para: “Provided that if the

government differs with any part of the regulation made by the Hill District

Council then the government can give advice or instruction for amendment of

the said regulation”.

b) The words “transfer of power of Chairman to any officer” mentioned in the (h)

of subsection (2) of section 69 shall be omitted.31. Section 70 shall be omitted.

32. Section 79 shall be amended as follows: If in the opinion of the Council any law

applicable to Hill District, passed by the national parliament or any other authority,

is found to be hurtful to the district or objectionable to the Jumma tribal people, the

Council may file petition in writing, for the purpose of amendment or relaxation of

its application, to the government stating the reasons for which the law is being

hurtful or objectionable and the government shall in the light of the petition, adopt

necessary remedial measures.34. The following subjects shall be added in the

functions and responsibilities of the Hill District Council.

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 a) Land and land management

b) Police (local)

c) Tribal law and social justice

d) Youth Welfare

e) Environment preservation and development

f) Local tourism) Improvement trust and other local government institutions

except Pourasabha and Union Councils

g) Licensing for local trade and business

Proper utilization of water resources of rivulets, canals, ponds and irrigation

except Kaptai lake

h) Preservation of death and birth and other statistics

i) Money lending and trade

j) Jhum Cultivation and control.

35. The following sectors and sources shall be included in the taxes, rates, tolls and fees

to be imposed by the Council as stated in the second schedule:

a) Registration fee from non-mechanical transports

b) Tax on sale and purchase of goods

c) Holding tax from land and buildings

d) Tax on sale of domestic animals

e) Fees from cases of social justice

f) Holding tax on government and non-government industries

g) Part of royalty from forest resources

h) Supplementary tax from cinema, theatre and circus, etc.

127
 i) Part of royalty from license or lease given by the government for exp

33. a) The word “supervision” shall be added after the word “order” in the No. 1 of

the functions of the Council in the First Schedule.

b) The following subjects shall be added in the No. 3 of the functions of the

Council:

c) Vocational training; Primary education in mother tongue; Secondary education.

d) The words “or reserved” placed in sub-section 6(b) of the function of the

council in the First Schedule shall be committed. extraction of mineral

resources

e) Tax from business

f) Tax from lottery

g) Tax from fishing and etc..

C). THE CHITTAGONG HILL TRACTS REGIONALCOUNCIL (CHTRC)

1. A Regional Council shall be formed in coordination with the 3 Hill District Local

Council

D). REHABILITATION, GENERAL AMNESTY AND OTHER MATTERS

Both sides have reached the following position and agreement to take programmes for

restoring normal situation in Chittagong Hill Tracts area and to this end on the matters

of rehabilitation, general amnesty and others related issues and activities:

1. An agreement has been signed between the government and he refugee leaders on

March 9, 1997 with an aim to take back the tribal refugees from India‟s Tripura

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 State based on the 20-point Facilities Package. In accordance with the said

agreement repatriation of the refugees started since March 28, 1997. This process

shall continue and with this in view, the Jana Sanghati Samiti shall provide all kinds

of possible cooperation.

The Task Force shall, after determination, rehabilitate the internally displaced tribal

people of three districts.

2. After signing and implementation of the agreement between the government and the

Jana Sanghati Samiti, and after rehabilitation of the tribal refugees and internally

displaced tribal people, the government, in consultation with the Regional Council

to be formed as per this agreement, shall start cadastral survey in CHT as soon as

possible and after finalization of land ownership of tribal people by settlement of

land dispute through proper verification, shall record their land and ensure their land

rights.

3. The government, to ensure the land rights of the tribal families which are landless or

possess less than 2 acres of land, shall provide two acres of land to each such

family, provided that lands are available in the locality. If requisite lands are not

available then grove land shall be provided.

4. A commission (Land Commission) headed by a retired justice shall be formed for

settling land disputes. This commission, in addition to settling disputes of lands of

the rehabilitated tribal refugees, shall have full power for cancellation of ownership

of those lands and hills which have been so far illegally settled and occupied. No

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 appeal can be made against the judgment of this commission and decision of this

commission shall be final. This shall also be applicable in case of fringe land55.

5. This commission shall be set up with the following members:

Retired justice;

Circle chief (concerned);

Chairman of Regional Council/representative;

Divisional Commissioner/Additional Commissioner Hill District Council

Chairman(concerned) Government Councils provided that various sections of the Hill

District Local Government Council Act 1989 (Act No. 19,20 and 21 of 1989) shall be

amended with an aim to make the three Hill District Local Government Councils more

powerful and effective. Chairman of this Council shall be elected indirectly by the

elected members of the Hill District Councils, his status shall be equivalent to that of a

State Minister and he must be a Jumma tribal person.

3.The Council shall be formed with 22(twenty-two) members including the Chairman.

Two-thirds of the members shall be elected from among the tribals. The Council shall

be add.

a) The term of the commission shall be three years. But its term can be extended in

consultation with the Regional Council.

b) The Commission shall settle disputes according to the existing rules, customs and

practices of Chittagong Hill Tracts or Jummaland.

55
Ibid…..p..5/7

130
5. The tribal refugees who received loans from the government but could not utilize

them properly due to conflicting situation shall be exempted from repayment of

loans and interests.

6. Allotment of lands for rubber plantation and other purposes: Settlement of land, of

those non-tribals and non-locals who were given settlement of lands for rubber

plantation and other purposes but had not undertake project within the past 10 years

or had not utilized their lands properly, shall be cancelled.

7. The government shall allot additional funds on priority basis for implementation of

increased number of projects in CHT. New projects formulated with an aim to make

necessary infrastructures for facilitating development in the area shall be

implemented on priority basis and the government shall provide funds for these

purposes. The government shall, considering the state of environment in the region,

encourage developing tourism for tourists from within the country and abroad Quota

reservation and scholarships: Until development equals that of other regions of the

country the government shall continue reservation of quota system in government

services and educational institutions for the tribals. For this purpose, the government

shall grant more scholarships for the tribal students in the educational institutions.

The government shall provide necessary scholarships for research works and higher

education abroad.

8. The government and the elected representatives shall be active to preserve the

distinctiveness of the tribal culture and heritage. The government in order to develop

the tribal cultural activities at the national level shall provide necessary

patronization and assistance.

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9. The Jana Samhati Samiti shall submit to the government the lists of all its members

including the armed ones and the arms and ammunition under its possession and

control within 45 days of signing this agreement.

10. The government and the Jana Samhati Samiti shall jointly determine the date and

place for depositing arms within the 45 days of signing this agreement. After

determination of date and place for depositing arms by the members included in the

list of the Jana Samhati Samiti the government shall ensure security for return of

JSS members and their family members to normal life.

11. The government shall declare amnesty for the members who shall deposit their arms

and ammunition on the scheduled date. The government shall withdraw the cases

against whom cases have been lodged.

12. If anyone fails to deposit arms on the scheduled date the government shall take

lawful measures against him.

13. After the return of all JSS members to normal life general amnesty shall be given to

them and to the permanent residents who were involved in the activities of the Jana

Sanghati Samiti.

a) In order to provide rehabilitation to all returnee JSS members a lump sumof Taka

50,000/- shall be given to each family.

b) All cases, warrants of arrest, held against any armed member or general member of

the Jana Sanghati Samiti shall be withdrawn and punishment given after trial in

absentia shall be exempted after surrender of arms and coming back to normal life

as soon as possible. Any member of the Jana Sanghati Samiti in jail shall be

released.

132
c) Similarly, after surrendering arms and coming back to normal life, no case can be

filed or no punishment can be given to any person for merely being a member of the

Jana Sanghati Samiti.

d) The loans obtained by the members of the Jana Sanghati Samity from Different

government banks or other agencies but could not be utilize dewing to conflicting

situation would be exempted with interest.

e) Those members of the PCJSS who were employed in various government jobs shall

be absorbed in their respective posts and the eligible members of their family shall

be given jobs as per their qualifications. In such cases, the government principles

regarding relaxation of age would be followed.

f) Bank loans of soft terms shall be given to the members of the PCJSS for cottage

industry and horticulture and other such self-employment generating activities.

g) Educational facilities shall be provided for the children of the Jana Sanghati Samity

members and the certificates obtained from foreign board and educational

institutions shall be considered as valid.

14. a) After signing of the agreement between the government and the Jana Sanghati

Samiti and immediately after the return of the JSS members to normal life, all the

temporary camps of military, Ansar and Village Defense Party shall be taken back

to permanent installations except the border security force (BDR) and permanent

Tracts for a particular post, the government may give appointment on lien or for a

definite period to such posts.

133
15. A ministry on Chittagong Hill Tracts Affairs shall be established by appointing a

Minister from among the tribals. An Advisory Council shall be formed to assist this

ministry with the persons stated below:

a) Minister on CHT Affairs

b) Chairman/representative, Regional Council;

c) Chairman/representative, Rangamati Hill District Council;

d) Chairman/representative, Bandarban Hill District Council;

e) Chairman/representative, Khagrachari Hill District Council;

f) Member of Parliament, Rangamati;

g) Member of Parliament, Bandarban;

h) Member of Parliament, Khagrachari;

i) Chakma Raja;

j) Bohmang Raja;

k) Mong Raja;

l) Three members from non-tribal permanent residents of hilly areas nominated by the

government from three Hill Districts.a) Minister onCHT Affairs

b) Chairman/representative, Regional Council;

d) Chairman/representative, Rangamati Hill District Council;

e) Chairman/representative, Bandarban Hill District Council;

f) Chairman/representative, Khagrachari Hill District Council;

g) Member of Parliament, Rangamati;

h) Member of Parliament, Bandarban;

i) Member of Parliament, Khagrachari;

134
 j) Chakma Raja;56

k) Bohmang Raja;

l) Mong Raja;

m) Three members from non-tribal permanent residents of hilly areas nominated by the

government from three Hill Districts. This agreement is framed as above in Bengali

language and English language is done and signed in Dhaka on the date of 02

December, 1997 A.D., 18 Agrahayan 1404 Bengali year.

4.5 Section Three

4.5.1 The Religious and Political Activism in Jummaland

Religious Association formed in 1958 CHT, East Pakistan, now BangladeshAn

Association named “Parbatya Chattagram Bhikkhu Samiti” (ChittagongHill Tracts

Bhikkhu Association) was formed under the leadership of Most Ven. Aggavamsa

Mahathera during the Pakistan rule in 1959. Ven. Aggavamsa Mahathera had been

appointed as the Chief monk of the Chakma Raja Vihara at Rangamati entitling him as

“Chakma Rajaguru” in1958. This association played a significant role in spreading

Buddhism in Chittagong Hill Tracts, East Pakistan. Around this organization, a

considerable number of Buddhist monks and monasteries increased in CHT, East

Pakistan. This association still exists in CHT. Now it is widely known as “Parbatya

Bhikkhu Sangha - Bangladesh” under the Presidentship of Most Ven. Tilokananda

Mahathera, a disciple of the founder Most Ven.Rajaguru Aggavamsa Mahathera.Prior to

the formation of this association, the Buddhist Bhikkhus of the Chakma community or

56
Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) Peace Accord of 1997,p…7

135
Jumma or Indigenous Buddhist belonged to the Sangharaja Nikaya, now it became a

separate Buddhist Nikaya named “Parbatya Buddha MahaNikaya” East Pakistan. Now

the Buddhist Bhikkhus of the CHT belong to the Parbatya Buddha Maha Nikaya, East

Pakistan.

Although many others Buddhist religious associations came into being, this association

carried out several demonstrations in protest against Buddhist religious persecution on

the Buddhists of the CHT, which took place under the Pakistan Government rule.It is

worth mentioning here that majority of the Jumma Buddhist are followers of Buddhism

with a significant number following Hinduism and Christianity. A small number of

them followed indigenous faith and some are in conjunction with Buddhism, Hinduism

or Christianity.

Under the Pakistan Muslim rule (1947-1997), these minority ethnic communities

became the victims of cultural, religious and social persecution of the Pakistan

government constantly. A considerable number of Buddhist monasteries were destroyed

or set on fire and many Buddhist monks were slaughtered. The Buddhists had been

victims of many atrocities such as genocide, displacement and human rights violation

etc. This fact is corroborated by investigation reports of many foreign governments and

non-government organization such as Amnesty International, Antislavery International,

Tthe organizing Committee of Chittagong Hill Tracts Campaign, Netherlands,

Parliamentary Human Rights Group and Survival International, UK, The CHT

Commission and Gesellseheft fur Bedroht Volker, Germany etc. The religion didn‟t

protection without political power.

136
Due to the above mentioned situation and persecution, a considerable number of these

minority communities, numbering fifty thousands were compelled to take shelter as

refugees in Tripura state of India in 1986. They returned to their homeland after signing

a peace agreement in 1997 between the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh Government

and the Indigenous Jumma Buddhists rebel groups concerned1.

The anthropological impression is that all indigenous Jumma Sects of CHT are linked

with Mongolian races. In the words of A. B. Rajput, “these indigenous Jummas are

ethnically different from the Bengali of East Pakistan and appear to have some racial

links with the primitive indigenous or Jumma of the vast belt extending Tibet down to

Thailand”.

The indigenous or Jumma peoples of the CHT irrespective of their group and religion

have a common and cultural heritage of their own. Their lifestyle, physical features,

religion, language and culture are different from the majority Muslim people in the

plain district, East Pakistan. They exchanged views with their own dialect or languages.

Even some of the indigenous or Jumma have their own script as well. Needless to say

that, the indigenous Jumma and their families are almost self-sufficient in terms of

respective household requirements. They can manufacture themselves their own clothes

as traditional dress, residential house and other household materials applying artistic

design. In addition, they manufacture drinks,baskets and agricultural appliances as well

as.

Pakistan got independence on 14 August 1947 and India on 15 August 1947 from the

British colonial rule. This Indo-Pak sub-continent was partitioned on the two-nation

theory (Hindu and Muslim), assumed by the then British Government. Under this

137
system, the British considered Pakistan as the place were majority of the Muslims live

and India as the state where the Hindus live, under this point of view, the CHT and its

peoples where 97 per cent are Buddhists resulted in a problem relating to its annexation.

As a result, prior to the declaration of independence, a delegation of Jumma indigenous

people approached New Delhi and met the British Head Mr. Datel and Jawaharlal

Nehru and told them that the CHT should be included with India.Both of them had

provided proper assurance in this regard. Following their assurance, the Jumma peoples

hoisted the Indian flag on 15th August 1947 at Rangamati. In addition, the Burmese flag

was hoisted in the Bandarban district on 16th August 1947.

In the CHT was annexed with the Pakistan, which was published in Radcliff on 16

August 1947. Later, on 21st August 1947, the Pakistani military took down the hoisted

Indian flag and Burmese flag from Rangamati and Bandarban respectively. This

historical event resulted in mutual distrust, suspicion and gap between the Indigenous

Jumma Buddhists and the ruling Pakistan Muslim government in the period of time that

followed.

The indigenous Jumma people believed that the Pakistan Muslim Government had a

strong intention of turning CHT into a Muslims majority area. Additionally, the ruling

Muslim Pakistan Government had suspicion that the indigenous Jumma people will

never be loyal to the Muslim Pakistan Government and its peoples.

The Muslim Pakistan Government started a hydroelectric project dam in 1960

inundating 250 sq. miles of the CHT East Pakistan region permanently.

138
During this period about 100,000 indigenous Jumma Buddhist people lost their

homesteads and 54,000 acres of fertile lands, which comprise 40 per cent of the total

land of CHT, was covered by the dam and water. During this time, 50,000 indigenous

Jumma Buddhist people had taken shelter in India and settled there permanently at the

Arunachal Pradesh. And 20,000 indigenous Jumma Bddhists went to Arakan in

Myanmar who had not returned yet. The rest of the Indigenous Jumma people, around

40,000 declined economically. Those who left for India had gained neither citizenship

nor any Government employment so far. Only nominal compensation or rehabilitation

has been paid to the evacuees although the government had promised that compensation

would be paid to Muslims.

This dam is now known as Kaptai Lake that inundated large areas of both sides of the

river of Karnafuli, the Kassalong, the Chengi, the Mayani and the Raikang. Fortunately,

a college was established by the government of Pakistan in 1965 at Rangamati and the

indigenous Jumma Buddhists benefited a little in the field of education.Among the an

Indigenous Jumma Buddhist sects, the Chakmas are the majority community not only in

Chittagong Hill Tracts, but also in the entire Bangladesh, India and Myanmar. Unlike

other nations, they had their historical and cultural heritage, national scripts, languages,

folklore and social custom etc of their own. Anthropologically they are considered to be

the peoples of Southeast Asia. The majority of the people belonging to this community

dwell in the jurisdiction of the Chakma Circle (Rangamati and some in the Khagrachari

Hill District).

In Addition, a considerable number of them reside in the northern and southern parts of

the Chittagong Hill Tracts, now a part of Bangladesh. According to their own traditional

139
history, they had been in the southern part of CHT and gradually had been moved to

northern direction by the historical Chakma king.

In 1784 A.D, under the rule of the British Government, five thousands Chakma people

fled to neighboring state of Tripura, India while the dispute between the queen Kalindi

of the Chakma and the British Government rulers was continuing. Under Pakistan rule

(1947-1970), forty thousand people fled to India permanently from this community. It is

needless to say that with the construction of the Kaptai electronic dam in the central part

of the Indigenous Jumma Chakma Circle, among the indigenous Jumma Buddhist

communities of the CHT, it was the Jumma people who had become the victims of

massive loss of lands.

The Muslims infiltration in Chittagong Hill Tracts-Jummaland The Bangladesh

Government began to encourage poor Bengali Muslim families to settle in CHT. In

1960, the Pakistan Government authorities evacuated 100,000 Indigenous Jumma

Buddhist people by constructing a hydroelectric dam under the pretext of

industrialization, by paying nominal compensation to the evacuees. Under the British

Government colonial rule, the British Government authority restricted migration into

CHT by passing the regulation, „CHT Act of 1900”57. According to this act, no outsider

could purchase land in Jummaland/CHT.

However, some paddy land leases were granted to some Muslim families who settled in

this region. This restriction imposed by the British restricted the Muslim population to

less than 3 per cent in CHT till the end of the British Government rule in 1947. In

57
The Chittagong Hill Tracts Regulation of 1900 by British government…p..14

140
collaboration with the Pakistan Government, many of the Muslim families migrated to

CHT since 1950,1960 and early 1976, 1980, 1986, 1989 and 1991.

Towards the end of Pakistan Government rule in 1971, the population of Muslim

settlers who migrated from Bangladesh into CHT increased 10 percent in 1970. When

the Pakistan Government rule in 1971 came to an end,50,000 Muslim poor settlers

migrated into CHT and settled down there permanently. Like the Pakistan Government

Rule, the Government of Bangladesh followed the same policy. Under the assistance

and co-operation of Bangladesh Government, a great stream of Muslim settlers settled

into CHT as a far-reaching political motivated policy. When the Military leader Ziaur

Rahaman became President of Bangladesh, several waves of poor Muslim settlers were

brought officially into CHT‟. Over 400,000 Muslim settlers had been given permanent

settlement throughout the CHT since1976 to 1995. In addition, a large number of poor

Muslim were settled here officially and non-officially.

Eventually, the CHT region where the Muslim population was less than 3per cent in

1947 became the majority as a result of constant migration carried out by Pakistan

Government and Bangladesh Government. This far-reaching political motive turned the

majority indigenous Jumma Buddhist people into a minority and the minority poor

Muslims into a majority, which have had devastating effects on the social, political,

economic and religious structure of the indigenous Jumma Buddhists.

Pakistan, known as the officially as the Islamic Republic of Pakistan with apopulation

exceeding 180 million is the sixth most populous country in the world. Pakistan has the

second largest Muslim population in the world with 11.0 per cent, next to Indonesia,

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considered a secular nation with 12.7 percent with India having 10.9 per cent and

Bangladesh 9.2 per cent. This region once had a large Buddhist population.

This region was part of Bactria, the Indo-Greek kingdom, the Kushan Empire, the

Maurya Empire of Ashoka, the Punjab, and the Indus River valley regions.

The Swat Valley, historically known as Uddiyana, was a kingdom tributary to

Gandhara, Pakistan58. There are many archaeological sites, Buddhist artifacts, including

great statues of the Lord Buddha carved into the big monasteries and mountainside,

similar to those crafted 1500 years ago, e.g.

Bamiyan Buddha statue. One of the world‟s greatest Buddha statues,Bamiyan Buddha

was destroyed in 2001 by the Taliban Government in Afghanistan.

Emperor Ashoka (273-232 AD), the grandson of the founder of the Mauryan dynasty,

demonstrated his conversion to Buddhism vigorously through his edicts carved on

pillars of stone and wood, from Bengal to Afghanistan and into the south. Ashoka‟s

empire extended to the northwestern borders of Punjab.

The majority of people in Gandhara (present day north western Pakistan and eastern

Afghanistan) were Buddhist, largely Mahayana Buddhist. Gandhara was also a

stronghold of Vajrayana Buddhism. The Buddhist sage Padmasambhava is said to have

been born in a village near the present day town of Chakdara in lower dir district,

Pakistan which was then a part of Uddiyana.59

58
A Guide to Takht-I-Bahi, by Fidaullah Sehrai, published by Gandhara house, Peshawar-25120, printed
by Newfine Printing Press, 48/A.Lower Mall, Lahore, Pakistan,P..21
59
Ibid………..p..24

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Padmasambhava is known as guru rinpoche in Tibet and it is he who introduced

Vajrayana Buddhism into Tibet. The Gandhara remained a largely Buddhist land until

around 800 AD, when the pashtun people invaded the region from southern Afghanistan

and introduced the Islamic religion.

4.5.2 The Foreign Invasions Introduce of Political Activities onBuddhism

The Kushan dominated the areas of Hindu Kush into Kabul, Gandhara,northern

Pakistan and north-western India.

They controlled the region between India, China, Parthia and the Roman Empire,

providing an ideal medium for the further spread of Buddhism.From the 2nd century AD

to the 2nd century AD, Buddhism gradually developed in northwestern India and the

great kushan ruler, kanishka who reigned from 144-172 AD, was converted.

The Punjab Region, PakistanBuddhism was practiced in the Panjab region, with many

Buddhist monasteries and stupas in Taxila, the world heritage site. Buddhist scholar

Kumaralabdha of Taxila was comparable to Ariyadeva, Asvaghosa and Nagarjuna.

Currently there is a small community of at least 1,500 PakistaniBuddhists in the Punjab

region. Buddhism was also practiced in the Punjaband Sindh regions. Most Buddhists in

Punjab reverted to Hinduism from 600 CE onwards. Buddhism was the faith practiced

by the majority of the population of Sindh up to the Arab conquest by the Umayad

Caliphate in710 AD.

Before the 1st century, the Shakyamuni Buddha was represented by symbols only, e.g,

the Bodhi tree or a footprint. The Gandhara art created the earliest from of the Buddha

images. The other school of Buddhist art is the Mathura.

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The Tibetan Thanka (mandala) on cloth is the third form of Buddhist represented art

from Taxila to Peshawar, Dir and Swat, the region is replete with excavated monasteries

and the Buddha statues. The best known is that of the Fasting Buddha housed in the

Lahore Museum. An emaciated Prince Siddhartha with gaunt features and a torso of ribs

and skin depicts the ultimate stage of severe austerities, before he accepted an offering

of rice gruel that gave him back a flicker of vitality that led him on to his final

meditation and attainment of Buddhahood.

Gandhara is the name of the sculpture, mainly in schist, depicting the Lord Buddha and

scenes from his life. The second connotation is of course the ancient kingdom of

Gandhara, even mentioned in the epic Mahabharata.

Gandhara today is in the north- west frontier province of Pakistan. It is here under the

patronage of King Kanishka in the 1st century AD, that the artisans created the first Lord

Buddha image in the likeness of apollo. The famousdebate between king Menander and

the monk Nagasena on the nature of self and identity also took place in Gandhara.

Pakistan is a country with a rich multi textured cultural heritage. The province of Punjab

has splendid Muslim monuments. The sindhu has the Indus valley civilization,

Balochistan boasts many and varied prehistoric sites, and the north- west frontier

province is renowned for the Buddhist civilization of Gandhara. And Gandhara which

has influenced the entire Buddhist world and its arts may be considered as poetry is

stone.

The pervading presence of mounds with archaeological potentials from the river valleys

of the Indus to the rugged mountain slopes of dir and swat place are manifestations of

144
distant and different civilizations that flickered or flourished for a while before

dissolution. Some of these mounds have already revealed innumerable Gandhara

Buddhist sculptures.Some are illegally and haphazardly excavated by antiquity dealers

under cover of night and the Gandhara sculptures unearthed are smuggled out of the

country. some adorn museums, others proclaim their presence like trophies in private

collections of the affluent all over the world.

The Buddhist monastery of Takht-i-Bahi in the Mardan district is the only world

heritage site in the North West Fortier Province in Pakistan. It draws thousands of

visitors every year.

(01). THE RANIGAT

The Ranigat site is on a hill top in Bunner bordering Swabi district. It was jointly

excavated by the Department of Archaeology and Museums,Government of Islamic

Republic of Pakistan and a team of the Kyoto University of Japan. A main stupa and

votive stupas were unearthed, yielding priceless Gandhara sculptures.

(02). THE JAMAL GARHI

The Jamal Garhi stupa site at Jamal Garhi village in the Mardan district

wasscientifically excavated before independence of the country. It produced exquisite

Gandhara sculptures. And the renowned fasting Lord Buddha in the Lahore Meseum

have was recovered from the site of Sikri in the neighborhood of Jamal Garhi60.

(03). THE KASHMIR SMAST

60
Ibid…….p..31

145
The Kashmir Smast natural cave is situated in the Sakra Range of hill in theMardan

district. It was in use in all the periods of ancient history. It containsthe remains of the

early Shivite monastic establishment and needs further exploration and excavation

inside and outside the cave.

(04). THE BUT KURA

The But Kura site was excavated by the Department of Archaeology,University

Peshawar in Swat district. Complete stupas and shrines were discovered.

(05).THE SHINKARDAR STUPA

The Shinkardar A huge stupa stands by the roadside close to the village of Shinkardar in

Swat district. It is presumed to be the stupa of King Uttarasena who had brought the

relics of the Lord Buddha on a white elephant and enshrined them in the Shinkardar

Stupa.

(06). THE NAJIGRAM STUPA AND MONASTERY

The Najigram stupa and Monastery are two very beautiful stupas and a monastery near

the village of Najigram in Swat district, about half an hour‟s walk from the village. The

two stupas are bigger than the stupa of the Takht-i- Bahi. The monastic cells still retain

their original roofs.

(07). THE HUND

The Hund is a historical place. The village within the Mughal fort is the third and last

capital of Gandhara on the right bank of the river Indus in the Swabi district. It was the

146
seat of the famous Hindushahiyya dynasty of Ganghara.Alexander the Great, the

Chinese pilgrims Hiuen Tsang and Sung Yuu, Bahar, the founder of the Mughal Empire

and others famous invaders crossed the river Indus here on their onward journey to

Taxila and Gandhara and India.

4.5.3 The Deterioration of Buddhism due to Political Activism

In 1971, the East Pakistan came into being to be Bangladesh through a bloody war.

Before and now, Jummaland Buddhists follow Theravada Buddhism as in Myanmar,

Thailand, Sri Lanka, Cambodia, South Vietnam,and Laos. In 1960, a Buddhist temple

named Dharmmarajika Bauddha Maha Vihara was established in Dhaka, the capital city

of Bangladesh. In addition to the Shakyamuni Bauddha Maha Vihara, Mirpur, Dhaka

was also established. At present, there are five Buddhist temples in Dhaka, namely

Kamalapur, Basabo Dharmmarajiaka Bauddha Maha Vihara, Mirpur Shakyamuni

Bauddha Maha Vihara, Saver International Bana Vihara, Badda International Buddhist

Temple and Saver near Marma National Buddhist Temple.

The present Buddhists of Bangladeshi are divided into two groups. (01).Indigenous

Jumma Buddhist groups (Chakma, Marma, Rakhain,Tanchangya and Chak also some

Tripura and Adivasi people etc). (02). Bengali Buddhists (Barua and Singh). The

original Buddhists of Bangladesh are Indigenous Jumma Buddhists who mostly live in

Chittagong Hill Tracts.

he majority of the Buddhist communities have been permanently in CHT and a

considerable number live in Chittagong, Cox‟s Bazaar, Comilla,Rangpore, Patuakhali,

Barishal and north Bengal and Dhaka district.Buddhism is the third largest religion in

147
Bangladesh with about 9.2 per cent of population adhering to Theravada Buddhism.

Most of the followers are Baruas living in Chittagong, and other districts of Bangladesh

where they constitute about 65 per cent of Buddhists. Other indigenous Jumma

Buddhists like Chakma people who are found mainly in town, and hill sites,constitute

about 75 per cent of the area‟s population. There are in 45 disticts Jummaland has have

about 3000 Buddhist Temples and monks about 3500.

4.5.4 The Demographic Overview

At present, followers of Buddhism are mainly Indigenous Jumma Buddhists living in

Rangamati Hill district, Khagrachari Hill district and Bardarban Hill district and Baruas

living in Chittagong, the commercial and business city of Bangladesh and indigenous

people of Arakanese descent live in thesub-districts of other districts of Bangladesh.

Indigenous Jumma people such as Chakma, Marma, Chak, Tanchangya and Khyang

and also from Tripura who have been practicing Buddhism for generations constitute 75

percent among the 0.09 percent population of Bangladesh, It should be noted here that

some indigenous people notably those who practice animism, have come under some

Buddhist influence and this is true in the case of the Khumi and the Mru, and to a lesser

extent on others indigenous people as Lusai.

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The Buddhist Population across Bangladesh District Individually Jummaland-

CHT are as follows:

Districts Percentage (%)

Rangamati, CHT 90 %

Khagrachari,CHT 85 %

Bandarban, CHT 83 %

Chittagong 12.65

Comilla 0.55

Rangpore 11.06

Khulna 0.08

Dhaka 0.03

Rajshahi 0.23

Barisal 0.06

Sylhet 0.2

Cox‟s Bazaar 0.11

Patuakhali 0.9

Bagura 0.3

Table 7: Govt. of Jummaland, 1998

4.5.5 Brief History

A legend says that Gautama Buddha has come to the region to spread Buddhism, and it

was speculated that one or two individuals became monks to follow his footsteps.

However, Buddhism did not gain much support during the lifetime of Gautama Buddha.

149
It was only under the reign of Emperor Ashoka that Buddhism gained ground in this

region61.

Buddhism in various forms appears to have been prevalent at the time of the Turkish

conquest in 1202 AD. The invading armies apparently found numerous monasteries,

which they destroyed. With the destruction of its centers of learning such as Nalanda

University, the first university of the world, Buddhism rapidly disintegrated. In

subsequent centuries and up to the1980, nearly all the remaining Buddhists lived in the

region around Chittagong, which had not been entirely conquered until the time of the

British Raj (1858-1947 AD). In the CHT, indigenous Buddhist formed the majority of

the population, and their religion appeared to be a mixture of indigenous Jumma Cults

and Buddhist doctrines. According to the 1981 census, there were approximately

538,000 Buddhist people in Bangladesh, representing less than 1 per cent of the

population.

4.6 Section Four

4.6.1 The Culture and Monastic life

There are several monasteries in Jummaland CHT area and in most Buddhist villages,

there are temple schools (kyong) where boys live and learn to read Chakmas, Burmese

and Pali. It is common for young men who have finished their schooling to return at

regular intervals for periods of residence in the temple school. The local Buddhist shrine

is often an important center of village life.The Buddhist cultural are for ancient time

follower and practice Buddhism outside the monastic retreats has absorbed and adapted

61
www.buddhism in Bangladesh….p..8

150
indigenous popular creeds and cults of the regions to which it has been spread. In most

areas, religious ritual focuses on the image of the Lord Buddha, and the major festivals

observed by Buddhists in Bangladesh commemorate the important events of the

Buddha‟s life.

Although doctrinal Buddhism rejects the worship of gods and preserves the memory of

Lord Buddha as an enlightened man, popular Buddhism contains a pantheon of gods

and lesser deities headed by the Lord Buddha.

The Ministry of Religious Affairs provides assistance for the maintenance of Buddhist

places of worship and relics. The ancient monasteries at Paharpur in Rajshahi Region

and Mainamati in Comilla Region, dating from the seventh to ninth century AD, are

considered unique for their size and setting and are maintained as state protected

monuments.

The Prominent Jummaland Buddhist monks and Arahant Venerable Shadhanananda

Mahathero (Bana Bhante Arahant) Venerable Joma Shadok was a Arahant Venerable

Jyotipala Mahathero Venerable Silalongkar Mahathero Venerable Aggavamsa

Mahathero Venerable Bimalvamsa Mahathero Venerable Dhamma Priya

MahatheroVenerable Visuddhananda Mahathero Venerable Jinavamsa Mahathero

Venerable Jitananda Mahathero Venerable Prajananda Mahathero Venerable Nandapala

Mahathero Venerable Pragyalongkar Mahathero Venerable Sumanalongkar

MahatheroVenerable Shadhalongkar Mahathero Venerable Sudhananda Mahathero

Venerable Dharmmapala Mahathero Venerable Dharmmasen Mahathero Venerable U.

Pandita Mahathero Venerable U. Pannya Jyota Mahathero (Guru Bhante) LL.B (Hons),

LL.M, BCS (Senior Assistant Judge) Venerable Banasri Mahathero M.AVenerable

151
Gyanasri Mahathero Venerable Bimal Tissa Mahathero Venerable Punnajyoti

Mahathero Venerable Dharmmajyoti Thero Venerable Dr.

Rashtrapal Mahathero (Mahapuram, Ram Hari Para, Venerable Dr. Girimananda

Mahathero Venerable Karunabardhan Thero Venerable Bijoyananda Thero Venerable

Dr.Prayalankar Bhikkhu Venerable Dr.Karunalankar Bhikkhu Venerable Shilananda

Bhikkhu Venerable Sasana Jyoti Bhikkhu Venerable Karunananda BhikkhuVenerable

Dharmmananda Bhikkhu Venerable Shilananda Bhikkhu Venerable Sumanajyoti

Bhikkhu Venerable Tejavamsa Bhikkhu Venerable Shilanada Thero

Venerable Priyadharshi Thero

4.6.2 Jummaland Buddhist Scholars

Dr. Manik Lal Dewan (Chakma) is the first Ph.D Degree holder in Chittagong Hill

Tracts, Rangamati. Dr. Benimadhab Barua is the first Ph.D Degree holder in

Chittagong. Venerable Prof. Dr. Rashtrapal Mahathero is the second Ph.D Degree

holder in CHT. Venerable Shadhanananda Mahathero (Bana Bhante), Rangamati,

CHT. Dr.Niru Kumar Chakma,third Ph.D Degree holder in CHT. Ven. Dr.Girimananda

Mahathero. Ven. Dr.Prajnalankar Bhikkhu, Dr.Rupananda roy Chakma Ven.Dr.

Jinobodhi Mahathero. Ven.Prof.Prajanabangsha Mahathero. Dr. Jagat Jyoti Chakma,

Rangamati, CHT. Dr. Rupananda Roy Chakma Dr.Ananda Bikash Chakma Jummaland

Buddhist Military, Mr. Anup Kumar Chakma, Major General, currently serving as

Ambassador of Bangladesh to Myanmar. Mr. Tushar Kanti Chakma, Brigadier General,

currently serving as Director, Trust Bank, Dhaka. Jummaland Civil Service, Mr. Kusum

Dewan, Deputy Commissioner of Police, currently serving as D.C (Port), Chittagong.

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Mr. Amulya Bhushan Barua, Deputy Inspector General, Bangladesh Police.

Mr. Nobo Bikrom Kishor Tripura, Additional Inspector General, Bangladesh Police,

Dhaka.

4.6.3 Jummaland Administrations

Mr. Saradindu Shekhar Chakma, Retired Additional Secretary and former Ambassador

of Bangladesh to Bhutan.

Mr. Supradip Chakma, Joint Secretary, currently serving as Ambassador of Bangladesh

to Vietnam. Barrister Mr. Debashish Roy, Bangladesh Supreme Court, Dhaka, Chakma

Raja (Chakma Circle Chief).

Jummaland Politics

Mr. Kalparanjan Chakma (Jummaland Awami League), Ex-state Minister for the

Chittagong Hill Tracts Affairs, Dhaka.

Mr. Dilip Barua (Jummaland Samyabadi Dal, Marksbadi-Leninbadi) currently minister,

Ministry of Industries.

Mr. Dipankar Talukder (Jummaland Awami League), currently State Minister for CHT

Affairs, Dhaka.

Mr. Mani Swapan Dewan (Jummaland Nationalist Party), Ex-deputy Minister for CHT

Affairs, Dhaka.

Mr. Bir Bahadur (Jummaland Awami League), M.P, elected from Bandarban Hill

District, CHT.

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Mr. Jyotirindra Bodhipriya Larma (Santu Larma), Chairman, CHT Regional Council

also President, Parbatya Chattagram Jana Sanghati Samiti (United People‟s Party of

CHT)

Mr. Uday Kushum Barua, Joint Secretary General, Jummaland Nationalist Party (JNP),

North District of Chittagong.

4.6.4 Jummaland Arts and Literature

Mrs. Kanak Champa Chakma (artist), General Secretary of Tone Arts

Society of Bangladesh.

Mr. Sunilal Chakma, prominent artist of Chittagong Hill Tracts/Jummaland.

The Buddhists in Bangladesh constitute around 0.7% of the 160 million with Muslims

constituting 89.5% followed by Hindus with 9.6%, the chakya living in Chittagong city

form the majority with 65%. chakya is the last name of the Bengali speaking Buddhists

who claim they came from the Majjimadesha during the Lord Buddha‟s time. “chakya”

meaning great and “arya” meaning noble ones). The word “Chakma” is derived from

Shakya,the Buddha‟s clan coming from the Lord Buddha‟s time as related in the history

of Chakma.

The Chakmas are of Tibeto-Burman origin and form the next group of Buddhists, who

live in the CHT. They are believed to be originally from Rakhine (present Arakan in

Myanmar) who later on moved to CHT,Bangladesh, settling down in the Cox‟s Bazaar

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district, Patuakhali, the Korpos Mohal area, and in the Indian state of Mizoram,

Arunachal Pradesh,Assam and Tripura.

4.6.5 The Revival of Buddhism due to Political Activism in Jummaland

The flourishing state of Buddhism in Bangladesh at the beginning of the Gupta period

presupposes that Buddhism had been prospering in different parts of Bangladesh, during

the early centuries of the Christian era.

Chinese Fa-hsien mentioned that in his itinerary (399-414 AD) about the kingdom of

Champa on the southern bank of the Ganga river when he came across much evidence

of living Buddhism which was mostly Mahayana. In the 7th century, Hiuen-Tsang, the

famous Chinese pilgrim in India, recorded various accounts of the persecution of

Buddhism by Sasanka, the king of Gouda (north-west part of Bengal). He recorded

Mahayana Buddhism in various parts of Bangladesh with some belonging to Sthavira

School.From the 7th to 12th centuries, the Mahayana sect found a golden era in

Bangladesh, the great Buddhist monasteries in Paharpur, Somapura,Jagaddal,

Vikrampur, Pattiheraha were established. Scholars like Dipankar Atisha, Shilabadra,

Shantiraksita appeared in Bangladesh and their scholarly works belonged to the

Mahayana school, which ultimately absorbed Tantricism. Seeing the downfall of

Buddhism in Bangladesh, many monks and the lait tried to rectify this situation. during

the 15th century (according to Dr. Heinz Bechert) one member of the Royal family

named “Keyakcu” of Cakaria went to Moulmein in Myanmar and was ordained there

under the Tutelage of Ven. Sharbu, he was named Ven.Chandrajyoti Bhikkhu and

stayed for 20 years in Myanmar to study pali scriptures.

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He came to Chittagong and established Asrams in Sitakunda, Haidgaon called

Cakrasala, cendirpuni, the garpuni, Chittagong, Rajanagar,Rangamati, Ramu etc, for the

propagation of Theravada Buddhism, but he failed to organize a traditional Buddhist

Sangha in Bangladesh.

Many Buddhists tried to correct these corrupt practices observed by the then Buddhists

of Bangladesh. Ven. Cainga Bhikkhu of Pahartali, Chittagong visited Mrohang

(Mijhan), the ancient capital of Arakan and saw the wonderful Mahamuni Buddha

image installed in a beautiful temple.

He at once drew a replica of the Buddha image in its full details comprising its height,

circumstances etc. after coming home to Pahartali, Raozan,Chittagong, he started the

construction of the Mahamuni Buddha image with the help of some Arakanese

sculptors. He also could not organize the formation of a Buddhist Sangha. Ven.

Pannasar Mahasthavir (khetromohan) of Raozan went to Myanmar and studied

Buddhist scriptures. he returned to homeland and tried to correct the corrupt monks of

Bangladesh but in vain.later he again left Bangladesh in disappointment.

At this critical moment Ven.Sangharaja Saramedha Mahathero of Arakan came to visit

India on a pilgrimage and met a Chakma Raoli Priest Radhamon Luri who was well-

versed in Arakanese, some Sanskrit and Pali.

He discussed the prevailing situation of Buddhism in Bangladesh during thattime with

Ven.Saramedha Mahathero and invited him to East Pakistan, nowin Bangladesh.

Ven.Saramedha Mahathero came on a chance visit to Chittagong in 1856 CE. Later

Queen Kalindi Rani (1830-1873 AD) who ruled the Chakma Kingdom under the British

156
government formally invited Ven. Sangharaja Saramedha Mahatero to (East Pakistan)

Bangladesh in 1864 again. Ven.Sangharaja Saramedha came to Chittagong and brought

with him a full Chapter of trained Buddhist monks and gave higher ordination to seven

monks of Chittagong.This was the first inauguration of Upasampada in Chittagong.

Ven. Sangharaja Saramedha Mahathero was honoured with a high title by the British

government following the Arakan tradition, and he was widely known as “Sangharaja”

and his followers established the institution of Theravada Buddhism which is popularly

known as “Sangharaja Nikaya”.

Thus Buddhists in Chittagong and Chittagong Hill Tracts and other Buddhist populated

regions came under the Theravada Buddhism. Achariya Dhammadhari Punnachara

Mahathero who was the first Buddhist monk was trained in Sri Lanka and the second

was Late Ven. Aggrabangsha Mahathero. And he became Sangharaja of CHT,

Bangladesh.Several of the new Bhikkhu Sangha played a role in the resurgence of

Buddhism in the Indian sub-continent initiated by the Anagarika Dhammapala. Ven.

Kripasaran Mahathero of Chittagong founded the first Buddhist Temple in Calcutta in

1892. He also set up monasteries in Lucknow, Jamshedpur, Darjeeling and Shilong,

some place in India1.

Later in the 20th century, Ven. Prajnaloka Mahathero of Chittagong set up a printing

press in Rangoon, Myanmar, for publications of Theravada Buddhist books for Bengali

speaking Buddhists of the Indian sub-continent.

Together with Ven.Vangshadipa Mahathero and Ven. Jnaniswara Mahathero, he

campaigned against prevailing social superstitions and wrong practices. This period also

157
saw the emergence of a group of scholars on Buddhism. The most outstanding scholar

of world repute was Dr. M.B.Barua (1888-1948), Professor of Pali and Buddhist Studies

in Calcutta University. In 1944, during his visit to Sri Lanka on a lecture hour on

Buddhism, the Vidyalankara University conferred him with the title“Tripitakacharya”.

A disciple of Ven. Prajnaloka Mahathero, the Ven.Shilalangkar Mahathero edited the

Buddhist journal, named “Sanghashakti” from 1933 to 1941 and succeeded in turning

the journal into an intellectual and socio-religious development for the Buddhist

community in Jummaland. The Buddhist community in Jummaland running mission.

He also served as the Secretary of the Buddhist Mission which was founded in 1928 by

Ven. Prajnaloka Mahathero to propagate Buddhism through publications of Buddhists

texts in Bengali, and set up a Pali institutions, free religious school and libraries etc.

However, Buddhism in Bangladesh continues to suffer. Religious persecution against

indigenous Jumma people in CHT has been a marked feature of ongoing conflict,

committed by the Bangladesh government with military and Muslims settlers. As a

Buddhists constitute a small fraction of the country‟s population, the community is

constantly threatened. Land in the CHT area has been given to low-land settlers and

therefore, Indigenous Chakmas and other Jumma people often had to flee conflict and

enter as refugees into neighboring Myanmar.Forced assimilation of the people into the

majority culture of Bangladesh had been the policy of the Bangladesh government and

the Bangladesh military since 1975. Religious persecution occurs in different forms

including forcible conversion of people from their native Buddhism, destruction and

desecration of Buddhist temples and prevention of worship1.

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In 1972, the CHT Buddhist delegation group approached the then Prime Minister of

Bangladesh, demanding regional autonomy in CHT with a view to safeguarding social,

religious and cultural rights of the indigenous Jumma Buddhist people. But no demands

were met by the then Government of Bangladesh. In the same year, the indigenous

Jumma Buddhist people formed an armed group to realize their demands, and on the 2nd

December 1997, a peace agreement was singed between the government of Bangladesh

and the Parbatya Chattagram Jana Sanghati Samiti (United People‟s Party of

Jummaland / the CHT).

The indigenous Jumma Buddhists inhabited in CHT realized that political right is the

most significant weapon to safeguard the national, social, economic and religious

existence. If there is no political right, social, economic and religious existence

disappears gradually.

In 1972, a delegation from the indigenous Jumma Buddhists of CHT met the first

President of Bangladesh, Sheikh Mujibur Rahaman. They submitted a written

memorandum asking regional autonomy for CHT region comprising some demands

such as ban on the influx of Muslim people, retention of CHT 1900 regulation,

continuation of three Indigenous Jumma Buddhist Chiefs Offices, Constitutional

provision against the amendment of the CHT regulation etc.

But the President of Bangladesh rejected the demands. President Sheikh Mujibur

Rahaman said, “No, we are all Bengalis, we cannot have two systems of government.

Forget your ethnic identity, be Bengalis”. And the meeting came to an end within 4 or 5

minutes.

159
The Buddhist Philosophy and an Internet technology has made one thing painfully

clear; the way in which business activity is taxed in the world is to complex. As

commerce crosses local, state, national and international borders, the question of how to

tax commerce continues to be a topic of heated debate. In the United State alone there

are approximately 30,000 recognized tax jurisdictions and within these delineated areas

of commerce approximately 7,000 tax rates control the exchange of goods and services.

Considering the number of local tax authorities worldwide and taking into account

international trade agreements and other commerce related regulations, the internet and

e-commerce has brought to the surface an outdated and arcane process that resembles a

business process that has been made extremely complex by incorporating exceptions to

the rule over a long period of time.

Government officials who once scoffed at the internet as a viable medium for trade and

commerce are now trying to determine how to tax transactions which continue to grow

and cross international borders. Taxes are a levy imposed by the government on the

income, wealth and capital gains of persons and businesses on spending on goods and

services and on properties.

In the United Kingdom, taxes on income include personal income tax and corporation

tax, inheritance tax is used to tax wealth and capital gains tax is used tax windfall

profits, taxes on spending include a value added tax, excise duties and tariffs, taxes on

property include council tax or local tax and the uniform business rate. Such taxes are

used to raise revenue for the government and as a means of controlling the level of

distribution of spending in the economy.

160
International taxation on goods and services will be the next big battlefield for

economic supremacy. The traditional geopolitical boundaries drawn because of the

invention of nationalism in the nineteenth century and subsequently redrawn after world

war two become an impediment to global business if a taxation war breaks out.

In 1293AD, almost four million pounds of taxable exports flowed through the port of

Genoa in Italy. Italy had four cities with populations over 100,000. In comparison,

taxable exports in England during the late thirteenth century were only a quarter of

million pounds. Taxation in the middle ages was not to level the playing field between

geopolitical centres‟s of power, rather, it was a mechanism for raising funds for social

governing structures. An examination of the basic premise of the American dream of

home ownership as an icon of freedom from a sovereign reveals that in reality the social

contract has replaced a monarch with a faceless monarch embodied in the ever-growing

layers of government. In order to illustrate this point, the reader can look at states that

charge a property tax to homeowners. In later medieval society, an individual paid a

tribute to the king in lieu of having to serve in military actions. This tribute was later

transformed into a basic taxation mechanism to provide a ready source of funds. The

land was entrusted to the sovereign and people rented the land from the sovereign.

Modern property tax follows the same mechanism, people are simply renting the land

from the faceless sovereign-the government can seize a property and place the

homeowner into a state of receivership liquidating the property to settle the debt. In

either case, you pay the king or the state to rent the use of land. Failure of payment has

the same consequence; the mechanism is the same, only packaged into a readily

accepted social contract that disguises its roots in a medieval past.

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Medieval taxation is disguised in many of today‟s socio-economic transactions. The

geopolitical structures of world governments rarely agree to the value, amount and level

of taxation on goods and service. Adding to the complexity is the lack of agreement on

what should be taxable or not taxable. Value added tax comes with various different

rates in different countries within the same geography. In the UK a single rate of 17.5

per cent is levied on goods and a few miles across the channel France has four different

rates ranging from 1.5 per cent to 20.6 per cent. In another example, books and

magazines are subject to VAT in some countries, but not in others.

To the dismay of local, state and federal governments, the World Trade Organization

(WTO) is currently lobbying to establish the internet as a tax free zone. The countries of

the European Community are not happy with the idea, and are trying to make sure that

the appropriate tax is paid on goods bought over the internet. Similarly, the United

States has declared a Captain Margrant was appointed as the moratorium on all internet

taxes until a government committee has finalized its report, which for now gives US

companies yet another advantage over their European counterparts.

The internet and e-commerce technologies give us a chance to reexamine the

relationship between customers and manufactures and also the function of government

and its services. In the United States, there is one central state government for the state

of California, with a land area of approximately 158,000 square miles and a population

approaching 34 million according to the 2000 US census. Located on the opposite side

of the country, where state boundaries were drawn over two hundred years ago, a

similar number of people 33 million living in a smaller area of approximately 114,000

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square miles is governed by the seven state governments of New Hampshire,

Massachussets, Maine, Vermont, Connecticut, New York and Rhode Island.

If government was viewed through the same lens as business, stockholders would be

encouraging a consolidation of the states operating on the east coast to reduce operating

cost. However, taxpayers seem oblivious to the cost of running seven governments

compared to one and the potential savings of tax dollars in consolidating government

functions into one state, say the state of New England. Alternatively, since many people

identify with the lifestyles associated with each existing state, they could keep the basic

structure of the governments in place and consolidate administrative functions such as

purchasing and technological infrastructure as a way of achieving economics of scale.

Evidence of using technology in the same way that business employs it to reduce the

cost of operating is the move towards interacting with government agencies

electronically. The UK‟s Inland Revenue has made great strides in streamlining the

filing of business taxes and payroll taxes by utilizing the Internet. Electronic filing of

employer returns will become a universal requirement by the year 2010. What is

important to note on the rising debate on internet taxation is that it will ultimately result

in world governments, local tax authorities and individual taxpayers reassessing the

concept of taxation as a mechanism in the redistribution of wealth.

It is surprising that individuals have embraced e-commerce and internet and information

technology banking with its sometimes well-publicized security flaws, while being

reluctant to exercise a digital right to vote, or e-vote. In the minds of individuals,

personal wealth requires security, privacy, fidelity and trust. The technology industry

has demonstrated that commerce and banking can be conducted in this new medium

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within an acceptable margin of security. This must also be the feeling of the millions of

people who regularly use home banking to pay bills and purchase goods online

technology business, thus providing merchants with their credit card numbers.

4.6.6 Philosophical Issues and Insights

Those who claim their human rights are being denied and those who dispute these

claims sometimes argue over the facts for example, did such and events actually take

placed did the acts in question happen exactly the way some parties allege sometimes

the main arguments are over the law (such as, Are the acts or politics in question in

violation of or protected by certain international covenants, treaties, or findings of

international judicial bodies?) often, however, the human rights disputs that their way

into international arenas are over the more basic issues of whether certain kinds of

actions or politics should be internally prohibited or protected. Indeed, some of the most

prominent alignments and antagonism in contemporary world politics are traceable to

differing positions on this philosophical core of the human rights question. Moral and

political philosophers (classical, theological, modern, western and non-wesertern) have

had a good deal to say that is pertinent to the current ferment over human rights. Their

thinking is probed here for insights that bear especially on the international

controrepsies over the priority that should be given to the rights of persons, peoples, and

governments and the related controrersies over which rights should be universally

gruanteed and which should be left to various communities to decide in accordance with

their own cultural traditions.

Much of today‟s human rights debate, now conducted in the international arena among

diplomats and international lawyers relics sometimes explicity, often unknowingly-on

164
arguments systematically developed by the world‟s great philosophers concerning the

profound and interrelated questions of the relationships between individuals and their

communities, the universality or cultural uniqueness of human characteristics and social

norms, and the relationship among and priority to be accorded various rights and duties

when they come into conflict62.

The analysis here draws selectively on works that are intellectually powerful statements

of the main contending points of view. It is not meant to be a comprehensive survey of

the range of views but rather to highlight the fact that the principal human rights issues

now at the center of world politics are neither new nor easily disposed of and that they

are matters on which great minds have foundamentally disagreed-within countries,

across continents, and for thousands of years.

4.6.7 The Ceremonies and Festivals in Jummaland

Bangladesh near is a Jummaland country with many religions, cultures, social manners,

traditions and languages from an ancient time. The Chittagong Hill Tracts is categorized

as a special region located in the north eastern part of the country where local

inhabitants are known as Indigenous Jumma people because they represent a minority

group. Their social status is entirely different from Bengali Muslim people. The Jummal

peoples are divided into 13 groups all with different religions, cultures, traditions,

languages and social norms.

In this regard, a Pakistani anthropologist wrote “Those Jumma people are ethnically

different from the Muslims of East Pakistan and appear to have some racial link with

62
The Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) Untold history of indigenous Jumma people..p.14

165
the primitive indigenous tribes of the vast belt extending from Tibet down to

Thailand”63.

The Jummaland is given to the belt of hill and mountains state that lies between latitude

21 degree 25, and 23 degree 45 north, and longitude 91 degree 45 and 92 degree 50

east. It comprises boundary an area of 9,796 sq.miles in 1860. In 1901, it reduced into

10,538 sq. miles.

In the Pakistan period, its area was 10,598 squirees and presently is 93,9483.00 squire

miles or 99,9899 squire kilometers in the Southeast and Northeast in Bangladesh.

According to Act No. 3320 on 20th June 186064 declaration, the Chittagong Hill Tracts

formed an independent district for the Indigenous Jumma nation.first Superintendent of

this district in 1860-1863 C.E.

His head quarter was at Chandraghona, and later on, it was shifted from Chandraghona

to Rangamat in 1868.

The CHT regulation Act 1900 is a regulation to declare the law applicable and provide

for the administration of the CHT. It came into force after publication in the Gazette of

India on 13th January 1900 in Calcutta, dated on17th January 1900. According to this

declaration, the CHT was regarded as aIndigenous Jumma people‟s exclusive area.

In 1968, the CHT lost this law owing to regulations by the Pakistan Muslim

Government. The administration Act No.7, the CHT Shall constitute a district for the

purpose of criminal and civil jurisdiction and for revenue and general purpose, the
63
Synopsis for Master of Philisophy Degree Progra----..p.59
64
Ibid…-p..59

166
Deputy Commissioner shall be the district magistrate,and subject to any order passed by

the local government under section 6, thegeneral administration of the said CHT, In

Criminal, Civil, Revenue and allother matters shall be vested in the Deputy

Commissioner.

The Mughal ruled in CHT district since 1666 to 1760 AD. under the British rule

particularly 1760 to 1860 AD, this area came to be known as Karpas Mahal (karpas

mean cotton). In this regard, Supriyo Talukder quoted “The Revenue history of

Chittagong” by H.J.S. Cotton written as “In the revenue language of CHT, the Karpas

Mahal denotes the revenue from the area now hncluded in the hill tracts were not

formed into a separate district till 1860, and before that time whole revenue derived

from them was credited to Chittagong under heading of Karpas Mahal”. Now is

Jummaland.

The present CHT or Jummaland is divided into three Independent Hill Districts,

according to the Government of Bangladesh declaration No.ED(J.ALL) III / 80-170

dated on 18th April 1981 the Bandarban Hill District and ED(J.ALL) 76183-348 and

dated on 13th October 1983 the Khagrachari Hill District and Rangamati Hill District.

The communities in the Jummaland called the Chakma in different names.

But the Chakma called themselves “Chakma”. The second majority people of

Jummaland, the Marma community were called “Shakya”. The Chittagong Bengali

Muslim people were called “Shakmuya” and the Burmese people were called Chak or

Shakya belong to Shaky clan.

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The Chakma are ethnically different from the settled populace in Bangladesh. They

have closer links with indigenous tribal vast region that extends from Tibet to Indo-

China. They are short in structure, have black hair, prominent cheek-bones and narrow

eyes, facial appearance that are generally known as characteristic of the “Mongoloid

type”. No doubt that the Chakmas are belonging to Mongolians race. Sir Risely

mentioned in his book, Indigenous Jumma Tribes and Caste of Bengal, the Chakma are

84.5 per cent Mongoloid.

Dr. Niru K. Chakma had said “Anthropologically all the Indigenous Jumma tribes of

CHT, undoubtedly, belong to the Mongolian race. The Chakmas are a Mongoloid race,

probably of Arakanese origin, though they have intermarried largely with the Muslim

Bengalis. They are divided into three sub-indigenous tribes of Chakmas, Doingnak and

Tanchangya”.

There are many controversies among the writers and scholars about the real indigenous

primitive habitation of the Chakma. They believed that their aborigine capital was

“Champak Nagar”. But there are many Champak Nagars in north and north-east and

south-east Asia namely Champak Nagar in Madhya Pradesh, Champa of Bihar,

Champak Nagar of Tripura, India,Champak Nagar of Myanmar, Champa of Combodia

and Champa of Vietnam, presently South Vietnam.65

The majority of the indigenous Chakma live in Jummaland particularly in Rangamati

Hill District, Khagrachari Hill District, Bandarban Hill District.

65
Buddhist in Bangladesh. P..61

168
A considerable number of the indigenous Chakma live in Cox‟s Bazaar district and

other parts of Bangladesh. In addition,there are many Chakmaliving in Mizoram,

Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Tripura State, and Calcuttain India and Arakan in

Myanmar.

The Chakma are in majority among of indigenous Jumma communities in the CHT.

According to the Census report published in 1951, the Chakma population was 224,769.

The Census carried out in 1981 the Chakma population was 321,690. And in 1991, the

Chakma population was shown to be 321,799. In addition, there are about 1 65,000

Chakma in Arunachal Pradesh, over 150,000 in Mizoram and over 2 50,000 in Tripura,

India. Total population of the Chakma may be over 3033,258 both India and

Bangladesh excluding in Myanmar.

The Chakma have a language of their own. It is called Chakma Khada (Chakma

Language), which is absolutely different from other indigenous communities of

Bangladesh. It is their mother tongue and they exchange views in this language.

The linguistic scholar Dr. G.A. Grierson mentioned that “In central portion of

Jumma,the CHT in the Chakma Chief ‟s situated in the country round the Karnafuli

river, broken dialect of Bengali, peculiar to the locality and of a very curious character

is spoken. It is called Chakma Khada and is based on South-Eastern of Bengali, but has

ndergone so much transformation that is almost worthy of the dignity of being classed

as a separate languages”. On the other hand, Mr. Hatchinson points out that “The

Chakma language is a dialect of Bengali, written in corrupt Burmese character”.

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The fact is whenever co-existence takes place between the majority and the minority

indigenous communities of different languages, many words of the majority community

entered into the language of minority people. A similar situation took place in the

Chakma language as well. Many Burmese, Pali, Sanskrit and Bengali words are found

to be used in the Chakma language.

The Chakma have their own scripts. It is called “Lega66” (scripts). Now it is dead and

the Chakma young generation cannot read and write it. The state language is Bengali in

Bangladesh and is used in all official and unofficial activities. The Chakma scripts are

limited to the old men and women and “Boidya” (Physician a group of person for the

propitiation of lower gods and ghosts and spirits and for magic) in the remote areas.

This is evident from Agar Taras (Religious Texts) and Talliksastra (Tantric legends).

But these are only in manuscripts.

Since that time, there is no printing press to publish and to teach it.Therefore, the

Chakma “Lega” scripts have almost vanished.

The Chakma lega were first published by the famous German linguist Dr. G.A. Grierson

in his book named The Linguistic Survay of India” Vol V,Part 01, in 1709. In this

regard, it is required to state that “The Christian missionary of Ellahabad of India from

one of the printing presses printed Chakma Jumma scripts in 1725 AD, in Bible poetry.

but as the Chakmawere Buddhists, that book could not spread among them and the

missionary refrained from it practices”. After a long gap, Mr. Nowaram Chakma printed

a Chakma book named The ChakmaPattham Shikkha (Chakma premier) in 1859. And

later on, many organizations and personalities printed the Chakma alphabets.Long long

66
Ibid………p..62

170
ago, the Chakma capital was Champak Nagar. In the Champak Nagar, there was a King

named Udaygiri.He had two sons, Bijoygiri and and Samargiri. The elder son Prince

ijoygiri came out from the capital Champak Nagar with his seven “Chimu” (Brigade of

Soldiers). They marched forward for six days and six nights and crossed over a big river

and the prince was able to establish control over many countries.

After the victory, while returning, he came to know that his father was dead. In the

mean time, his younger brother Samargiri,67 ascended the throne. On hearing this

message, prince Bijoygiri became very sorrowful and never returned to his native royal

place. Then he with his followers returned to “Sakpreikul” and formed a new free

country. Later he married a local native woman. This story and the verbal history of the

indigenous Jumma Chakmas are contained in the old book Bhijita Pala (Victory

history).

The society of the Chakma is a patrimonial. Father is considered to be the chief of the

family. If he were not alive or far away, then the responsibility to run the family goes on

the shoulder of elder son. The identity of the children is recognized in accordance with

the father‟s lineage. The sons enjoy the movable and immovable estate of their father.

On the other hand, if he had no son, the daughters get his heritage.

4.6.8 The Birth

A pregnant woman can give birth either in her husband‟s house or mother‟s house or a

relative‟s house or in hospital. If she gives birth in her husband‟s house, a room must be

prepared for this purpose attached to the main house. According to their belief,

67
Ibid….. p..62

171
childbirth brings impurities to the house where she gives birth. This was the belief at

that time, but this rule does not exist in the indigenous Jumma Chakma‟s societies.

After 7 days or 15 days of childbirth, a ceremony called “Kojoi Pani Lona” (New Born

Child Name Calling Day, for example, his / her name is Jiban Chakma, Bishakha

Chakma,Buddha datta Chakma, Sujata Chakma etc)is held on suitable day with a view

to purifying the mother. She is considered to be impure after childbirth. Therefore this

celebration is organized as a social custom. Otherwise the mother is not allowed to carry

out the family work. After celebrating this ceremony she becomes pure and is allowed

to perform family work.

For the Kojoi Pani Lona ceremony, many people are invited including distinguished

personalities, villagers and close relatives of both husband and wife. On this occasion, a

new name for the newborn is given with blessing on him / her.

For the Kojoi Pani Lona, neighbors and relatives provide different delicious foods to the

mother. It is called “Bhinimhila Siyong or Bhadmoja Dena” in Chakma language (good

rice, curry foods and various fruits).

The barber must shave the babies (both sexes) hair. It is called “Bhish Chul Murani”

(shave original hair). Before shaving the hair of the baby, mother is neither allowed to

do work nor enter any other neighboring house but she must go to the temple first to

offer dana (almsgiving). They believe that if the mother enters into any house before

shaving baby‟s hair, it bring impurity whatever houses she goes to.

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4.6.9 The Religion

The Chakma are Buddhist. They follow Theravada Buddhism like in Thailand, Sri

Lanka, Myanmar, Cambodia and others Theravada countries. They are Karmavadin and

believe in rebirth. They have many religious books which were found in manuscripts

and non-manuscripts during very old times such as Agar Tara, Malim Tara, Pali

Paribara etc. It is distorted Pali language mixed with Chakma and other neighboring

people‟s words.

Now Pali Tripitak is being printed from English language to Chakma and Bengali

languages in Rangamati Raj Bana Vihara, Raj Bana Press under the sponsorship of

Most Ven. Arahat Shadhanananda Mahathero, Principal of Raj Bana Vihara,

Rangamati, Jummaland. There are 28 Pali religious texts already completed. Also whole

Tripitaka was translated from English to Bengali and Chakma language on 25th August

2017 in CHT/Jummaland under Tripitaka Publishing Society of Jummaland.

4.6.10 The Dead and Funeral Rites

In the an indigenous Jumma Chakma society if anybody dies, the body is covered with

white cloth after giving a bath with clean water and Dul (Drum) is beaten at intervals.

When the people hear the sound of this drum in a special tone, they know that someone

in their village has died.

Then the villagers and relatives come to visit the dead body. In the village every houses

burns husk/chaff in a bowl at the entrance. It is done as a method of safeguarding

themselves from the ghosts and demons, because they believe that the ghosts and

demons could disturb their houses. There is no fixed length of time for keeping the dead

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body. Until the dead body is burned, no cooking is made in the dead person‟s house.

The neighboring families invite to the dead person‟s family members to take their meals

until the cremation. The Buddhist monks are invited to recite religious stanzas such as

Anniccavada Sangkara and Karaniya Metta Sutta. Then relatives and friends who attend

the funeral ceremony offer money to the dead body because they believe that every

person needs pocket money and so do the dead to reach the heaven or another life.

Certain rituals are performed when the dead body is taken out from the house. Soon

after taking out the dead body, all waters and fire in the concerned house are thrown

out.

The riverbanks usually are selected as a suitable place for the funeral. A Pallenggar

(Palanquin) with bamboo is made before burning the dead body. Then the corpse is put

on to it and turned round five times for men and seven times for women.

Following this customary performance, the dead body is put on the Rubahur (funeral

pyre). After recitation of religious ghatas, fires are set on the funeral pyre. According to

social rules, the son or nearest relatives set fire at the beginning and the participants

gradually.

In the morning of the following day, the nearest relatives visit the funeralplace and

collect the remains of the dead and throw them into the nearest river. some indigenous

Jumma Chakma people build memorial stupa with remains of the dead. If father or

mother dies, sons shave their heads and elder son goes to the Buddhist vihara to ordain

temporarily and stay 7 or 9 or 15 days at the temple. The family members of the dead

must remain vegetarian till religious ceremony for offering merit to the dead is held.

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In addition to this, candles must be lighted every evening at the temple till the ceremony

of dana offering to him. This ceremony called Shradhha (Dana or alms giving)

ceremony is observed for both sexes to be held within five or seven days. In the case of

the high priest, priest, wealthy person, Dewan, (leader of the clan or area) ceremonies

are sometimes a little is different.

Their corpse is kept inside a wooden box (coffin) with antiseptics. After several months

on a suitable day, the funeral ceremony is held through an elaborate program. The

thousands of indigenous Jumma people participate in this ceremony to earn merit.

4.6.11 The Marriage

As mentioned earlier, the indigenous Jumma Chakma society is patrimonial. Adult

marriage prevails among the Jumma chakma people. Polygamy is permitted in the

Jumma Chakma society if he has ability to maintain family in good condition. Widows

are allowed to remarry and no restriction is placed on their selection. The husband or

wife on objections of adultery, oppression, neglect of household duties etc can make a

divorce. The divorce verdict is held in the house of Karbari (village leader) in the

presence of the elders in the village. In the words of the Captain T. H. Lewin,“divorce is

not difficult of attainment among them and can be awarded by jury village elders.

The party who is judged to be join fault is fined heavily. As a rule, however, divorce is

uncommon and the women make good and faithful wives”. Normally after marriage,

divorce is relatively rare in the indigenous Jumma Chakma Society.

If a man runs away with another man‟s wife, he has to pay a fine to the former husband

of all the expenses he had made to marry his wife. Should near relatives (within certain

175
prohibited degrees) fall into love with each other, it is usual for both of them to pay a

fine that is stipulated by the village leader or elder and corporal punishment is also

administered.

There is also a marriage by elopement;, in such a case, the lovers generally elope

together, but should be the girl‟s parents or guardian are against the match, they have

the right to demand back and take their daughter from the hand of her lover. If the

couple can elope three/four times, then the lovers can successfully be has declared and

wife.

These social customs are not followed indigenous Jumma young generations. They are

influenced by modern educations and traditions.From recent times, court marriage takes

place in the indigenous Jumma Chakma society68. In this regard, in the constitution of

Bangladesh, there are two systems of marriage rules. One is Muslim law urpose include

raising export volume, employment generation of Bangladeshi workers in foreign

countries and attracting foreign investors to invest in Bangladesh. A recent addition to

this strategy is the „Look East‟ policy for bolstering economic relations with the

countries of east and south-east Asia.

Bangladesh has recently emerged as one of the largest contributions of UN peace-

keeping operations world-wide.but Bangladesh military with illegal Muslims settelars

was 13th times has done genocide for Jummaland indigenous Jummas local peoples until

Bangladesh government didn‟t justice any genocide also continues unhuman

torture,arrest, rape, jail, kill, abduction and land grabbing.

68
Ibid……82

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 CHAPTER – 05

CONCLUSIONS

The Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT), or Jummaland an area of 93,9483.00 square

kilometers, is the southeast part of Bangladesh, bordering the Arakan and Chin State of

Myanmar (Burma), and the State of Tripura and Mizoram of north in India and west of

the Chittagong district, Bangladesh. This area is basically a land full of ravines, hills

and forests and a most undeveloped region of Bangladesh. Presently, the Chittagong

Hill Tracts (CHT) is divided into three hill districts such as namely (01).Rangamati Hill

District (02).Khagrachari Hill District and (03). Bandarban Hill District run by govt.

The Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) has been the home of twelve indigenous or Jumma

Communities such as namely (01). Chakma (02). Marma (03). Tripura (04).

Tanchangya (05). Chak (06). Mro (07). Lushai (08). Khumi (09). Khyang (10). Bawm

(11). Reang and (12). Pankho. The people of these communities are totally defferent

from the majority Bengali people of B angladesh in respect of race, culture, language,

ethnicity and religion. These people are collectively known as Pahari (hill people or

Jumma people). According to the official records of census 1991, the total population

of the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) was 9,74,445 out of which the indigenous or

Jumma people (officially tribal) population was estimated to be a little over 51 per cent.

However, there is a widespread belief among the indigenous or Jumma people of the

Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) that their actual population is far higher than it was

officially estimated. at the time of partition of the Indian sub-continent in 1947. The

Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) indigenous or Jumma population was more than 91

177
percent in brief, the indigenous or Jumma people‟s plight can be described thus: in early

sixties, the first serious blow came to the existence of the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT)

Indigenous people due to the hydroelectric dam constructed across the Karnaphuli

River at Kaptai in Chittagong Hill Tracts. This dam created an artificial lake that

submerged 54,000 (fifty four thousand) acres of first class cultivable land and about

100000 indigenous or Jumma people were uprooted from their ancestral domain, lost

their sources of livelihood and 65000 Jumma people‟s or indigenous people migrated to

India. From amongst the rest of the uprooted Jumma people about 20,000 (twenty

thousand) lost their lives, unnoticed and without care for.

The Chittagong Hill Tracts has been a habitation of different ethnic of tribal or Jumma

diversity, the people who would like living in hill and forest land. From the time

immemorial various anthropological human race (originally Tibetian-Himalayan-

Burmese) came here, they loved this place and turned into their permanent habitation.

They did not want to know who the proprietor of this kingdom was or, who the emperor

of this country was. According to historical literature, this habitation which at present

under Bangladesh was ruled by various kings and emperors in different periods; some

time by Burmese, sometime Arakanese kings, sometime by the Pathants of Bengal and

again by the representatives of Mogul Emperor.It was also true that sometimes local

royal dynasty took over the administration of this region. The Chakma Dynasty is one

of those. Their original head quarters was Rangamati. Later on they developed and

extended their kingdom up to the Chittagong. on the other hand another

powerfuldynasty called Tripura dynasty was prevailed from Comilla through Dhaka-

178
Norsingdhi was spread. Emergence of Bengali language was the outcome of the

contribution of the kings of Pathants and the Tripura nationalism. on the other hand

during pathants and mogul regime there was another group called Marma (also called

pirate mogh) spread their influence in the riverine southern regions of Bengal69.

In course of time, the powerful moghs with the help of their marine power, established

their colony throughout Cox‟s Bazaar, Barishal, Barguna and Patuakhali. This group

was known as Rakhain. It was known that the administration of the region of the

Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) and the Chittagong were exchanged from one hand to

another among the Tripura-Marma, Chakma, Marma and Mogul emperors. At last

British rule was established in this region. It was a fact that during the 1760. The British

rule was permanently established and due to this unavoidable circumstance, Anglo-

Burmese war broke out, and the English people conquered Myanmar between 1824–

1826 AD.

During the British rule the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) was divided into three Circles

such as namely (01). The Chakma Circle Chief (02). The Mong Circle Chief and (03).

The Bomang Circle Chief. The Chakma Circle were based in the Rangamati and

Khagrachari areas. The Mong Circle was based on the Ramgarh areas and The Bomang

Circle was based on the Bandarban areas. The British King recognized the Chief of

these circle as Raja (king).

The local administration was almost were vested in their hands. It is important to note

that even the British rulers kept this region outside the regulation of Bengal. They

introduced a special kind of administration which were based on the culture and

69
History of CHT….Facebook collection

179
traditions of the people of the Chittagong Hill Tracts. In other words, the people of this

region were given a special dignity and this region became the region outside the ruling

Authority of the Bengal Presidency (external area).

The history of the misruling and mismanagement during Pakistani government for long

24 years was not forgotten. at that time, being a regulated area, people from outside the

district could not enter into the area, save settlement in this region. People engaged in

different profession, administration, anthropological, research and other were treated as

outsiders but amid all the above control and restrictions many of the people from plain

land came to this region to look for jobs and started living there permanently. The

relatives and friends who had business also came in to this region and built their

permanent settlement surrounding the market place and bazaars. They are now called

Non-tribal or Non-Jumma permanent residents. It has been a remarkable here that there

were no disputes, malice, hatred against each other among the traditional living non-

tribal Bengalis and the indigenous tribal or Jumma people and even now they live

peacefully, co-existing side by side. however, the number of these settlers was very few.

during the period, after the divided India, the ratio between the Tribal or Jumma people

and non-tribal Bengalis was 98:02 , and even during 1951-1952, the number of Bengalis

were only about 10-15 thousands only. Starting from the Pakistani rule particularly

during the sixties, the emergence of chaos and confusion started basically due to the

construction of Kaptai Hydro-electric dam, cultivation of hilly lands (Jum cultivation),

and lands distribution, settlement and acquisition policies. The Chakma, Marma,

Tripura, Tanchangya, Mro, Kyang and many other tribal or Jumma indigenous people

think that they have been living in the region for a very long time, together as their

ancestors lived. They think all the lands, hills, rivers and everything of this geographical

180
area belong to them. But due to the government‟s undertaking programs of land

acquisition such as, conservation reserved forest, rubber and tree plantation, pineapple

67 gardening, caused concern among the tribal people and made them suspicious to

wards the Government. They realized that in the name of development, their grazing

land has been snatched away, and they were being squeezed gradually.

They continue to think that the construction of kaptai hydroelectric dam as dreadful to

them and a trap for death. They understood that due to this project of the government

their homestead, their hills religious temple and everything will be inundated under the

water of the kaptai artificial lake, And thousands of people will be displaced and

distressed.

This was anticipated not only by the local people, but also by the social scientist as well.

during 1951-1952, Lucien Bernot, a social scientist spent one year to study the people,

their language, culture and lifestyle. Ultimately, the fear and suspicion of the hill people

was materialized; 54 thousand acres of arable and non arable land went under water

inundating their homesteads, schools, religious temples and their other belongings. The

electricity was duly produced, tourist began to enjoy boat trips and lights for the people

of towns, was given. But who will remember the cry of those hill people and their tears

in exchange of which the development was made.

During the sixties, as we the people of plain land were going to indulge ourselves to the

struggle for self determination and proceeding towards the freedom and fighting against

the Pakistani rule, suppression and oppression, at that time the hill people were also

preparing for their struggle to establish their rights and fight against the Bengalis

settlement policy made by the Pakistani government and as they understood belatedly

181
the plot of the Pakistani government was to the creation of Bengali colony in the

Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) / Jummaland.

In the meantime, freedom movement became imminent, and independent Bangladesh

emerged. Like all Bengali people, the hill people also expected that their mental peace

and happiness will be resumed and they will be able to enjoy and establish their rights

to their self determination, and the hill country will be their own country to develop

their cultures and tradition in their own way without fear. A leader of the Jumma

people, late Manabendra Narayan Larma, a member of Bangladesh Parliament, raised

the question of self determination of the Jumma people in the Parliament. He did not

receive.

Support for his demands. Even the Bangabandhu (the friend of Bengali i.e. Sheik

Mujibur Rahman) could not feel the pulse of this generation; he invited the people in his

own style to become Bengali. However, it was known that in 1975, just before his

assassination, the Bangabandhu had a very amicable discussion with Manabendra

Narayan Larma in which Bangabandhu expressed his solidarity to the fundamental

rights of the people of the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT); on the condition that

Manabendra Narayan will participate in the implementation of Government policy and

join the his political party BAKSAL70. At first, he respectfully disagreed to the

proposal, but later agreed to join. But the reactionary and communal forces that killed

the Bangabandhu mercilessly, also killed the possibility of a solution to the problem.

All governments after 1975, treated the rights and struggle of the people of the

Chittagong Hill Tracts from a colonial perspectives. As a result, the governments were

70
Bangladesh History…..p…89

182
always believed in formulating and adopting policies of how to implement the Bengali

settlement program in the region. Following this colonial policy, the armed forces began

to increase their military activities in order to put down the Shanti Bahinee (Peace

Force) and securing the villages of newly Bengalis settlement. Simultaneously, the civil

administration also extended their program for aggressive implementation of the same.

This speedy Bengalis Settlement Program, though started during the reign of late

General Ziaur Rahman; it went into climax during General Ershad. However, during the

reign of General Ershad the Act of the Chittagong Hill Tracts Local Government 1989

was introduced and adopted (The district of Rangamati, Khagrachari and Bandarban

came under this jurisdiction of this Act).

The Shanti Bahinee (Peace Force) and the Peace AccordUnder the above circumstances,

with a view to establishing the rights of the Jumma people, the Chittagong Hill Tracts

Jana Sanghati Samiti (UnitedPeople‟s Freedom Party of the Chittagong Hill Tracts) was

organized under the leadership of Manabendra Narayan Larma. This party earned rapid

popularity among the Chittagong Hill Tracts people.

When the systematic movement of the people was stopped in all directions, the armed

wing of the Chittagong Hill Tracts Jana Sanghati Samiti, “Shanti Bahinee” emerged.

Due to the armed clashes between the Shanti Bahinee and Bangladesh Army, the

suppression, oppression, tortures, eviction from homestead and other atrocities of the

Bangladesh Army increased, and the innocent and peace loving people of the

Chittagong Hill Tracts faced immense suffering. The traumatized people fled away to

the neighboring eastern Indian State of Tripura running into hundreds of thousands. As

a result, the indigenous inhabitants of Rangamati and Khagrachari became refugees for

183
the second time. Due to these circumstances, during the reign of the Awami League

Government, the 1997 Chittagong Hill Tracts Peace Accord was signed between the

Government of Bangladesh and the People of Chittagong Hill Tracts.

The salient features of the Peace Pact were:

(A). Declaration of the Chittagong Hill Tracts as the Tribal or Jumma region and

recognition to it as the home land of the Tribal or Jumma People (B). Recognition to the

entities of anthropological, cultural, languages and their status with the commitment to

the preservation of these traditions. In view of the above, the right to self determination

was recognized. Here it is remarkable that in 1989, this recognition was accepted and

with certain modifications, the Chittagong Hill Tracts Peace Accord was signed.

Presently, there is a serious situation in the Chittagong Hill Tracts which may explode

at any time. The civil administration, taking the advantage of the non-implementation of

the Peace Accord, at their own will, they conduct new settlements schemes, land

distribution, identification of non-tribal residents and issuance certificates. As a result,

the district council and regional councils have become useless institutions. In some

cases, there is dual administration as well.

In order to manage the law and order situation and bursting the armed atrocities and toll

collections activities of a social political party the United People‟s Democratic Front

(UPDF), the Bangladesh army has been operating their military activities extraordinary

creating terror atmosphere, suppression and atrocities in the tribal areas. The army has

been taking over new hill areas for their military purposes and the people are taking it as

184
an aggression to them. The land acquisition of the army has been impacting on their

land.

Many believe that the army and the representative of the Equal Rights Movement (a

new cropped up group comprising the new Bengali Settles) representative are

collaborating with a certain isolated group. The policy of the conspirator of this

program is to utilize the United People‟s Democratic Front (UPDF) and Bengali

extremist to create disturbance/unrest in the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) and keep

going on the turmoil situation with a view to dismantling the Peace Accord of the

Chittagong Hill Tracts.

(C). The allegation of the people of the Chittagong Hill Tracts is that, a very deep

conspiracy of the Bangladesh Government has been working to settle up the Bengali

cluster villages and Bengali colony on different hill tops, particularly on the land of the

tribal or Jumma people with a newly ventured energy backed by the Bangladesh Army.

As a result, a serious imbalance is being created and about to face stand of situation to

be face to face between the Bengali settlers and the Tribal or Jumma people. In some

places clash incident are happening. It is the people‟s question, is this situation

advertently being created to fine out a plea to destroy the peace accord. But did the

conspirators have ever imagined the severe and terrible consequences afterward.

(D). The general Jumma people brought allegation that in 1972, the land which were

given settlement in their names, these lands again were given settlement to the Bengali

families taking advantage during the tribal or Jumma people were in the refugee camps

in India in 1982, creating clash and filling case against each others. with a hope that the

distinguished leaders will uphold their sorrows and sufferings before the people of the

185
country, thy submitted the records to them on the above during their visit to the

Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT). The hill people became furious as the Bangladesh

Government has started settlement of the Bengali settlers without resettling the hill

people.

(E). Not only the homesteads and landed properties of the Jumma people were snatched

away and graved, their religious institutions, Buddhist temples etc, were also taken

over. Let us give a few example to those happened there. During the sixties, the

Sadhana Tilla Buddhist Temple and at a few distance of it another Buddhist Temple

were established on a five and three acres of land respectively at Dighinala in

Khagrachari district.A full fledged High School was running well. Beside this there

were few Ashrom (cottages) for wisdom practice for monks. This temple was engaged

in various social welfare activities. During pre-independent period, with a few to

increase the institutional activities the temple authority applied for settlement of three

hundreds process. after this, on account of eruption of disturbance the temple authority

and the people were compelled to leave site and the country as well. When they

returned to their country after the peace accord was signed, they found that this place

was already occupied.

Even after application the properties of these Buddhists temple have not yet returned to

the authority. however, only the single Buddhist temple situated on the three acres of

land was handed over to them. The School was also occupied by the Bengali and it has

not yet been handed over to the previous management.

186
The three hundred acres of land that, was applied by the sadhana tilla temple authority

for settlement is also on the verge of building Bengali colony. In Khagrachari district, a

Buddhist temple situated on the Bhujulichook hill under Laksmichari Police Station was

broken by the Bangladesh army personnel. The incident happened on 31st December

2007. And again, on 14th January 2008 year Sreemat Ariyojyoti Bhikkhu, a Buddhist

monk of the Arannyo Kuthir (forest cottage) Bouddha Ashram (Buddhist orphanage)

situated at Karallyachari under Mohalchari Police Station was arrested71.

The charge was brought against the monks was that they were legally building Bouddha

Ashram (cottage for meditation). The arrested monk was later released on bail by the

local court. The regular religious and development works have been interrupted on

account of the development of army personnel. Another complains was brought that

under the backing of the army personnel the Bengali are in the plea of occupying the

land property of the temple (as the local Bengali spoke).

During the liberation war of Bangladesh in 1971, the Pakistani militarypersonnel killed

many indigenous or Jumma Peoples, destroyed their villages and several thousands

were rendered homesless. The government of Bangladesh signed a peace accord with

the Parbatya Chattagram Jana Sanghati Samiti (PCJSS) (United People‟s Freedom Party

of the Chittagong Hill Tracts), a political party of the Chittagong Hill Tracts indigenous

people or Jumma people, on December 2,1997, is known to all. During the insurgency

riod, a large number of indigenous or Jumma people lost their lives, thousands of them

were rendered homeless and lost all their sources of livelihood. In 1986 about 75,000

71
Untold History of CHT ….p.65

187
(seventy five thousand) indigenous people crossed international border in fear of their

lives and took shelter in the state of Tripura, India.

Those who could not or did not got to India led a miserable life. Starvation, malnutrition

and diseases were their day-to-day companions.Therefore, automatically, thousands

indigenous or Jumma children lost their parents or guardians. They became orphans,

destitute and rootless in different periods. Therefore, a number of them were sheltered

in several Buddhist temples.

The rest were roaming here and there. Realizing their conditions, some orphanage, like

Moanoghar, Kachalong Shishu Sadan etc, were established in different places. In these

orphanages they were given shelter, foods, clothes, and medical facilities, general and

religious education. They were given such facilities so that they can stand on their own

feet in future and can prove themselves as worthy citizens of the country.

Again, in such a situation a group of energetic compassionate Buddhist Bhikkhus

(monks) came forward to form an organization for social service.The South Asian

Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) was established in 1985, after several

years of negotiations initiated by Bangladesh. The seven south asian counties 72-

Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Pakistan, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Maldives are full and equal

members of the SAARC. after Afghanistan has joined the SAARC.presently eight

SAARC countries.

72
SAARC News Letter…p.21

188
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 APPENDIXES

About Jummaland divisions, districts, municipal councils, sub-districts,village councils,

and villages: Administration of Jummaland from step by step: 2018

Divisions of Jummaland and districts also municipals, sub-districts are Following;The

14 divisions, 46 districts, 26 municipals, 376 sub-districts, 1950 villages councils, 2950

model villages and 4998 villeges of Jummaland

A01.Rangamati Division

01.Rangamati District 02. Naniyachar District 03. Jurachari District

08.Barkal District

B02. Rajashthali Division

05.Rajashthali District 07.Kawkhali District 04.Belaichari District

37.Bhanbankhali

C03. Kaptai Division

06.Kaptai District 31. Raikhali District 30.Boroichari District

D04. Bandarban Division

21. Bandarban District 14.Lakhichari District 15. Manikchari District 16. Ramghar

District

195
E05. Ruma Division

26.Ruma District 19.Dighinala District 25. Thanchi District

F06. Rowangchari Division

21. Rowangchari District 22. Nakyangchari District 23. Alikadam District 24. Lama

District

G07. Khagrachari Division

12. Khagrachari District 17. Matiranga District 13. Mohalchari District 11.Shaject

District

H08. Baghaihat Division

29. Baghaihat District 45. Harina District 46. Dhudukchara District 39. Chenghi District

34.Mubachari District

I09. Dighinala Division

33. Dighinala District 34. Merung District 35. Chinghinala District 36. Monatek District

J010. Lakhichari Division

14. Lakhichari District 20. Ghuimara District 36. Monthola District 40.Monatek District

K011. Ramghar Division

16. Ramghar District 42. Betboniya District 43. Madupur District

L012. Khawkhali Division

44. Khawkhali District 45.Horina District 35. Ghilachari District

196
M013. Mahapuram Division

33.Mahapuram District 38.Ghagara District

N014. Panchari Division

18. Panchari District 46. Dhudukchara District 9.Longghudu Divisions names and Code

No:Rangamati Division, Code No.A01, Rajashthali Division, Code No.B02, Kaptai

Division, Code No.C03, Bandarban Division,Code No. D04, Ruma Division, Code No.

E05, Rowangchari Division, Code No.F06, Khagrachari Division, Code No.G07,

Baghaihat Division, Code No. H08,

Dighinala Division, Code No.I09, Lakhichari Division, Code No.J010, Ramghar

Division, Code No.K011, Kawkhali Division, Code No.L012, Mahapuram

Division, Code No.M013, Panchari Division, Code No.N014.

Divisions total =14

Districts names

01.Rangamati District 02.Naniyachar District 03.Jurachari District 04.Belaichari

District 05.Rajashthali District 06.Kaptai District 07.Kawkhali District 08.Barkal

District 09.Langadu District 10.Baghaichari District 11.Saject District 12.Khagrachari

District 13.Mohalchari District 14.Lakhichari District 15.Manikchari District

16.Ramghar District 17.Matiranga District 18.Panchari District 19.Dighinala District

20.Ghuimara District 21.Bandarban District 22. Nakyangchari District 23.Alikadam

District 24.Lama District 25.Thanchi District 26.Ruma District 27.Rowangchari

District 28.Bhurighat District 29.Khutukchari District 30.Boroichari District

197
31.Raikhali District 32.Khutubdhiya District 33.Mahapuram District 34.Mubachari

District 35.Ghilachari District 36.Monthola District 37.Bhanbonkhali District

38.Ghagara District 39.Chenghi District 40.Monatek District 41.Chinghinala District

42.Betboniya District 43.Madhupur District 44.Merung District 45.Horina District

46.Dhudukchara District.

Districts total =46

Sub-districts 376 names are following

SL No. Sub-districts name SDO (Sub-district officer) name following

01. 59 No. Bandukvanga Mr. Raja Debashis Roy

02. 68 No. Hajaribak Mr.Sukumar Dewan

03. 102 No. Rangapani Mr.Jiban Chakma

04. 103 No. Bhakchari Mr.Bijoy Kumar Chakma

05. 104 No. Jogarabill Mr.Suranjon Dewan

06. 105 No. Jibatholi Mr.Hitlar Dewan

07. 106 No. Kamilachari Mr.Vabothosh Dewan

08. 107 No. Boradham Mr.Binay Kumar Dewan

09. 108 No. Manikchari Mr.Prosenjit Amu Chakma

10. 109 No. Shapchari Mr.Dipon Dewan

11. 110 No. Sukorchari Mrs. Kaberi Roy

12. 111 No. Khutukchari Mr.Sambarat sur Chakma

13. 112 No. Dhuluchari Mr.Amol Kanti Chakma

14. 113 No. Teimidung Mr.Sapon Kumar Chakma

15. 114 No. Bhalukhali Mr.Ghondhi Roy

198
16. 115 No. Moghban Mr.Sujit Dewan

17. 116 No. Rangamati Mr.Bhuban Chakma

18. 117 No. Kosalyaghona Mr.Jotinchandra Talukdar

19. 118 No. Dhanapata Mr. Rupayon Chakma

20. 123 No. Hemantha Mr.Kulesh Bikas Chakma

21. 125 No. Fulghaji Bapeichara Mr.Indra Mohan Chakma

22. 128 No. Bosantha Mr.Chiyal Jo Pankuya

23. 129 No. Kaidha Mr.Navadip Chandra Dewan

24. 60 No. Choikuribil Mr.Satyaprasad Dewan

25. 61 No. Maishchari Mr. Udayon Dewan

26. 62 No. Shabengkong Mr.Mridulkanti Dewan

27. 63 No. Khataltholi Mr.Nirmalendu Bikas Khisa

28. 64 No. Jadobchara Mr.Prabatchandra Chakma

29. 65 No. Ghobchari Mr.Kiranjoti Chakma

30. 66 No.Agaralayachara Mr.Sujit Talukdar

31. 68 No. Chodhurychara Mr. Nillopol Dewan

32. 69 No. Ghilachari Mr.Niharbindu Dewan

33. 70 No.Hajachari Mrs. Jonaki Chakma

34. 71 No.Chotomahapuram Mr. Sumeru Dewan

35. 72 No. Bhurighat Mr. Amit Dewan

36. 73 No.Nanakurum Mr.Kajapru Royaja

37. 74 No.Boradham Mrs.Ethi Dewan

38. 75 No.Betchari Mr.Nikil Kumar Chakma

39. 76 No.Bakchari Mr.Sumudhur Dewan

199
40. 77 No.Teichakkma Mr.Birendra Lal Chakma

41. 78 No.Bhogachari Mr.Sudhir Bihari Khisa

42. 79 No.Kegelchari Mr.Polen Talukdar

43. 86 No.Fotikchari Mr.potindra Lal Chakma

44. 87 No.Dhabuya Mr.S.M.Chodhury

45. 94 No.Noyavanga Mr.Sanju Talukdar

46. 95 No.Khashkhali Mr.Tushar Kanti Dewan

47. 95(A) Betboniya Mr.Angsui pru Chodhury

48. 96 No.Kamalpothi Mr.Aungkya Ching Chodhury

49. 97 No.Mubachari Mr.Dhurantha Chakma

50. 98 No. Kachukhali Mr.Chingkiuw Royaja

51. 99 No.Ghagara Mr.Anupom Talukdar

52. 101 No.Ghilachari Mr.Pushpa Kusum Talukdar

53. 100 No.Oyangga Mr.Arun Talukdar

54. 119 No.Varsesyatholi Mr.Thoyang Aung Marma

55. 130 No.Bharudghola Mr.Kalachan Chakma

56. 321 No.Raikhali Mr.Uching Thoyang Chodhury

57. 322 No.Naranghiri Mr.Soisha Pru Marma

58. 323 No.HolyChitmoram Mr.Chai Thoyang Hla Marma

59. 326 No.Pekuya Mrs.Shanu Ching Marma

60. 336 No.Ahrachari Mr.Khula Mohan Tanchangya

61. 120 (A)No.Tinkuniya Mr.Lal Angliyana

62. 120 No.Shakkharachari Mr.Romakantha Tanchangya

63. 121 No.Kengrachari Mr.Bipulessor Chakma

200
64. 122 No.Khutubdiya Mr.Shadon Chakma

65. 124 No.Naraichari Mr.Shanti Bijoy Chakma

66. 126 No.Bilaichari Mrs.Bimaly Chakma

67. 127 No.Keronchari Mr.Shanti Kumar Chakma

68. 131 No.Bollalchara Mr.Tarun Kanti Tanchangya

69. 133 No.Jurachari Mr.Santos Bikas Dewan

70. 135 No.Jarulchari Mr.Shadanananda Chakma

71. 136 No.Areichari Mr.Ritesh Chakma

72. 137 No. Panchari Mr.Pradip Kumar Chakma

73. 138 No.Moidung Mr.Sambarath Chakma

74. 141 No.Chokpothighat Mr.Dipayon Chakma

75. 142 No.Dubajarul Mr.Ripon Talukdar

76. 143 No.Kusumchari Mr.Mayananda Dewan

77. 145 No.Banojoghichara Mr.Karunamay Chakma

78. 147 No.Lulangchara Mr.Rangachan Dewan

79. 150 No.Dumdumya Mr.Thangliyana Pangkuya

80. 393 No. Valukchari Mr.Ripon Pangkuya

81. 301 No.Dhamaichara Mr.Rabindra Lal Chakma

82. 04 No.Barunachari Mrs.Sukendu Bala Chakma

83. 13 No. Lolbuniya Mr.Susil Jiban Chakma

84. 19 No.Dewanchar Mr.Nibaron Chandra Chakma

85. 20 No.Beghenachari Mr.Sneha Kumar Chakma

86. 21 No.Bhamei Halamba Mr.Lal bak Pangkuya

87. 22 No.KurkhutiChari Mr.Shusil Jiban Chakma

201
88. 134 No.Mitinggachari Mr.Milon Shonkar Chakma

89. 135 No.Andarmanik Mr.Pravat Ranjon Chakma

90. 140 No.Bhaghachola Mr.Susil Ranjon Talukdar

91. 148 No.Bhusonchara Mr.Tapos Dewan

92. 149 No.Guichari Mr.Bodhisatta Talukdar

93. 151 No.Gorjontholi Mr.Uttam Kumar Talukdar

94. 152 No.Ghorshthan Mr.Nanda Kumar Talukdar

95. 153 No.Boro Harina Mr.Bipulessor Chakma

96. 154 No. Iimachara Mr.Monindra Lal Talukdar

97. 155 No.Hetboriya Mr.Putul Chakma

98. 156 No.Kukichara Mr.Jhon Pangkuya

99. 167 No.Choto Horina Mr.Jagodish Chakma

100. 158 No.Mauwdung Mr.Dipen Titu Dewan

101. 159 No.Dhummathalang Mr.Ujjol Kanti Dewan

102. 160 No.Teibang Mr.Chitra Kumar Chakma

103. 161 No.Bhamei Mahalchari Mr.Dhanalal Chakma

104. 162 No.Chiba Boro Harina Mr.Lilomoy Chakma

105. 163 No.Kolabanya Mr.Jirkhum Pangkuya

106. 164 No.Shaijal Mr.Lalton Pangkuya

107. 174 No.Ramukkyachara Mr.Arun Ranjon Chakma

108. 175 Karalyachari Mr.Kamini Ranjon Chakma

109. 165 No. Longkor Mr. Nur Kimma Pangkuya

110. 167 No.Ruilui Mr.Lal Thangga Lusai

111. 168 No.Konglakh Mr.Suiming Thangga Pangkuya

202
112. 169 No.Shiyaldhailui Mr.Jopeithang Tripura

113. 170 No.Tuishui Mr.Gorendra Tripura

114. 171 No.Betling Mr.Royalthat Pangkuya

115. 375 No.Bogalthuli Mr.Bishajoti Chakma

116. 376 No.Tinthila Mr.Anil Ranjon Chakma

117. 377 No.Rupkhari Mr.Bishajit Chakma

118. 378 No.Marischa Mr.Amiyo Kanti Khisa

119. 379 No.Baghaichari Mr.Keroll Chakma

120. 380 No.Shijok Mr.Sunil Baran Chakma

121. 381 No.Bhottholy Mr.Albinjon Chakma

122. 382 No.Uluchari Mr.Binoy Buson Chakma

123. 383 No.Khedarmara Mr.Samujjol Chakma

124. 384 No.Sarboyatholy Mr.Kamini Ranjon Chakma

125. 385 No.Ahamtholy Mr.Subash Chandra Chakma

126. 320 No.Khakorachari Mr.Kemong Choudhury

127. 327 No.Chingkhong Mr.Pru Hluw Marma

128. 328 No.Foyaithu Mr.Pruliou mu Marma

129. 329 No.Kaptai Mr.Birendra Lal Tripura

130. 331 No.Ghaida Mr.Bathoyai Pru Marma

131. 332 No.Jhimorang sMr.Mong Fuching Marma

132. 333 No.Gilachari Mr.Naba Kumar Talukdar

133. 334 No.Kokkyachari Mrs.Ukeyaching Marma

134. 335 No.Dhanuchara Mr.Hla Thoyai Kiyang

135. 02 No.Boro Kattholy Mr.Anjon Kumar Dewan

203
136. 03 No.Longgudhu Mr.Kulin Mitra Chakma

137. 05 No.Shailyatholy Mr.Bindumoy Chakma

138. 06 No.Hedhalotchara Mr.Shadek Kumar Choudhury

139. 07 No.Dhuluchari Mr.Sunil Kanti Chakma

140. 08 No.Ghuichari Mr.Chironton Talukdar

141. 09. No.Marishchachar Mr.Sukumar Chakma

142. 10 No.Rangapanichara Mr.Premachad Chakma

143. 11 No.Pettannyamachara Mr.Newton Chakma

144. 12 No.Ghopchari Mr.Mukul Kanti Chakma

145. 14 No.Vasannyaahdham Mr.Goutom Chakma

146. 15 No.Naluya Mr.Alon Bikas Chakma

147. 16 No.Khagrarachari Mr.Ahmor Bikas Chakma

148. 17 No.Gonomore Mr.Bakul Bikas Chakma

149. 18 No.Kakhporiya Mr.Biyakh Thang Pankuya

150. 23 No.Boghachotor Mr.Kongkon Chakma

151. 24 No.Maineemukh Mr.Manik Kumar Chakma

152. 25 No.Sonai Mr.Prema Chakma

153. 26 No.Eiyaringchari Mr.Nikhil Priya Chakma

154. 27 No.Ahtarokchara Mr.Shosangkho Sekhor Chakma

155. 57 No.Ulthachari Mr.Bimal Shanti Chakma

156. 386 No.Gulshakhaly Mr.Najirmoni Chakma

157. 387 No.Ghathachara Mr.Aklash Choudhury

158. 388 No.Ranghipara Mr.Chandra Mohan Chakma

159. 389 No.Choto Pagushcha Mr.Mihir Kumar Chakma

204
160. 390 No.Khala Pakushya Mr.Mir Ranjon Choudhury

161. 238 No.Ghashban Mr.Shaktipoda Tripura

162. 239 No.Jurmorong Mr.Liton Royaja

163. 240 No.Vaibonchara Mr.Sapuram Royaja

164. 256 No.Ghamari Dhala Mr.Durubo Ranjon Tripura

165. 257 No.Nuinchari Mr.Kethdra Mohan Royaja

166. 259 No.Dhatkuppya Mr.Gnana Lal Dewan

167. 262 No.Gholabari Mr.Ukkyashain Choudhury

168. 263 No.Kamolchari Mr.Konjo Choudhury

169. 265 No.Bogalkhadhi Mr.Nibul Royaja

170. 266 No.Perachara Mr.Anil Kumar Chakma

171. 260 No.Eatchari Mr.Shathauw Marma

172. 264 No.Vuyachari Mr.Kirtimoy Chakma

173. 261 No.Dhurchari Mr. Kalyan Kisore Royaja

174. 248 No.Mubachari Mr.Kesching Choudhury

175. 249 No.Keyang Ghat Mr.Nabadip Chakma

176. 251 No.Chongrachari Mr.Ha Auagsu Choudhury

177. 250 No.Lemuchari Mr.Dinendra Chakma

178. 252 No.Tholipara Mr.Kalachan Choudhury

179. 253 No.Tindhukchari Mr.Mongsui Pru Choudhury

180. 254 No. Kerengganal Mr.Sudhangsu Bikas Khisa

181. 253(A) No.Duposseyanala Mr.Shamol Bikas Khisa

182. 226 No.Shindukchari Mr.Uhla Pru Choudhury

183. 215 No.Debelchari Mr.Kongkorro Marma

205
184. 255 No.Maishchari Mr.Shodesh Priti Chakma

185. 215 No.Ghoyaichari Mrs.Hla UPru Chodhury

186. 258 No.UllthaChari Mr.Nirothi Ranjon Chakma

187. 241 No.Lothiban Mr.Vumidhor Royaja

188. 242 No.Pushgang Mr.Suishapru Choudhury

189. 243 No.Chenghi Mr.Shantimoy Chakma

190. 244 No.Lougang Mr.Subodhon Royaja

191. 245 No.Boro Panchari Mr.Bimal Kanti Royaja

192. 246 No.Choto Panchari Mr.Dhonachandra Royaja

193. 247 No.Jugolchari Mr.Arunjoy Royaja

194. 191 No.Taidong Mr.Pravat Kanti Royaja

195. 183 No.Ahchalong Mr.Bigno Binason Talukdar

196. 184 No.Borobill Mr.Mongshajai Choudhury

197. 181 No. Tabollchari Mr.Mongshaighaya Choudhury

198. 180 No.Boronal Mr.Aungyaju Choudhury

199. 182 No.Toilafhang Mr.Ketoki Mohan Royaja

200. 189 No.Gumothi Mr.Ronjit Tripura

201. 195 No.Bamagumothi Mr.Monolal Tripura

202. 179 No.Ahamtholi Mr.Taren Kumar Tripura

203. 187 No.Ghorgoriya Mr.Anil Bikas Royaja

204. 110 No.Bandorchara Mr.Nipon Kanti Royaja

205. 193 No.Bandorchari Mr.Upendra Lal Royaja

206. 192 No.Makumtiosha Mr.Motindra Kisore Royaja

207. 186 No.Beltchari Mr.Suba Ranjon Royaja

206
208. 188 No.Khodhachara Mr.Upendra Kumar Royaja

209. 185 No.Ahjodhya Mrs.Joya Tripura

210. 194 No.Chongrachari Mr.Jogotjoti Chakma

211. 196 No.Matiranga Mrs.Ahneouw Choudhury

212. 201 No.Dholiya Mr.Shaila Pru Choudhury

213. 207 No.Oyashuu Mr.Anungpru Choudhury

214. 203 No.Ahobbya Mr.Lolitha Bikas Tripura

215. 204 No.Ahluthila Mr.Heronjoy Tripura

216. 205 No.Toikathang Mr.Ramananda Royaja

217. 206 No.Doldoli Mr.Dinomohan Royaja

218. 197 No.Guimara Mr.Repurushai Choudhury

219. 198 No.Shodoye Mr.Ahkoimoni Choudhury

220. 200 No.Thomathai Mr.Bimol Kanti Dhamai

221. 199 No.Ballyachari Mr.Tridip Narayon Tripura

222. 229 No.Ramghar Mr.Ushapru Choudhury

223. 237 No.Navanga Mr.Shaching Choudhury

224. 202 No.Hajachara Mr.Hori Doyal Choudhury

225. 228 No.Nakhacgrai Mr.Mongsuipru Choudhury

226. 225 No.Toikoma Mr.Shaithoyoi Choudhury

227. 227 No.Haphchari Mr.Pretimoy Chakma

228. 233 No.Temorom Mr.Donamoni Chakma

229. 209 No.Borpilakh Mr.Mongshow Choudhury

230. 236 No.Porshuwram Ghat Mr.Ahsutosh Royaja

231. 212 No.Boroitholy Mr.Kongjori Choudhury

207
232. 235 No.Nakapha Mr.Ahposu Choudhury

233. 213 No.Lubrerom Mr.Labereishai Choudhury

234. 208 No.Manikchari Mr.Embraching Sain Marma

235. 222 No.Rangapani Mr.Kumar Nipuru Sain Marma

236. 228 No.Kumartholy Mr.Mongchinu Choudhury

237. 221 No.Mormatholy Mr.Jotindralal Choudhury

238. 210 No.Joggyachola Mr.Kongjori Choudhury

239. 231 No.Kalapani Mr.Reprushai Choudhury

240. 232 No.Sudurkhil Mr.Kaishai Choudhury

241. 211 No.Dauwinchari Mr.Ukgyajai Choudhury

242. 234 No.Shempupara Mr.Thoyaiching Choudhury

243. 214 No.Duluchara Mr.Mong Choudhury

244. 215 No.Boroduluchara Mr.Gongba Choudhury

245. 217 No.Jarulchari Mr.Mongshaigya Marma

246. 218 No.Jugkchari Mr.Repurushai Marma

247. 219 No.Dolyatholy Mr.Anugya shai Marma

248. 220 No.Muyuikhil Mr.Ripapru shai Marma

249. 80 No.Dhurachari Mr.Sajit Kumar Talukdar

250. 81 No.Banorkhata Mr.Perimohan Dewan

251. 82 No.Choto Durang Mr.Ahchingmong Marma

252. 83 No.Boro Dhurang Mr.Suishaahung Marma

253. 84 No.Mukthachari Mr.Shanthimohan Chakma

254. 85 No.Bormachari Mr.Sathoyai Choudhury

255. 88 No.Dhane Bardorkata Mr.Robi Chandra Chakma

208
256. 89 No.Lakhichari Mr.Gnanolal Talukdar

257. 90 No.Sukkhunachari Mr.Supreti Bikas Dewan

258. 91 No.Moromchari Mr.Sathoyoi Choudhury

259. 92 No.Legangchari Mr.Suishaa Choudhury

260. 93 No.Kerethkaba Mr.Sukra Kumar Chakma

261. 28 No.Rank karyaja Mr.Purna Kumar Chakma

262. 29 No.Choto Merung Mr.Raitter Chakma

263. 30 No.Boro Merung Mr.Kumud Bikas Royaja

264. 31 No.Boyalkhali Mr.Tridip Rai Chakma

265. 32 No.Katarung Mr.Chandra Honsha Royaja

266. 33 No.Nuunchari Mr.Udoy sonkor Chakma

267. 34 No.Shadarachara Mr.Arjomitra Chakma

268. 35 No.Duluchari Mr.Surabijoy Chakma

269. 36 No.Kukichara Mr.Shanti Kumar Chakma

270. 37 No.Shadengchara Mr.Annongga Buson Dewan

271. 46 No.Dhanopata Mr.Direndralal Talukdar

272. 47 No.Modya Dhanopata Mrs.Ghopadevi Chakma

273. 48 No.Dhane Dhanopata Mr.Jubalakkon Chakma

274. 49 No.Jarulchari Mr.Dharikanath Chakma

275. 50 No.Baghaichari Mr.Sattyadririyo Chakma

276. 51 No.Dighinala Mr.Prantor Chakma

277. 52 No.Pabollakhaly Mr.Binoy Ranjon Chakma

278. 53 No.Khobakhaly Mr.Diponkor Dewan

279. 54 No.Taraboniya Mr.Biblobb Chakma

209
280. 55 No.Choto Hajachara Mr.Aparup Chakma

281. 56 No.Boro Hajachara Mr.Diponkor Chakma

282. 313 No.Bandarban Sadar Mr.Raja U Cha pru

283. 314 No.Suyalokh Mr.Mongthoyaiching Marma

284. 315 No.Renikong Mr.Ranglai Mro

285. 337 No.Balaghata Mr.Mong nuu Marma

286. 319 No.Rajbilla Mr.Ruipru Aung Marma

287. 312 No.Takeipanchari Mr.Menopit Mro

288. 318 No.Khuhalong Mr.Prumong uu Marma

289. 308 No.Uttor Hagor Mr.Johon Mro

290. 309 No.South Hagor Mr.Paring Mro

291. 310 No.Tongkaboti Mr.Purnachadra Mro

292. 311 No.Horin Jiri Mr.Kain Oyai Mro

293. 347 No.Murukkong Mr.Mongpu Marma

294. 330 No.Hhara Mr.Rajumong Marma

295. 324 No.Chemi Mr.Pulu pru Marma

296. 325 No.Kholakong Mr.Thoyai Hlapru Marma

297. 348 No.Lapaikong Mr.Nu Mongpru Marma

298. 316 No.Bethchara Mr.Hla Thoyai he Marma

299. 338 No.Rouwyangchari Mr.Chochingpru Marma

300. 340 No.Tarasha Mr.Uniha Hla Marma

301. 341 No.Paikong Mr.Lalkom Bom

302. 345 No.Noyapatong Mr.Miching Marma

303. 389 No.Geraou Mr.Shosai Aung Marma

210
304. 339 No.Beikong Mr.Kesa Aung Marma

305. 360 No.Ahlekong Mr.Shasopru Marma

306. 317 No.Keshlong Mr.Chonuupru Marma

307. 343 No.Ahlekongpi Mr.Chomting Bom

308. 344 No.Khokang Mr.U Thoyaipru Marma

309. 342 No.Khumikong Mr.Sadhuchandra Tripura

310. 346 No.Mrorukong Mr.Bathoyai Marma

311. 366 No.Senghu Mr.U Hlaching Marma

312. 372 No.Naiting Mr.Shoching Marma

313. 358 No.Ruma Mr.Bathoyai Aung Marma

314. 364 No.Gallegkha Mr.Menorath Mro

315. 374 No.Remagree Prangsha Mr.Vutting Bom

316. 356 No.Pooli Mr.Ching sha Aung Marma

317. 351 No.Chandha Mr.Sha Mong uu Marma

318. 353 No.Kholadhi Mr.Shoi ChingTui Marma

319. 352 No.Khomongkong Mr.Lalliyang Bom

320. 350 No.Paidhu Mr.Mongso Uu Marma

321. 354 No.Panthola Mr.Lunglai Mro

322. 365 No.Khaingga Mr.Kesha Uu Marma

323. 345 No.Shepruu Mr.Muikya Marma

324. 357 No.Dhurukkong Mr.Lalseushan Bom

325. 361 No.Thaikong Mr.Mongpru Marma

326. 360 No.Khoyaikong Mr.Mangsar Mro

327. 359 No.Shokhodho Mr.Bhaching Marma

211
328. 362 No.Thanchi Mrs.Hla su Marma

329. 367 No.Tingdhu Mr.Prithan Khumi

330. 368 No.Mimukkya Mr.AungShatui Marma

331. 369 No.Chingghapa Mr.Muitui Marma

332. 370 No.Madhuchara Mr.Kemong Tripura

333. 371 No.Remanggree Mr.Ghapang Bom

334. 373 No.Phadha Mr.Hebebu Mro

335. 385 No.Krigkong Mr.Roybahadhur Chakma

336. 284 No.Eiyangsha Mr.Chore Aung Marma

337. 293 No.Chagolkkaiya Mr.Mongkeching Marma

338. 294 No.Dordori Mr.Chakhain Marma

339. 295 No.Lama Mr.Hla Tui mong Marma

340. 296 No.Naikong Mr.Chong Pum Mro

341. 297 No.Popha Mr.Johon Tripura

342. 299 No.Choto Bomu Mr.Mong sakoi Marma

343. 300 No.Boro Momu Mr.Chochimong Marma

344. 301 No.Soroi Mr.Durjoodon Tripura

345. 302 No.Lulai Mr.Merung Mro

346. 303 No.Doluchari Mr.Joohon Tripura

347. 304 No.Lemu Palong Mr.Kainyoung Mro

348. 305 No.Gojaliya Mr.Thoyai Nu Choudhury

349. 306 No.Faitong Mr.Uma mong Marma

350. 307 No.Chammbi Mr.Timongpru Marma

351. 283 No.Fasiyakhaly Mr.Mongtuipru Marma

212
352. 285 No.Sangghu Mr.Thongpray Mro

353. 289 No.Longkong Mr.Chongpung Mro

354. 287 No.Thoyain Mr.Aunglaching Marma

355. 288 No.Alikadom Mr.Aung haching Marma

356. 289 No.Shoikong Mr.Cromong Marma

357. 290 No.Mangghu Mr.Langneikong Mro

358. 291 No.Thoinopa Mr.Reinpun Mro

359. 292 No.Shainprauu Mr.Shatuipru Marma

360. 267 No.Dumdhum Mr.Narishamoni Bom

361. 268 No.Rejuu Mr.Chata Aung Chakma

362. 269 No.Sonaichari Mr.Aungching Thoi Marma

363. 270 No.Nakkyongchari Mr.Baching Chak

364. 271 No.Thomuru Mr.Saicha Aung Tanchangya

365. 272 No.Jaruliyachari Mr.Mongcry Marma

366. 273 No.Pagooli Mr.Ukyaching Chakma

367. 274 No.Dhochari Mr.Shoi nuu Marma

368. 275 No.Valukkaiya Mr.Mongshoipru Choudhury

369. 276 No.Toranghu Mrs.Mong Nuu Marma

370. 277 No.Khocrokong Mr.Mangsha Chak

371. 287 No.Baishari Mr.Mong Nuu Chak

372. 279 No.Bakkhaly Mr.Ushala Chak

373. 280 No.Alikhong Mr.Mongthoiyang Hla Marma

374. 281 No.Koyaiwnjhiri Mr.Thoya Mro

375. 282 No.Kamichara Mr.Menuratha Mro

213
376. 283 No.Eatghor Mr.Thoiyai Hla Aung Marma

Total sub-districts =376 .

The 26 municipal councils in Jummaland

01.Rangamati Sadar Municipal Council

02. Naniarchar Municipal Council

03.Longghudu Municipal Council

04.Khauwkhaly Municipal Council

05.Kaptai Municipal Council

06.Bilaichari Municipal Council

07.Jurachari Municipal Council

08.Borkal Municipal Council

09.Baghaichari Municipal Council

10.Rajstholy Municipal Council

11.Khagrachari Sadar Municipal Council

12.Mohalchari Municipal Council

13.Panchari Municipal Council

14.Matiranga Municipal Council

15.Ramghar Municipal Council

16.Manikchari Municipal Council

17.Lakhichari Municipal Council

18.Dighinala Municipal Council

19.Guimara Municipal Council

20.Bandarban Sadar Municipal Council

21.Rouwangchari Municipal Council

214
22.Ruma Municipal Council

23.Thanchi Municipal Council

24.Lama Municipal Council

25.Alikadam Municipal Council

26.Nakkyangchari Municipal Council

Municipal Council total =26

Buddhist Temples name and address in Jummaland

01. Raj Bana Bihar, Rangamati Sadar, Rangamati

02. Chakma Raj Bihar, Rangamati Sadar, Rangamati

03. Moitree Bihar, Rangamati Sadar, Rangamati

04. Ananda Bihar, Tabolchari, Rangamati Sadar

05. Parami Buddha Bihar, East Tribal Adam, Rangamati Sadar

06. Sangharama Buddha Bihar, Vedvedi, Rangamati Sadar

07. Milon Buddha Bihar, Rangapani, Rangamati Sadar

08. Buddhangkur Buddha Bihar, Assam Bosti, Rangamati Sadar

09. Digalibag Dharmmachakkra Buddha Bihar, Rangamati Sadar

10. Chaba Buddha Bihar, Uluchara, Rangamati

11. Lumbini Buddha Bihar, Rangamati

12. Bashanta Samabai Buddha Bihar, Rangamati

13. Trirathanangkur Buddha Bihar, Rangamati

14. Ram Hari Para Moitree Buddha Bihar, Mahapuram, Naniarchar, Rangamati

15. Gilachari Janakalyan Buddha Bihar, Naniarchar, Rangamati

16. Takkashila Bana Bihar, Ram Hari Para, Mahapuram, Naniarchar, Rangamati

215
17. Krisnamachara Buddha Bihar, Naniarchar, Rangamati

18. Sushanti Buddha Bihar, Krisnamachara, Naniarchar, Rangamati

19. Marchchari Buddha Bihar, Rangamati

20. Keretchari Shanti niketon Bihar, Kutukchari, Rangamati

21. Pukurchari Buddha Bihar, Rangamati

22. Boradam Vinoy Buddha Bihar, Rangamati

23. Banduk Vanga Dharmmadoy Bihar, Rangamati

24. Shakyadam Buddha Bihar, Rangamati.

25. Sappchari Shathidam Buddha Bihar

26. Jibatali Nabin Buddha Bihar, Kippya para, Rangamati

27. Dhalyachari Jetaban Buddha Bihar, Naniarchar, Rangamati

28. Kamilachari Jana Mangol Bihar, Rangamati

29. Paramee Buddha Bihar, Purba Tribal Adam, Rangamati

30. Naniarchar Dasabal Buddha Bihar, Naniarchar Bazaar, Rangamati

31. Kamarpara Bishakalyan Buddha Bihara, Naniarchar, Rangamati

32. Nutunpara Buddha Bihar, Ram Hari Para, Naniarchar, Rangamati

33. Chodhurychara Buddha Bihar, Gilachari, Naniarchar, Rangamati

34. Tarunipara Buddha Bihar, Bogachari, Naniarchar, Rangamati

35. Mongkola Buddha Bihar, Burighat, Naniarchar, Rangamati

36. Polipara Buddha Bihar, Burighat, Naniarchar, Rangamati

37. Sabekkhong Buddha Bihar, Naniarchar, Rangamati

38. Morachenghi Buddha Bihar, Naniarchar, Rangamati

39. Pahartoli Buddha Bihar, Naniarchar, Rangamati

40. Monatek Buddha Bihar, Rangamati

216
41. Nanakurum Sangha Moitree Buddha Bihar, Naniarchar, Rangamati

42. Nanakurum Buddha Bihar, Naniarchar, Rangamati

43. Biyoadam Buddha Bihar, Naniarchar, Rangamati

44. Choichari Buddha Bihar, Gilachari, Rangamati

45. Forechari Buddha Bihar, Gilachari, Rangamati

46. Dhaka Shakymuni Buddha Bihar, Mirpur-13, Dhaka

47. Chittagong Bisha Moitree Buddha Bihar, Chittagong

48. Bargang Buddha Bihar, Chittagong

49. Hillchadigang Buddha Bihar, Chittagong

50. Moitree Bana Bihar, Chittagong

51. Nirbanpur Bana Bihar, Kutukchari, Rangamati

52. Katachari Bana Bihar, Rangamati

53. Bodhipur Bana Bihar, Rangamati

54. Perachara Headmanpara Giriful Sumangal Buddha Bihar, Kagrachari Sadar

55. Mionpur Buddha Bihar, Kagrachari Sadar

56. Upali Buddha Bihar, Kagrachari Sadar

57. Janabal Buddha Bihar, Mahajonpara, Kagrachari Sadar

58. Adarsha Buddha Bihar, Harinathpara, Kagrachari Sadar

59. Kalyanpur Buddha Bihar, Kagrachari Sadar

60. PBM Buddha Bihar, Pilotpara, Kagrachari Sadar

61. Jurapanichara Buddha Bihar, Kagrachari Sadar

62. Madhupur Boijoyanthi Buddha Bihar, Kagrachari Sadar

63. South Kobongporiya Model Buddha Bihar, Kagrachari Sadar

64. Perachara Nilakantha Jana Kalyan Buddha Bihar, Kagrachari Sadar

217
65. North Kobongporiya Dasabol Buddha Bihar, Kagrachari Sadar

66. 2 No. Project Gramm Nirbanbhumi Buddha Bihar, Kagrachari Sadar

67. Doyarampara Janapriya Buddha Bihar, Kagrachari Sadar

68. Soiyendorpara Trirathana Buddha Bihar, Baibonchara, Kagrachari

69. Kamalchari Ambrakanon Buddha Bihar, Kagrachari

70. Tetultola Agramoitree Bidhashan Meditation Center Buddha Bihar, Kagrachai

71. Dewanpara Moitree Buddha Bihar, Baibonchara, Kagrachari

72. Rangapanichara Sadharmma Buddha Bihar, Kagrachari

73. Ranjonmunipara Janamangal Buddha Bihar, Kagrachari

74. Alutila Dhatuchittaya Buddha Bihar, Kagrachari

75. Sangha Moitree Buddha Bihar, Missciribil, Panchari, Kagrachari

76. Milonpur Buddha Bihar, Kagrachari

77. Jnanadoy Buddha Bihar, BDR Gate, Panchari

78. Talukdarpara Jana Kalyan Buddha Bihar, Kaukali, Rangamati

79. Sadharmmarathana Buddha Bihar, Barkal, Rangamati

80. Bagaicharimukh Buddha Bihar, Rangamati

81. Lumbini Bana Buddha Bihar, Katachari, Rangamati

82. Bagaltoli C Black Buddha Bihar, Rangamati

83. North Pabala kali Buddha Bihar, Baghaichari, Rangamati

84. Kedarmara Noren Moitree Buddha Bihar, Rangamati

85. Dasabol Buddha Raj Bihar, Dighinala, Kagrachari

86. Lambachara Trirathana Buddha Bihar, Barkal, Rangamati

87. Bagaltoli B Black Buddha Bihar, Baghaichari

88. Hirachar Buddha Bihar, Bagaichari, Rangamati

218
87. Baro kanak sadhamma Buddha Bihar, Kagrachari

88. Kusumchari Manoram Buddha Bihar, Rangamati

89. Valukmara Buddha Bihar, Bagaichari, Rangamati

90. Kusumchari Triratha Buddha Bihar, Barkal, Rangamati

91. Trirathanangkur Buddha Bihar, Jagarabil Rangamati

92. Debbyachari Manoram Buddha Bihar, Rangamati

93. Middal para Buddha Bihar, Kagrachari

94. Saminichara Buddha Bihar, Bagaichari, Rangamati

95. Barkal Buddha Bihar, Rangamati

96. Debbyachari Gnanarathana Buddha Bihar, Ranagamati Sadar

97. Sapchari Shantidam Buddha Bihar, Manichari,Rangamati

98. Hajachara Sammyamoitree Buddha Bihar, Barkal, Rangamati

99. Mandhirachara Buddha Bihar, Baghaichari, Rangamati

100. Pagossyachari Gandakuti Buddha Bihar, Panchari, Kagrachari

101. Rangadurchari Shakyakul Buddha Bihar, Baghaichari, Rangamati

102. Debachari Purbaram Buddha Bihar, Jurachari, Rangamati

103. Gaghara Sadhamma Buddha Bihar, Kaukali, Rangamati

104. Machalong Sadhamma Buddha Bihar, Baghaichari, Rangamati

105. Goutam Srithi Buddha Bihar, Belaichari, Rangamati

106. Gholachari Subarna Buddha Bihar, Baghaichari, Rangamati

107. Salban Buddha Bihar, Jurachari, Rangamati

108. Sijokmuk Srbojonin Buddha Bihar, Baghaichari, Rangamati

109. Logang Ananda Buddha Bihar, Panchari, Kagrachari

110. Kotorkhil Marmapara Buddha Bihar, Subalong, Rangamati

219
111. Kharingkong Shakya Bana Bihar, Bandukbanga, Rangamati

112. Bodhipur Bana Bihar, Rangamati

113. Shantigiri Meditation Center Bihar, Rangapanichara, Kagrachari

114. Shilachar Bana Bihar, Pulinpur, Panchari, Kagrachari

115. Bana Bhante Memorial Mondir, Moreghona, Boradam, Rangamati

116. Varboyachap Bana Bihar, Bandukvanga, Rangamati

117. Ajor-Amor Bana Bihar, Kaukali, Rangamati

118. Rajgiri Bana Bihar, Betchari, Naniarchar, Rangamati

119. Subolang Branch Bana Bihar,Jurachari, Rangamati

120. Banashaka Chittaram Buddhist Temple, Hatimara, Rangamati

121. Harubil Bana Bihar, Panchari, Kagrachari

122. Janakalyan Bana Bihar, Soroyatoli, Baghaichari, Rangamati

123. Fokirachara Bana Bihar, Jurachari, Rangamati

124. Akya Bana Bihar,Gilatali Jurachari, Rangamati

125. Shantipur Bana Bihar, Jibatali, Baghaichari, Rangamati

126. Lotibash chara Bana Bihar,Barkal, Rangamati

127. Karuna Bana Bihar, 14 Miles,Naniarchar, Rangamati

128. Kathachari Bana Bihar, Rangamati

129. Gnanodoy Bana Bihar, Mahalchari, Kagrachari

130. Moitree Kalyan Bana Bihar, Sholeschari, Naniarchar, Rangamati

131. Aranya Bana Bihar, Perachara, Kagrachari

132. Moitree Bana Bihar, EPZ,Chittagong

133. Amamtoli Dharmmadoy Bana Bihar,Jurachari,Rangamati

134. Karurapur Bana Bihar, Balagata, Bandarban, Rangamati

220
135. Upagupta Bana Bihar,Uluchari, Rangamati

136. Jormmasrithi Bana Bihar,Baradam, Rangamati

137. Shantipura Bana Bihar, Panchari

138. Shilarattkit Pannamukthi Bana Bihar, Moheskali, Cox Bazaar

139. Furamon International Bana Meditation Center Bihar, Sabchari, Rangamati

140. Roshya Bili Bana Bihar, Kaukali, Rangamati

141. Kusinagar Bana Bihar, Lakhichari, Kagrachari

142. Dharmmakur Bana Bihar,Potikali, Naniarchar, Rangamati

143. Monirathana Jeta Bana Bihar,Balikali, Rangamati

144. Medinipur Bana Bihar, Kagrachari

145. Shakyasinghe Bisudha Bana Bihar, Manikchari,Kagrachari

146. Sammadithi Bana Bihar, Temidung,Rangamati

147. Binayakur Bana Bihar,Kaukali, Rangamati

148. Arpornachoran Bana Bihar,Barkal, Rangamati

149. Dharmma Moitree Bana Bihar, Tripura

150. Banani Bana Bihar, Bagaihat, Rangamati

151. Tripurachara Sangharam Bana Bihar, Bandukbanga, Rangamati

152. Milanpur Bana Bihar, Mahalchari, Kagrachari

153. Ajachari Udayon Buddha Bihar, South Tripura

154. Dighinala Bana Bihar, Kagrachari

155. Jamasukh Meditation Center Bana Bihar,Rangamati

156. Saver International Bana Bihar, Dhaka

157. New York Shadanananda International Bana Bihar, USA

158. Arunachal Bana Bihar, Chakma Bosthi

221
159. Aunachal Chakma Buddha Bihar, Chakmapara

160. Assam Chakmapara Pannaram Buddha Bihar

161.Milonpur Bana Bihar, Mohalchari, khagrachari

162. Ajachari Udayon Buddha Bihar, South Tripura

163. Dighinala Bana Bihar, Dighinala Sadar, Khagrachari

164. Jamasukh Meditation Center Bana Bihar, Rangamati

165. Sasanadoy Bana Bihar, 18 malies, Naniarchar, Rangamati

166. Sholeshcharimukh Pushpa Bana Bihar, Bandukbanga,Rangamati

167. Ariyabimukhthi Bana Bihar, Chodurychara, Naniarchar, Rangamati

168. Aryakalyan Bana Bihar, Barmachari,Lakhichari, Khagrachari

169. Boijoyantha Bana Bihar,Gagara, Kaukhali, Rangamati

170. Monugang Bana Bihar,Baganpara, Dolai, Tripura

171. Sadhanananda Bana Bihar,Hajaribak, Balukhali, Rangamati

172. Sravasthi Bana Bihar, Mitingachari, Subolong, Rangamati

173. Raikong Bana Bihar,Belaichari, Rangamati

174. Lumbini Bana Bihar, Chota Harina, Barkal, Rangamati

175. Donirampara Buddha Bihar,Toimatong, Matiganga, Khagrachari

176. Kachalong Ariya Dharmmaujjal Bana Bihar, Baghaichari, Rangamati

177. Matiranga Barjala Moitree Buddha Bihar, Khagrachari

178. Madyampara Pushparama Buddha Bihar, Kaukhali, Rangamati

179. Borshituk Ariyadham Mulghandha Kutir Bihar, Khagrachari Sadar

180. Dharmmakur Dholaima Buddha Bihar, Dighinala, Khagrachari

181. Thongachari Naba Ariya Dharmma Prabatton Buddha Bihar, Khagrachari

182. Burighat Ananda Moitree Buddha Bihar, Naniarchar, Rangamati

222
183. Shadhanabodhi Buddha Bihar, Kalanala, Panchari

184. Monirathana Jethoban Bihar, Kandeichara, Balukhali, Rangamati

185. Dhoniram Para Buddha Bihar, 09 No.ward,Matiranga, Khagrachari

186. Mejal para Dharmmasukh Buddha Bihar, Lakhichari

187. Panchari Police Para Buddha Bihar, Panchari Bazar

188. Bandarban Marma Para Buddha Bihar, Bandarban

189. Lama Para Buddha Bihar, Lama Bazar

190. Thanchi Para Buddha Bihar, Thanchi Bazar

191. Bilaichari Bazar Buddha Vihar,

192. Naniarchar Bazar Buddha Bihar,

193. Kaptai Nutun Para Buddha Bihara

194. Kamalchari PBM Buddha Bihar, Khagrachari Sadar

195. Alikadam Bazar Marma Para Buddha Bihar

196. Keokamolang Tanchangya Para Buddha Bihar

197. Rajshtholi Moithree Buddha Bihar, Rajshtholi

198. Ganga Mukh Para Buddha Bihar, Bagaihat

199. Morachanghi Buddha Bihar, Naniarchar Bazar

200. Fenikul Buddha Bihar, Feni hari Para, Ramghar

201. Mohalchari Bazar Buddha Bihar, Mohalchari,

202. Karuna Bana Bihar, Bandarban

203. Dharmma Passanaraya Forest Buddha Bihar, Bakmara, Bandarban

204. Tulaban Navarathana Buddha Bihar, Bagaichari, Rangamati

205. Babuchora Buddhanity Buddha Bihar, Dighinala

206. Sadhana Prem Bana Bihar, Dighinal

223
207. Benuban Bana Bihar, Dighinal

208. Bidya Niketon Buddha Bihar, Guimara, Matiranga

209.Bandarban Ujanipara Buddha Bihar, P.O+ P.S.Bandarban Sador

210. Lulaiinpara Buddha Bihar, 348 Hulaiya Mauza, Bandarban Sador

211. Janchoripara Buddha Bihar, P.O+P.S. Bandarban Sador

212. Koraioyang Oya Para Buddha Bihar, Lapaikoyang Mauza, Bandarban

213. Nara Headman Para Buddha Bihar, 330, Nara Mauza, Bandarban

214. Udalboniya Buddha Bihar, 330 Nara Mauza, Bandarban Sador

215. Amtolipara Buddha Bihar, 324 No. Chomo Mauza, Bandarban Sador

216. Vangamurapara Buddha Bihar, 318 No.Kuyalong Mauza, Bandarban

217. Thonepara Buddha Bihar, Kuayalong Mauza, Bandarban Sador

218. Talukdarpara Buddha Bihar, 313 No. Bandarban Mauza, Bandarban

219. Lumejiripara Buddha Bihar, 337 No.Balaghata Mauza, Bandarban

220. Balaghata Buddha Bihar, 337 No.Balaghata Mauza, Bandarban Sador

221. Kuyalong Headman Para Buddha Bihar, 318 No. Kuyalong Mauza

222. Rani Para Buddha Bihar, 319 No.Rajbila Mauza, Bandarban Sador

223. Reisha Para Buddha Bihar, P.O+P.S:Bandarban Sador

224. Dolboniya Bakmara Buddha Bihar, 318 No. Kuyalong Mauza

225. Murangya Para Buddha Bihar, 347 No. Murang Mauza, Bandarban

226. Kamodong Para Buddha Bihar, P.O+P.S: Bandarban Sador

227. Suyalong Amtolipara Buddha Bihar, 314 No. Suyalok Mauza

228. Amtolypara Tanchangya P ara Buddha Bihar, Bandarban Sador

229. Ramatiya Jana Kalyan Buddha Bihar, Bandarban Sador

230. Bandarban Jotakhamar Para Buddha Bihar, 313 No.Bandarban Mauza

224
231. Satkomap Para Pancha Buddha Bihar, Reisha Tanchangya Para

232. Bakmara Headman Para Buddha Bihar, 347 No. Murukong Mauza

233. Kauyalong Buddha Bihar, 318 No.Kuayalong Mauza, Bandarban

234. Bakichora Tungkong Buddha Bihar, P.O+P.S: Bandarban Sador

235. Jongka Para Buddha Bihar, 319 No.Rajbila Mauza, Bandarban

236. Suyalok Majje Para Buddha Bihar, 314 No.Suyalok Mauza, Bandarban

237. Chorui Para Buddha Bihar, 318 No.kuyalok Mauza, Bandarban Sador

238. Dolu Ujon Para Buddha Bihar, 348 No.Halaipang Mauza, Bandarban

239. Lulaieng New Basthi Buddha Bihar, 348 No.Hulaipang Mauza

240. Monjiripara Buddha Bihar, 325 No.Kuyalong Mauza, Bandarban

241. Ujanimuk Headman Para Buddha Bihar, 325 No.Kuyalong Mauza

242. Khataltoly Buddha Bihar, 318 No.Balaghata Mauza, Bandarban

243. Bongkhi Para Buddha Bihar, 318 No.Balaghata Mauza, Bandarban

244. Hulaimukh Para Buddha Bihar, 348 No. Hulaipaimukh Mauza

245. Ronoyaja Shabai Para Buddha Bihar, 324 No.Chomo Mauza

246. Chomedulu Para Buddha Bihar, 324 No.Chomo Mauza, Bandarban

247. Purba Headman Para Buddha Bihar, 318 No. Kuyalong Mauza

248. Suyalok headman Para Buddha Bihar, P.S+P.S: Bandarban Sador

249. Bakichora Kiyangoya Para Buddha Bihar, 318 No.Kuyalong Mauza

250. Hulapai Ahgaujan Para Dharmma Prachar Buddha Bihar, Bandarban

251. Chandamoon Buddha Bihar, 314 No. Suyalong Mauza, Bandarban

252. Sabekkong Buddha Bihar, 348 No.Hulaipang Mauza, Bandarban

253. Boropara Buddha Bihar, 348 No.Hulaipang Mauza, Bandarban

254. Thangghiri Para Buddha Bihar, 330 No. Hunara Mauza, Bandarban

225
255. Moghikong Para Buddha Bihar, 330 No. Nonghuna Mauza, Bandarban

256. Hularapara Buddha Bihar, 330 No.Hulara Mauza, Bandarban

257. Rajguru Buddha Bihar, P.O+P.S: Bandarban Sador, Bandarban

258. Ujani Para Buddha Bihar, P.O+P.S: Bandarban Sador

259. Moyeya Para Buddha Bihar, 319 No.Rajbila Mauza, Bandarban

260. Thaing para Buddha Bihar, 319 No.Rajbila Mauza, Bandarban

261. Parbattya Bhikkhu Porishod Buddha Bihar, P.O+P.S: Bandarban Sador

262. Thong mose Para Buddha Bihar, 347 No.Murongkoja Mauza

263. Samapur Buddha Bihar, 318 No.Kuyalong Mauza, Bandarban Sador

264. Koyongba Para Buddha Bihar, 318 No.Kuyalong Mauza, Bandarban

265. Bottoly Para Buddha Bihar, 318 No.Kuyalong Mauza, Bandarban

266. Porohito Buddha Bihar, Balaghata, P.O+P.S:Banadarban Sador

267. Majje Para Buddha Bihar, Suyalok UP, P.O+P.S: Bandarban Sador

268. Amtoly Para Buddha Bihar, Suyalok UP, Bandarban Sador

269. Dampoikoing Buddha Bihar, P.O+P.S: Bandarban Sador, Bandarban

270. Pul Para Buddha Bihar, P.O+P.S:Bandarban Sador, Bandarban

271. Pranran Kong Para Buddha Bihar, Thoni Para, Bandarban

272. Kabika Para Buddha Bihar, 324 No.Chomo Mauza, Bandarban Sador

273. Khoyo Para Buddha Bihar, 324 No.Chomo Mauza, Bandarban Sador

274. Thong Jama Para Buddha Bihar, Raj Bila UP, Bandarban Sador

275. Raj Bila Sarbojonin Buddha Bihar, Raj Bila UP, Bandarban Sador

276. Roisha Para Buddha Bihar, Suyalok Mauza, Bandarban Sador

277. Bandarban Serbajonin Buddha Bihar, Bandarban Sador

278. Karuna Buddha Bihar, Royangchori Bus Station, Bandarban Sador

226
279. Shanthi Moitree Buddha Bihar, Ugya Para, 324 No. Chomo Mauza

280. Shathong Para Buddha Bihar, 317 No. Ronokha Mauza, Bandarban

281. Sonioyon Para Buddha Bihar, Roisha, Suyalok, UP,Bandarban Sador

282. Moshaboniya Para Buddha Bihar, Bandarban Sador

283. Noya Para Buddha Bihar, 324 No. Chomi Mauza, Bandarban Sador

284. Guru U para Buddha Bihar,330 No.Hunara Mauza, Bandarban Sador

285. Hoyagipara Buddha Bihar, 337 No. Balaghata Mauza, Bandarban Sador

286. Mong Puru Para Buddha Bihar, 337 No.Balaghata Mauza, Bandarban

287. Sangga Para Budhha Bihar, P.O+P.S: Bandarban Sador, Bandarban

288. AttaBissothi Buddha Bihar and Meditation Center, Tiger Para, Sador

289. Oyabain Para Buddha Bihar, 347 No. Mukkong Mauza, Bandarban

290. Thangkhali Ujani Para Buddha Bihar, 319 No. Raj Bila Mauza, Sador

291. Dhata Vanga Para Buddha Bihar, P.O+P.S:Bandarban Sador

292. Gnanarathana Buddha Bihar, ChandraMohan Para Buddha Bihar, Sador

293. NavoRathana Buddha Bihar, P.O+P.S:Bandarban Sador, Bandarban

294. Guatom Muni Buddha Bihar, P.O+P.S:Bandarban Sador, Bandarban

295. BakhiChora Para Buddha Bihar, Kalaghata, P.O+P.S: Bandarban Sador

296. Dharmma Rakkhitha Buddha Bihar, P.O+P.S:Bandarban Sador

297. Bus Station Barua Para Buddha Bihar, P.O+P.S:Bandarban Sador

298. Borkhi Chora Para Buddha Bihar, 318 No.Balaghata Mauza, Bandarban

299. MoniJiri Para Buddha Bihar, 318 No.Kuyalong Mauza, Bandarban

300. Nutun Chorio Para Buddha Bihar, 325 No. Kolkeyong Mauza, Sador

301. Ujani Mukh Headman Para Buddha Bihar, 325 No. Kolkeyong Mauza

302. Khabika Para Buddha Bihar, 324 No.Chomo Mauza, Bandarban Sador

227
303. Khoyo Para Buddha Bihar, P.O+P.S: Bandarban Sador, Bandarban

304. Dhak Oya Talukdar Para Buddha Bihar, 340 No. Taracha Mauza

305. Noya Para Buddha Bihar, P.O+P.S: Royangchori Sador, Royangchori

306. Khokong Oya Para Buddha Bihar, P.O+P.S: Royangchori Sador

307. Thong Puru Para Buddha Bihar, P.O+P.S: Royangchori Sador

308. Dham Poyong Buddha Bihar, 340 No. Taracha Mauza, Royangchori

309. Khanthisama Para Buddha Bihar, 340 No.Taracha Mauza, Royangchori

310. Noya Pothong Upor Para Buddha Bihar, P.O+ P.S:Royangchori Sador

311. Noya Pothong Nije Para Buddha Bihar, P.O+P.S:Royangchori Sador

312. Lapaimukh Para Buddha Bihar, P.O+P.S:Royangchori Sador

228
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232
Political History

1638 C.E, Purtuguese Agreement with Chacomas

1715 C.E, Agreement with British

1763 C.E, Declared Independence Chacomas

233
 1780 C.E, Agreement of British with Chacomas

1791 C.E, Agreement of Relationship with Chacomas

234
1900 C.E, Regulation pass of CHT Land Protection

2nd Dec.1997 Peace Accord with BD Govt.

235
Map of Pictorial

236
INDIA, NEPAL, BHUTAN, CHINA, MYANMAR, THAILAND,
BANGLADESH, JUMMALAND, SRI LANKA, PAKISTAN

237
 Jummaland

238
Kingdom Of Chacomas Map (Jummaland) – 16th AD

239
India-Myanmar-china-Border-Jummaland map

240
 Bikrampur Vihara -820 AD

Somapura_Mahavihara 995-1043 AD

241
 Shalvan Vihara 700C.E.

Mainamat Maha Vihara-7th to 12th AD

242
Chakma Raj Vihara-17th AD

Pandit Vihara-8th -11th AD

243