Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Chapter 01
Chapter 01
INTRODUCTION
Jummaland Buddhist history and political matter. This research project will fulfill the
Usually no one is opposed to natural and usual migration of people from one part of a
the process of economic development of the country. Such migration usually provides
their race, religion, culture etc. But the type of migration that gives benefit to a section
of people at the cost of others is taken to be undesirable and does not deserve
appreciation from the concerned corners. There are thirteen Indigenous national
lusai, Riyang,Usai and Panko. among them The Chakma , Marma, Tanchangya and
Chak are Buddhists and others belong to Hindus and Christian. Majority are Buddhists
and forms 85 percent of the population among the indigenous groups in the Chittagong
1
1.2 Introduction to Bangladesh
Buddhist governed region and was independent and free from outside control up to the
Myanmar (Burma) in the east, Arakan in the south, the Chittagong district in the west,
and the Indian state of Tripura in the north and its total extent is 5093 square miles or
The largest district of Bangladesh until its creation, was Bandarban district. In
November, 1983, for the sake of convenience in administration, another new district
named Khagrachari was created. The Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) or Jummaland
region now thus comprises three hill districts namely, Rangamati hill districts,
Bardarban hill districts and Khagrachari hill districts. This paper takes into
consideration the entire region of the Chittagong Hill Tracts or Jummaland and will be
used to imply all the three hill districts of the area. Jummaland has been comprised of
2950 villages and there are have three traditional king (local called raja).
Geographically, the Chittagong Hill Tracts contrasts greatly with the generally alluvial
monsoon flooded plains of the rest of Bangladesh, as the name indicates, it is largely a
land of hills, ravines and cliffs covered with dense forests and creeper Jungles. The
forest area covers about 66 percent of the total area of the Chittagong Hill Tracts and
accounts for 52 percent forestry, contributes 44 percent to the districts gross income.
Indeed, the geographical condition favored the Chittagong Hill Tracts to be endowed
1
Voice of CHT,UNDV-2017 by Parbattya Bhikkhu Sangha Bangladesh-Sri Lanka Branch…p..01
2
Voice of Jummaland-U.S.Special English by editor-in-chief Ven.Dr.Rashtrapal Mahathero..p..16
2
with vast natural resources like, wood, timber, bamboo, sandstone, limestone, oil, gas,
coal etc, and impact, some of the country‟s key industries are based on the forest
Among them, the Karnafuli paper and Rayon mills at Chandraghona, wooden and
dockyard at Rangamati are a few worth mentioning here. The country‟s largest hydro 3-
The soils and slopes of the region are specially suited for tea and rubber plantation.
Fruits, especially banana, pineapple jackfruits are produced abundantly and are supplied
to other parts of the country. A huge quantity of fish caught from Kaptai reservoir is
exported to Chittagong and other parts of the country. Besides, its topography and
tourists from home and abroad. However, The Chittagong Hill Tracts /Jummaland is as
about 6 percent of the land outside reserve forest is suitable for intensive cropping.
Moreover, frequent occurrence of slopes makes it suitable only for shifting cultivation
which requires a vast area of land even for subsistence farming. This shifting cultivation
(locally called “Jum” cultivation), in turn, destroys natural vegetation and in the course
the otherwise forested hills get naked causing serious damage to flora and fauna.
Furthermore, constant tree cutting for domestic and commercial purpose is adding to the
course of deforestation. The terrains are especially unsuitable for human habitation and
road communication and thus, hinder the developmental and commercial activities. It
3
Bangladesh Tribal Bhikkhu Sangha-Sri Lanka published by publication section, Colombo 04,..p..01
3
needs to be mentioned here that the Chittagong Hill Tracts or Jummaland is the least
Like in respect of geographical feature, Jummaland / the Chittagong Hill Tracts also
represent a sharp contrast to the rest of the country with regard to its people. Unlike the
Khyang, Mro, Lusai, Chak, Bonjogi, Pankho, Khumi and Kuki. According to 1981
census, tribal people constitute about 60 percent of the total Jummaland population of
the Chittagong Hill Tracts, the rest of the population being Bengalis illegally
The Jumma tribal people, also called hill men, have traditionally made their omes in the
hilly regions, identified themselves with pride as hill men and as sons of the soil. Their
physical feature, religion, life style and language are different from those of the majority
Bengali people in the plains. Usually fair complexioned, short but well statured, this
tribal people belong to Tibeto-Burman origin. They speak their own dialect or language
and some of them have their own scripts. Two-thirds of the tribes are Buddhist and the
4
Bangladesh Tribal Bhikkhu Sangha-Sri Lanka published by publication section,Colombo 04, p..14
4
The Jumma tribes, irrespective of their groups have a common and rich cultural
heritage. They prepare their own clothes with artistic designs, build their own houses,
and artistically make their baskets and house hold materials, manufacture agricultural
appliances, drinks etc. And it is not surprising that until recently, practically all the
tribal families were self sufficient in terms of their household requirements. Almost all
the tribes are fond of music. Their songs, dances accompanied by different musical
instruments, add much to the richness of their distinct culture. Unfortunately, however,
this rich tribal culture of the Chittagong Hill Tracts is now on the verge of extinction
Formerly, The Chittagong Hill Tracts presently Jummaland was a part of Chittagong
district in 1786 A.D. Perhaps because of its unique geographical condition and the type
of people inhabiting it, and for that matter, with the special attention to bring it in line
with other districts in the context of development that, the Chittagong Hill Tracts was
separated from Chittagong district in 1860 A.D. with the status of an independent
Deputy commissioner5. In 1891 A.D. it again lost its importance and was reduced to the
again raised to the status of a district with a special regulation. It was in the same year
that the district was divided into three circles namely, The Chakma circle with Chakma
raja or king known as popular Chakma Chief of King and also others same such as,
Bomang circle and Mong circle, each circle being placed under the jurisdiction of a
tribal chief who was responsible for revenue collection and for regulation of internal
5
The Chittagong Hill Tracts Regulation/Jummaland 1900 by British government -1900,p..12
5
affairs of his area. It needs to be mentioned here that the special regulation of 1900 A.D.
forbids people from the plains to settle down in the Chittagong Hill Tracts/Jummaland,
In 1920 the 1900 A.D6. Regulation was amended giving the district a special status of
an excluded area with an administration different from other regulation districts. The
prime objective of the amendment was to give special protection to the Indigenous tribal
population of the area. In 1947 A.D. on the eve of partition of indo-Pak subcontinent,
the Chittagong Hill Tracts or Jummaland was placed under the jurisdiction of Pakistan.
since the emergence of Bangladesh in 19717. it has been and is very much a part and
parcel of Bangladesh.
Along with the progress in history of its administration, the Chittagong Hill Tracts
/Jummaland has been witnessing major changes in the context of development, such as
changes, however, presented both positive and negative impacts on its socio-economic
structure. On the one hand, it is gradually and increasingly getting the touch of modern
civilization while, on the other hand, it is losing much its traditional glories. As
hills, and plan land also mostly hills uplands and forests and is inhabited predominantly
by tribal people or Jumma people as well as Jumma nation. as a result, it‟s historical
development had been different from that of the vast low-lying alluvial plains land of
Bangladesh. Its unique features have drawn the attention of people interested in socio-
economic development of the region. Again, probably because of its uniqueness that for
6
Ibid…….p..14
7
Betar Bangla-Bengali by Assistant editor Abdulbari and kaji salaha uddin, Dhaka-1207,p..23
6
long the Chittagong Hill Tracts / Jummaland has been witnessing a history of relative
(development) of the Jumma people of the Chittagong Hill Tracts /Jummaland in its
geographical and historical perspectives. Population since the turn of the century
Chittagong Hill Tracts has been witnessing a rapid change in population in terms of
growth and composition. The following table shows that in 1901 A.D. the population of
the Chittagong Hill Tracts /Jummaland was 124,762. Since then it increased manifold
Year 1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1974 1981
124762 3 9
Percent age 12.6 22.9 16.0 16.3 34.0 32.0 46.8 Increase
of – 23.2 .
A deeper look into the above table reveals that after 1951 AD. the rate of growth of
population has been more than the one during the previous periods. It shows that after
increased more rapidly than it did during the British Periods. Such a relatively abnormal
growth in population may be considerable due to migration, into the Chittagong Hill
Tracts, of people (mostly Bengali Muslims) from the plain district of Bangladesh. The
8
Ibid…….p..67
7
Bengali Muslim People illegally bring by Bangladesh military government in 1979 to
1990. In 1947A.D, on the eve of partition tribal or Jumma population of the Chittagong
Hill Tracts constituted 97.5 percent while, Bengali population constituted only 2.5
immigration into the Chittagong Hill Tracts or Jummaland can be treated to be valid if
we take the net migration figures for the district (Jummaland region). According to the
Statistical Year Book of Bangladesh, 1980 the life time net migration into the area from
1951 to 1974 has totaled 103,536. As has been mentioned earlier the plains land of
Any internal migration (within the country) should naturally be caused by the Bengali
people. Increase of life time net migration figure of the Chittagong Hill Tracts
We do not have published data regarding the population of the Chittagong Hill Tracts /
Jummaland for recent year. But unconfirmed sources say that by now more than 4 Lakh
Bengali migrants from other districts of Bangladesh have already resettle down in
different parts of the Chittagong Hill Tracts /Jummaland. This non- tribal or Bengalis
influx into the Chittagong Hill Tracts/Jummaland has reached its momentum in the late
seventies and early eighties. It is said that truck loads of people (mainly landless people
and marginal farmers) from other districts were brought into the Chittagong Hill Tracts
9
Bengali Book (Bangla Boi) by Chakma,Binay Kumar, Publised by Rangamati-1999, p..11
8
They were allotted cultivable as well as hilly lands, otherwise owned or used by the
Jumma people10. Moreover, grants and loans in different forms for reasonable periods
of time were also said to have been given to settlers (Bengali poor Muslims) to facilitate
their settlement. It is however, also said that some of the families tried to flow back to
their ancestral homes as they found it different to adjust to the environment totally new
and sometimes, hostile to them. Many could not do this as because they were kept under
But whatever may be the intensity and nature of such migration, it is a fact that it has
added multiple problems to the already existing problems of the Chittagong Hill Tracts
/Jummaland. It has created severe dislocation not only in tribal or Jumma people society
and economy but also in the total socio-economic setup of the Chittagong Hill Tracts
/Jummaland as a whole. Not only economic hardship, but also social evils like, theft,
burglary, clash and other forms of immoral activities (which were practically non-
existent earlier) are making deep inroads into the tribal or Jumma society.
Usually no one is opposed to natural and usual migration of people from one part of a
the process of economic development of the country. such as migration usually provides
their race, religion, culture etc. But the type of migration that gives benefit to a section
of people at the cost of others is taken to be undesirable and does not deserve
10
Chakma Psrichiti by Sugata Chakma, published by Bargang Publications, 1st Edition-
October,1983,p..82
9
appreciation from the concerned corners. There are thirteen indigenous national
Tracts/Jummaland.
lusai, Riyang, Usai and Panko. Among them The Chakma , Marma, Tanchangya and
Chak are Buddhists and others belong to Hindus and Christian. majority are Buddhists
and forms 85% percent of the population among the indigenous groups in the
long war of liberation was declared by Shaheed President Ziaur Rahman and culminated
1971. This region was under Muslim rule for five and a half centuries since the
thirteenth century, under British rule for two centuries since 1757A.D, and remained a
province of Pakistan between 1947 to 1970 . President Jiluor Rahman is now the head
of state and Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina the head of the government.
comprises the first ten lines of the song “Amar Sonar Bangla” by world poet
11
Betar Bangla by Assistant editor Abdul bari and kaji salaha, published by Dhaka-1207, p..58
10
Rabindranath Tagore. The national flag of the Republic consists of a red colored circle
The emblem of the Republic is the flower Shapla (water lily, nymphaea nouchali)
resting on water having on each side sheaf of paddy surmounted by three connected
The capital city of Bangladesh is Dhaka. The currency is known as taka (Tk) divided
into 100 paisa. The citizens of Bangladesh mostly Bangali Muslims are known as
Anthropologists agree that Bangladesh has historically been a land of many races. long
before the arrival of the Aryans in the 5th and 6th centuries BC, the Bengalis were
already racially mixed and on that count the Aryans described them as Sankaras or
emerged from the fusion of such diverse races the Austric, Dravidian, mongoloid,
The earliest historical reference to organized political life in the Bangladesh region is
The Greek and Latin historians suggested that Alexander the great withdrew from India
anticipating a valiant counter-attack from the gangaridai and Prasioi empires which
12
Ibid….p..80
11
historians maintain that these empires were succeeded by the Maura (4th to2nd century
BC), the Guptas (4th -5th century A.D), the empire of Sasanka (7thcentury A.D), the Pala
empire (750-1162 A.D) and the Senas (1162- 1223A.D). from the 13th century A.D, the
Buddhist and Hindu rulers were swamped by the flood of Muslim conquerors and the
tide of Islam continued up to the 18th century. sometimes there were independent rulers
in Bengal like those of the llyas shahi and husain shahi dynasties, while at other times
they ruled on behalf of the imperial seat of Delhi13. From the 15th century, the
influence over the region. The British political rule over the region began in 1757 AD.
when the last Muslim ruler of Bengal nawab siraj-ud-daulah was defeated at the battle
of palashi.
The ancient name of Bangladesh is known as east vanga or Bengal which was a part of
vanga. The vanga at that time were divided into five parts such as north vanga, west
vanga, east vanga (modern Bangladesh), middle vanga and asam. Indeed a vast part of
India was under vanga. various rulers such as mourja, kushan, gopta, pala, sena, turki,
mougal governed over vanga. The last Buddhist group in East vanga (Bangladesh) was
pala. before pala most of the rulers were hindus. when palas dominated some parts of
vanga then they occupied a part of east vanga as well. during the reign of Dhammapala,
most parts of vanga and east vanga came under the control of palas. subsequently the
palas were attacked by Hindus senas. As a result the golden Buddhists civilization of
13
Bijak (Chakma historical strory Chakma and Bengali) by Bijoy, Chakma, published by Minoti Prava,
Dewan Bazar , Chittagong, December-1981, p..19
12
palas was ruined for good and the whole of vanga and east vanga became a Hindu
dominated kingdom.14
Many Buddhist were killed and those who were living alive were converted forcibly to
Hinduism. subsequently Hindus senas were attacked by the Muslim rulers. When the
outside Muslim invader moguls established its colonial rule in India, east vanga
(modern Bangladesh) came under their control and east vanga was established as colony
by defeating the Hindus king Hindus were converted to Islam and that is how the
Bangladesh came to be known as the third largest Muslim state in respect of population
among the Muslim countries. However the Chittagong Hill Tracts Buddhist king15were
able to retain the Buddhist identity that was not possible for vanga even east vanga
And the people still carrying on the struggle to keep up their identity hold on the
ancestral lands and to establish democratic rights. In the 5th century A.D, the Chinese
Hensu found only 10 monasteries with 1000 monks belonging to Sarvastivada School.
14
Ibid……..p..25
15
Chakma Parichiti by Sugata Chakma, Published by Bargang Publications, 1st Edition, October-1983,
Rangamati, Jummaland, p..8
13
In Pundravardhana (according to Mr. Cunninggham it is Mahastan, located 7 miles
monks belonging to Mahayana and Sthavira School. This fact also corroborated by
many others account recorded by many Chinese pilgrims who visited Bengal in the
Some of these monasteries were turned into world famous universities such as
somapuri, taxila, udantapuri and vickramasila etc. in the pala periods(750-1150 A.D),
Buddhism reached the height peak under the assistance of pala kings as gopala,
Dharmapala and Devapala etc. generally, the reign of the pala was called the golden age
of Buddhism in Bangladesh. They were devout Buddhist and under their patronage
Bangladesh.
Under their rules, the greatest scholar Ven. Acariya Sri Jnana or Atisa of Bengal (982-
1050 A.D) played an important role to propagate Buddhism. Following the decline of
the Palas, the sovereignty of Bengal went into the hand of the Senas. But their rules did
not last long and Bengal soon came under the Muslim occupation.
comprising three basic organs, such as the executive, the legislature and the judiciary.
The President is the head of state and is elected by the members of parliament 16. The
16
Ibid…….p..22
14
President acts in accordance with the advice of the Prime Minister and the supreme
The executive power of the republic is exercised by or on the advice of the Prime
Minister, who commands the support of the majority members of parliament and is
appointed by the President. other ministers, state ministers and deputy ministers are
appointed as per wish of the Prime Minister. The Prime Minister nominates the cabinet
members from among parliament members and up to one tenths of the total from
outside the parliament. The cabinet is collectively responsible to the parliament. The
The Parliament or Jatiya Sangsad has 300 seats17. at present, all the members are
directly elected. The tenure of the parliament is five years. also 50 women M.P selceted
by prime minister.
The parliament is a sovereign body with a separate secretariat. The speaker, along with
the deputy speaker, chief whips and panel of chairman run the sessions of parliament.
The parliamentary sessions are summoned by the president within two months of the
expiry of a session.
17
Bangladesh Facts by Md.Jalal Uddin Ahmad, Published by Modern Publising House, Dhaka-
November,1990, Dhaka-1209,p..45
15
1.3.4 The Judiciary
At the apex of the country‟s judiciary stands the supreme court. It consists of the high
court division and the appellate division. The supreme court serves as the guardian of
There are subordinate courts at district and upazila (sub-district) levels as well as special
courts and tribunals such as the administrative tribunal,family courts, labors tribunal,
land, commercial, municipal and marine courts, tribunals for checking repression on
women and children and for speedy trial of cases related to terrorism.
The elected political leaders govern Bangladesh with the aid of a permanent
The country is divided into six administrative divisions (namely Dhaka division,
Chittagong division, Rajshahi division, Khulna division, Barisal division and Sylhet
division), each composed of districts. There are 64 districts of Bangladesh, which are in
At present, there are 469 upazila (sub-districts) each divided into union council, mouzas
16
1.4 Introduction to Jummaland
Jummaland was located in the Southeast Asia and Indian sub-continent with nearest
south east corner in Bangladesh. It‟s has been comprised of forteen divisions, forty six
districts, towenty six municipal councils, three hundred seventy six sub-districts, one
thousand nine hundred fifty villeges councils,and tow thousand nine hundred fifty
Also Bangladesh government running three hill districts and there are three cercle chief
of called Chakma raja, Bhomang raja, and mong raja and with three local hill districts
administrative government body and more than towenty seven sub-districts also more
that ten thousand fifty five villages and there are have three traditional raja(king).
degrees and 23 degree to 47 degrees north latitude and 91 degree to 40 degrees and 92
degree to 42degrees east longitude. It shares borders with Myanmar on the south and
southeast, India on the north and northeast and Chittagong and Cox‟s Bazaar district of
97,278.13 sq. km. which is about one-tenth of the total land area of the nearest of
Bangladesh. It is a unique territory with hill mountains and beautiful landscapes in stark
features from Bengali Muslims people, agricultural practices and soil conditions from
the rest of the country and also socio-economically and culturally stretching along the
17
present day Indo-Burma-Bangladesh border – is slightly smaller that East Timor (5,376
sq. miles) and bigger that Lebanon (4,036 sq. miles). It roughly runs from north to south
The roots of the Parbatya Chattagram Jana Sanghati Samiti (United People‟s party of
the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) or Jummland) can be traced to the Jummo Students
Association and the Parbatya Chattagram Upajatiya Kalyan Samiti (United People‟s
Welfare and Development Party of Jummaland) that were organized in the 1960s in
what was then –East Pakistan. The organizations agitated on behalf of the 100,000
native Jummo people displaced by the construction of the Kaptai dam, seeking
Pakistan. (That time East and West Pakistan), East Pakistan now Bangladesh.
Chakma and Mr. Manabendra Narayan Larma sought autonomy and recognition of the
rights of the peoples of the region.Mr. Larma and others protested the draft of the
constitution of Bangladesh, although the Constitution recognized the ethnic identity but
Mr. Larma and others wanted full sovereignty and separation from Bangladesh. The
government of Bangladesh policy of recognized only the Bengali culture and the
Bengali language and designating all citizens of Bangladesh as Bengalis. In talks with
country‟s founding leader Sheikh Mujibur Rahman insisted that the ethnic groups of the
18
1.4.3 Who Owns Land in Jummaland?
The Constitutional legitimacy of the Hill District Council Acts of 1989 and the CHT
Regional Council Act of 1998 have been challenged in the Bangladesh Supreme Court
through two writ petitions. In 2010, the High Court termed the CHT Regional Council
Act and some sections of HDC Acts as unconstitutional (PCJSS, 2013: 22). The
petitioners alleged that having a separate regional council for the CHT violates the
unitary framework of the Bangladesh republic. They also alleged that the „reservation of
the office of chairperson of the CHT Regional Council and that of the hill district
councils solely for „tribals‟ and the authority of the circle Chiefs to grant permanent
resident certificates relegate the Bengali inhabitants of the region to “second class”
citizens and thus, offend the equal rights or non-discrimination clauses of the
Constitution.‟ (Roy, 2004:119-120). The government appealed against the High Court‟s
verdict in the Supreme Court. Roy (2004) indicates that Constitutional amendment was
necessary to recognise the „special administrative status of the CHT and of the cultural
identities‟ for endorsing legitimacy to the Accord, and to the laws and institutions that
have emerged with it. However, none of these statuses have been recognised in the
Constitution so far. There are also contradictions between the Accord and Acts that
evolved to implement the Accord (for instance, Land Dispute Resolution Act 2001
contestation among the national political parties. During the signing of the Accord, the
19
AL- led government assuredCJSS that the Accord would provide a Constitutional
lacked at that time. BNP (Bangladesh Nationalist Party) and JI (Jamat e Islami), the
opposition parties when the Accord was signed, rejected the CHT Accord arguing that it
was a threat to the independence and sovereignty of the country as it contradicted with
the Constitution of Bangladesh (M.A.Uddin 2010: 27). BNP and its allies constituted
the government in 2001, and the implementation of the accord was delayed (ibid.). The
AL- led Grand Alliance Government have been in power since 2008 with a two-thirds
majority but Parliament did not provide Constitutional recognition to the CHT Accord.
non-legibility. Land ownership in CHT is ambiguous as no survey has been carried out,
which makes the status of state owned land as well as individually owned land
contentious. The first Cadastral Survey (plot by plot survey) was conducted, during
British rule, between 1888 to 1944, in all of Bangladesh excluding CHT. The survey
procedures consist of preparing, detailed maps of all the fields in a village for settlement
of land revenue and preparation of records of rights. The survey and settlement
record writing consists of preparation of the dag chitha and the preliminary records of
right i.e. jamabandi and tenant‟s khatian. A piece of land within one boundary is
possessed by one person or persons jointly. Every plot of all settled or unsettled land is
given a number called dag no. The dag chitha or Field-index (plot register) is written
according to the Serial Number ofthe fields in the village. Different khatians had been
prepared during different surveys. For example, C.S. Khatian was prepared during the
cadastral survey (1892-1898) under the Bengal Tenancy Act, 1885; S.A. Khatian was
20
prepared during the State Acquisition Survey under the State Acquisition and Tenancy
Act, 1950; R.S. Khatian was prepared during the Revisional Survey (1925-1930); and
Judicial and administrative institutional actors confirmed that no surveys have been
carried out in CHT that follow the legal administrative procedure. Laws, such as the
State Acquisition and Tenancy Act and other laws regarding land survey75, are not
conducting a land survey in CHT (Judge, Joint District Judge Court, Khagrachhari).
There was no law enacted for carrying out any survey in CHT, hence, the khatians,
The rules and Acts that cover the survey in Bangladesh are Survey Act, 1875, Survey
and Settlement Manual 1935, the State Acquisition and Tenancy Act 1950 , the Tenancy
Rules 1955, the Technical Rules 1957, Land Administration Manual 1990being
specified.76 Hill people own plough lands with khatians i.e. Rights of Records, but these
khatians were given out without following all necessary procedures involved in land
survey. Thisweakens hill people‟s claim over land by having khatians. However, some
survey procedures have been carried out in CHT, as evidenced in the creation of the
mauza maps, giving serials of the plots with a dag number and updating the jama-bandi
or the land record book (last updated in 1964). Two surveyors (Land office,
Khagrachhari) stated that land titles, record books and math-khashra were updated
during Pakistan period in 1956 and 1964. In Chakmachari, the villagers andHeadmen
21
mentioned of „survey‟ or „jarip‟ being carried out in 1954/55 and 1964/65. The
institutional actors (Bengalis and hill communities) could not specify or describe what
set of procedures that were followed. It was apparent that the institutional actors have
different positions in referring to that sets of procedures as survey or not as they differ
in their position in attaching validity to land documents issued based on that. The
ambiguities surrounding the „survey‟ and the strength of land documents relate to the
This raise another question, in absence of a proper survey, how was it possible to
identify khas land for state acquisition and to settle Bengalis? Some institutional actors
(DC and surveyor) I interviewed at the Land Office claimed and insisted that
„government‟ distributed khas land to Bengali settlers which were identified by using
the survey map. However, some institutional actors stated there was no khas khatian
(volume with records of khas land) indicating khas lands in CHT and it was not possible
to identify khas lands from any document(interview with Additional District Magistrate
and AC Land) 77. Differences in statements regarding the possibility of identifying khas
lands from maps or volumes reflect institutional actors‟ views and their positioning in
land politics78.
When Bengalis were settled in CHT under the settlement program, during the second
military regime, in 1984, the government took an initiative to conduct a land survey in
CHT by passing the 1984 Ordinance. But in 1986, two survey staff were allegedly
abducted by the Shanti Bahini. Thereafter, the project was stopped by a statutory
regulatory order (SRO) dated 22/10/88. In 2010, as described in the previous section,
22
the Chairman of the Land Commission sent notification to the Land Ministry to start the
The rules and Acts that cover the survey in Bangladesh are Survey Act, 1875, Survey
and Settlement Manual 1935, the State Acquisition and Tenancy Act 1950 , the Tenancy
Rules 1955, the Technical Rules 1957, Land Administration Manual 1990.
Land Office, and according to surveyor in that office there is a survey map (1964/65) on
One of the high official at Land Office disclosed to me about non-existence of khas
khatian and that khas land was not identified to settle in the Bengali settlers by telling
me to turn-off my recorder.
23
24
1.5 Introduction to Political Activism
Scholars of democracy started to study the concept of political activism in the 1960s
(Campbell 1960; Almond and Verba 1963). The first comparative studies pointed out
the nexus between citizens and the political system, while highlighting its main patterns.
In 1963, Almond and Verba, comparing and contrasting the patterns of political
attitudes in five countries, determined that political culture and political participation
were at the base of a healthy democracy. The work mapped orientations towards the
political system and the policy process, and how individuals conceived of themselves as
political actors. Among the different types of political culture, only the participant
version (civic culture) was compatible with democracy, because it supported the
principles and rights at the base of any democracy (Lipset 1994). Since then, the idea
that societies differed in their political culture has expanded, as confirmed by different
comparative studies in the following decades (see Verba and Nie 1972; Marsh 1977;
Verba, Nie and Kim 1978; Barnes and Kaase 1979; Jennings and van Deth 1989).
Across the literature from those years, "political engagement" and/or "public
root and structures its consolidation. Although some scholars question whether it is time
to update the definition of political participation (Fox 2014; van Deth 2014), because
Then, what is political participation? Adopting an etymological point of view, the term
participation refers to the act of taking part in person in the decision-making (Sartori
1987, 113). Thus, political participation can be seen as the bridge to connect citizens to
25
the political class. In fact, "Political participation affords citizens in a democracy an
and preferences and to put pressure on them to respond" (Verba, Schlozman, and Brady
democracy, where citizens, through their political activities, try to have an impact on the
decisions made by political leaders (Dahl 1971) and at various levels of the political
system (Marsh and Kaase 1979). Although participation in democratic decision making
provides personal benefits to those who engage in this activity, and citizens have the
right to express their views about happening in the public sphere, not all individuals
choose to participate. Moreover, not all forms of participation are relevant to improve
the relationship between citizens and rulers in terms of responsiveness (see Zittel and
and age (see Verba, Nie and Kim 1978) or time, money and skills, allow citizens to get
engaged in politics, since it is easier for them to afford it (Rosenstone and Hansen
2003). Other theoretical perspectives discuss motivation that leads people to political
In recent years, several researchers have shown that the democratic feficit recorded at
the end of the last millennium (Norris 1999) continues to characterize the more
established democracies (Bellucci and Memoli 2012): political institutions have not
helped citizens to participate in the decision making process. As confirmed by the low
support received from the public opinion, the political class as well as government
26
institutions have slowed down citizens‟ political participation. In fact, “citizens who
remain dissatisfied are more likely to abstain from the political process at least in terms
general, it is claimed that democracy reqicipate in the political life of their If party
identification has been decreasing over time (Dalton 2013), partisan conflict has
intensified. Parties are more salient to citizens, and where party polarization is strong,
citizens tend to become more partisan (Lupu 2015). This trend does not characterize all
cohorts: younger citizens might believe less in parties, thus renouncing to affiliate and
to vote. Yet, new repertories of participation could make the youth more likely to attend
contribute to that, especially the new type of media. As some scholars have written, the
Internet is indispensable for campaigns and the electoral process (Bimber and Davis
2003), because it represents a new way of participating in elections and public affairs
(Chadwick and Howard 2008). Thus, more internet access among younger generations
can turn into more political interest and engagement in the future (Mossberger 2009).
Among similar conventional modes of activism, citizens may write to politicians trying
requires more skills. Still, citizens tend to contact politicians inproximity to an election,
with the goal of expressing their political voices, even where democracy is not
consolidated (Michelitch 2012) or where freedom of speech is still limited (see Shyu,
2010).
Although conventional participation appears to have decreased over time and across
activities, citizens do not shy away from politics. Probably, they are only looking for a
new way to access the public sphere (Dalton 2009), and the advent and growth
27
ofunconventional activism has played a big part in the on-going understanding of how
The development of political behavior research took a turn in the 1970s. Reflecting the
time, political behavior scholars began focusing on the possible variety of political
actions that could indeed be measured and studied. In the aftermath of Verba and
the type of political actions included in the sphere of political engagement. Citizens
were already confirmed voters, volunteers in political campaigns and party members
above anything else, but this vision of activism was clearly limited as many societies in
the 1970s experienced protest activity and social rebellion as a reaction to a social
political model that was not up to date. In this context, Samuel Barnes and Max Kaase‟s
work (1979) changed the game of political behavior studies. While recognizing the
innovative approach of Verba and Almond with the survey based assessment of political
engagement, the volume underlined the need to add newer forms of political activities
to the typical repertoire of possible actions among citizens. Protest and unconvention-
ality became an equally important focus of research. If protest based activism was pre-
thy of analysis, over the last four decades it has certainly become an important topic of
study across disciplines and countries. A follow up volume to Barnes and Kaase‟s con-
tribution (Jennings and van Deth 1990) confirmed the new path in the study of com-
parative political behavior and quantitative analysis in the research on political activ-
ism.Many publications have highlighted the increase in protest activity once scholars
28
started to measure it. A growth in unconventionality over time and across countries has
reaffirmed the relevance of such activity in political behavior (Norris 1999, 2002, 2006;
Inglehart and Catterberg, 2002; Rucht 2007; Dalton 2014). If political scientists had
opted to incorporate collective action and group organization into the development of
social movements analysis. Individual citizens as well as groups of people were in-
volved in confrontational actions (Dalton and Kuechler 1990; Kriesi et al. 1995, as ex-
The empirical measure of protest has equally changed as scholars refined their re-search
between protest activity and protest potential. Citizens certainly revealed higher levels
of potential to engage in protest (Jenkins, Wallace, and Fullerton 2008), but consistently
lower levels of unconventional action (Barnes and Kaase, 1979; Jennings and van Deth
debates on actual measures of protest led to new choices on how to quanti-fy people‟s
political behavior included variables to measure protest. There are indeed dif-ferent
types of measures, and they have evolved over time, based upon methodologi-cal,
theoretical and practical questions. For instance, the World Values Survey intro-duced
occupying a building, damaging property, and engaging in personal violence. The last
two items often are not measured any longer as they tend to have a very low response
29
rate, but all the others are frequently present in international surveys such the Europe-an
Social Survey or the Eurobarometer. Other well-known surveys include some of the
same measures, showing the shift in focus, from hard (disruptive) protest towards soft
(non confrontational) protest, in light of doubts about the actual validity of the self re-
ported data on illegal activities such as political violence. More recently, newer forms of
unconventionality have also been added to the list of protest actions considered. Po-
litical consumerism (Stolle, Hooghe, and Micheletti 2005) is an example of the evolu-
political views by boycotting certain products, outside of the typical realm of institu-
tionalized political activism, such as voting or fundraising for a candidate. In the end,
the empirical assessment of protest has evolved, first from a violent action to a peace-ful
In this context, the updated understanding of protest behavior has allowed scholars to
focus on quantity and quality of unconventionality. By all means, the typical protest-er
has normalized (Van Aelst and Walgrave 2001), encouraging more diverse individu-als
political behavior. More diverse participants in protests have also been credited with a
the impact of people‟s dissatisfaction, without waiting for elections. The quality of
30
unconventionalactivism has improved overall participation in politics, rewarding new
unconventionality introduced the use of scales. As a better way to assess the relevance
measures into a coherent index, where different preferences for diverse protest activities
could be assessed and incorporated (Jenkins et al. 2008; Vassallo 2010; Quaranta
2013b; Dalton 2014). In addition to individual protest levels in specific type of actions
(for instance, boycotts, demonstrations, strikes, etc…), countries and citizens could be
preferences for certain types of actions could be better compared, because the equiva
lence of separate protest measures (for instance, a boycott vs. a street demonstration)
protest also became a main focus for the research. Barnes and Kaase (1979) had
scholars continued to assess the relevance of the same individual predictors while
testing for continuity. Men were and remained more likely to engage in a protest
activity than women (Jennings and van Deth 1990), but the normalization of protest has
con-tributed to close this gap (Van Aelst and Walgrave 2001; Marien et al. 2010). Age
generations (Melo and Stockemer 2014; Caren, Ghoshal and Ribas 2011). Leftist
31
ideology equally retained its relevance in explaining why certain individuals are more
prone to embrace a challenging political action over voting (Torcal, Rodon, and Hierro
2016). With the progression in the research on protest, more scholars investigated new
occupations for certain individuals. Some examples for this type of research focus are
Gurr‟s volume on relative deprivation theory (1970) and the impact of citizens‟
grievances when they feel deprived, a trend in the research that has reappeared in the
aftermath of the 2008 economic recession (Kern, Marien, and Hooghe 2015). Other
in the choice of protest: Nam (2007) explained the relevance of a strong legislature and
pro-test (2007), Tarrow‟s work on social movements and contentious politics (2011), as
re-cently as Dalton and Welzel‟s publication on the new normal assertive citizens (2014
Memoli and Francesca Vassallo, Political Activism Researchare all examples of the
The new conventionality of protest is now a new boundary to be tested with more
4. A New Approach to Engagement: Digital Activism With the change of times and
behaviors, new technology became the latest innova-tion to affect the way citizens
become politically active. The significance of the techno-logical evolution has quickly
32
supported the creation of a new subfield in political behavior research: internet and
digital activism was real activism and whether the technology was more of an obstacle
Political Facebook pages, Twitter posts, or Instagram photos were easy evidence of
political debates, but less accepted activities in political activism. Regardless of whether
not fit in the frame of political activism. Scholars such as Gladwell (2010) hinted at the
lack of meaning in the many online political contributions. In particular, the so called
issue of “slacktivism” emphasized the lack of real effort on the part of political
algorithms are already selecting the types of website access a user is interested in. The
major complaint against digital activism is not quantity, but actually quality. Quantity in
many possible political posts, without necessarily assessing the actual contribution of a
new post or a specific tweet. Online participation has the potential of being empty and
without the proper knowledge or understanding of the issue. In brief, easy participation
33
On the other side of the debate, some scholars have promptly pointed out the many
benefits of recent online activism, even across countries (Shirky 2011). Digital activism
has reinvigorated participation among younger generations in particular and has equally
expanded the profile of the political participants. Beyer (2014) has presented evidence
on how even online communities not dedicated to politics can become politically
34
CHAPTER – 02
LITERATURE REVIEW
History of India, From Beginning to 1525 A.D by Vidyadhar Mahajan M.A, Ph. D,
seventh edition, published by S. Chand and Company Limited, Ram Nagar, New Delhi-
The history of Buddhism in Jummaland has been ancient time from generation to
generation bearing by the indigenous Jumma people and political condition has been
changed by the British government period as well as Jummaland has independency state
run by local inhabitant powerful king Chakma raja Janbox kha18 about four century
A.D. The Buddhism has numerous rites or rituals, especially Theravada Buddhism.
Nowadays the rites are showing various aspects of changes. This is because culture,
comparison with the Buddha‟s time. However, it does not mean the root of Buddhism
changes as following the passage of time. In spite of those many changes, Buddhism
well maintains the Dhamma with Vinaya19 and Theravada countries constant exertion.
One of the aim of this an analytical study of history of Buddhism and political activism
cordial relations between the community of Jumma indigenous people and sangha
activities in the world. The main expected contribution is to better strengthen the cordial
18
An ancient time, Jumma Chakma king (raja),kingdom of Jummaland, mugaul period and purtugise
period four century A.D
19
According to Tripitaka, Vinaya pitaka who has following rule of sangha community as well as
Theravada and Mahayana and, Tantrickayana, vajjarayana etc….
35
The Association for Land Reforms and Development (ALRD) was translated by
for book named was Jummaland Land Management and People Duties has been
sub-districts, 1909 villages councils, 2950 model villages. 4998 villages Published by
Advocate Rajib Chakma20 and Justice Vhabotosh Dewan21, Jummaland Bar Council
(JLBC) in 2015,
House No.1/3, Black-F, Lal Matiya, Dhaka-1207 A About Jummaland book was
Jumma national condolences day its statement that Jummaland parliament was has been
350 M.P with President and Prime Minister of Jummaland (Added Appendices-2.1)
The Politics of International Economic Relations sixth edition book edited by Joan
Edelman spero, The Doris Duke Charitable Foundation and Jeffrey A.Hart22,Indiana
Learning, 10 Davis Drive, Belmont, CA 94002-3098, USA. It‟s A New Horizon in the
History of Jummaland (Chittagong Hill Tracts) statement that the politics and
international relations for Jummaland political activities as well as history and so more
Horowitz 1985, published by University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles,
20
Justice of Rangamati Judge court, Jummaland
21
Advocate of Rangamati Judge court, Jummaland
22
Professor of Political Science at Indiana University, Bloomington, where he has taught international
politics since 1981, also he is many books writer
36
California, Printed by The Regents of the University of California Press, 1985, USA. Its
published by Wadsworth Publishing Company, 2014, New York, USA. Its statement
that the book religion history about United State of America also writing to history of
Chakma Raja Bhubanmohan Roy, 1919, printed by Chittagong press, 1919, British East
India. The Chakma language developing in technology book by Mr. Bivuti Chakma
Council (JLILC) on 15th June 2018. Its state that this book related to Jummaland social,
Kalpana Chakmar Diary by Jumma Hill Women‟s Federation, published and printed
All India Chakma Cultural Conference, 1992, by Lalit kumar Chakma, printed by
37
government of the People‟s Republic of Bangladesh, 112, circuit house road, Dhaka-
Bhikkhu, Karuna Lankar, A New Horizon in the History of Chittagong Hill Tracts
The writing a faulty literature review is one of many ways to derail an analytical study
If the literature review is flawed, the remainder of the Ph.D dissertation may also be
viewed as flawed, because a researcher cannot perform significant research without first
understanding the literature in the texts and field. an experienced thesis examiners that
knows this. In a study of the practices of various dissertation examiners, such as Prof.
Dr. Pradanendu Bikash Chakma, Rangamati Science and Technology University, CHT,
typically started reviewing a dissertation with the expectation that it would pass, but a
poorly conceptualized or written literature review often indicated for them that the rest
review, examiners would proceed to look at the methods of data collection, the analysis,
Given the importance of literature reviews in both dissertations and journal articles, it
may be surprising that so many of them are faulty. Many literature reviews in
manuscripts submitted for publication in journals are also flawed the so many surprising
there is not more publication information on how to write a literature reviews. The
38
Jumaland, Bangladesh guide is to collect and summarize the most relevant information
and various journals and so many booklets and discuss the steps in conducting a
about a particular texts and field of study, including vocabulary, theories, key variables
and phenomena, and its methods and history. Finally, with some modification, the
literature review is a legitimate and publishable scholarly document. Apart from the
above reasons for writing a review i.e. proof of knowledge, a publishable journals
Jummaland, Bangladesh the first thesis is will be submit to the university of Sri
23
Ibid…….p.430
39
Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka. The first characteristic is the focus of the reviews are four
potential foci such as research outcomes, research methods, theories and practices or
applications. The literature reviews that focus on research outcomes are perhaps the
most common. In fact, the dissertation is a historically record this university. almost 40
percent of the total population of the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT). The proposition of
bengali immigration into the Chittagong Hill Tracts can be treated to be valid if we take
the net migration figures for the district (region). According to the Statistical Year Book
of Bangladesh, 1980 C.E (Page -85) the life time net migration into the area from 1951
to 1974 has totaled 103,536. As has been mentioned earlier the plains land of
Increase of life time net migration figure of the Chittagong Hill Tracts is thus, the result
We do not have published data regarding the population of the Chittagong Hill Tracts
for recent years. But unconfirmed sources say that by now more than 4 Lakh Bengali
migrants from other districts of Bangladesh have already settle down in different parts
of the Chittagong Hill Tracts/Jummaland24. This non- tribal or Bengalis influx into the
Chittagong Hill Tracts has reached its momentum in the late seventies and early
eighties. It is said that truck loads of people (mainly landless people and marginal
farmers) from other districts were brought into the Chittagong Hill Tracts and were
24
UNDV-2017, Jummaland International Bhikkhu Sangha Sri Lanka, p..3
40
They were allotted cultivable as well as hilly lands, otherwise owned or used by the
Jumma or tribal people. Moreover, grants and loans in different forms for reasonable
periods of time were also said to have been given to settlers (Bengali Poor Muslims) to
facilitate their settlement. It is however, also said that some of the families tried to flow
back to their ancestral homes as they found it different to adjust to the environment
totally new and sometimes, hostile to them. Many could not do this as because they
were kept under careful Supervision, although the present government is understood to
the Chittagong Hill Tracts, the flow is still on at a private level. But whatever may be
the intensity and nature of such migration, it is a fact that it has added multiple problems
to the already existing problems of the Chittagong Hill Tracts. It has created severe
dislocation not only in tribal or Jumma people society and economy but also in the total
socio-economic setup of the Chittagong Hill Tracts as a whole. Not only economic
hardship, but also social evils like, theft, burglary, clash and other forms of immoral
activities (which were practically non-existent earlier) are making deep inroads into the
41
CHAPTER - 03
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
history and nature in Jummaland by taking into account rules, regulations, patterns as
and actual property practices, particularly looking at the processes of conflicts. Social
anthropological approaches to the study of political rights, identity and competing rights
with focus on social relation and social embeddedness of institutions and rules (Mccay
2002, Hann 1998). Comaroff and Roberts (1981: 5) study dispute processes from
processual dimension that focuses on interactions and how individual‟s actions are
constrained by others‟ actions, and located within shared networks of relations. Through
their ethnographic work of dispute processes, they find that normative repertoires play a
significant part in justifying claims, arguments, actions and decisions, whereas rules are
negotiable.
and practices while contextualizing cases of political conflict within wider social
settings. Rules exist in social action; however, people are constantly engaged in the
process of interpretation of rules (May 2001). There is interplay between social norms,
behavior, actions and practices, as practices take place in certain contexts. Practices are
grasp both the actions and the meanings. Overall, the study adheres to Giddens‟
structuration theory which maintains that action and structure are mutually constituted.
His theory goes beyond giving primacy to either agency or structure (Giddens 1984).
42
He suggests structure is both the medium and the outcome of action/social practices.
Structure enables and constrains action; at the same time, his theory stresses that action
reproduces and transforms structure within wider social settings. This study focused on
understanding how claims are made in dispute processes by different sets of actors over
politics, as well as the underlying conditions of strategies, practices and the outcomes.
Moreover, to understand how disputants and institutional actors render certain property
and authority claims as legitimate, this study included a historical analysis of changing
The research methodology that was used to collect the data for this dissertation was an
extensive survey of literature from the Internet as well as in libraries in Bangladesh that
people also various social, political, religious and cultural resources etc. were used for
data collection. Collected data were analyzed and presented in a logical sequence.
Below is the general structure that is commonly used. After collecting the data, the
Research Problem and objectives of this study focus on history, Buddhism and political
issues in Jummaland. The research problem was identified as the problems of Buddhism
25
Ibid….p.5
43
CHAPTER - 04
4.1 Background
On August 15, 1947, India gained independence from the British. Its land area was
32,87,263 square kilometer. The populations was 87,9500,000 in 2003. The Capital is
New Delhi. Mahatma Gandhi, known as the father of the nation in India helped
Jawaharlal Nehru to become the first Prime Minister of independent, India. The
Republic of India was founded on January 26, 1950. The first General Election in an
independence India was held in 1951; fourth General Election in 1967. Dr. Zakir
Hussain became President of India26, and he died. in 1969, V.V. Giri became President
of India in 1969. The beginning of the first five year Plan in India took place in1952. In
1966, Prime Minister of India Lal Bahadur Shastri died in Tashkent,and Indira Gandhi
Pakistan gained independence in August 14, 1947 from the British.27 Mahammad Ali
Jinnah became the first Prime Minister of Pakistan and alsothe father of the nation of
Pakistan. Its land area is 7,96,095 square kilometer. The populations is 12,4800,000, an
Mahammad Ali Jinnah promised to maintain the “Special Area” status for the
Chittagong Hill Tracts or Jummaland. The first constitution of Pakistan adopted in 1956
retained the status of “Excluded Area” as granted by the 1900 Act, but in the revised
26
An Advanced History of India by R.C.Majumdar , H.C. Raychaudhuri and Kalikinkar Datta, St.
Martin‟s Press, New York, 1967, p..990
27
Ibid….p.992
44
constitution of 1962 the phrase “Excluded Area” was deleted and instead of Chittagong
Hill Tracts was mentioned as a “Tribal or Indigenous Jumma Area”, though Mahammad
Ali Jinnah assured Jummaland CHT people to safeguard their rights but subsequently he
A plan to make Chittagong Hill Tracts as a Muslim majority area commenced. Pakistan
had after all, been created to protect Islam, but while Pakistan was a Muslim state, it
was certainly not homogeneous. It had tribalareas along the boarder with Afghanistan
and in the northern mountains. Thepeople were Muslim and their autonomy was
But it is a matter of regret that however autonomy for 97 percent Jumma People of
Chittagong Hill Tracts was not formally recognized. Indeed the Pakistan authority did
not recognize autonomy for CHT Buddhist peoples asthey are not Muslim.
majority as well as to destroy the Buddhist identity in turn. The Chittagong Hill Tracts
Frontier Police Regulation of 1881 was repealed and the hill people police force
ended.28
Pakistan was to be comprised of the Muslims majority areas of India, by thislogic the
Chittagong Hill Tracts with a 97 percent non-Muslim population would have been
included in India. Therefore a Buddhist delegation under the leadership of Sneha Kumar
Chakma went to Delhi and met then congress leaders; even a person was sent to
Mahatma Gandhi requesting to include Chittagong Hill Tracts with India, but
28
Ibid…p.994
45
unfortunately Jummaland/CHT was annexed to Pakistan ignoring the Rule of India
Chittagong Hill Tracts overlooking Jummaland /CHT Buddhists opinion that “CHT
In provision of 39, it is said that the deputy commissioner shall consult withthe chief
Hill Tracts”. The hydro-electric dam created ahuge Kaptai lake roughly in the center of
the CHT and because of this dam100,000 Buddhists lost their lands and 40 percent the
arable valley lands ofCHT were inundated, more than 70,000 Buddhists migrated to
India. Todaythey are living in Arunachal Pradesh. They have never gained
uprootedpeoples were dispersed within Jummaland / CHT. The Chakma king palacealso
In fact, the CHT Buddhists economic backbone was broken down after building
economically as 54,000 acre fertilized lands and 40percent arable lands inundated as
well. Lisian Barnat, an archeologist and a philologist denaise Barnat remarked that
about the future of CHT peoples that “A large hydro-electric dam power plant is being
constructed on the Karnafully river, which should provide enough power to electrify
46
Extensive irrigation would become possible and with it would come a complete change
in social and economic patterns for the local inhabitants.Migrants from other parts of
the province will probably increase in numbers and may ultimately inundate the hill
commenced since the Kaptai hydro-electric dam Project. Thus the successive Pakistan
government rulers very tactfully abolished the rights and status of the Chittagong Hill
Tracts and imposed a tyrannical rule upon the Jummaland / CHT Buddhists. The
1.1: The Final Phase (1935-1947), British India and Jummaland Critical
The civil disobedience campaign dragged on till May 1934, when it was virtually
abandoned by the Indian congress. Once more, the Congress decided, as in 1922, to
work the reforms introduced by the Act of 1935 to which reference has been made to
Act of 1947. It swept the polls in elections held at the beginning of 1937, so far as the
The Muslims desired to form a coalition ministry with the congress in each province,
but the congress refused to admit into the ministry any one who did not subscribe to its
creed. This decision widened the cleavage between the Congress and the Muslim
League and Mr. Jinnah, who had hitherto been favorably disposed towards the congress,
and had once vehemently protested against the view that India was not a nation,
publicly declared that the “Muslims can expect neither justice nor fair play under
congress government”. 29
29
Ibid…..p.985
47
This sentiment was now shared by the majority of Muslims. Mr. Jinnah became the
unquestioned leader of the Muslim community, and was elected each year as President
of the Muslims League, which soon rallied round it the great bulk of Muslims all over
region part of Pakistan country as tow nation theory Muslims people areas majorities in
Pakistan and Hindu majorities people areas India but Jummaland 98% Non-Muslims
Indigenous Jumma people majorities areas part of India according to two nations theory.
Mr. Jinnah Ali illegally captured Jummaland on 21th August 1947. also Jummaland 15th
August 1947 rising new Indian flag in Jummaland capital in Rangamati with district
administration but Pakistani army illegally get down Indian flag from Jummaland on
The Indian congress formed ministries in seven out of eleven provinces which had also
become a congress province as the ministers and the majority of members of its
Legislative Assembly had identified themselves with the congress policy. As their
administration was highly successful, the congress rapidly grew in popularly, its
membership increasing from less than half a million at the beginning of 1936 to five
million by the end of 1939. But soona “left wing” developed in the Congress, and its
great strength became manifest when its leader Subhas Chandra Bose defeated even
Gandhiji‟s nominee for the Presidency. When the moderate section ultimately forced
Subhas Chandra Bose to resign, he formed a new party, the “Forward Bloc” and this
open split considerably weakened the power and prestige of the congress.
Nevertheless the congress ministries successfully worked the reforms, and the political
situation was fairly tranquil until the outbreak of the second world war in 1939, when
48
the congress took exception to the fact that India was dragged into the war without her
consent. A strong declaration was issued by the working committee of the congress
also asked the British government to state whether their war aims included the
reply was forthcoming, all the congress ministries resigned in October- November,
1939. When the Germans were carrying everything before them, the congress offered
more than once to co-operate in the war effort, if at least a provisional national
The utmost concession on the side of the government was contained in the Viceroy‟s
statement of August 8th, 1940.30He refused to concede the national government as “its
authority is denied by large and powerful elements in India‟s national life”, which
(01). To set up, after the war, a representative body to devise a new constitution for
India
members and
30
Ibid….p.986
31
Ibid…..p.986
49
The Indian congress regarded this “august offer” as quite unsatisfactory, and
This deadlock continued for a year and a half. At last when the Japanese, after
conciliatory gesture. On 8th March, 1942, Rangoon fell, and three days later, it was
announced that Sir Stafford Cripps, a member of the British cabinet, would be sent out
to India. Sir Stafford Cripps virtually repeated the August offer. He promised dominion
status and a constitution making body after the war was over, but held out no hope of
any immediate change in the government of India. The congress as well as the Muslim
League refused his offer, and the Sir Stafford Cripps Mission (March-April, 1942)
Throughout these negotiations, the congress could not count on the support of the
Muslim League. Mr. Jinnah now repudiated the “democratic system of Parliamentary
heads” as impossible in India, and publicly expressed the view that neither minority
safeguards nor separate electorates could save the Muslims from the Congress Raj at the
center.32
When the congress ministries in the provinces resigned, the Muslim League observed a
32
Ibid….p..886
50
In January 1940, Mr. Jinnah declared that the Hindus and Muslims formed two separate
nations “Who both must share the governance of their common motherland”. Three
months later, in the Lahore session of the Muslim League (March, 1940), he declared
that the Muslim nation must have a separate independent state. In other words, he now
The idea had been first brought into prominence by a group of young Muslims at the
time of the Round Table Conference, but had found no support, and was characterized
comprising one or two Muslim states, with the rest of India, first made in 1930, and
repeated in 1939, had not been widely accepted. The idea of Pakistan as a sovereign
state was revived by Mr. Jinnah, and was formally endorsed by the Muslim League in
1940, from that date all attempts at reconciliation between the Indian Congress and the
The Government could also now plausibly refuse the Congress demand for national
government on the ground that the Muslims were opposed to it.1On August 8, 1942, the
on the widest possible scale. Although the Congress had not made any actual
preparations, the Government decided to strike immediately. In the early hours of the
morning of August 9, all the Congress leaders were arrested and the Congress was
declared an illegal body. As there was no definite organization and a complete lack of
51
leadership, violent riots and assaults and sporadic disorders, such as the cutting of
telegraph and telephone lines, damaging railway tracks, stations, etc, occurred on a
large scale in different parts of India. The government again adopted strong measures of
According to official estimates more than 60,000 people were arrested, 18,000 detained
without trial, 940 people killed, and 1,630 people were injured through police or
repressive measures, but the British Government was soon faced by another serious
danger. Subhas Chandra Bose, who had escaped from India in 1941, made contacts with
Germany and Japan. When the Japanese conquered the Malay Peninsula, a large
number of Indian soldiers fell prisoners into their hands. Under an agreement with the
Japanese government, Bose, now called Netaji (Leader), organized them into an Azad
Hindu Force or Indian National Army. He inaugurated the government of free India at
Singapore, and in 1943 his solders advanced with the Japanese army up to the very
frontier of India. On 6th May, 1944, Gandhi was released from prison on grounds of
health.
He held a series of discussions with Mr. Jinnah but no agreement was reached. Lord
Wavell, who succeeded Lord Linlithgow as Governor General in October 1943, flew to
London in March 1945, and came back with the proposal that the Members of his
Council with the exception of the Viceroy and Commander-in-Chief, should be Indians
selected from amongst the leaders of Indian political parties, on a basis of parity
33
Ibid……..p.988
52
between Muslims and the so-called caste Hindus. He summoned a conference at Simla
on 25th June 1945, to select the personnel, but it broke down as the Congress and the
Not long after this, the Labour Party came into power in Britain, the new British
Government made an earnest effort to end the political deadlock in India. They decided
to hold fresh elections of Indian Councils, both Central and Province, to reconstitute the
Viceroy‟s Executive Council, Immediately after the elections, with Indian members as
proposed in March, and to summon a constitution making body as soon as possible. The
elections held at the beginning of 1946, resulted in a sweeping victory for the Congress
in respect of the General seats and for the Muslim League in respect of Muslim seats.
The Indian National Army organized by Bose surrendered to the British after the
collapse of Japan, and a number of its officers were tried in India for treason. This was a
highly impolitic step on the part of the Government, as it gave the Indian people a
complete picture of an organization of which they had hitherto known very little. A
wave of enthusiasm swept the country, and demonstrations were held in a number of
cities. On 18th February 1946, the ratings of the Royal Indian Navy rose in open mutiny
On 19th February 1946, the British Prime Minister announced that three members of the
Cabinet would visit India “to promote, in conjunction with the leaders of Indian
opinion, the early realization of full self-government in India”. Later on 15th March
development, if Indians so chose. The Cabinet Mission arrived at Delhi in March 1946,
34
Ibid…..p.989
53
and held a series of conferences with the leaders of the Congress and the Muslim
League. As no agreement was possible between them, the Mission issued a statement on
16th May 1946, giving in broad outline their idea of the future government of India and
The cabinet mission recommended a federal type of government for the whole of India
including the states. The federal government would deal with foreign affairs, defense
and communication, and the other powers would be vested in the provinces and states.
British India was to be divided into three groups of Provinces such as one: comprising
the Punjab, the North-West Frontier Province, Sindu and Baluchistan . Second:
comprising Bengal and Assam and Third the rest. The Union Constitution was to be
Provincial Legislative Assembles, and the representatives of States which joined the
Union, while the representatives of the three groups of Provinces were to meet
Each Province was given the right to opt out of the federal union after the first election
Government by the reconstitution of the Viceroy‟s Executive Council from among the
leaders of the different parties.35 On 6th June 1946, the Muslim League accepted the
Cabinet Mission‟s proposals, reiterating that the attainment of the goal of a complete
sovereign Pakistan still remained the unalterable objective of the Muslim in India. The
35
Ibid…….p.989
54
Indian Congress rejected the Viceroy‟s proposal for an interim Government, but agreed
The Muslim League demanded that the Viceroy should proceed with his scheme for an
interim Government even though the Congress would not take part in it. This is the
Viceroy refused to do, for he had already declared that it was to be a Government of all
the parties who had accepted the Cabinet Mission‟s plan. There were also sharp
differences between the Muslim League and the Congress over the interpretation of the
Cabinet Mission‟s Plan. after a somewhat acrimonious controversy, the Muslim League
formally withdrew its acceptance of the Cabinet Mission‟s plan. The Viceroy thereupon,
in accordance with his previous declaration, reconstituted his Executive Council without
any representative of the Muslim League. This complete triumph of the congress
provoked a violent reaction among separatist Muslims, and the Muslim League fixed
upon 16th August 1946, as the day of “Direct Action”. On that day, while some of the
arowdy section in Calcutta got completely out of control. A number of Hindus were
killed and their houses and shops were looted and burnt. Soon the Hindus retaliated and
for a number of days the streets of Calcutta were the scene of communal riots of the
worst type.
Neither the Muslim League Ministry, nor the Governor and the Viceroy, who were
ultimately responsible for law and order, took adequate steps to stop the hideous
violence that disgraced the name of the first city of modern India.1
55
On 2nd September 1946, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru and his colleagues were sworn in as
members of the Viceroy‟s Executive Council. Soon after this, the Hindus of a number
of villages in the district of Noakhali and the adjoining part of Comilla suffered terribly
from raids organized by bands of armed men belonging to the other community. This
provoked reprisals in Bihar, where large numbers of Muslims received the same
treatment at the hands of the Hindus. Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru flew to Bihar, and the
The Executive Council of the Viceroy, under the guidance of Nehru, worked like a
Cabinet and changed the whole spirit and outlook of Indian government. Lord Wavell,
whose power thus became almost non-existent, now sought to bring in the League
He told Pandit Nehru that the league had agreed to join the constituent assembly, and
introduction of this new element destroyed the team spirit of the Council, as the League
members openly repudiated the idea of collective responsibility. What was worse, the
League did not join the constituent Assembly, and Mr. Jinnah made the startling
disclosure that it had never agreed to do so. It was an awkward situation for the
Viceroy, and the British Government did nothing to improve it when it declared, on
December 6, 1946, that if the Muslim League did not join the Constituent Assembly,
the decision of this body could not be implemented by the British Government, so far at
36
Ibid…..p..991
56
least as it affected the Provinces with a Muslim majority. Nevertheless, the Constituent
Assembly met on 9th December 1946, without the members of the Muslim League.37
Babu Rajendra Prasad was elected President, and various committees were appointed to
draft the different parts of the Constitution. The tense atmosphere continued till 20th
policy. It declared its intention to quit India by June 1948, and appointed Lord
Mountbatten Viceroy of India to arrange for the transfer of authority from British to
Indian hands.
This momentous proclamation evoked hearty enthusiasm all over India, save in the
ranks of the Muslim League, which once more resorted to “Direct Action”. Riots broke
out all over the Punjab and soon extended to the North-east Frontier Province, and
lootings, arson, murder and violence occurred on a large scale over a wide area. These
successive communal outbreaks had a very unfortunate consequence. The Hindus and
the Sikhs, who had hitherto been strongly in favor of a United India, now gradually
came to realize its impracticability, and demanded partition of the Punjab and Bengal if
Lord Mountbatten assumed office as Viceroy on 24th March 1947, and on 3rd June
broadcast the famous declaration laying down “the method by which Power will be
transferred from British to Indian hands”. The main points of this new procedure or
37
Ibid…p..990
57
(01). If the areas with a majority of Muslim population so desired, they should be
set up for that purpose. But in that case there would be a partition of Bengal and
the Punjab if the representatives of the Hindu majority districts in the Legislatures
(03). The district of Sylhet would be joined to the Muslim area in Bengal after the views
(04). Boundary Commissions would be set up to define the boundaries of the Hindu and
partition is decided upon), without any prejudice to the final decision of the
This historic pronouncement was received with mixed feelings by the public. The
Hindus and nationalists of all persuasions deplored the vivisection of India, while the
Muslims of the League were not fully satisfied with the “truncated and moth-eaten
It was, however, generally agreed that the new scheme offered the best practicable
58
Accordingly both the Congress and the League accepted it, and the partition of the
Punjab and Bengal was affected by two Commissions appointed by the British
The Indian independence Bill passed by the British Parliament on the 1st July 1947,
without any dissent, fixed upon 15th August 1947, as the date of the transfer of
Constituent Assembly was held in Delhi. It solemnly declared the independence of India
as a part of the British Commonwealth had appointed Lord Mountbatten the first
Mr. Jinnah was choice as the first President of Pakistani government and also
choice as the first Governor General of Pakistan, which soon took steps to summon its
own Constituent Assembly. 15th August 1947,which saw the end of the long-drawn
National Struggle against British rule is a red-letter day in the history of India, and the
date, will ever remain engraved in the hearts of millions of the people.
General Policy
The position of the Indian States in independent India was foreshadowed by the cabinet
mission, which used the following words in its statement of 16th May 1946. “It is quite
clear that with the attainment of independence by British India, whether inside or
outside the Commonwealth, the relationship which has hitherto existed between the
38
An Anvanced histry of India by R.C. Majumdar, H.C. Raychaudhuri, M A C, Millan, St. Martin‟s
Press, New York, 1967, p..457
59
Rulers of the States and the British Crown, will no longer be possible. Paramount can
neither be retained by the British Crown nor transferred to the new Government”. At the
same time the states were ready and willing to co-operate in the new development of
India.
The precise form which their co-operation will take must be a matter for negotiations
during the building up of the new constitutional structure, and it by no means follows
(01). There should be a Union of India, embracing both British India and the
Jummaland, which should deal with the following subjects: Foreign Affairs,
Defense and Communications and should have the powers necessary to raise the
(02). The States should retain all subjects and powers other than those ceded to the
Union39.
The position was further elucidated as follows by the Cabinet Mission in its
Chamber of Princes on the 22nd May 1946. When a new fully self-governing or
independent Government comes into being his Majesty‟s Government will cease to
exercise the powers of Paramount. This means that the rights of the States which flow
from their relationship to the Crown will no longer exist and that all the rights
surrendered by States to the Paramount power will return to the States. Political
39
Ibid….p..987
60
arrangements between the States on the one side and the British Crown and British
The void will have to be filled either by the States entering into a federal relationship
with the successor Government or Governments in British India, or failing this, entering
The Rulers of the States agreed to accept the Cabinet Mission‟s plan. Their viewpoint
was shown as follows in a resolution passed by the Standing Committee of the Chamber
(01). The entry of the States into the Union shall be on no other basis than that of
negotiation and the final decision will rest with each State, which can only be taken
(02). All the rights surrendered by the States to the Paramount power will return to the
States. The proposed Union of India will, therefore, exercise only such functions in
relation to the States in regard to Union Subjects as are assigned or delegated by them to
the Union. Every State shall continue to retain its sovereignty and all rights and powers
except those that have been expressly delegated but it. There can be no question of any
powers being vested or inherent or implied in the Union in respect of the States unless
61
(03). The Constitution of each State, its territorial integrity and the succession of its
reigning dynasty in accordance with the law, custom and usage of the State, shall not be
But after the declaration regarding the partition of India some of the bigger States like
Travancore and Hyderabad pleaded that they could not accept the original plan to which
they had given their assent on the basis of a United India. They even thought that they
were entitled to declare their independence in the changed situation, and talked of
entering into treaty relations as between one sovereign State and another.
The leader of the Muslim League supported this new attitude, but it did not Accord with
the views of the Congress leaders and other prominent Politicians. In a meeting held on
the 15th June 1947, the All-India Congress Committee stated that they could not “admit
the right of any State in India to declare its independence and to live in isolation from
the rest of India”. Such a declaration, in the opinion of Mahatma Gandhi, was
Pandit Nehru said that, any recognition of any such independence by any foreign power,
whichever it may be and whatever it may be, will be considered an unfriendly act. In a
statement of 17th June 1947, Dr. Ambedkar asserted that according to certain aspects of
British Constituent Law and also international Law, there were some flaws in the
cabinet mission‟s memorandum regarding lapse of paramount. His view was that the
States will be sovereign States to the extent they are, but they cannot be independent
States so long as they remain under the suzerainty, as they must be, either of the Crown,
40
Ibid…………p..801
62
Sardar Patel took charge of the Indian States Department created by the Government of
India, on the 5th July 1947, to deal with matters arising between the Central Government
and the Indian States. Following his advice as well as that of Lord Mountbatten, all the
states, with a few exceptions, decided, on 25th July 1947, to accede to the Indian Union
adequately represented, the dominion parliament would legislate for the according
ancillary subjects.41
The policy of the government of the Indian dominion regarding the States proved
successful in most cases. Their relations were regulated by two processes. one was the
merger of the smaller states either into a unit administered by the central government, or
into the neighboring provincial administrations, as for example the merger of the eastern
states into the province of orissa. And the central province and of the Deccan state and
the Gujarat state into the Bombay administration. The other process was that of the
example the United State of Matsya (18th March 1948), the United State of Kathiawar
(Saurashtra) (15 February 1948), the United State of Rajasthan (25th March 1948), the
United State of Vindhya Pradesh (4th April 1948), the United State of Gwalior, Indore
and Malwa (Madhya Bharat Union 28th May 1948),and the Patiala and East Punjab
State Union (15th July 1948), the administration of a Union of 21 States, known as
Himachal Pradesh, and Cutch, together having a total area of 19,061 square miles,
41
Ibid…….p..805
63
There still remained some small States and also a few major States unaffected by the
processes mentioned above, regarding such major States the policy of the Government
of the Indian Union was stated in the Dominion Parliament on the 15th March 1948, by
Mr. N.V. Gadgil (Indian Minister of Works), speaking on behalf of Sardar Patel. There
is no desire on our part, in any way, to compel or coerce them into merger or
objection, but if the Rulers and the people of any these States desire to merge with the
neighboring Province or form a Union with the neighboring States on a voluntary basis,
obviously the Government of India cannot say no it is clear, however, that in these
States, which remain separate units, there would be continuous popular pressure for the
grant of full responsible government. hope the rulers of these States will appreciate the
necessity of retaining the affection and goodwill of their subjects by timely concessions,
rather than futile resistance to popular demands our policy in regard to them remains
their continued autonomous existence unless both the Rulers and the people desire
otherwise.
Along with the modifications in the pattern of an old structure, there took place a
considerable transformation of the inner setup of the States and a reorientation in the
attitude and policy of the Rulers towards their peoples. Not only did they introduce
various measures for improving the economic condition of their respective areas, but
practically every State, as the White Paper on Indian States, issued by the Government
of India in July 1948, noted that announced its intention to grant full responsible
government, and in a vast majority of them power has already have been transferred to
the people. The same document significantly notes that a bloodless revolution has been
brought about, on the one hand by the operation of democratic forces unleashed by
64
freedom, and on the other by the patriotic attitude of the Rulers who have been quick to
The State of Junagadh and a few adjoining States joined the United State of Kathiawar
(Saurashtra), (31st December 1948), Mayurbhanj merged into Orissa, Kolhapur into the
Bombay Province, and Rampur and Banarasi into the Uttar Pradesh. Cochin was
The biggest Union of Indian States, and one of the biggest political and administrative
units of India, known as the “Greater Rajasthan Union”, was inaugurated on 30th March
1949. It has within its fold 15 ancient Rajput State with an area of 120,000 square miles,
The great State of Baroda merged into the Bombay Province on 1st May 1949, and
Bhopal, Cooch Bihar, Tripura and Manipur passed under the Central administration.
Thus before the end of November 1949, the integration of Indian States was completed
The Hyderabad and Jummaland a settlement with Hyderabad, which has a special
position as the biggest State in India and having a Muslim ruler over a very large Hindu
population, raised highly intricate issues. On the 29th November 1947, Hyderabad
entered into one year‟s Standstill Agreement with the Indian Union to maintain the
Jummaland leader Mr. Sheneha Kumar Chakma told to Indian new government
65
The Standstill Agreement in no way interfered with the status of Hyderabad as an
independent sovereign State, while Paramount was buried deep once for all, But the
Government of India felt that from considerations of defense, internal security, and
Hyderabad. An independent State completely landlocked within the heart of another is,
Besides this fundamental point of divergence between India and Hyderabad, some
newly arisen internal and external factors further complicated the situation. The
activities within the State of the Majlis Ittehad-ul-Muslimin and of the Razakars (un
recognize organization), under the leadership of Kasim Razvi, and incidents on the
borders of the Indian provinces of Madras, Central Provinces and Bombay, were a
standing menace to peace and harmony, and caused much anxiety in the minds of
responsible people in different quarters. All negotiations between Hyderabad and the
Indian Union from January 1948, proved abortive. The Nizam‟s Government refused to
India for Hyderabad‟s accession to the Indian Dominion, and also another suggestion of
the Government of India for the introduction of responsible government in the State.
During the final phase of the negotiation in June1948, a Draft Agreement was drawn up.
On the 18th June 1948, three days before his departure from India, Lord Mountbatten
India put some economic pressure on the former. But this did not improve matters. The
forces that worked against accession to the Indian dominion held a position of vantage
66
in that State and made warlike preparation, such as an increase in the State Army, the
formation of irregular armies, and the smuggling of arms and ammunition from abroad
Further, the growing violence of the Razakars inside Hyderabad State and in the border
tracts of the Indian Union seriously menaced law and order. So the Govrnment of India
reiterated their demand for immediate disbandment of the Razakars, and also asked the
Nizam to facilitate the return of the Indian troops to Secunderabad, where they had been
stationed before their withdrawal early that year according to the Standstill Agreement.
The Nizam, who had already appealed to the United Nations against India, would not
accept these terms. At this the Government of India informed the Nizam‟s Government
in a final letter on 11th September 1948, that they now considered themselves free to
take whatever action they thought necessary to restore law and order.
The Indian troops marched into the Hyderabad State on 13th September1948.The
Government of India declared that it was not an “act of war” but a mere “police Action”
intended to restore peace and tranquility inside the State and a sense of security in the
Nizam to Major General J.N. Chaudhury, Commander of the First Armoured Division
of the Indian Army. Kasim Razvi was arrested and the Razakar organization was broken
up. The Laik Ali Ministry, which had filed complaint against India before the Security
Council, resigned on 17th September 1948, and the Nizam cabled on 22nd September
1948, to the effect that he had withdrawn the Hyderabad case from the Security Council
67
and that the delegation sent there by the outgoing Ministry had no authority to represent
Restoration of peace and order being considered by the Indian Government he first and
foremost need of the hour, the affairs of Hyderabad were placed under the control of
Officers. The Nizam readily accepted the new situation and offered his full co-
measures.
On 26th January 1950, Hyderabad acceded to the Indian Union. As a result of the
Hyderabad as a separate State, has now ceased to exist. The Kashmir and Jummaland /
CHT want Independent state While the Hyderabad problem seemed to be nearing
solution, the situation in the State of Kashmir and State of Jummaland remained grave
and critical. Situated in the extreme north of the Indian subcontinent, this State covers
an area of 84,471 km in Kasmir and Jummaland 93,94 83.00 km. On the north-east it is
bordered by Tibet, on the north by Chinese Turkestan (Sinkiang, and on the north-west
by the Soviet Republic of Turkestan and by Afghanistan. On its western border lies
Pakistan, and to the south it touches Pakistan and the Dominion of India. The census of
1941recorded that the total population of the State was 4021,615, of whom 77.11per
cent were Muslims, 20.12 per cent Hindus and 2.77 per cent Sikhs and Buddhists. In
view of geographical contiguity and the greater numerical strength of the Muslims in
this State, Pakistan was naturally anxious to bring it under her influence.
68
The State of Kashmir and State of Jummaland was subjected to repeated tribal raids
from across and within the Pakistan area soon after the partition. On the rapid advance
of the raiders up the Jhelum valley road, threatening even Sri Nagar, Jummaland capital
Government of Jammu and Kashmir sought assistance of the government of the Indian
Dominion. On 26th October the Maharaja of kasmir joined Indian union and Jummaland
king want try join formally acceded to the Indian Union, and this step was fully
approved by Indian govt. Muhammad Abdullah, leader of the All Jammu and Kashmir
and support in the State. The Government of India, while accepting this accession as a
provisional step, expressed the view that the future of Kashmir should be decided in
The first contingent of Indian troops reached Kashmir by air on the morning of 27th
October 1947. On 31st October 1947, an interim Emergency Administration was formed
with Sheikh Muhammad Abdullah as its head, which with the help of Indian forces,
whose sympathies were for the Azad Kashmir Government, an organization opposed to
the new Government in Kashmir. On 31st December 1947, the Indian Union sent a
memorandum to the Security Council of the United Nations urging the latter to call
upon Pakistan (a member State), to put an end immediately to the giving of such
mediation for about five months the United Nations sent a Commission to study things
on the spot.
69
This Commission reached India in July 1948 and on 13th August 1948, suggested a
Cease fire agreement between India and Pakistan. The Indian Union agreed, but the
Pakistan Government was not prepared to accept the cease fire resolution without
The presence of Pakistan troops in Kashmir territory was now admitted by the Pakistan
Government, and the relations between the two Dominions grew extremely strained.
Happily good sense ultimately prevailed, and one minute before midnight on 1st January
1949. a mutual Cease fire agreement was concluded between the Governments of the
Indian Union and Pakistan. Hostilities ceased and Admiral Nimitz was appointed
United Nations Administrator for the plebiscite. It was hoped that the future of the State
conditions.
In April 1950, the Security Council appointed Sir Owen Dixon as the United Nations
Representative, in place of the U.N. Commission, to help the parties for the expeditious
and enduring solution of the dispute which has arisen between the two Governments in
But his efforts proved to be of no avail. On his request to the relieved, the Security
Council appointed Dr. Frank Graham as United Nations Representative on 30th April
In 1952, a Constituent Assembly met in Jammu and Kashmir to frame a constitution for
the State. In February 1954, the accession of the State to India was ratified by the
70
status of Jammu and Kashmir as a unit of the Indian Union. The Constituent Assembly
dissolved itself on 26th January 1957, after the formal inauguration of the new
constitution. On 26th July 1957, Bakhsi Ghulam Mohammad was sworn in as Prime
Minister of Jammu and Kashmir. Yuvaraj Karan Singh was elected unopposed for
Two days before this date, the Security Council passed a resolution calling for a status
quo in Kashmir. A resolution sponsored in the Security Council by four countries such
as Britain, Australia, Cuba and the United State of America for sending United Nations
forces to Kashmir for the solution of her problem was vetoed by the U.S.S.R. on 20th
February 1957, the deputation of Gunnar Jarring of Sweden, President of the Security
Council, with instructions to explore the possibilities for settlement of the Kashmir
dispute and report to the Security Council before 30th April 1957, did not produce any
concrete result. The revival of the Dr. Graham Commission by a resolution of the
The Kashmir problem has been before the Security Council for more than a decade, but
no solution has been reached. In the absence of the requisite conditions, and in view of
note that the Constituent Assembly of Jammu and Kashmir has itself declared the
42
Ibid…….p..809
71
On 27th August 1965, units of the Pakistani forces invaded Indian Territory, after
irregular forces had infiltrated into Kashmir earlier in the same month.for fuller details
of these events, and of the subsequent Tashkent declaration of Indian dominion. Also
Jummaland has declared under Indian union in 1972, Bangladesh was illegally captured
was also destroy after Jummaland authority was went to background under leadership
father of Jumma nation Mr. Manabendra Narayan Larma, all known as M.N. Larma .
Jummaland people are follower Theravada Buddhism from an ancient time and
Jummaland. Also others religion has been have modern time. Jummaland is located in
the Southeast Asia and comprised of 46 hill districts and there 14 division and more that
376 sub- districts,26 municipal councils, local known as Mousa (village areas about 5
villages)and 1950 villages councils and 2950 model villages and 4998 villages also
there are have three long time according to Portuguese time traditional Raja (king). The
land lies between 21 degree to 40degrees and 23 degree to 47 degrees north latitude and
with Myanmar on the south and southeast, India on the north and northeast and
72
Geographical Feature of Jummaland:
93,278.13 sq. km. Which is about one-tenth of the total land area of the nearest of
physical features, agricultural practices and soil conditions from the rest of the country
and also socio-economically and culturally stretching along the present day Indo-
Burma-Bangladesh border-is slightly smaller that East Timor (5,376 sq. miles) and
bigger than Lebanon (4,036 sq. miles). It roughly runs from North to South for 300 km.
The terrain in the Jummaland is part of the great hill mass – an offshoot of the
Himalayan range- occupying parts of India, Myanmar and Bangladesh. The hills inside
Jummaland rise up to a maximum of 4,000 feet, with the ranges running generally
northwest to southeast and dividing the area into a number of large valleys. The valleys
are covered for the most part with dense virgin forest, interspersed with small
waterways and swamps of all sizes and description. According to Chacomas declared
Jummaland comprise seven valleys formed by the Feni, Karnapuli, Chengi, Mayani,
Hajolong, Sangu and Matammuri rivers and their tributaries. The ranges of hill, plain
and mountain area of Jummaland rise steeply thus looking far more at the 1638 C.E,
Portuguese accord with Chacomas impressive that what their height would imply and
extend in long narrow ridges. There are numerous hills, ravines, mountain and cliffs
covered with dense vegetation. Geographically the Jummaland can be divided into two
73
The highest packs on the northern side are Thangnang, Langliang and Khantiang while
those on the southern side are Ramu, Taung, Keokradang,Tahjindong, Mowdok Mual,
Rang Tlang and Mowdok Tlang,Tahjindong are is 4632 ft, highest peak in Jummaland
Jummaland is rich in natural flora (orchids etc) and fauna such as Elephant, Tiger, Bear,
Wild Boar, Various kinds of monkeys, barking deer, wild goat and various kinds of
birds and alpine flora is very common in the country. The highest mountain in
Jummaland is known as “Jamasuk”. The name “Jama” is one of the renowned and
famous native Jummo Chakma indigenous people who live in that time and meditation
mountain, for instance the name of the mountain became famous as “Jamasuk”. It‟s also
mentioned in the Jummo folklore about him and mountain. The biggest river in
Jummaland has a mild hot wet climate. April to May are the hottest months of the year
Average temperature in the cold seasons is below 25 degree F. In the cold seasons,
temperatures fall as low as freezing point of water in the higher parts mountains.
Average annual rainfall is 70 degree to 110 inches. The southern part of Jummaland
gets more due to the storms come from Bay of Bengal with Indian ocean.
Rangamati: Rangamati is the capital city of Jummaland and most favorite tourist place.
It is about 220 Km from capital city Dhaka of Bangladesh and 77 Km away from
Chittagong city, which is second biggest city in Bangladesh. It is also called “Lake
74
City” as it is situated at beside of Kaptai Lake. It is well connected by road
communication system with Chittagong city, others Jummaland city name such as
chari, Jurachari, Barkall, Ruma, Tanchi and etc.also well connected water-systems of
transportation with a dozen of towns and sub-town and hundreds of Jummo villages. On
the east of Rangamati connected water-way with international border of Mizoram state
of India.
In a population census of 1872 to until 1952, the Jumma population was found that 98%
But due to demographic engineering by the Moguls, British, Pakistani and Bangladeshi
government, this overwhelming majority declined majority declined drastically and that
reduced to 51.4% of Jummas population in1991. The total population was 9,74,445 in
1991 census. The populations of Jummas 501,144 and non-Jummas 473,301in1991. The
population of the present Jummaland is circa approximately 2011 about 2.5 million and
Jummaland.
This research combines a history textual and field study. For the history textual study,
the various historical books and various kind of journals and reports is a main primary
75
The Jummas are real pure Buddhists, As well as known as Sakya clean. Unfortunately,
The following census is the evidence of illegally resettle by Bengali Muslims in the
Jummaland.
Settlers)
1951 91% 9%
The Jummas Peoples are of Sino-Tibetan descent belonging to the Mongoloid Race.
They are Follower of Theravada Buddhism from an ancient time. From the time
76
immemorial the Jummaland have been the home of thirteen indigenous Jummas ethnic
groups.
They are collectively identified themselves as the jummo Peoples or Jumma nation.
They are thirteen native Jummo national groups such as Chakma, Marma, Tanchangya,
Chak, Tripura, Murung, Boam, Khumi, Mro, Lushai, Khyang, Bawm, and Pankho.
It is easy to say identify a Jumma National in the streets of Dhaka, Saver, Chittagong
and Cox‟s Bazaar or elsewhere, because the Jummas peoples are distinct and different
culture, religion, ethnicity, complexion, body structure and colour of skin. There are
diversities amongst the ethnic Jumma groups themselves too, which have their own
distinct languages, customs, cultural heritage, religious beliefs and systems of social
organization. But national ideology is common as Jumma nations and free Jummaland.
The Jumma peoples are the main responsible to “Free Jummaland, from the Islamic and
terrorist government in Bangladesh since last six decades. The Jumma nations are the
right persons to put the Jummaland issue on the table of the United Nations, by the
above distinct, therefore easily recognizable. But there are many other ways in which
the Jumma people could be identified. For example, the method to find out the identify
of a Jumma is by hearing someone speak Bengali or English with a Jumma accent. But
one has to be familiar with the accent first. One sure way to know a Jumma is to
understand that he has a Jumma name since no other racial group will adopt one. But
77
Globalization makes the countries of the world more and more like each other in every
respect. Lager economics and more advanced civilizations are encroaching upon other
smaller economics and less developed civilizations. States and cultures are unable or
unwilling to stem the tide. Some languages like English and French, especially English,
have mostly replaced native tongues of a large number of nations around the world. It
has become the lingua franca of many countries and the second language of many more
others. It has become the language of diplomacy, commerce and science. English has
shows that the Jummaland policies of the government of Bangladesh. The influx of
outsider Bengali Muslims settlers into the Jummaland had been started since creation of
Pakistan in 1947. Later on East Pakistan bloody war was creation of Bangladesh in
1971, vigorous Islamisation policies had made the situation worse that ever before.
land, for making homes and others various kinds of land grant, cash and rations. Since
1979, the government of Bangladesh officially started to settle Bengali Muslims settlers
from the Bangladesh others part of districts in the Jummaland to outnumbering the
Jumma peoples and for using the settlers as human shield. This program was continued
in secret, the international communities were not aware of this program till mid1980s.
More than 400,000 Bengali Muslims settlers were transferred into Jummaland (1979-
78
1989), today‟s continued settles by Bengali Muslims families from others undeveloped
government declared that each Bengali Muslims settlers family would be given 7.5
Indeed, no cultivable land was vacant for settlement so the Bengali Muslims settlers
started to forcibly occupy the land of native Jumma indigenous peoples. The above
in Jummaland. Bangladesh Army camps set up whole CHT 2400 With Illegally
1. Tabalchari 1810 Muslim families 2. Ram Ghor 3589 families 3.Khawkali 2792
families 4. Lama 7438 families 5. Alikadom 750 families 6. Vasannya Ahdam 1408
79
10.Bhusonchora 1705 families 11. Shuvolong 518 families12.Kengrachori 502 families.
= 16,417 families.
4th step totally 55,930 Bengali Muslims families illegally resettlement by Bangladesh
government.
In 2001, Khagrachari hill district and Rangamati hill district muslims Bengalis illegal
settlers ration cards Khagrachari 26,220, Rangamati1605 ration cards totally ration
cards 27,825 illegally bangalis families and in 2012, 37,127 Muslims families illegally
families illegally resettlement with military 4500 camps, 3500 BGB camps, 2300 police
camps, 5400 para military camps, 1500 navy camps, 130 air force camps safe guard
always safety only Bengali Muslims community in Jummaland. It‟s main problem and
crisis in Jummaland.
80
The illegal Bengali Muslims Settlers with backed Bangladesh military holds 13th times
peopleskilled illegally.
The “Bijok” is the history in Jumma Chakma language. So, the “Jumma Chakma Bijok”
is the chronological history of the Jumma nation. About hundred of Jumma Chakma
history books written by different authors and in different languages and in different
periods.But very few writers we can found amongst the Jumma Chakma, that is lack of
education and historical experiences. Some of the authors wrote that he/she belong from
Jumma national Chakma nation or Sakya, but some evidence knew about the religious
historical background of the Jumma Chakma national or Sakya national. Some of the
authors Muslims wrote about their origin that he/she knew nothing about Jumma
background of them that just to be very create a problem for political and religious
interest for his/her own nation or party or religion or country. Some of the authors wrote
that just collected some reports, recorded by the own government. Some authors wrote
an article about their origin that just he visited few Jumma Chakma national villages.
Here, you will get wide ranges of resources about their origin, both from religious as
well as Jumma national historical background about the Sakyas or Chakma Jummas.
According to the Jumma Chakma historian, the ruler of the Royal Chakma Jummaland
Kingdom was most powerful ever than others Raja (king) in this region in the 6th
81
century. As per as Jumma Chakma historian as well as early Buddhist historical evident
that the Jumma Chakma national Raja Bijoygiri, belong from Champa or
Champaknagar (now Bhagalpur in west Bengal, India) in the Kingdom of Anga which
was Bengal (now west Bengal and Bihar); came and settled down in the present
Jummaland, along with his Jumma Royal family and large military troops. His father,
Raja Samargiri,who was belong from Sakya clean and was most powerful ruler of
kingdom of Anga in the early 6th century BC. He had two sons, named was Prince
Bijoygiri /Vijoybhahu went to tamaralipti Ceylon with his followers and settled there
estabhished own kingdom and Prince Udaigiri stayed in his own land Jummaland. That
Ducht period (1351-1560 A.D), in 1638 CE, Purtuguese accord of Chacomas Nabab
Jummaland 1860 by the raid of frontier native Jumma indigenous tribes act, 1860.
Previous Jummaland names were Karpas Mahal (karpas mean cotton that
Macgrath (1860-1867A.D)
82
First deputy commissioner of this Jummaland, Mr. T.H.Lewin (The designation
1900A.D)
Mong circle created in 1782, run by Mong Raja (King) communities of Marmas in
Excluded Jummaland area turned into Jummo native indigenous tribes land in 1962 in
Pakistan period.
Those who were appointed as administrator in Jummaland from the British period to till
83
09. Mr. L.R.Forbes 1881-1884 A.D.
84
Pakistan Period: Simply Independencely Kingdom of Jummaland
85
07. Janab A. Malek 1983-1985
It is worth mentioning here that designation of the rulers was changed in different
Repeat of Jummaland Jumma Indigenous native area in 1964 in Pakistan period. First
two Jumma indigenous native members were elected of democratic system in East
Pakistan legislative assembly in 1954. They are Mr. Kamini Mohan Dewan and Mr.
86
government of Pakistan. Area of about 356 sq.miles (Dist. Gazt.) and dam has been
Jummaland modern named previous name was the Chittagong Hill Tracts(CHT).
The historical peace accord signed between government of Bangladesh and Parbatya
Chattagram Jana Sanghati Samiti (United People‟s Party of the Chittagong Hill Tracts
The creation of Jummaland Regional Council or CHT Regional Council on 24th May
of Rangamati in Jummaland.
In 1881 A.D, the British Indian Government had divided the Jummaland into Three
circles (Division) according to the jurisdiction of the Rajas, there are three Rajas
87
(kings) in Jummaland named such as (01).The Jumma Chakma Raja in Rangamati
(Jumma Chakma Administration division) run by Jumma Chakma Raja in middle part
(02). The Jumma Bohmang Raja in Bandarban Jumma Administration division. Run by
Jumma Bohmang Raja, Marma, Tanchagya, Chak and Rakhain others communities in
Administration division. Run by Mong Raja, Marma, Tripura and others communities in
northern part of Jummaland. Jummaland Kings (Rajas) all were are Buddhists. They are
About there are Jumma Chakma Raja past over 50th Jumma Chakma Raja. Present ruler
of Raja Devasish Roy 51th43 and presently Jumma Chakma Raja since 1971. Born
1959, he was installed as Jumma Chakma Raja, after his father opted to remain in
Pakistan in 1971, with his uncle as regent till 1977, he is a lawyer by profession and has
served as a special Assistant to the Chief Advisor of Bangladesh government with the
rank and status of a State Minister during the 2006-2008 Bangladesh political crisis, he
was in charge of the Ministry of Jummaland or Chittagong Hill Tracts Affairs and the
2008.As per constitutional norms and practices of the country, at the end of each term,
an interim neutral caretaker government takes over to oversee free and fair election to
hand over power to the next elected politicians, married RaniTatu Roy, born 1963, died
43
Chakma kingdom, www.royal chakma.com, /www.voice of jummaland.com,,,p..1/4
88
in 1998, and has issue.Rajkumar Tribhuvan Aryadev Roy, born in1990, declared Crown
In 1599 AD, The Maharaja Maung Rajagree, the King of Arakan led to the capitulation
The “Nainda Bayin‟ The king of Pegu was defeated and perished in the war.
The beautiful young doughter of Nainda Bayin, Thien Daw Hnang and minor Prince
Maung Saw Prue were taken to “Mrawk U” , The capital of Arakan, as captive along
with other booties. Some 3000 families from Pegu followed the scion of their ruler and
settled in Arakan.
Later, the successor of Maung Rajagree and then Arakanese King Mong Khyai Maung
married the princes and appointed his brother-in-law “Maung Saw Pru” as the governor
of annexed Chittagong in 1614. The 3000 families that accompanied the captive prince
were allowed to settle in the region around Chittagong. The present Marma
communities are the descendents of these groups. They are living all parts of
Jummaland.
In 1620 A.D45, for resisting the Portuguese invasion with extreme course and valor, the
Arakanese King Mong Kha Mauang conferred the title of “Bohmong” to Maung Saw
44
Ibid……p..1/4
45
www.voice of juumaland, Bohmong Raja / Circle Chief, p..4/8
89
Pru, which means the Great General. After the death of Bohmong Maung Saw Pru, two
successors retained the Bohmong title.During the time of “Bohmong Hari Ngyo” for his
extreme bravery to recapture the Chittagong from Moguls in 1720, the Arakanese King
Chainda Wizia conferred on him the grand title of “Bohmong Gree” meaning “The
great Commander-in-Chief”46.
In the face of growing Moguls presence and weakened of Arakanese dominance, the
insecure on the heel of Arakanese pull out.Then the Bohmong continued to enjoy their
political supremacy through the Moguls to the British colonial reign till 1860 A.D,
when the Jummaland was formally annexed to the British Indian Empire and declared
On the 15th Bohmong circle Chief Raja Aung Shwe Prue Chodhury in Bandarban
southern part of Jummaland. 16th Bohmong Raja K.S.Pru Chodhury. Presently 17th47
Bohmong Raja Bohmangree U Shaw Prue Chowdhury is the king of the Bohmong
The History:
The War and Settlement: The Marma communities, led by the Mong Raja Chief were
originally Burmese who lived in 16th century. After they are travel who fled to escape
46
Ibid…..p…4/8
47
www.voice of jummaland/www.bandarbancercleraja.com/bohmong kingdom , p..1/2
90
Northern parts of Jummaland. The Mong Raja was then one of many Jummos
indigenous Chiefs who ruled the separate and distinctive cleans of the Jummaland.
Which were known as northern parts of Jummaland. Also they are living all parts of
Jummaland.
Ruled by native Jumma indigenous Chief (Raja or king) predates the British incursion
into India, but the administrative role of the modern Raja was formalized under colonial
rule. The British faced strong and effective military opposition to their invasion of the
Jummaland, sustaining heavy losses due to the difficulty of the Jummaland terrain and
the relative power of the Jumma Chakma military. following their victory in 1882, the
British neutered this opposition by sub-dividing the Jummaland region into three
Today, Khagrachari Jumma Mong Raja region is a diverse and multicultural area, and
the Jumma Mong Raja (King) native indigenous Chief provides the services of
Jummaland. Presently Jumma Mong Raja Saching Prue Chodhury was confirmed as
8th48 Mong king (Raja) and continued his rule today. The young Raja aims to create a
modern Jumma Mong Circle administration division that serves and represents all
48
www.voice of jummaland/www.mongrajakhagachari.com ,p..2/6
49
Ibid……3/8
91
4.3.8 The Buddhism influenced in Jummaland:
coexistance. But there are have some ancient record and evidence that Lord Buddha
came to vanga (old name pundrabardhan and samathot) and has two disciple of Lord
Buddha‟s Vangissar and Rakkhita who native birth place in samathot near
Jummaland.during Buddha‟s life time and also during the time of emperor ashoka. after
the great demise of Lord Buddha, the first Buddhist council was held in Rajagaha under
the patronage of king Ajatasatru to preserve the teachings of Lord Buddha for the years
to come.
The second Buddhist council was held at Vaisali during the region of king Kalasoka one
The 3rd Buddhist Council was held in Pataliputra during the king Ashoka(218-260)
The flourishing of Buddhism in Jummaland started from Gupta period and early
centuries of the Christian era. It has been clear that the Buddhism was the flow of
Mahayana principles, Fa-hein mentioned in his itinerary (399-414 AD) about the
Kingdom of Champa on the Southern bank of the Ganga when he came across much
evidence of living Buddhism which was mostly Mahayana. In the 7th century Hiuen-
Tsang, the famous Chinese pilgrim in visited India, recorded various accounts of the
persecution of Buddhism by Sasankha, the king of Gouda (north western part of Bengal
with some Stobira schools. From the 7th to 12th centuries the Mahayana school found a
92
golden era in Vanga with Jummaland. Great Buddhist monasteries in Paharpur,
Somapura, Jagaddal, Vikramapur, Moinamoti and Salban were established the reign
Vanga and Jummaland.Famous scholars like that Sri Atisha Dipankar, Shilabadra,
Shantiraksit appeared in Jummaland and their scholastic works were towards the
Mahayana school, which ultimately absorbed Tantrism. The Buddhist lost the basic
Jummaland.
During the 15th century (according to Dr. Heinz Bechert) one member of the Royal
Burma and was ordained there under the tutelage of Ven. Seyado Sharbu Mahanayaka
Thero. His named was Ven. Chandrajyoti Bhikkhu and stayed for 20 years in Burma to
study the scriptures. He is after came to Chittagong near Jummaland and established
temple in Sitakunda hill and Haidgaon. But but he failed to organize Buddhist Sangha
Buddhism50. In the 19th century Dr. B.M. Barua writes that Mahayana Buddhism which
was prevailing in eastern India comprising Chittagong and Jummaland also Tripura. but
mixture of tantric faith, Hinduism and animism religious cults. As a result monks did
not observe vinaya rules and aities too lost their real Buddhists ideals. They used to
observe many rites and rituals which have no connection with a Buddhist tradition51.
50
www.buddhism in Bangladesh…..P..9
51
Ibid…….p..12
93
4.3.9 The Historical Movement Buddhism in Jummaland:
The historical critical moment in Jummaland, most Ven. Saramittra Nayaka Thero of
and Pali. In the meantime the Jumma Chakma Kingdom was a feudal State under the
British government and its ruler was Queen Kalindi Rani (1830-1873 A.D). She invited
Most Ven. Saramittra to the royal palace in Rajanagar that time capital city of
oldest Buddhist monastery name was Sakyamuni Raj Vihara built by Jumma Chakma
royal patron. 15th A.D, Also has been Raja Bhuvan Mohan High School in Rajanagar.
In 1864 A.D, Ven. Saramittra again came to Jummaland with his disciple Sangha in
order to give full ordination to who are like to ordain as Bhikkhu in the Jummaland. He
The early history of Buddhism in Jummaland divited as follows Primitive Era (1300-
1600 AD): The primitive era of the indigenous Jumma Chakma literatures can be
divided into two sections namely 01.oral literature and 02. written literature. In the oral
literature section, we can include the ubageet (ballad songs) that are used by the
gengkulies (singers).
These songs were not written like in early Indian civilization, which is called Gurukul
(native tradition). The Gengkulies would be learning these songs from generation to
generation in oral literatures The history of the indigenous Jumma Chakma proves the
94
fact that they were more than five hundred years old with powerful administration in
have been established about 13th to 16th centuries. Lateron, many Arabian and French
The primitive literatures of the indigenous Jumma Chakma were such as: (01).The
Fhala (historical events of leaving Chittagong) (03). The Laksmi Fhala or Gojen Lama
(based on the cosmological theories) and (04). The Larvuya Fhala (The historical events
of leaving Myanmar).
The Radhaman-Dhanpudi Fhala is very popular among the young generation of the
indigenous Jumma people. According to the Gengkuli‟s explanation, there are seven
Fhala (Cutting of Jums) (02). The Bargi-Lora Fhala (Catching a kind of bird –bargi)
(03). The Geela-Para Fhala (Collecting a kind of forest fruit (uneatable) (04).The Phool-
Para Fhara (Collecting a kind of forest flowers) (05). The Lui-Chaga Fhala (catching of
The Rannya-Vera Fhala (visiting of the former jums) and (07). The Mela-Kadha Fhala
(wedding of conversation).
The Chadigang-Chara Fhala also consists of many chapters with detailed explanations
and incidents of leaving Chittagong. The third laksmi fhala or gojen-lama fhala explains
52
www.voice of jummaland/traditional songs/P..3/9
95
the cosmological views on how the world and beings came into existence of the above
mentioned literatures, some are printed; and some are hand written, specially the old
historical books. It is very difficult to prove when these primitive literatures were
established. They had Tallikshastra (Tantric legends) that were found written on palm
leaves.
Now a days the oza-boidya (a person who are propitiate the lower gods and ghosts,
spirits and for magic) also can be seen. People are still using those tallikshastra.
Middle Era (1600-1900 AD): This literature can also be divided into two divisions,
namely such as: (01). Those related to religion and (02). Those connected with society.
during this time, the literal language used in these literatures was influenced by many
words like Arabic, French, Dutch, Hindi and Bengali.The Bengali words were deeply
rooted which cannot be separated. In this period, Laksmi, Ramayana, Mahabharata and
others also influenced these literatures. The former religious texts Agartara was also
related with Buddhism comprising explanation of Karma theories, in this world and
Chibcharan, who was spiritualist of the indigenous Jumma Chakma was a poet. he
wrote the “Gojena-Lama”, an excellent legend, which was written about in 1777 AD.
The legends have 7 sections. In these legends53, the Gojena was considered to be the
enlightened one. Dharma is explained as karma and nibbana can be attained through
karma. Regarding this philosophy, there are many debates among the authors and
scholars. Some scholars believe that “It was Theravada Buddhism point of view”. But
53
www.voice of jummaland/traditional rules,..P..2/4
96
indigenous Jumma Mr. Suhrid Chakma has pointed out that it was Mahayana point of
view.
There are many Barah-Masi (twelve month) legends found i.e. Chandavi Barah-Mas,
mother and father) and etc. In these legends, many Bengali words are used.
The pre Buddhist culture of Jummaland is most significant of the Jumma indigenous
people in south east asian region as well as Indian sub continant.Pre Buddhist culture
such as in Jummaland kingdom of Shakya (1st king Shakya 595 C.E), (2nd king
Sudannya 685 C.E), (3rdking Langgoldon 700 C.E), (4th king Kuddrajit 785 C.E), (5th
king Sumuddrajit 1110-1125 C.E), (6th king Shamol 1125-1132 B.C.E), (7th king
Chappakoli 1132-1153 C.E), (8th king Sadang Giri 1153-1186 B. C.E), (9th king
Changyasur 1186-1196 B. C.E), (10th king Chandasur 1196-1200 B.C.E), (11st king
Sumesur 1200-1230 C.E), (12th king Vimjoy 1230-1290 B.C.E), (13th king Vijoy Giri
1290- 1385 B.C.E), (14th king Udoy Giri 385-1460 B. C.E), (15th king Shakoliya 1460-
1400 B.C.E), (16th king Manik Giri 1400-1470 B. C.E), (17th king Madhaliya 1470-
1575 B.C.E), (18th king Rama Thongja 1575-1635 B. C.E), (19th king Kamal shege
1635-1695 B.C.E), (20th king Rathana Giri 1695-1716 B. C.E), (21st king Khala
Thongja 1716-1799 B.C.E), (22nd king Chakkradon- 456-495 A.D), (23rd king
97
710-775 A.D), (30th king Radongja- 775-800 A.D), (31st king Sureshsuri-800-875 A.D),
(32th king Jhonu-875-905 A.D), (33rd king Sathuya Bhoruya-905-975 A.D), (34th king
1070-1110 A.D), (37th king Jubhol-1110-1195 A.D), (38th king Fhothe Kha-1195-1235
A.D), (39th king Shei mosthho Kha- 1235-1285 A.D), (40th king Sukhdev-1285-1314
A.D), (41th king Shei dholot kha-1314-1375 A.D), (42th king Jhanbox kha 1782 A.D),
(43th king Thob bhor Kha- 1800 A.D), (44th king Jhobbhor Kha-1809 A.D), ( 45th king
Dharmabox Kha-1882 A.D), (46th king Queen Kalindi Rani-1887 A.D), (47th king
Horich Chandra Roy-1900 A.D),(48th king Bhuban Mahon Roy-1919A.D), (49th king
Present Era (1900 up to now): The indigenous Jumma Chakma Rani Binita Roy edited a
publication, the indigenous Jumma Chakma artist Mr. Chuni Lal Dewan wrote first
Indigenous Jumma Poem. Later on, a Journal entitled “Parbatya Banee” was edited by
Mr.Biraj Mohan Dewan in 1967. In this publication, many writings were done by
indigenous Jumma Mr. Mukunda Chakma, Mr. Salil Roy, Mr.Bira Kumar Tanchangya
and others. After that, the first novel inindigenous Jumma Chakma language entitled
“Rangamatya” was published by indigenous Jumma Mr. Sugata Chakma in 1970. Since
then, we can see several publications either through associations or publishing in the
Indigenous Jumma Chakma community. But present publications are concerned only
98
Many graduate and postgraduate degree holders among the indigenous Jumma Chakma
have published or written on their own on social, religious, economic and political and
other conditions1.
people from immemorial time with from generation to generation protection and
Theravada Buddhist doctrine. This can be proved by several incidents coming down in
the Buddhist literature. The Buddha, on reaching full enlightenment, had spent a week
seated on the foot of the Bodhi tree, and had, during the three phases / of the night,
reviewed the dependent origination from its beginning to the end and vice versa. The
very first sermon heard by the Sariputta qand Moggallana, the two chief disciples of
Buddha, from the Arahant Assaji. Was bassed on the development origination or the
theory of course and effect. Both these occasions are depicted in the book on Discipline
– Mahavagga pali. The Maha Nidana sutta of the Digha Nikaya reveals that the beings
move about in the samsaric existence, because they fall into continuous turmoil owing
99
something, and as a consequence of something. Various views prevailed in the
contemporary religious beliefs regarding the origin of beings and the world. The view
that they were created by the Maha Brahama or other supreme god.
It was accordingly opined that the birth and death, misery and comfort atc. of the
beings, the activity discernible and operating in the objective world such as sun and
moon, sunlight in the rain happen due to the creation of some supreme being like the
god and the Brahmas. Some of persons who did not accept the theory of creation stated
that the birth, death, misery and comfort of the beings are the consequences of deeds,
Meanwhile, some others proclaimed that beings were born and expire not due to my
taught that during a specified period of time, birth and death occurred and misery and
comfort ensue continuously at last leading to cessation of the progress in the samsaric
existence (niyati samgati bhava hetu). The thinkers of the Upanishad who contemplated
more profoundly on the world and the beings, were inclined towards an unchanging
(sasvatavada). Still others turned their attention to the exact opposite, and presented the
theory of annihilation (ucchedavada), pronouncing that there was no birth after death
and that there were no existences that could be termed as here and hereafter.
The lord Buddha obtained a grasp of all these teachings prevalent at that time and
disclosed that none of them were true. He exposed the extremist characteristics of all
100
those teachings and preached that the dependent origination (paticca samuppada) or the
phenomenon of cause and effect was the truth that exists for ever. Explaining the
prevalence of the dependent origination in all things, the Nidana samyutta described it
“Asmim sati idam hoti”- when this exists, this happens. “Imassa uppada idamuppajjati”-
when this is born this too is born. Buddhism does not accept the existences of a single
entity on its own. The pronoun this conjures up two phenomena related to east other in
some way, or two relatable things or occasions. Thereby, it displays the reality of the
existing things and has demonstrated the absence of such phenomena in a similar
manner.
The world is full of suffering. The end of the temporary satisfaction deemed is
happiness is long standing suffering. The concept of suffering is the absolute truth of
this world. Four main sections that grew around it are termed as the four noble truths.
embellished with the prefix “Ariya” noble its title four noble truths has been formed.
The doctrine about the truth realized in full at the foot of the sacred Bodhi tree was
inducted through the preaching of the ammacakkappavattana sutta to the group of five
ascetics at Isipatana of Benaris. The noble truth is analyzed into four categories in the
following manner;
I. Suffering (Dukkha)
101
IV. The way leading to the cessation of suffering (Dukkhanirodha gamini
patipada)
such as dissatisfaction and tolerance. Man in his normal life receives happiness. They
are depicted separately as the happiness of family life (gihi sukha), the happiness of the
life of a recluse (pabbajita sukha), the happiness of sense pleasures (kama sukha), the
mental happiness (manasikha sukha), etc.. but all of them are temporary.
The happiness derived from them in a short while, may sometimes transform itself into
a suffering more intense then that existed before. A person with a would receives some
comfort by scratching it forgetting the pain for a moment. But within a short while,
blood starts to flow from the would because of the scratching. Then pain and suffering
more agonizing than before will afflict him. The happiness that we receive is like that.
temporary duration and insubstantial, it has been compared to a piece of bone devoid of
flesh and blood, to a dream, and to a dressed taken on hire. The Buddhist doctrine
emphasizes the need to understand the reality of life, so that through it one can
comprehenend that craving such as for sensual pleasures yields only a temporary
companionship with the undesirables is a suffering, the separation from the loved ones
102
is a suffering, the failure to achieve the desired objects is a suffering and so more its
called sorrows. The Buddhism explains about temporary and momentary happiness as
well as about an eternal and supramundane happiness. The wise man understands that
this manner is the path to the supra-mundane happiness Therefore, it is known as the
The person who realizes that actually there is suffering, examines as to how it
physician will firstly diagnose the symptoms of the sickness in association with such
The Buddha had demonstrated that this craving (tanha), that produces reexistence and
re-becoming, is bound up with passionate greed and finds fresh delight in extinction
here and there, is the cause for the arising of suffering. It is three fold such as: 1.
Craving for the sense – pleasures (kama tanha), 2. Craving for re-existence and re-
to it is not difficult to comprehend that the cause of suffering or the life in the samsaric
existence, is craving.
If there is something arising due to a cause, it should disappear after the annihilation of
that cause. If suffering has arisen owing to craving, the end of suffering should follow
103
the annihilation of craving- hetum paticca sambhutam- hetu bhamga nirujjhati. So the
Buddha preached this doctrine to the nun sela. The extinction of suffering (dukkha
from craving. The most sublime perfection of the Buddhist doctrine is this cessation of
suffering.
The fourth noble truth (The path leading to the cessation of suffering).
When the Buddhist doctrine teaches that the cessation of suffering is the supreme
should be followed for the purpose. This is known as the Middle path. It is middle
because there are two extremes that one should not traverse. One extreme is depicted as
the indulgence in the pleasures of the senses (kamasukhallikanuyoga). Its nature is low,
common, the way of the ordinary people, ignoble and is conducive to ruination.
(Attakilamathanuyoga) the second extrme brings the same type of results and consists
of self mortification. The middle path is far renounced from both these extremes and
gives eye of wisdom. It extinguishes the heat of delilements and leads to supreme
104
6. Right Effort (Samma vayama)
This Eight fold path specially is prefixed by Samma because one should progress
onwards only by following the path of purity explained in the Buddhist doctrine. Its
the noble eight fold path was first preached by the Buddha to the five monks including
the monk kondanna. It was possible to win their disposition towards the noble path of
the doctrine, only after the removal of wrong beliefs and wrong understanding that were
active within their minds. It emphasizes that it is essential to regard right understanding
or separation from wrong views as the first step in the path, because traversing in the
dark without fair understanding is not the progress along the path of deliverance.
In some instances the Buddhist path of deliverance is depicted in three Steps such as;
(Panna). In some places it is five fold such as namely; 1. Faith (Saddha),Effort (Viriya),
and right emancipation (Samma vimutti) to the eight mentioned above. It is natural for
according to the character and intentions of the followers. When we consider the
develop through ethical conduct (Sila) physical and verbal good conduct. From this it is
105
expected to regularize the reactions displaced by the individual towards the external
world. Secondly, mental discipline should be established. The entire gamut of activities
including the use of the faculties and breathing in and out etc. should be arranged with
deep concentration, and the trances (Dhyana) should be attained through undistracted
The final step is wisdom (panna). The understanding of the reality of all phenomena or
belong to this step. The individual reminisces repeatedly that there are no other steps to
be destroyed. He will never again enter the samsaric existence. He is known as the
The main three characteristics (Tillakkhana), the highest fruition of the perfectly
exemplary Buddhist life is the comprehension of the prevalent and obscure reality of
the being and the world. Man can never understand the correct nature of anything as
long as he is beset with passion, hatred and folly. A person who wears blue spectacles
sees everything in the blue hue.The visual consciousness is based on the eye and a
visible form. Through coordination between them arises contact and through it
owing to this reason, he grasps all things that are objects of the six faculties- such as; 1.
106
permanent, auspicious and happy. While progressing in the Buddhist path of discipline,
within the path leading to Nibbana, to the effect that are following;
2. The aforesaid transience or change causes grief in the person who does not
Anatta (No-soul).
1. Anicca: according to Buddhism, the universe and everything in the universe are
neither created by god nor are they fortuitious. They are result of an agglomeration
same tone, if the cause is impermanent and temporary, its effect cannot be
first step towards the comprehension of the three characteristics. All phenomena are
divided into two sections such as; 1. Compound (Samkhata) and 2. The
a phenomenon born out of a collection of causes. All else, either with or without
consciousness are compound as they have arisen owing to a union of causal fectors.
If there is a phenomenon that has arison owing to some cause, its effect too is
107
eliminated as soon as the cause does not exist any more. The eye is impermenant. Its
2. Dukkha (Suffering): The phenomena that create disquiet and dissatisfaction within
an individual such as birth, decay, sickness, death, separation from the loved ones,
are included in the truth of suffering. This is the nature of all phenomena. If
man, like all beings, goes after happiness and abhors misery. He was goes after the
temporary happiness is embroiled, again and again in suffering. The firm grasp
with egos tic pride of all forms, sensations, perceptions, mental formations and
consciousness that are identified diversely and beautifully by naming them with
dissatisfaction. This is explained in the truth of suffering that is the second one of
Anatta (No-soul): The meaning of the word “Atta” (Atma) is self.The word Anatta
(Anatma) expresses exactly its opposite-that there is nothing that can be named as self.
Many religions refer to a creator of the universe. The creator, delineated as brahma,
Isvara, pajapati and god according to each religion, creates the world and the beings.
According to some of them, that which is termed as the external body and the spiritual
Atma is taken separately. They state that after death the external body is destroyed
leaving the atma untouched; and that at the end of its round of existences it unities with
the universal soul. Those religions and philosophies mention that the only thing that
108
The Theravada Buddhism in main in Jummaland. The Theravada radition spread all
The Buddhism spread in Jummaland from the most an ancient time. It is generally
recognized that the advent of Gautama Buddha‟s dharma, the exalted one occurred in
the sixth century B.C. his appearance was in an extremely complex social environment.
According to the belief of the Brahmins, the Maha Brahma is recognized as the overlord
of everything. It is also believed that the Vedas came forth from the Maha Brahma. The
details on the origin of society also were presented in conformity with the vedas. It was
the tradition of the most ancient people of the an ancient time. The society of the
immemorial time organized as it was according to the Brahmanic teaching, was replete
created based on the caste system. According to the previously stated Brahmanic view
of the origin of society, there were four castes, such as 1.Brahmana, 2. Kashtariya 3.
Vaisya and 4. Sudra. This caste system is known as caturvarna. In the beginning varna
denoted the color of man‟s skin. The people such as various named as original Aryans
who migrated to an ancient India from central asia circa 1500 B.C. can be considered as
possessing a clear complexion. The orginal residents of India at the time bore a dark
complexion. The age of the establishment of orginal settlements in India by the Aryans
who came from Central Asia is considered to be the most ancient epoch in the
civilization of Bharata. They have treated these black skinned original inhabitants
109
portrayed a communal division. The views that the Aryans were noble and the non-
noble Aryans were lovely were created at the beginning itself, but appeared to have
Earlier the Aryan non-aryan division was in conformity with skin colour. However,
when the Aryan civilization became organizationally established the division of varna
assumed another dimension. In that process, importance was given to the organization
of society based on economic activities. The society of the immemorial time organized
as it was according to the Brahmanic teaching, was replete with diverse dissimilarities.
It appears that those dissimilarities were elementarily created based on the caste system.
According to the previously stated Brahmanic view of the origin of society, there were
four castes such as 1. Brahmana 2.Kashtriya 3. Vaisya and 4. Sudra. This caste system
is known as satuvarna. In the beginning varna denoted the color of man‟s skin. The
people such as the original Aryans who migrated to India from central Asian region
circa 1500 B.C, can be considered as possessing a clear complexion. The original
residents of India at the time bore a dark complexion. The age of the establishment of
original settlements in India by the Aryans who came from central Mongolian is
considered to be the most ancient epoch in the civilization of Maha Bharata. They have
treated these black skinned original inhabitants whom they encountered as lowly. Thus
that the Aryans were noble and the non-Aryans were lovely were created at the
beginning itself, but appeared to have undergone changes gradually. Earlier the Aryan
non-Aryan division was in conformity with skin color. However, when the Aryan
dimension. In that process, importance was given to the organization of society based
110
on economic activities accordingly the caste system emerged. Man‟s superiority or
inferiority was determined in accordance with the caste. Caste is determined by birth.
People born to caste which were considered to be noble obtained grater privileges in
society. Those born to castes considered as low were sometimes disowned even of basic
human rights. The highest places in society was enjoyed by the Brahmin caste. They
were highly privileged and highly honored. They presented themselves as leaders of
societies around The world. There was no opportunity for a person of any other caste to
become a priest. This privilege entirely belonged to the Brahmins, and it was utilized by
them as a tool to subjugate the people of other caste. They acted as the representatives
of the all powerful Maha Brahma, the lord of everything. The Brahmins were the
educated section living in society. They also were consultants of the state as well as
At most times they were also teachers. The knowledge of the three Vedas such as 1. Rig
2. Yajur and 3. Saman, Atharvan were the preserve of the Brahmins. The Brahmin adept
in these three vedas was recognized as Vedagu. In this manner, the Brahmamins who
had assigned to themselves the supreme position in the Indian society of that time and
2017 ,whole Tripitaka version was translation to owned Chakma Jumma languges from
Pali to English with English to Bengali and Bengali to Jummo Chakma languge and
2nd to 8th Janurary 2019, opend Whole holy Tripitaka Apps google internet from Rajban
thusand Theravada monks and about six hundred monastery and protection Theravada
111
4.4.3 Arahanths In Jummaland
The arahanthns in Jummaland is the most holy Buddhist monks it's an ancient times.
Adding up to twelve characteristics. When the knowledge of the reality which was
twelve fold was revealed, I affirmed to the world that I have reached the supreme
enlightenment. Thus the sight of wisdom was revealed to me. Freedom of my mind is
undisturbed. This is my last birth. Now I do not have a rebirth. Thus the Buddha
explained that profound doctrine to the team of five ascetics such as 1. Kondanna 2.
Wappa 3. Assaji 4.Bhaddiya and 5. Mahanama . To the ascetic Kondanna who listened
vision which was free of the dirt and defilements of sins. He comprehended that
whatsoever had the nature of existence, it also possessed the nature of destruction at this
instance the ascetic Kondanna gained knowledge about the four noble truths and hences,
he was named as Anna Kondanna by the Buddha, ordination was granted to him by the
Buddha by addressing him, come o monks, engage in the path of the noble conduct for
the elimination of suffering. This is called Ehi Bhikkhu Pravujja. From this ordination
The rainy season approached by this time. The Buddha spent the first retreat at Isipatana
during the first year of his enlightenment. The Buddha described the noble doctrine to
the other four ascetics, all six, including the Buddha partook food from alms collected
by going from house to house. On the first day after the Full moon day of July month ,
the ascetics Vappa reached the sotapatti plane, while on the second, third and fourth
112
days, the ascetics Bhaddiya, and Mahanama and Assaji respectively reached the same
status of sotapatti. They too received full ordination through –ehi bhikkhu pravajjya.
On the fifth day the Buddha expounded the Lakkhana sutta on their behalf at the end of
the discourse, the team of five monks realized the doctrine, and exterminating
defilements reached Arahanthhood, thus having the luck to become the first Arahanths
of the Buddha‟s dispensation. The dhamma cakkappavattana sutta which had been
sought and realized by the Buddha, and expounded to the team of five ascetics as well
as to the infinite number of deities and Brahmas, described the existence of the world,
and reasons for it as well as the cessation of the world and the glorious philosophy on
the path approaching towards that purpose. This philosophy is on the supreme noble
truths, which had been so far hidden by ignorance. As if a ruined city covered with
jungle had been rediscovered, the Buddha had searched and identified it, first realizing
its profundity and had expounded it for the emancipation of humanity that was engulfed
in ignorance. None of the religious teacher who appeared in india as founder of regious
were cognizant of this middle path. Therefore it had been recognized as a doctrine never
heard before-pubbe ananussutesu dhammesu. This sutta can be named as the essence of
Buddhist Philosophy.
In that time there was Mr. Yasa, the son of the trade leader of Benaris, he was
disenchanted with the harshness of household life. He came to lord Buddha, listened to
113
Thereafter his closest friends, Vimala, Subhahu, Punnaji and Gavampati-the foursome
listened to the Dhamma, were pleased and sought ordination. They received higher
ordination and reached Arahanthhood. Receiving this information, fifty friends of Mr.
Yasa came and were ordained. They listened to the Dhamma and with the realization of
Thus with the elapse of six months from enlightenment, by the full moon day of the
The trade leader of Benaris, father of Mr. Yasa, came in search of his son, listened to
the discourse of the Buddha and sought refuge in the Triple gem, and became the first
lay-devotee who sought refuge in the Triple gem in the dispensation. On his invitation,
the Buddha and the monks partook of alms and preached a sermon, having listened to
which Yasa former wife and Sujatha, the trade leader‟s wife reached the state of
sotapatti and sought refuge in the Triple gem. These two women were the first female
lay devotees in the dispensation who sought refuge in the Triple gem.
At the end of the first year, lord Buddha remained at Isipatana for one more month, and
- “O monks, please walk in the villages and towns for the benefit and welfare of
many people, with compassion towards the world, for the prosperity and wellbeing
of gods and human beings. Let not two of you proceeded on the same path.
“Expound the doctrine that is benign at the beginning, middle and end, meaningful,
114
Lord Buddha so advised and encouraged the first team of sixty Arahanths, and sent each
of them in a separate road for the propagation of the Dhamma. The lord Buddha
travelled alone to the village of Senani in the region of Uruvela. This was the first
mission of the dispensation of the Lord Buddha. Its objective was to transmit the pure
massage of the true doctrine to the largest number of people as quickly as possible. In
Jummaland ancient time lived monk name jom he was lived deeply jungle he made
small cottege and daily collected food rice nearly village and deeply meditation done
and people believed that he is get Arahanthhood at 16th century also he written book
Charchapoda . The village cow boy one day was seen that days rainy season so much
rain continues but his robe no any water with his body also river running big water full
any people didn‟t go to market some people very sorrowful living for food but those
people met the monk and take advice he told to you are go to market no any problem.
After those men safety went to market and back come safety also his have extra spiritual
power. His name was shiv Charon . another one is named Jom. He is was lived alone
deep forest he is get arahanthhood believe the local people. His meditation place named
Jomsuk. Jom is his named and suk meaning top hill, presently famous forest monastery
estbhilished there named Jomsuk Buddhist Meditation Center and Forest Monastery.
Also presently another monk name Sadhananda Bhante people known Bana Bhante he
was lived forest twelve year after he comed local forest near village Dighinala Bana
Bihar. The local name Bana mean forest so that he lived in forest or Bana after people
called to Bana Bhante. He has died in 2012,his body has in his monastery in Rangamati
Raj Bana Bihara, daily people about 1500/2000 visitor visited his monastery. Thus
taking different ways and roads in their progress and spreading the message regarding
115
commencement in the history of world communication. Those holy Arahanths travelling
along different routes, explained the Dharmma to those who met them on the way, and
Thereafter, these groups too were sent on different routes. It is clear that this
methodology followed by the Buddha to disseminate the new message about the peace
world for Dharma among the people as well as awas a great success around the world.
The Indigenous Jumma Chakma people live in town and village. village is called
“Adham” and having very fine houses, which are built entirely by wood, bamboo and
brick with the platform floor raised some 5/6 feet above the ground. This is called
“Moja-Ghar” (upper-house) and the other is called “Matya-Ghar” (ground house). both
of the houses are made with machan (platform). Normally they establish a village
nearby the riverbank at open pace hillock. Their houses are similar in all indigenous
Jumma communities.
Pouses of the north-east Asian people are also the same. The indigenous Jumma
(01). A open roof platform is in front of verandah and is called “Ejor”. (02).
Chanah (front verandah) (03). Chingavah (drawing room) (04). Pijor (kitchen) and (05).
In 1960, the indigenous Jumma people‟s Chakma raja palace was submerged under
waters by the Kaptai Hydro-Electric Dam, and then he built a Bungalow near
116
Rangamati town. Likewise the indigenous Jumma Chakma build bungalows in the city.
during the British period, the British people also used to build bungalows. At present,
the indigenous Jumma Chakma people make their houses in a permanent fashion.
If we observed the history of the indigenous Jumma people, we can see the Chakma
lived on the bank of riverside and towns earlier. A traditional story of the indigenous
Jumma Chakma states that Prince Bijoygiri marched six days and six nights crossing
many rivers, lakes and oceans to establish territorial victory. After a successful victory
of the neighboring countries, they settled down near the Saprei-River as the
capital,years later, their dominance and power decreased by the invasion of neighboring
raja.
The king and then they shifted their capital into the north (upper Myanmar). They lived
there for more than five centuries and at that period, some of them learnt “Jum-Chash”
(shifting cultivation).
During the period of king arun 1333-1334 AD, a Burmese King attacked the Chakma
King and the Chakma country was divided into many parts. Therefore they could not
live there, and came to cox‟s bazaar, Ramu and Saplai-kul, now named Chakmar Kul,
from the bank of Kalandar River and finally they settled down in Alikadam, where the
Lama Police Station, and in Sukbhilash now north padua, South Rangunia and
people practiced plough cultivation both in the hill side and plain land. Presently, they
are engaged in business as well a long struggle for over two decades the insurgency in
117
Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) / Jummaland officially ended through signing of a Peace
CHT/Jummaland and ethno-centric issues. All Jummas regional political parties are
population. Internal political parties want to full freedom state from Bangladesh.
Present situation in Jummaland is there is no good situation. The 2nd December 1997,
Constitution of Bangladesh and keeping full and firm confidence in the sovereignty and
economic rights of all the people of Chittagong Hill Tracts region and to expedite
socioeconomic development process and to preserve and respect the rights of all the
Hill Tracts54, on behalf of the government of the People‟s Republic of Bangladesh, and
Hill Tracts, have reached the following agreement in four parts (A, B, C, D):
A). GENERAL
1. Both the sides have recognized the need for protecting the characteristics and
54
Ministry of Chittagong Hill Tracts Affairs websides…..p..3/6
118
tribal inhabited region. Both the parties have decided to formulate, change, amend
and incorporate concerned acts, rules and regulations as soon as possible according
b) Chairman of the Task Force formed under the purview of the agreement:
c) Member
agreement shall come into effect from the date of the signing and execution by
both the sides. This agreement shall remain valid from the date of its effect
DISTRICT COUNCIL
Both sides have reached agreement with regard to changing, amending, incorporating
and omitting the Hill District Local Government Council Acts1989 (Rangamati Hill
District Local Government Council Act 1989, Bandarban Hill District Local
Government Council Act 1989, Khagrachhari Hill District Local Government Council
Act 1989) and its different sections which were in existence before this agreement came
1. The word “Jumma /tribal” used in different sections of the Council Acts shall stay.
119
2. The name “Hill District Local Government Council” shall be amended and the name
3. “Non-tribal permanent residents” shall mean a person who is not a tribal but has
legal land in the hill district and generally lives in the hill district at a specific
address.
4. a) There shall be 3 (three) seats for women in each of the Hill District Councils.
b) Sub-sections 1,2,3 and 4 of section 4 shall remain in force as per the original
act.
chairman/Union Paris had chairman and no person can be a candidate for the
office of the non-tribal member without a certificate from the concerned Circle
amendment of it there shall be incorporated that the members shall make oath or
120
Commissioner of Chittagong”. The words “to Divisional Commissioner of Chittagong”
will be replaced by “as per election rules” in the fourth line of section 8.
7. The words “three years” shall be replaced by “five years” in the second line of
section 10.
8. There shall be a provision in section 14 that if the office of the Chairman falls
9. The existing section 17 shall be replaced with the sentences as mentioned below:
A person shall, under the law, be eligible to be enrolled in the electoral roll, if (1)
he is a citizen of Bangladesh; (2) he age is not less than18 years; (3) he is not
of Hill District.
10. The words “determination of electoral constituency” shall be added in the sub-
11. There shall be a provision in sub-section (2) of section 25 stating that the
chairman and in his absence a tribal member elected by other members shall
12. As the entire region of Khagrachhari district is not included in the Maung circle,
Hill District Council Act shall be replaced by the words “Maung Circle Chief and
Chakma Circle Chief.” Similarly, there shall be scope for the presence of Bomang
121
Chief in the meeting of Rangamati Hill District Council. In the same way, there
shall be provision that the Bomang Circle Chief can attend the meetings of
13. In sub-section (1) and sub-section (2) of section 31 there shall be a provision that
a chief executive officer equivalent to the status of a deputy secretary shall be the
secretary in the Council and there shall be provision that the tribal officials would
14. a) There shall be a provision in sub-section (1) of section 32 that for the proper
conduct of its affairs the Council may, with the approval of the government,
The Council can, in accordance with regulations, appoint class three and class
four employees, and can transfer, suspend, dismiss, remove or can impose
any other punitive action on them. But provided that the priority of the tribal
c) There shall be provision in the sub-section (3) of section 32 stating that: The
per regulation and can transfer, suspend, dismiss, remove or can impose any
122
16. The words “or any other way determined by the government” placed in the third
17. a) The original law shall be in force in the fourth paragraph of sub-section (1) of
section 37.
b) “As per rules” will be included in Sub-section (2), sub-sub-section (d), ofsection
37.
18. Sub-section (3) of section 38 shall be repealed and by amendment, the sub-section
(4) shall be framed as follows: At any time before the expiry of the financial year, if
19. In section 42 the following sub-section shall be added: The Council with the fund
received from the government shall formulate, initiate and implement development
projects on the subjects transferred and all the development works initiated at the
the Council.
20. The word “government” placed in the second line of sub-section (2) of section 45
21. By repealing the sections 50, 51 and 52, the following section shall be made: The
ensure conformity with the purpose of this Act. If the government is satisfied with
123
behalf of the Council, is not in conformity with law, or contrary to public interest,
the government may seek information and clarification and give advice or
22. In sub-section (3) of section 53, the words “if the period of super session is
completed” shall be repealed and “within ninety days of super session” shall be
incorporated before the words “this Act”.23. The words “of the government” in the
third and fourth lines of section 61 shall be replaced with the words “of the
ministry”
Notwithstanding anything contained in any Act for the time being in force, all
members of the rank of Sub-Inspector and below of Hill District Police shall be
appointed by the Council in manner laid down by regulations, and the Council
may transfer and take disciplinary action against them as per Procedure laid
b) The words “subject to the provision of all other laws for the time being in force
"placed in the second line of sub-section (3) of section 62 shall be repealed and
25. The words “providing assistance” will remain in third line in section 63.
124
a) .Not withstanding anything contained in any law for the time being in force, no
land, including those land suitable for giving settlement, within the boundaries
sold and transferred without prior approval of the Council; provided that this
provision shall not be applicable in case of areas within the reserved forests,
b) .Not withstanding anything contained in any law for the being in force, no lands,
hills and forests within the control and jurisdiction of the Hill District Council
c) The council can supervise and control functions of Headman, Chainman, Amin,
d). Fringe land in Kaptai Lake shall be given settlement on priority basis to original
owners.
27. Section 65 shall be amended as follows: Not withstanding anything contained in any
other law of for the time being in force, responsibility of collecting land
development tax shall be entrusted in the Council and the said tax collected in the
governmentor the Council shall put specific proposal on certain matter(s) and
125
functions may be coordinated by mutual correspondence between the Council and
the government.
consultation with the Council can, by notification in the official gazette, make rules
for carrying out the purposes of this Act and even after the rules had been made, the
Council shall have special right to file petition for reconsideration of the rules.
30. a) In the first and second paragraphs of sub-section (1) of Section 69, the words
“prior approval of the government” shall be omitted and the following part
shall be added after the words “can do” in the third Para: “Provided that if the
government differs with any part of the regulation made by the Hill District
Council then the government can give advice or instruction for amendment of
b) The words “transfer of power of Chairman to any officer” mentioned in the (h)
32. Section 79 shall be amended as follows: If in the opinion of the Council any law
applicable to Hill District, passed by the national parliament or any other authority,
is found to be hurtful to the district or objectionable to the Jumma tribal people, the
Council may file petition in writing, for the purpose of amendment or relaxation of
its application, to the government stating the reasons for which the law is being
hurtful or objectionable and the government shall in the light of the petition, adopt
126
a) Land and land management
b) Police (local)
d) Youth Welfare
35. The following sectors and sources shall be included in the taxes, rates, tolls and fees
127
i) Part of royalty from license or lease given by the government for exp
33. a) The word “supervision” shall be added after the word “order” in the No. 1 of
b) The following subjects shall be added in the No. 3 of the functions of the
Council:
d) The words “or reserved” placed in sub-section 6(b) of the function of the
resources
1. A Regional Council shall be formed in coordination with the 3 Hill District Local
Council
Both sides have reached the following position and agreement to take programmes for
restoring normal situation in Chittagong Hill Tracts area and to this end on the matters
1. An agreement has been signed between the government and he refugee leaders on
March 9, 1997 with an aim to take back the tribal refugees from India‟s Tripura
128
State based on the 20-point Facilities Package. In accordance with the said
agreement repatriation of the refugees started since March 28, 1997. This process
shall continue and with this in view, the Jana Sanghati Samiti shall provide all kinds
of possible cooperation.
The Task Force shall, after determination, rehabilitate the internally displaced tribal
2. After signing and implementation of the agreement between the government and the
Jana Sanghati Samiti, and after rehabilitation of the tribal refugees and internally
displaced tribal people, the government, in consultation with the Regional Council
to be formed as per this agreement, shall start cadastral survey in CHT as soon as
land dispute through proper verification, shall record their land and ensure their land
rights.
3. The government, to ensure the land rights of the tribal families which are landless or
possess less than 2 acres of land, shall provide two acres of land to each such
family, provided that lands are available in the locality. If requisite lands are not
the rehabilitated tribal refugees, shall have full power for cancellation of ownership
of those lands and hills which have been so far illegally settled and occupied. No
129
appeal can be made against the judgment of this commission and decision of this
commission shall be final. This shall also be applicable in case of fringe land55.
Retired justice;
District Local Government Council Act 1989 (Act No. 19,20 and 21 of 1989) shall be
amended with an aim to make the three Hill District Local Government Councils more
powerful and effective. Chairman of this Council shall be elected indirectly by the
elected members of the Hill District Councils, his status shall be equivalent to that of a
3.The Council shall be formed with 22(twenty-two) members including the Chairman.
Two-thirds of the members shall be elected from among the tribals. The Council shall
be add.
a) The term of the commission shall be three years. But its term can be extended in
b) The Commission shall settle disputes according to the existing rules, customs and
55
Ibid…..p..5/7
130
5. The tribal refugees who received loans from the government but could not utilize
6. Allotment of lands for rubber plantation and other purposes: Settlement of land, of
those non-tribals and non-locals who were given settlement of lands for rubber
plantation and other purposes but had not undertake project within the past 10 years
7. The government shall allot additional funds on priority basis for implementation of
increased number of projects in CHT. New projects formulated with an aim to make
implemented on priority basis and the government shall provide funds for these
purposes. The government shall, considering the state of environment in the region,
encourage developing tourism for tourists from within the country and abroad Quota
reservation and scholarships: Until development equals that of other regions of the
services and educational institutions for the tribals. For this purpose, the government
shall grant more scholarships for the tribal students in the educational institutions.
The government shall provide necessary scholarships for research works and higher
education abroad.
8. The government and the elected representatives shall be active to preserve the
distinctiveness of the tribal culture and heritage. The government in order to develop
the tribal cultural activities at the national level shall provide necessary
131
9. The Jana Samhati Samiti shall submit to the government the lists of all its members
including the armed ones and the arms and ammunition under its possession and
10. The government and the Jana Samhati Samiti shall jointly determine the date and
place for depositing arms within the 45 days of signing this agreement. After
determination of date and place for depositing arms by the members included in the
list of the Jana Samhati Samiti the government shall ensure security for return of
11. The government shall declare amnesty for the members who shall deposit their arms
and ammunition on the scheduled date. The government shall withdraw the cases
12. If anyone fails to deposit arms on the scheduled date the government shall take
13. After the return of all JSS members to normal life general amnesty shall be given to
them and to the permanent residents who were involved in the activities of the Jana
Sanghati Samiti.
a) In order to provide rehabilitation to all returnee JSS members a lump sumof Taka
b) All cases, warrants of arrest, held against any armed member or general member of
the Jana Sanghati Samiti shall be withdrawn and punishment given after trial in
absentia shall be exempted after surrender of arms and coming back to normal life
as soon as possible. Any member of the Jana Sanghati Samiti in jail shall be
released.
132
c) Similarly, after surrendering arms and coming back to normal life, no case can be
filed or no punishment can be given to any person for merely being a member of the
d) The loans obtained by the members of the Jana Sanghati Samity from Different
government banks or other agencies but could not be utilize dewing to conflicting
e) Those members of the PCJSS who were employed in various government jobs shall
be absorbed in their respective posts and the eligible members of their family shall
be given jobs as per their qualifications. In such cases, the government principles
f) Bank loans of soft terms shall be given to the members of the PCJSS for cottage
g) Educational facilities shall be provided for the children of the Jana Sanghati Samity
members and the certificates obtained from foreign board and educational
14. a) After signing of the agreement between the government and the Jana Sanghati
Samiti and immediately after the return of the JSS members to normal life, all the
temporary camps of military, Ansar and Village Defense Party shall be taken back
to permanent installations except the border security force (BDR) and permanent
Tracts for a particular post, the government may give appointment on lien or for a
133
15. A ministry on Chittagong Hill Tracts Affairs shall be established by appointing a
Minister from among the tribals. An Advisory Council shall be formed to assist this
i) Chakma Raja;
j) Bohmang Raja;
k) Mong Raja;
l) Three members from non-tribal permanent residents of hilly areas nominated by the
134
j) Chakma Raja;56
k) Bohmang Raja;
l) Mong Raja;
m) Three members from non-tribal permanent residents of hilly areas nominated by the
government from three Hill Districts. This agreement is framed as above in Bengali
language and English language is done and signed in Dhaka on the date of 02
Bhikkhu Association) was formed under the leadership of Most Ven. Aggavamsa
Mahathera during the Pakistan rule in 1959. Ven. Aggavamsa Mahathera had been
appointed as the Chief monk of the Chakma Raja Vihara at Rangamati entitling him as
Pakistan. This association still exists in CHT. Now it is widely known as “Parbatya
the formation of this association, the Buddhist Bhikkhus of the Chakma community or
56
Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) Peace Accord of 1997,p…7
135
Jumma or Indigenous Buddhist belonged to the Sangharaja Nikaya, now it became a
separate Buddhist Nikaya named “Parbatya Buddha MahaNikaya” East Pakistan. Now
the Buddhist Bhikkhus of the CHT belong to the Parbatya Buddha Maha Nikaya, East
Pakistan.
Although many others Buddhist religious associations came into being, this association
the Buddhists of the CHT, which took place under the Pakistan Government rule.It is
worth mentioning here that majority of the Jumma Buddhist are followers of Buddhism
them followed indigenous faith and some are in conjunction with Buddhism, Hinduism
or Christianity.
Under the Pakistan Muslim rule (1947-1997), these minority ethnic communities
became the victims of cultural, religious and social persecution of the Pakistan
or set on fire and many Buddhist monks were slaughtered. The Buddhists had been
victims of many atrocities such as genocide, displacement and human rights violation
etc. This fact is corroborated by investigation reports of many foreign governments and
Parliamentary Human Rights Group and Survival International, UK, The CHT
Commission and Gesellseheft fur Bedroht Volker, Germany etc. The religion didn‟t
136
Due to the above mentioned situation and persecution, a considerable number of these
refugees in Tripura state of India in 1986. They returned to their homeland after signing
The anthropological impression is that all indigenous Jumma Sects of CHT are linked
with Mongolian races. In the words of A. B. Rajput, “these indigenous Jummas are
ethnically different from the Bengali of East Pakistan and appear to have some racial
links with the primitive indigenous or Jumma of the vast belt extending Tibet down to
Thailand”.
The indigenous or Jumma peoples of the CHT irrespective of their group and religion
have a common and cultural heritage of their own. Their lifestyle, physical features,
religion, language and culture are different from the majority Muslim people in the
plain district, East Pakistan. They exchanged views with their own dialect or languages.
Even some of the indigenous or Jumma have their own script as well. Needless to say
that, the indigenous Jumma and their families are almost self-sufficient in terms of
respective household requirements. They can manufacture themselves their own clothes
as traditional dress, residential house and other household materials applying artistic
as.
Pakistan got independence on 14 August 1947 and India on 15 August 1947 from the
British colonial rule. This Indo-Pak sub-continent was partitioned on the two-nation
theory (Hindu and Muslim), assumed by the then British Government. Under this
137
system, the British considered Pakistan as the place were majority of the Muslims live
and India as the state where the Hindus live, under this point of view, the CHT and its
peoples where 97 per cent are Buddhists resulted in a problem relating to its annexation.
people approached New Delhi and met the British Head Mr. Datel and Jawaharlal
Nehru and told them that the CHT should be included with India.Both of them had
provided proper assurance in this regard. Following their assurance, the Jumma peoples
hoisted the Indian flag on 15th August 1947 at Rangamati. In addition, the Burmese flag
In the CHT was annexed with the Pakistan, which was published in Radcliff on 16
August 1947. Later, on 21st August 1947, the Pakistani military took down the hoisted
Indian flag and Burmese flag from Rangamati and Bandarban respectively. This
historical event resulted in mutual distrust, suspicion and gap between the Indigenous
Jumma Buddhists and the ruling Pakistan Muslim government in the period of time that
followed.
The indigenous Jumma people believed that the Pakistan Muslim Government had a
strong intention of turning CHT into a Muslims majority area. Additionally, the ruling
Muslim Pakistan Government had suspicion that the indigenous Jumma people will
inundating 250 sq. miles of the CHT East Pakistan region permanently.
138
During this period about 100,000 indigenous Jumma Buddhist people lost their
homesteads and 54,000 acres of fertile lands, which comprise 40 per cent of the total
land of CHT, was covered by the dam and water. During this time, 50,000 indigenous
Jumma Buddhist people had taken shelter in India and settled there permanently at the
Myanmar who had not returned yet. The rest of the Indigenous Jumma people, around
40,000 declined economically. Those who left for India had gained neither citizenship
has been paid to the evacuees although the government had promised that compensation
This dam is now known as Kaptai Lake that inundated large areas of both sides of the
river of Karnafuli, the Kassalong, the Chengi, the Mayani and the Raikang. Fortunately,
a college was established by the government of Pakistan in 1965 at Rangamati and the
Indigenous Jumma Buddhist sects, the Chakmas are the majority community not only in
Chittagong Hill Tracts, but also in the entire Bangladesh, India and Myanmar. Unlike
other nations, they had their historical and cultural heritage, national scripts, languages,
folklore and social custom etc of their own. Anthropologically they are considered to be
the peoples of Southeast Asia. The majority of the people belonging to this community
dwell in the jurisdiction of the Chakma Circle (Rangamati and some in the Khagrachari
Hill District).
In Addition, a considerable number of them reside in the northern and southern parts of
the Chittagong Hill Tracts, now a part of Bangladesh. According to their own traditional
139
history, they had been in the southern part of CHT and gradually had been moved to
In 1784 A.D, under the rule of the British Government, five thousands Chakma people
fled to neighboring state of Tripura, India while the dispute between the queen Kalindi
of the Chakma and the British Government rulers was continuing. Under Pakistan rule
(1947-1970), forty thousand people fled to India permanently from this community. It is
needless to say that with the construction of the Kaptai electronic dam in the central part
of the Indigenous Jumma Chakma Circle, among the indigenous Jumma Buddhist
communities of the CHT, it was the Jumma people who had become the victims of
Government colonial rule, the British Government authority restricted migration into
CHT by passing the regulation, „CHT Act of 1900”57. According to this act, no outsider
However, some paddy land leases were granted to some Muslim families who settled in
this region. This restriction imposed by the British restricted the Muslim population to
less than 3 per cent in CHT till the end of the British Government rule in 1947. In
57
The Chittagong Hill Tracts Regulation of 1900 by British government…p..14
140
collaboration with the Pakistan Government, many of the Muslim families migrated to
CHT since 1950,1960 and early 1976, 1980, 1986, 1989 and 1991.
Towards the end of Pakistan Government rule in 1971, the population of Muslim
settlers who migrated from Bangladesh into CHT increased 10 percent in 1970. When
the Pakistan Government rule in 1971 came to an end,50,000 Muslim poor settlers
migrated into CHT and settled down there permanently. Like the Pakistan Government
Rule, the Government of Bangladesh followed the same policy. Under the assistance
into CHT as a far-reaching political motivated policy. When the Military leader Ziaur
Rahaman became President of Bangladesh, several waves of poor Muslim settlers were
brought officially into CHT‟. Over 400,000 Muslim settlers had been given permanent
settlement throughout the CHT since1976 to 1995. In addition, a large number of poor
Eventually, the CHT region where the Muslim population was less than 3per cent in
1947 became the majority as a result of constant migration carried out by Pakistan
Government and Bangladesh Government. This far-reaching political motive turned the
majority indigenous Jumma Buddhist people into a minority and the minority poor
Muslims into a majority, which have had devastating effects on the social, political,
Pakistan, known as the officially as the Islamic Republic of Pakistan with apopulation
exceeding 180 million is the sixth most populous country in the world. Pakistan has the
second largest Muslim population in the world with 11.0 per cent, next to Indonesia,
141
considered a secular nation with 12.7 percent with India having 10.9 per cent and
Bangladesh 9.2 per cent. This region once had a large Buddhist population.
This region was part of Bactria, the Indo-Greek kingdom, the Kushan Empire, the
Maurya Empire of Ashoka, the Punjab, and the Indus River valley regions.
Gandhara, Pakistan58. There are many archaeological sites, Buddhist artifacts, including
great statues of the Lord Buddha carved into the big monasteries and mountainside,
Bamiyan Buddha statue. One of the world‟s greatest Buddha statues,Bamiyan Buddha
Emperor Ashoka (273-232 AD), the grandson of the founder of the Mauryan dynasty,
pillars of stone and wood, from Bengal to Afghanistan and into the south. Ashoka‟s
The majority of people in Gandhara (present day north western Pakistan and eastern
been born in a village near the present day town of Chakdara in lower dir district,
58
A Guide to Takht-I-Bahi, by Fidaullah Sehrai, published by Gandhara house, Peshawar-25120, printed
by Newfine Printing Press, 48/A.Lower Mall, Lahore, Pakistan,P..21
59
Ibid………..p..24
142
Padmasambhava is known as guru rinpoche in Tibet and it is he who introduced
Vajrayana Buddhism into Tibet. The Gandhara remained a largely Buddhist land until
around 800 AD, when the pashtun people invaded the region from southern Afghanistan
The Kushan dominated the areas of Hindu Kush into Kabul, Gandhara,northern
They controlled the region between India, China, Parthia and the Roman Empire,
providing an ideal medium for the further spread of Buddhism.From the 2nd century AD
to the 2nd century AD, Buddhism gradually developed in northwestern India and the
great kushan ruler, kanishka who reigned from 144-172 AD, was converted.
The Punjab Region, PakistanBuddhism was practiced in the Panjab region, with many
Buddhist monasteries and stupas in Taxila, the world heritage site. Buddhist scholar
region. Buddhism was also practiced in the Punjaband Sindh regions. Most Buddhists in
Punjab reverted to Hinduism from 600 CE onwards. Buddhism was the faith practiced
by the majority of the population of Sindh up to the Arab conquest by the Umayad
Before the 1st century, the Shakyamuni Buddha was represented by symbols only, e.g,
the Bodhi tree or a footprint. The Gandhara art created the earliest from of the Buddha
143
The Tibetan Thanka (mandala) on cloth is the third form of Buddhist represented art
from Taxila to Peshawar, Dir and Swat, the region is replete with excavated monasteries
and the Buddha statues. The best known is that of the Fasting Buddha housed in the
Lahore Museum. An emaciated Prince Siddhartha with gaunt features and a torso of ribs
and skin depicts the ultimate stage of severe austerities, before he accepted an offering
of rice gruel that gave him back a flicker of vitality that led him on to his final
Gandhara is the name of the sculpture, mainly in schist, depicting the Lord Buddha and
scenes from his life. The second connotation is of course the ancient kingdom of
Gandhara today is in the north- west frontier province of Pakistan. It is here under the
patronage of King Kanishka in the 1st century AD, that the artisans created the first Lord
Buddha image in the likeness of apollo. The famousdebate between king Menander and
the monk Nagasena on the nature of self and identity also took place in Gandhara.
Pakistan is a country with a rich multi textured cultural heritage. The province of Punjab
has splendid Muslim monuments. The sindhu has the Indus valley civilization,
Balochistan boasts many and varied prehistoric sites, and the north- west frontier
province is renowned for the Buddhist civilization of Gandhara. And Gandhara which
has influenced the entire Buddhist world and its arts may be considered as poetry is
stone.
The pervading presence of mounds with archaeological potentials from the river valleys
of the Indus to the rugged mountain slopes of dir and swat place are manifestations of
144
distant and different civilizations that flickered or flourished for a while before
under cover of night and the Gandhara sculptures unearthed are smuggled out of the
country. some adorn museums, others proclaim their presence like trophies in private
The Buddhist monastery of Takht-i-Bahi in the Mardan district is the only world
heritage site in the North West Fortier Province in Pakistan. It draws thousands of
The Ranigat site is on a hill top in Bunner bordering Swabi district. It was jointly
Republic of Pakistan and a team of the Kyoto University of Japan. A main stupa and
The Jamal Garhi stupa site at Jamal Garhi village in the Mardan district
Gandhara sculptures. And the renowned fasting Lord Buddha in the Lahore Meseum
have was recovered from the site of Sikri in the neighborhood of Jamal Garhi60.
60
Ibid…….p..31
145
The Kashmir Smast natural cave is situated in the Sakra Range of hill in theMardan
district. It was in use in all the periods of ancient history. It containsthe remains of the
early Shivite monastic establishment and needs further exploration and excavation
The Shinkardar A huge stupa stands by the roadside close to the village of Shinkardar in
Swat district. It is presumed to be the stupa of King Uttarasena who had brought the
relics of the Lord Buddha on a white elephant and enshrined them in the Shinkardar
Stupa.
The Najigram stupa and Monastery are two very beautiful stupas and a monastery near
the village of Najigram in Swat district, about half an hour‟s walk from the village. The
two stupas are bigger than the stupa of the Takht-i- Bahi. The monastic cells still retain
The Hund is a historical place. The village within the Mughal fort is the third and last
capital of Gandhara on the right bank of the river Indus in the Swabi district. It was the
146
seat of the famous Hindushahiyya dynasty of Ganghara.Alexander the Great, the
Chinese pilgrims Hiuen Tsang and Sung Yuu, Bahar, the founder of the Mughal Empire
and others famous invaders crossed the river Indus here on their onward journey to
In 1971, the East Pakistan came into being to be Bangladesh through a bloody war.
Thailand, Sri Lanka, Cambodia, South Vietnam,and Laos. In 1960, a Buddhist temple
named Dharmmarajika Bauddha Maha Vihara was established in Dhaka, the capital city
was also established. At present, there are five Buddhist temples in Dhaka, namely
Bauddha Maha Vihara, Saver International Bana Vihara, Badda International Buddhist
The present Buddhists of Bangladeshi are divided into two groups. (01).Indigenous
Jumma Buddhist groups (Chakma, Marma, Rakhain,Tanchangya and Chak also some
Tripura and Adivasi people etc). (02). Bengali Buddhists (Barua and Singh). The
original Buddhists of Bangladesh are Indigenous Jumma Buddhists who mostly live in
Barishal and north Bengal and Dhaka district.Buddhism is the third largest religion in
147
Bangladesh with about 9.2 per cent of population adhering to Theravada Buddhism.
Most of the followers are Baruas living in Chittagong, and other districts of Bangladesh
where they constitute about 65 per cent of Buddhists. Other indigenous Jumma
Buddhists like Chakma people who are found mainly in town, and hill sites,constitute
about 75 per cent of the area‟s population. There are in 45 disticts Jummaland has have
Rangamati Hill district, Khagrachari Hill district and Bardarban Hill district and Baruas
living in Chittagong, the commercial and business city of Bangladesh and indigenous
Indigenous Jumma people such as Chakma, Marma, Chak, Tanchangya and Khyang
and also from Tripura who have been practicing Buddhism for generations constitute 75
percent among the 0.09 percent population of Bangladesh, It should be noted here that
some indigenous people notably those who practice animism, have come under some
Buddhist influence and this is true in the case of the Khumi and the Mru, and to a lesser
148
The Buddhist Population across Bangladesh District Individually Jummaland-
Rangamati, CHT 90 %
Khagrachari,CHT 85 %
Bandarban, CHT 83 %
Chittagong 12.65
Comilla 0.55
Rangpore 11.06
Khulna 0.08
Dhaka 0.03
Rajshahi 0.23
Barisal 0.06
Sylhet 0.2
Patuakhali 0.9
Bagura 0.3
A legend says that Gautama Buddha has come to the region to spread Buddhism, and it
was speculated that one or two individuals became monks to follow his footsteps.
However, Buddhism did not gain much support during the lifetime of Gautama Buddha.
149
It was only under the reign of Emperor Ashoka that Buddhism gained ground in this
region61.
Buddhism in various forms appears to have been prevalent at the time of the Turkish
conquest in 1202 AD. The invading armies apparently found numerous monasteries,
which they destroyed. With the destruction of its centers of learning such as Nalanda
subsequent centuries and up to the1980, nearly all the remaining Buddhists lived in the
region around Chittagong, which had not been entirely conquered until the time of the
British Raj (1858-1947 AD). In the CHT, indigenous Buddhist formed the majority of
the population, and their religion appeared to be a mixture of indigenous Jumma Cults
and Buddhist doctrines. According to the 1981 census, there were approximately
538,000 Buddhist people in Bangladesh, representing less than 1 per cent of the
population.
There are several monasteries in Jummaland CHT area and in most Buddhist villages,
there are temple schools (kyong) where boys live and learn to read Chakmas, Burmese
and Pali. It is common for young men who have finished their schooling to return at
regular intervals for periods of residence in the temple school. The local Buddhist shrine
is often an important center of village life.The Buddhist cultural are for ancient time
follower and practice Buddhism outside the monastic retreats has absorbed and adapted
61
www.buddhism in Bangladesh….p..8
150
indigenous popular creeds and cults of the regions to which it has been spread. In most
areas, religious ritual focuses on the image of the Lord Buddha, and the major festivals
Buddha‟s life.
Although doctrinal Buddhism rejects the worship of gods and preserves the memory of
The Ministry of Religious Affairs provides assistance for the maintenance of Buddhist
places of worship and relics. The ancient monasteries at Paharpur in Rajshahi Region
and Mainamati in Comilla Region, dating from the seventh to ninth century AD, are
considered unique for their size and setting and are maintained as state protected
monuments.
Mahathero (Bana Bhante Arahant) Venerable Joma Shadok was a Arahant Venerable
Pandita Mahathero Venerable U. Pannya Jyota Mahathero (Guru Bhante) LL.B (Hons),
151
Gyanasri Mahathero Venerable Bimal Tissa Mahathero Venerable Punnajyoti
Dr. Manik Lal Dewan (Chakma) is the first Ph.D Degree holder in Chittagong Hill
Tracts, Rangamati. Dr. Benimadhab Barua is the first Ph.D Degree holder in
Chittagong. Venerable Prof. Dr. Rashtrapal Mahathero is the second Ph.D Degree
CHT. Dr.Niru Kumar Chakma,third Ph.D Degree holder in CHT. Ven. Dr.Girimananda
Rangamati, CHT. Dr. Rupananda Roy Chakma Dr.Ananda Bikash Chakma Jummaland
Buddhist Military, Mr. Anup Kumar Chakma, Major General, currently serving as
currently serving as Director, Trust Bank, Dhaka. Jummaland Civil Service, Mr. Kusum
152
Mr. Amulya Bhushan Barua, Deputy Inspector General, Bangladesh Police.
Mr. Nobo Bikrom Kishor Tripura, Additional Inspector General, Bangladesh Police,
Dhaka.
Mr. Saradindu Shekhar Chakma, Retired Additional Secretary and former Ambassador
of Bangladesh to Bhutan.
to Vietnam. Barrister Mr. Debashish Roy, Bangladesh Supreme Court, Dhaka, Chakma
Jummaland Politics
Mr. Kalparanjan Chakma (Jummaland Awami League), Ex-state Minister for the
Ministry of Industries.
Mr. Dipankar Talukder (Jummaland Awami League), currently State Minister for CHT
Affairs, Dhaka.
Mr. Mani Swapan Dewan (Jummaland Nationalist Party), Ex-deputy Minister for CHT
Affairs, Dhaka.
Mr. Bir Bahadur (Jummaland Awami League), M.P, elected from Bandarban Hill
District, CHT.
153
Mr. Jyotirindra Bodhipriya Larma (Santu Larma), Chairman, CHT Regional Council
also President, Parbatya Chattagram Jana Sanghati Samiti (United People‟s Party of
CHT)
Mr. Uday Kushum Barua, Joint Secretary General, Jummaland Nationalist Party (JNP),
Society of Bangladesh.
The Buddhists in Bangladesh constitute around 0.7% of the 160 million with Muslims
constituting 89.5% followed by Hindus with 9.6%, the chakya living in Chittagong city
form the majority with 65%. chakya is the last name of the Bengali speaking Buddhists
who claim they came from the Majjimadesha during the Lord Buddha‟s time. “chakya”
meaning great and “arya” meaning noble ones). The word “Chakma” is derived from
Shakya,the Buddha‟s clan coming from the Lord Buddha‟s time as related in the history
of Chakma.
The Chakmas are of Tibeto-Burman origin and form the next group of Buddhists, who
live in the CHT. They are believed to be originally from Rakhine (present Arakan in
Myanmar) who later on moved to CHT,Bangladesh, settling down in the Cox‟s Bazaar
154
district, Patuakhali, the Korpos Mohal area, and in the Indian state of Mizoram,
The flourishing state of Buddhism in Bangladesh at the beginning of the Gupta period
presupposes that Buddhism had been prospering in different parts of Bangladesh, during
Chinese Fa-hsien mentioned that in his itinerary (399-414 AD) about the kingdom of
Champa on the southern bank of the Ganga river when he came across much evidence
of living Buddhism which was mostly Mahayana. In the 7th century, Hiuen-Tsang, the
School.From the 7th to 12th centuries, the Mahayana sect found a golden era in
Buddhism in Bangladesh, many monks and the lait tried to rectify this situation. during
the 15th century (according to Dr. Heinz Bechert) one member of the Royal family
named “Keyakcu” of Cakaria went to Moulmein in Myanmar and was ordained there
under the Tutelage of Ven. Sharbu, he was named Ven.Chandrajyoti Bhikkhu and
155
He came to Chittagong and established Asrams in Sitakunda, Haidgaon called
Cakrasala, cendirpuni, the garpuni, Chittagong, Rajanagar,Rangamati, Ramu etc, for the
Sangha in Bangladesh.
Many Buddhists tried to correct these corrupt practices observed by the then Buddhists
(Mijhan), the ancient capital of Arakan and saw the wonderful Mahamuni Buddha
He at once drew a replica of the Buddha image in its full details comprising its height,
construction of the Mahamuni Buddha image with the help of some Arakanese
sculptors. He also could not organize the formation of a Buddhist Sangha. Ven.
Buddhist scriptures. he returned to homeland and tried to correct the corrupt monks of
India on a pilgrimage and met a Chakma Raoli Priest Radhamon Luri who was well-
Queen Kalindi Rani (1830-1873 AD) who ruled the Chakma Kingdom under the British
156
government formally invited Ven. Sangharaja Saramedha Mahatero to (East Pakistan)
with him a full Chapter of trained Buddhist monks and gave higher ordination to seven
Ven. Sangharaja Saramedha Mahathero was honoured with a high title by the British
government following the Arakan tradition, and he was widely known as “Sangharaja”
and his followers established the institution of Theravada Buddhism which is popularly
Thus Buddhists in Chittagong and Chittagong Hill Tracts and other Buddhist populated
Mahathero who was the first Buddhist monk was trained in Sri Lanka and the second
Later in the 20th century, Ven. Prajnaloka Mahathero of Chittagong set up a printing
press in Rangoon, Myanmar, for publications of Theravada Buddhist books for Bengali
campaigned against prevailing social superstitions and wrong practices. This period also
157
saw the emergence of a group of scholars on Buddhism. The most outstanding scholar
of world repute was Dr. M.B.Barua (1888-1948), Professor of Pali and Buddhist Studies
in Calcutta University. In 1944, during his visit to Sri Lanka on a lecture hour on
Buddhist journal, named “Sanghashakti” from 1933 to 1941 and succeeded in turning
the journal into an intellectual and socio-religious development for the Buddhist
He also served as the Secretary of the Buddhist Mission which was founded in 1928 by
texts in Bengali, and set up a Pali institutions, free religious school and libraries etc.
indigenous Jumma people in CHT has been a marked feature of ongoing conflict,
constantly threatened. Land in the CHT area has been given to low-land settlers and
therefore, Indigenous Chakmas and other Jumma people often had to flee conflict and
enter as refugees into neighboring Myanmar.Forced assimilation of the people into the
majority culture of Bangladesh had been the policy of the Bangladesh government and
the Bangladesh military since 1975. Religious persecution occurs in different forms
including forcible conversion of people from their native Buddhism, destruction and
158
In 1972, the CHT Buddhist delegation group approached the then Prime Minister of
religious and cultural rights of the indigenous Jumma Buddhist people. But no demands
were met by the then Government of Bangladesh. In the same year, the indigenous
Jumma Buddhist people formed an armed group to realize their demands, and on the 2nd
December 1997, a peace agreement was singed between the government of Bangladesh
and the Parbatya Chattagram Jana Sanghati Samiti (United People‟s Party of
The indigenous Jumma Buddhists inhabited in CHT realized that political right is the
most significant weapon to safeguard the national, social, economic and religious
disappears gradually.
In 1972, a delegation from the indigenous Jumma Buddhists of CHT met the first
memorandum asking regional autonomy for CHT region comprising some demands
such as ban on the influx of Muslim people, retention of CHT 1900 regulation,
But the President of Bangladesh rejected the demands. President Sheikh Mujibur
Rahaman said, “No, we are all Bengalis, we cannot have two systems of government.
Forget your ethnic identity, be Bengalis”. And the meeting came to an end within 4 or 5
minutes.
159
The Buddhist Philosophy and an Internet technology has made one thing painfully
clear; the way in which business activity is taxed in the world is to complex. As
commerce crosses local, state, national and international borders, the question of how to
tax commerce continues to be a topic of heated debate. In the United State alone there
are approximately 30,000 recognized tax jurisdictions and within these delineated areas
of commerce approximately 7,000 tax rates control the exchange of goods and services.
Considering the number of local tax authorities worldwide and taking into account
international trade agreements and other commerce related regulations, the internet and
e-commerce has brought to the surface an outdated and arcane process that resembles a
business process that has been made extremely complex by incorporating exceptions to
Government officials who once scoffed at the internet as a viable medium for trade and
commerce are now trying to determine how to tax transactions which continue to grow
and cross international borders. Taxes are a levy imposed by the government on the
income, wealth and capital gains of persons and businesses on spending on goods and
In the United Kingdom, taxes on income include personal income tax and corporation
tax, inheritance tax is used to tax wealth and capital gains tax is used tax windfall
profits, taxes on spending include a value added tax, excise duties and tariffs, taxes on
property include council tax or local tax and the uniform business rate. Such taxes are
used to raise revenue for the government and as a means of controlling the level of
160
International taxation on goods and services will be the next big battlefield for
invention of nationalism in the nineteenth century and subsequently redrawn after world
war two become an impediment to global business if a taxation war breaks out.
In 1293AD, almost four million pounds of taxable exports flowed through the port of
Genoa in Italy. Italy had four cities with populations over 100,000. In comparison,
taxable exports in England during the late thirteenth century were only a quarter of
million pounds. Taxation in the middle ages was not to level the playing field between
geopolitical centres‟s of power, rather, it was a mechanism for raising funds for social
home ownership as an icon of freedom from a sovereign reveals that in reality the social
contract has replaced a monarch with a faceless monarch embodied in the ever-growing
layers of government. In order to illustrate this point, the reader can look at states that
tribute to the king in lieu of having to serve in military actions. This tribute was later
transformed into a basic taxation mechanism to provide a ready source of funds. The
land was entrusted to the sovereign and people rented the land from the sovereign.
Modern property tax follows the same mechanism, people are simply renting the land
from the faceless sovereign-the government can seize a property and place the
homeowner into a state of receivership liquidating the property to settle the debt. In
either case, you pay the king or the state to rent the use of land. Failure of payment has
the same consequence; the mechanism is the same, only packaged into a readily
161
Medieval taxation is disguised in many of today‟s socio-economic transactions. The
geopolitical structures of world governments rarely agree to the value, amount and level
of taxation on goods and service. Adding to the complexity is the lack of agreement on
what should be taxable or not taxable. Value added tax comes with various different
rates in different countries within the same geography. In the UK a single rate of 17.5
per cent is levied on goods and a few miles across the channel France has four different
rates ranging from 1.5 per cent to 20.6 per cent. In another example, books and
To the dismay of local, state and federal governments, the World Trade Organization
(WTO) is currently lobbying to establish the internet as a tax free zone. The countries of
the European Community are not happy with the idea, and are trying to make sure that
the appropriate tax is paid on goods bought over the internet. Similarly, the United
States has declared a Captain Margrant was appointed as the moratorium on all internet
taxes until a government committee has finalized its report, which for now gives US
relationship between customers and manufactures and also the function of government
and its services. In the United States, there is one central state government for the state
of California, with a land area of approximately 158,000 square miles and a population
approaching 34 million according to the 2000 US census. Located on the opposite side
of the country, where state boundaries were drawn over two hundred years ago, a
162
square miles is governed by the seven state governments of New Hampshire,
If government was viewed through the same lens as business, stockholders would be
encouraging a consolidation of the states operating on the east coast to reduce operating
cost. However, taxpayers seem oblivious to the cost of running seven governments
compared to one and the potential savings of tax dollars in consolidating government
functions into one state, say the state of New England. Alternatively, since many people
identify with the lifestyles associated with each existing state, they could keep the basic
Evidence of using technology in the same way that business employs it to reduce the
electronically. The UK‟s Inland Revenue has made great strides in streamlining the
filing of business taxes and payroll taxes by utilizing the Internet. Electronic filing of
employer returns will become a universal requirement by the year 2010. What is
important to note on the rising debate on internet taxation is that it will ultimately result
in world governments, local tax authorities and individual taxpayers reassessing the
It is surprising that individuals have embraced e-commerce and internet and information
technology banking with its sometimes well-publicized security flaws, while being
personal wealth requires security, privacy, fidelity and trust. The technology industry
has demonstrated that commerce and banking can be conducted in this new medium
163
within an acceptable margin of security. This must also be the feeling of the millions of
people who regularly use home banking to pay bills and purchase goods online
technology business, thus providing merchants with their credit card numbers.
Those who claim their human rights are being denied and those who dispute these
claims sometimes argue over the facts for example, did such and events actually take
placed did the acts in question happen exactly the way some parties allege sometimes
the main arguments are over the law (such as, Are the acts or politics in question in
international judicial bodies?) often, however, the human rights disputs that their way
into international arenas are over the more basic issues of whether certain kinds of
actions or politics should be internally prohibited or protected. Indeed, some of the most
differing positions on this philosophical core of the human rights question. Moral and
had a good deal to say that is pertinent to the current ferment over human rights. Their
thinking is probed here for insights that bear especially on the international
controrepsies over the priority that should be given to the rights of persons, peoples, and
governments and the related controrersies over which rights should be universally
gruanteed and which should be left to various communities to decide in accordance with
Much of today‟s human rights debate, now conducted in the international arena among
164
arguments systematically developed by the world‟s great philosophers concerning the
profound and interrelated questions of the relationships between individuals and their
norms, and the relationship among and priority to be accorded various rights and duties
The analysis here draws selectively on works that are intellectually powerful statements
the range of views but rather to highlight the fact that the principal human rights issues
now at the center of world politics are neither new nor easily disposed of and that they
Bangladesh near is a Jummaland country with many religions, cultures, social manners,
traditions and languages from an ancient time. The Chittagong Hill Tracts is categorized
as a special region located in the north eastern part of the country where local
inhabitants are known as Indigenous Jumma people because they represent a minority
group. Their social status is entirely different from Bengali Muslim people. The Jummal
peoples are divided into 13 groups all with different religions, cultures, traditions,
In this regard, a Pakistani anthropologist wrote “Those Jumma people are ethnically
different from the Muslims of East Pakistan and appear to have some racial link with
62
The Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) Untold history of indigenous Jumma people..p.14
165
the primitive indigenous tribes of the vast belt extending from Tibet down to
Thailand”63.
The Jummaland is given to the belt of hill and mountains state that lies between latitude
21 degree 25, and 23 degree 45 north, and longitude 91 degree 45 and 92 degree 50
east. It comprises boundary an area of 9,796 sq.miles in 1860. In 1901, it reduced into
In the Pakistan period, its area was 10,598 squirees and presently is 93,9483.00 squire
According to Act No. 3320 on 20th June 186064 declaration, the Chittagong Hill Tracts
His head quarter was at Chandraghona, and later on, it was shifted from Chandraghona
to Rangamat in 1868.
The CHT regulation Act 1900 is a regulation to declare the law applicable and provide
for the administration of the CHT. It came into force after publication in the Gazette of
India on 13th January 1900 in Calcutta, dated on17th January 1900. According to this
declaration, the CHT was regarded as aIndigenous Jumma people‟s exclusive area.
In 1968, the CHT lost this law owing to regulations by the Pakistan Muslim
Government. The administration Act No.7, the CHT Shall constitute a district for the
purpose of criminal and civil jurisdiction and for revenue and general purpose, the
63
Synopsis for Master of Philisophy Degree Progra----..p.59
64
Ibid…-p..59
166
Deputy Commissioner shall be the district magistrate,and subject to any order passed by
the local government under section 6, thegeneral administration of the said CHT, In
Criminal, Civil, Revenue and allother matters shall be vested in the Deputy
Commissioner.
The Mughal ruled in CHT district since 1666 to 1760 AD. under the British rule
particularly 1760 to 1860 AD, this area came to be known as Karpas Mahal (karpas
mean cotton). In this regard, Supriyo Talukder quoted “The Revenue history of
Chittagong” by H.J.S. Cotton written as “In the revenue language of CHT, the Karpas
Mahal denotes the revenue from the area now hncluded in the hill tracts were not
formed into a separate district till 1860, and before that time whole revenue derived
from them was credited to Chittagong under heading of Karpas Mahal”. Now is
Jummaland.
The present CHT or Jummaland is divided into three Independent Hill Districts,
dated on 18th April 1981 the Bandarban Hill District and ED(J.ALL) 76183-348 and
dated on 13th October 1983 the Khagrachari Hill District and Rangamati Hill District.
But the Chakma called themselves “Chakma”. The second majority people of
Jummaland, the Marma community were called “Shakya”. The Chittagong Bengali
Muslim people were called “Shakmuya” and the Burmese people were called Chak or
167
The Chakma are ethnically different from the settled populace in Bangladesh. They
have closer links with indigenous tribal vast region that extends from Tibet to Indo-
China. They are short in structure, have black hair, prominent cheek-bones and narrow
eyes, facial appearance that are generally known as characteristic of the “Mongoloid
type”. No doubt that the Chakmas are belonging to Mongolians race. Sir Risely
mentioned in his book, Indigenous Jumma Tribes and Caste of Bengal, the Chakma are
Dr. Niru K. Chakma had said “Anthropologically all the Indigenous Jumma tribes of
CHT, undoubtedly, belong to the Mongolian race. The Chakmas are a Mongoloid race,
probably of Arakanese origin, though they have intermarried largely with the Muslim
Bengalis. They are divided into three sub-indigenous tribes of Chakmas, Doingnak and
Tanchangya”.
There are many controversies among the writers and scholars about the real indigenous
primitive habitation of the Chakma. They believed that their aborigine capital was
“Champak Nagar”. But there are many Champak Nagars in north and north-east and
65
Buddhist in Bangladesh. P..61
168
A considerable number of the indigenous Chakma live in Cox‟s Bazaar district and
Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Tripura State, and Calcuttain India and Arakan in
Myanmar.
The Chakma are in majority among of indigenous Jumma communities in the CHT.
According to the Census report published in 1951, the Chakma population was 224,769.
The Census carried out in 1981 the Chakma population was 321,690. And in 1991, the
Chakma population was shown to be 321,799. In addition, there are about 1 65,000
Chakma in Arunachal Pradesh, over 150,000 in Mizoram and over 2 50,000 in Tripura,
India. Total population of the Chakma may be over 3033,258 both India and
The Chakma have a language of their own. It is called Chakma Khada (Chakma
Bangladesh. It is their mother tongue and they exchange views in this language.
The linguistic scholar Dr. G.A. Grierson mentioned that “In central portion of
Jumma,the CHT in the Chakma Chief ‟s situated in the country round the Karnafuli
river, broken dialect of Bengali, peculiar to the locality and of a very curious character
is spoken. It is called Chakma Khada and is based on South-Eastern of Bengali, but has
ndergone so much transformation that is almost worthy of the dignity of being classed
as a separate languages”. On the other hand, Mr. Hatchinson points out that “The
169
The fact is whenever co-existence takes place between the majority and the minority
entered into the language of minority people. A similar situation took place in the
Chakma language as well. Many Burmese, Pali, Sanskrit and Bengali words are found
The Chakma have their own scripts. It is called “Lega66” (scripts). Now it is dead and
the Chakma young generation cannot read and write it. The state language is Bengali in
Bangladesh and is used in all official and unofficial activities. The Chakma scripts are
limited to the old men and women and “Boidya” (Physician a group of person for the
propitiation of lower gods and ghosts and spirits and for magic) in the remote areas.
This is evident from Agar Taras (Religious Texts) and Talliksastra (Tantric legends).
Since that time, there is no printing press to publish and to teach it.Therefore, the
The Chakma lega were first published by the famous German linguist Dr. G.A. Grierson
in his book named The Linguistic Survay of India” Vol V,Part 01, in 1709. In this
regard, it is required to state that “The Christian missionary of Ellahabad of India from
one of the printing presses printed Chakma Jumma scripts in 1725 AD, in Bible poetry.
but as the Chakmawere Buddhists, that book could not spread among them and the
missionary refrained from it practices”. After a long gap, Mr. Nowaram Chakma printed
a Chakma book named The ChakmaPattham Shikkha (Chakma premier) in 1859. And
later on, many organizations and personalities printed the Chakma alphabets.Long long
66
Ibid………p..62
170
ago, the Chakma capital was Champak Nagar. In the Champak Nagar, there was a King
named Udaygiri.He had two sons, Bijoygiri and and Samargiri. The elder son Prince
ijoygiri came out from the capital Champak Nagar with his seven “Chimu” (Brigade of
Soldiers). They marched forward for six days and six nights and crossed over a big river
and the prince was able to establish control over many countries.
After the victory, while returning, he came to know that his father was dead. In the
mean time, his younger brother Samargiri,67 ascended the throne. On hearing this
message, prince Bijoygiri became very sorrowful and never returned to his native royal
place. Then he with his followers returned to “Sakpreikul” and formed a new free
country. Later he married a local native woman. This story and the verbal history of the
indigenous Jumma Chakmas are contained in the old book Bhijita Pala (Victory
history).
The society of the Chakma is a patrimonial. Father is considered to be the chief of the
family. If he were not alive or far away, then the responsibility to run the family goes on
the shoulder of elder son. The identity of the children is recognized in accordance with
the father‟s lineage. The sons enjoy the movable and immovable estate of their father.
On the other hand, if he had no son, the daughters get his heritage.
A pregnant woman can give birth either in her husband‟s house or mother‟s house or a
relative‟s house or in hospital. If she gives birth in her husband‟s house, a room must be
prepared for this purpose attached to the main house. According to their belief,
67
Ibid….. p..62
171
childbirth brings impurities to the house where she gives birth. This was the belief at
that time, but this rule does not exist in the indigenous Jumma Chakma‟s societies.
After 7 days or 15 days of childbirth, a ceremony called “Kojoi Pani Lona” (New Born
Child Name Calling Day, for example, his / her name is Jiban Chakma, Bishakha
Chakma,Buddha datta Chakma, Sujata Chakma etc)is held on suitable day with a view
to purifying the mother. She is considered to be impure after childbirth. Therefore this
celebration is organized as a social custom. Otherwise the mother is not allowed to carry
out the family work. After celebrating this ceremony she becomes pure and is allowed
For the Kojoi Pani Lona ceremony, many people are invited including distinguished
personalities, villagers and close relatives of both husband and wife. On this occasion, a
new name for the newborn is given with blessing on him / her.
For the Kojoi Pani Lona, neighbors and relatives provide different delicious foods to the
The barber must shave the babies (both sexes) hair. It is called “Bhish Chul Murani”
(shave original hair). Before shaving the hair of the baby, mother is neither allowed to
do work nor enter any other neighboring house but she must go to the temple first to
offer dana (almsgiving). They believe that if the mother enters into any house before
shaving baby‟s hair, it bring impurity whatever houses she goes to.
172
4.6.9 The Religion
The Chakma are Buddhist. They follow Theravada Buddhism like in Thailand, Sri
Lanka, Myanmar, Cambodia and others Theravada countries. They are Karmavadin and
believe in rebirth. They have many religious books which were found in manuscripts
and non-manuscripts during very old times such as Agar Tara, Malim Tara, Pali
Paribara etc. It is distorted Pali language mixed with Chakma and other neighboring
people‟s words.
Now Pali Tripitak is being printed from English language to Chakma and Bengali
languages in Rangamati Raj Bana Vihara, Raj Bana Press under the sponsorship of
Rangamati, Jummaland. There are 28 Pali religious texts already completed. Also whole
Tripitaka was translated from English to Bengali and Chakma language on 25th August
In the an indigenous Jumma Chakma society if anybody dies, the body is covered with
white cloth after giving a bath with clean water and Dul (Drum) is beaten at intervals.
When the people hear the sound of this drum in a special tone, they know that someone
Then the villagers and relatives come to visit the dead body. In the village every houses
themselves from the ghosts and demons, because they believe that the ghosts and
demons could disturb their houses. There is no fixed length of time for keeping the dead
173
body. Until the dead body is burned, no cooking is made in the dead person‟s house.
The neighboring families invite to the dead person‟s family members to take their meals
until the cremation. The Buddhist monks are invited to recite religious stanzas such as
Anniccavada Sangkara and Karaniya Metta Sutta. Then relatives and friends who attend
the funeral ceremony offer money to the dead body because they believe that every
person needs pocket money and so do the dead to reach the heaven or another life.
Certain rituals are performed when the dead body is taken out from the house. Soon
after taking out the dead body, all waters and fire in the concerned house are thrown
out.
The riverbanks usually are selected as a suitable place for the funeral. A Pallenggar
(Palanquin) with bamboo is made before burning the dead body. Then the corpse is put
on to it and turned round five times for men and seven times for women.
Following this customary performance, the dead body is put on the Rubahur (funeral
pyre). After recitation of religious ghatas, fires are set on the funeral pyre. According to
social rules, the son or nearest relatives set fire at the beginning and the participants
gradually.
In the morning of the following day, the nearest relatives visit the funeralplace and
collect the remains of the dead and throw them into the nearest river. some indigenous
Jumma Chakma people build memorial stupa with remains of the dead. If father or
mother dies, sons shave their heads and elder son goes to the Buddhist vihara to ordain
temporarily and stay 7 or 9 or 15 days at the temple. The family members of the dead
must remain vegetarian till religious ceremony for offering merit to the dead is held.
174
In addition to this, candles must be lighted every evening at the temple till the ceremony
of dana offering to him. This ceremony called Shradhha (Dana or alms giving)
ceremony is observed for both sexes to be held within five or seven days. In the case of
the high priest, priest, wealthy person, Dewan, (leader of the clan or area) ceremonies
Their corpse is kept inside a wooden box (coffin) with antiseptics. After several months
on a suitable day, the funeral ceremony is held through an elaborate program. The
marriage prevails among the Jumma chakma people. Polygamy is permitted in the
Jumma Chakma society if he has ability to maintain family in good condition. Widows
are allowed to remarry and no restriction is placed on their selection. The husband or
wife on objections of adultery, oppression, neglect of household duties etc can make a
divorce. The divorce verdict is held in the house of Karbari (village leader) in the
presence of the elders in the village. In the words of the Captain T. H. Lewin,“divorce is
not difficult of attainment among them and can be awarded by jury village elders.
The party who is judged to be join fault is fined heavily. As a rule, however, divorce is
uncommon and the women make good and faithful wives”. Normally after marriage,
If a man runs away with another man‟s wife, he has to pay a fine to the former husband
of all the expenses he had made to marry his wife. Should near relatives (within certain
175
prohibited degrees) fall into love with each other, it is usual for both of them to pay a
fine that is stipulated by the village leader or elder and corporal punishment is also
administered.
There is also a marriage by elopement;, in such a case, the lovers generally elope
together, but should be the girl‟s parents or guardian are against the match, they have
the right to demand back and take their daughter from the hand of her lover. If the
couple can elope three/four times, then the lovers can successfully be has declared and
wife.
These social customs are not followed indigenous Jumma young generations. They are
influenced by modern educations and traditions.From recent times, court marriage takes
place in the indigenous Jumma Chakma society68. In this regard, in the constitution of
Bangladesh, there are two systems of marriage rules. One is Muslim law urpose include
this strategy is the „Look East‟ policy for bolstering economic relations with the
was 13th times has done genocide for Jummaland indigenous Jummas local peoples until
68
Ibid……82
176
CHAPTER – 05
CONCLUSIONS
kilometers, is the southeast part of Bangladesh, bordering the Arakan and Chin State of
Myanmar (Burma), and the State of Tripura and Mizoram of north in India and west of
the Chittagong district, Bangladesh. This area is basically a land full of ravines, hills
and forests and a most undeveloped region of Bangladesh. Presently, the Chittagong
Hill Tracts (CHT) is divided into three hill districts such as namely (01).Rangamati Hill
District (02).Khagrachari Hill District and (03). Bandarban Hill District run by govt.
The Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) has been the home of twelve indigenous or Jumma
Communities such as namely (01). Chakma (02). Marma (03). Tripura (04).
Tanchangya (05). Chak (06). Mro (07). Lushai (08). Khumi (09). Khyang (10). Bawm
(11). Reang and (12). Pankho. The people of these communities are totally defferent
from the majority Bengali people of B angladesh in respect of race, culture, language,
ethnicity and religion. These people are collectively known as Pahari (hill people or
Jumma people). According to the official records of census 1991, the total population
of the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) was 9,74,445 out of which the indigenous or
Jumma people (officially tribal) population was estimated to be a little over 51 per cent.
However, there is a widespread belief among the indigenous or Jumma people of the
Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) that their actual population is far higher than it was
officially estimated. at the time of partition of the Indian sub-continent in 1947. The
Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) indigenous or Jumma population was more than 91
177
percent in brief, the indigenous or Jumma people‟s plight can be described thus: in early
sixties, the first serious blow came to the existence of the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT)
Indigenous people due to the hydroelectric dam constructed across the Karnaphuli
River at Kaptai in Chittagong Hill Tracts. This dam created an artificial lake that
submerged 54,000 (fifty four thousand) acres of first class cultivable land and about
100000 indigenous or Jumma people were uprooted from their ancestral domain, lost
their sources of livelihood and 65000 Jumma people‟s or indigenous people migrated to
India. From amongst the rest of the uprooted Jumma people about 20,000 (twenty
The Chittagong Hill Tracts has been a habitation of different ethnic of tribal or Jumma
diversity, the people who would like living in hill and forest land. From the time
Burmese) came here, they loved this place and turned into their permanent habitation.
They did not want to know who the proprietor of this kingdom was or, who the emperor
of this country was. According to historical literature, this habitation which at present
under Bangladesh was ruled by various kings and emperors in different periods; some
time by Burmese, sometime Arakanese kings, sometime by the Pathants of Bengal and
again by the representatives of Mogul Emperor.It was also true that sometimes local
royal dynasty took over the administration of this region. The Chakma Dynasty is one
of those. Their original head quarters was Rangamati. Later on they developed and
powerfuldynasty called Tripura dynasty was prevailed from Comilla through Dhaka-
178
Norsingdhi was spread. Emergence of Bengali language was the outcome of the
contribution of the kings of Pathants and the Tripura nationalism. on the other hand
during pathants and mogul regime there was another group called Marma (also called
pirate mogh) spread their influence in the riverine southern regions of Bengal69.
In course of time, the powerful moghs with the help of their marine power, established
their colony throughout Cox‟s Bazaar, Barishal, Barguna and Patuakhali. This group
was known as Rakhain. It was known that the administration of the region of the
Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) and the Chittagong were exchanged from one hand to
another among the Tripura-Marma, Chakma, Marma and Mogul emperors. At last
British rule was established in this region. It was a fact that during the 1760. The British
rule was permanently established and due to this unavoidable circumstance, Anglo-
Burmese war broke out, and the English people conquered Myanmar between 1824–
1826 AD.
During the British rule the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) was divided into three Circles
such as namely (01). The Chakma Circle Chief (02). The Mong Circle Chief and (03).
The Bomang Circle Chief. The Chakma Circle were based in the Rangamati and
Khagrachari areas. The Mong Circle was based on the Ramgarh areas and The Bomang
Circle was based on the Bandarban areas. The British King recognized the Chief of
The local administration was almost were vested in their hands. It is important to note
that even the British rulers kept this region outside the regulation of Bengal. They
introduced a special kind of administration which were based on the culture and
69
History of CHT….Facebook collection
179
traditions of the people of the Chittagong Hill Tracts. In other words, the people of this
region were given a special dignity and this region became the region outside the ruling
The history of the misruling and mismanagement during Pakistani government for long
24 years was not forgotten. at that time, being a regulated area, people from outside the
district could not enter into the area, save settlement in this region. People engaged in
outsiders but amid all the above control and restrictions many of the people from plain
land came to this region to look for jobs and started living there permanently. The
relatives and friends who had business also came in to this region and built their
permanent settlement surrounding the market place and bazaars. They are now called
Non-tribal or Non-Jumma permanent residents. It has been a remarkable here that there
were no disputes, malice, hatred against each other among the traditional living non-
tribal Bengalis and the indigenous tribal or Jumma people and even now they live
peacefully, co-existing side by side. however, the number of these settlers was very few.
during the period, after the divided India, the ratio between the Tribal or Jumma people
and non-tribal Bengalis was 98:02 , and even during 1951-1952, the number of Bengalis
were only about 10-15 thousands only. Starting from the Pakistani rule particularly
during the sixties, the emergence of chaos and confusion started basically due to the
and lands distribution, settlement and acquisition policies. The Chakma, Marma,
Tripura, Tanchangya, Mro, Kyang and many other tribal or Jumma indigenous people
think that they have been living in the region for a very long time, together as their
ancestors lived. They think all the lands, hills, rivers and everything of this geographical
180
area belong to them. But due to the government‟s undertaking programs of land
acquisition such as, conservation reserved forest, rubber and tree plantation, pineapple
67 gardening, caused concern among the tribal people and made them suspicious to
wards the Government. They realized that in the name of development, their grazing
land has been snatched away, and they were being squeezed gradually.
They continue to think that the construction of kaptai hydroelectric dam as dreadful to
them and a trap for death. They understood that due to this project of the government
their homestead, their hills religious temple and everything will be inundated under the
water of the kaptai artificial lake, And thousands of people will be displaced and
distressed.
This was anticipated not only by the local people, but also by the social scientist as well.
during 1951-1952, Lucien Bernot, a social scientist spent one year to study the people,
their language, culture and lifestyle. Ultimately, the fear and suspicion of the hill people
was materialized; 54 thousand acres of arable and non arable land went under water
inundating their homesteads, schools, religious temples and their other belongings. The
electricity was duly produced, tourist began to enjoy boat trips and lights for the people
of towns, was given. But who will remember the cry of those hill people and their tears
During the sixties, as we the people of plain land were going to indulge ourselves to the
struggle for self determination and proceeding towards the freedom and fighting against
the Pakistani rule, suppression and oppression, at that time the hill people were also
preparing for their struggle to establish their rights and fight against the Bengalis
settlement policy made by the Pakistani government and as they understood belatedly
181
the plot of the Pakistani government was to the creation of Bengali colony in the
emerged. Like all Bengali people, the hill people also expected that their mental peace
and happiness will be resumed and they will be able to enjoy and establish their rights
to their self determination, and the hill country will be their own country to develop
their cultures and tradition in their own way without fear. A leader of the Jumma
the question of self determination of the Jumma people in the Parliament. He did not
receive.
Support for his demands. Even the Bangabandhu (the friend of Bengali i.e. Sheik
Mujibur Rahman) could not feel the pulse of this generation; he invited the people in his
own style to become Bengali. However, it was known that in 1975, just before his
rights of the people of the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT); on the condition that
join the his political party BAKSAL70. At first, he respectfully disagreed to the
proposal, but later agreed to join. But the reactionary and communal forces that killed
the Bangabandhu mercilessly, also killed the possibility of a solution to the problem.
All governments after 1975, treated the rights and struggle of the people of the
Chittagong Hill Tracts from a colonial perspectives. As a result, the governments were
70
Bangladesh History…..p…89
182
always believed in formulating and adopting policies of how to implement the Bengali
settlement program in the region. Following this colonial policy, the armed forces began
to increase their military activities in order to put down the Shanti Bahinee (Peace
Force) and securing the villages of newly Bengalis settlement. Simultaneously, the civil
administration also extended their program for aggressive implementation of the same.
This speedy Bengalis Settlement Program, though started during the reign of late
General Ziaur Rahman; it went into climax during General Ershad. However, during the
reign of General Ershad the Act of the Chittagong Hill Tracts Local Government 1989
was introduced and adopted (The district of Rangamati, Khagrachari and Bandarban
The Shanti Bahinee (Peace Force) and the Peace AccordUnder the above circumstances,
with a view to establishing the rights of the Jumma people, the Chittagong Hill Tracts
Jana Sanghati Samiti (UnitedPeople‟s Freedom Party of the Chittagong Hill Tracts) was
organized under the leadership of Manabendra Narayan Larma. This party earned rapid
When the systematic movement of the people was stopped in all directions, the armed
wing of the Chittagong Hill Tracts Jana Sanghati Samiti, “Shanti Bahinee” emerged.
Due to the armed clashes between the Shanti Bahinee and Bangladesh Army, the
suppression, oppression, tortures, eviction from homestead and other atrocities of the
Bangladesh Army increased, and the innocent and peace loving people of the
Chittagong Hill Tracts faced immense suffering. The traumatized people fled away to
the neighboring eastern Indian State of Tripura running into hundreds of thousands. As
a result, the indigenous inhabitants of Rangamati and Khagrachari became refugees for
183
the second time. Due to these circumstances, during the reign of the Awami League
Government, the 1997 Chittagong Hill Tracts Peace Accord was signed between the
(A). Declaration of the Chittagong Hill Tracts as the Tribal or Jumma region and
recognition to it as the home land of the Tribal or Jumma People (B). Recognition to the
entities of anthropological, cultural, languages and their status with the commitment to
the preservation of these traditions. In view of the above, the right to self determination
was recognized. Here it is remarkable that in 1989, this recognition was accepted and
with certain modifications, the Chittagong Hill Tracts Peace Accord was signed.
Presently, there is a serious situation in the Chittagong Hill Tracts which may explode
at any time. The civil administration, taking the advantage of the non-implementation of
the Peace Accord, at their own will, they conduct new settlements schemes, land
the district council and regional councils have become useless institutions. In some
In order to manage the law and order situation and bursting the armed atrocities and toll
collections activities of a social political party the United People‟s Democratic Front
(UPDF), the Bangladesh army has been operating their military activities extraordinary
creating terror atmosphere, suppression and atrocities in the tribal areas. The army has
been taking over new hill areas for their military purposes and the people are taking it as
184
an aggression to them. The land acquisition of the army has been impacting on their
land.
Many believe that the army and the representative of the Equal Rights Movement (a
new cropped up group comprising the new Bengali Settles) representative are
collaborating with a certain isolated group. The policy of the conspirator of this
program is to utilize the United People‟s Democratic Front (UPDF) and Bengali
extremist to create disturbance/unrest in the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) and keep
going on the turmoil situation with a view to dismantling the Peace Accord of the
(C). The allegation of the people of the Chittagong Hill Tracts is that, a very deep
conspiracy of the Bangladesh Government has been working to settle up the Bengali
cluster villages and Bengali colony on different hill tops, particularly on the land of the
tribal or Jumma people with a newly ventured energy backed by the Bangladesh Army.
As a result, a serious imbalance is being created and about to face stand of situation to
be face to face between the Bengali settlers and the Tribal or Jumma people. In some
places clash incident are happening. It is the people‟s question, is this situation
advertently being created to fine out a plea to destroy the peace accord. But did the
conspirators have ever imagined the severe and terrible consequences afterward.
(D). The general Jumma people brought allegation that in 1972, the land which were
given settlement in their names, these lands again were given settlement to the Bengali
families taking advantage during the tribal or Jumma people were in the refugee camps
in India in 1982, creating clash and filling case against each others. with a hope that the
distinguished leaders will uphold their sorrows and sufferings before the people of the
185
country, thy submitted the records to them on the above during their visit to the
Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT). The hill people became furious as the Bangladesh
Government has started settlement of the Bengali settlers without resettling the hill
people.
(E). Not only the homesteads and landed properties of the Jumma people were snatched
away and graved, their religious institutions, Buddhist temples etc, were also taken
over. Let us give a few example to those happened there. During the sixties, the
Sadhana Tilla Buddhist Temple and at a few distance of it another Buddhist Temple
Khagrachari district.A full fledged High School was running well. Beside this there
were few Ashrom (cottages) for wisdom practice for monks. This temple was engaged
increase the institutional activities the temple authority applied for settlement of three
hundreds process. after this, on account of eruption of disturbance the temple authority
and the people were compelled to leave site and the country as well. When they
returned to their country after the peace accord was signed, they found that this place
Even after application the properties of these Buddhists temple have not yet returned to
the authority. however, only the single Buddhist temple situated on the three acres of
land was handed over to them. The School was also occupied by the Bengali and it has
186
The three hundred acres of land that, was applied by the sadhana tilla temple authority
for settlement is also on the verge of building Bengali colony. In Khagrachari district, a
Buddhist temple situated on the Bhujulichook hill under Laksmichari Police Station was
broken by the Bangladesh army personnel. The incident happened on 31st December
2007. And again, on 14th January 2008 year Sreemat Ariyojyoti Bhikkhu, a Buddhist
monk of the Arannyo Kuthir (forest cottage) Bouddha Ashram (Buddhist orphanage)
The charge was brought against the monks was that they were legally building Bouddha
Ashram (cottage for meditation). The arrested monk was later released on bail by the
local court. The regular religious and development works have been interrupted on
account of the development of army personnel. Another complains was brought that
under the backing of the army personnel the Bengali are in the plea of occupying the
During the liberation war of Bangladesh in 1971, the Pakistani militarypersonnel killed
many indigenous or Jumma Peoples, destroyed their villages and several thousands
were rendered homesless. The government of Bangladesh signed a peace accord with
the Parbatya Chattagram Jana Sanghati Samiti (PCJSS) (United People‟s Freedom Party
of the Chittagong Hill Tracts), a political party of the Chittagong Hill Tracts indigenous
people or Jumma people, on December 2,1997, is known to all. During the insurgency
riod, a large number of indigenous or Jumma people lost their lives, thousands of them
were rendered homeless and lost all their sources of livelihood. In 1986 about 75,000
71
Untold History of CHT ….p.65
187
(seventy five thousand) indigenous people crossed international border in fear of their
Those who could not or did not got to India led a miserable life. Starvation, malnutrition
indigenous or Jumma children lost their parents or guardians. They became orphans,
destitute and rootless in different periods. Therefore, a number of them were sheltered
The rest were roaming here and there. Realizing their conditions, some orphanage, like
Moanoghar, Kachalong Shishu Sadan etc, were established in different places. In these
orphanages they were given shelter, foods, clothes, and medical facilities, general and
religious education. They were given such facilities so that they can stand on their own
feet in future and can prove themselves as worthy citizens of the country.
(monks) came forward to form an organization for social service.The South Asian
Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) was established in 1985, after several
years of negotiations initiated by Bangladesh. The seven south asian counties 72-
Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Pakistan, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Maldives are full and equal
members of the SAARC. after Afghanistan has joined the SAARC.presently eight
SAARC countries.
72
SAARC News Letter…p.21
188
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Raja Bhubanmohan Roy, Printed by Chittagong Press, 1919, British East India
1962, Printed by Nataraj Offset Press, 179A / 1B, Maniktala Rd, Calcutta 700
009, India
Mc Cuen publications, Inc, 411 Mallalieu Drive, Hudson, Wisconsin 54016, USA
189
Binay, Shanti, Bengali Language Literature Sources. Published by Sunil Bihari
Bangladesh
Chakma, Niru K, Mairty Banee, Vol lll, No, 1, May 1986, Published by Parbatya
1986, Bangladesh
190
Chakma, Amlan, Lan, Published by Jum Aesthetics Council,1999, Printed by
Lanka
1207, Bangladesh
Fedaration, June 12, 2001. Printed by Dhaka Press, Dhaka 1207, Bangladesh
Marma Chakma, Supriyo, Mati Chari Ban. Published by 1st Anniversary of Peace
CHT, Bangladesh
191
Mahasthavira, Dharmadhar, MajjhimaNikaya, Vol. ll. Published by Janata Datta,
Nashin, Marama, Namo Amithabha. Published by Ven. Chin Ang Chi. Printed by
Dhaka Kamal Press, 1991, 3rd edition, 1991, Dhaka 1212, Bangladesh
Pian, Jamilla, Peace Campaign Group (PCP). Published by Suniti Bikas Chakma,
RZ-1-91/ 211, West Sagarpur, 2004, New Delhi -64. Printed by Delhi Bhuban
Bangladesh
192
Sehrai, Fidaullah, A Guide to Takht-I-Bahi. Published byProf. Fidaullah Sehrai,
Taiwan, (R.O.C)
Vinay, Kumar, Vangisa and Early Buddhism Poet. Published by Dr. Niru K.
Chakma, Parbatya Boudha Sangha, 1986. Printedby Dhaka Press Ltd, Dhaka-
1000, Bangladesh.
www.Budhism in Bangladesh.com
193
Yun, Master Hsing, Venerable, On Emotions, Economics andEthics.Translated by
Press,2003,Chittagong, Bangladesh
Kentucky 40508-4008,USA
Long, William J., by War and Reconciliation published by The MIT Press,
Internet Sources
www.chakma.com
www.buddhismbangladesh.com
www.pcjss-cht.org
www.voice of jummaland.com
194
APPENDIXES
A01.Rangamati Division
08.Barkal District
37.Bhanbankhali
21. Bandarban District 14.Lakhichari District 15. Manikchari District 16. Ramghar
District
195
E05. Ruma Division
21. Rowangchari District 22. Nakyangchari District 23. Alikadam District 24. Lama
District
12. Khagrachari District 17. Matiranga District 13. Mohalchari District 11.Shaject
District
29. Baghaihat District 45. Harina District 46. Dhudukchara District 39. Chenghi District
34.Mubachari District
33. Dighinala District 34. Merung District 35. Chinghinala District 36. Monatek District
14. Lakhichari District 20. Ghuimara District 36. Monthola District 40.Monatek District
196
M013. Mahapuram Division
18. Panchari District 46. Dhudukchara District 9.Longghudu Divisions names and Code
Division, Code No.C03, Bandarban Division,Code No. D04, Ruma Division, Code No.
Districts names
197
31.Raikhali District 32.Khutubdhiya District 33.Mahapuram District 34.Mubachari
46.Dhudukchara District.
198
16. 115 No. Moghban Mr.Sujit Dewan
199
40. 77 No.Teichakkma Mr.Birendra Lal Chakma
200
64. 122 No.Khutubdiya Mr.Shadon Chakma
201
88. 134 No.Mitinggachari Mr.Milon Shonkar Chakma
202
112. 169 No.Shiyaldhailui Mr.Jopeithang Tripura
203
136. 03 No.Longgudhu Mr.Kulin Mitra Chakma
204
160. 390 No.Khala Pakushya Mr.Mir Ranjon Choudhury
205
184. 255 No.Maishchari Mr.Shodesh Priti Chakma
206
208. 188 No.Khodhachara Mr.Upendra Kumar Royaja
207
232. 235 No.Nakapha Mr.Ahposu Choudhury
208
256. 89 No.Lakhichari Mr.Gnanolal Talukdar
209
280. 55 No.Choto Hajachara Mr.Aparup Chakma
210
304. 339 No.Beikong Mr.Kesa Aung Marma
211
328. 362 No.Thanchi Mrs.Hla su Marma
212
352. 285 No.Sangghu Mr.Thongpray Mro
213
376. 283 No.Eatghor Mr.Thoiyai Hla Aung Marma
214
22.Ruma Municipal Council
14. Ram Hari Para Moitree Buddha Bihar, Mahapuram, Naniarchar, Rangamati
16. Takkashila Bana Bihar, Ram Hari Para, Mahapuram, Naniarchar, Rangamati
215
17. Krisnamachara Buddha Bihar, Naniarchar, Rangamati
216
41. Nanakurum Sangha Moitree Buddha Bihar, Naniarchar, Rangamati
217
65. North Kobongporiya Dasabol Buddha Bihar, Kagrachari Sadar
218
87. Baro kanak sadhamma Buddha Bihar, Kagrachari
219
111. Kharingkong Shakya Bana Bihar, Bandukbanga, Rangamati
220
135. Upagupta Bana Bihar,Uluchari, Rangamati
221
159. Aunachal Chakma Buddha Bihar, Chakmapara
222
183. Shadhanabodhi Buddha Bihar, Kalanala, Panchari
223
207. Benuban Bana Bihar, Dighinal
213. Nara Headman Para Buddha Bihar, 330, Nara Mauza, Bandarban
215. Amtolipara Buddha Bihar, 324 No. Chomo Mauza, Bandarban Sador
221. Kuyalong Headman Para Buddha Bihar, 318 No. Kuyalong Mauza
222. Rani Para Buddha Bihar, 319 No.Rajbila Mauza, Bandarban Sador
225. Murangya Para Buddha Bihar, 347 No. Murang Mauza, Bandarban
224
231. Satkomap Para Pancha Buddha Bihar, Reisha Tanchangya Para
232. Bakmara Headman Para Buddha Bihar, 347 No. Murukong Mauza
236. Suyalok Majje Para Buddha Bihar, 314 No.Suyalok Mauza, Bandarban
237. Chorui Para Buddha Bihar, 318 No.kuyalok Mauza, Bandarban Sador
238. Dolu Ujon Para Buddha Bihar, 348 No.Halaipang Mauza, Bandarban
247. Purba Headman Para Buddha Bihar, 318 No. Kuyalong Mauza
254. Thangghiri Para Buddha Bihar, 330 No. Hunara Mauza, Bandarban
225
255. Moghikong Para Buddha Bihar, 330 No. Nonghuna Mauza, Bandarban
267. Majje Para Buddha Bihar, Suyalok UP, P.O+P.S: Bandarban Sador
272. Kabika Para Buddha Bihar, 324 No.Chomo Mauza, Bandarban Sador
273. Khoyo Para Buddha Bihar, 324 No.Chomo Mauza, Bandarban Sador
274. Thong Jama Para Buddha Bihar, Raj Bila UP, Bandarban Sador
275. Raj Bila Sarbojonin Buddha Bihar, Raj Bila UP, Bandarban Sador
226
279. Shanthi Moitree Buddha Bihar, Ugya Para, 324 No. Chomo Mauza
280. Shathong Para Buddha Bihar, 317 No. Ronokha Mauza, Bandarban
283. Noya Para Buddha Bihar, 324 No. Chomi Mauza, Bandarban Sador
285. Hoyagipara Buddha Bihar, 337 No. Balaghata Mauza, Bandarban Sador
286. Mong Puru Para Buddha Bihar, 337 No.Balaghata Mauza, Bandarban
288. AttaBissothi Buddha Bihar and Meditation Center, Tiger Para, Sador
289. Oyabain Para Buddha Bihar, 347 No. Mukkong Mauza, Bandarban
290. Thangkhali Ujani Para Buddha Bihar, 319 No. Raj Bila Mauza, Sador
298. Borkhi Chora Para Buddha Bihar, 318 No.Balaghata Mauza, Bandarban
300. Nutun Chorio Para Buddha Bihar, 325 No. Kolkeyong Mauza, Sador
301. Ujani Mukh Headman Para Buddha Bihar, 325 No. Kolkeyong Mauza
302. Khabika Para Buddha Bihar, 324 No.Chomo Mauza, Bandarban Sador
227
303. Khoyo Para Buddha Bihar, P.O+P.S: Bandarban Sador, Bandarban
304. Dhak Oya Talukdar Para Buddha Bihar, 340 No. Taracha Mauza
308. Dham Poyong Buddha Bihar, 340 No. Taracha Mauza, Royangchori
310. Noya Pothong Upor Para Buddha Bihar, P.O+ P.S:Royangchori Sador
228
229
230
231
232
Political History
233
1780 C.E, Agreement of British with Chacomas
234
1900 C.E, Regulation pass of CHT Land Protection
235
Map of Pictorial
236
INDIA, NEPAL, BHUTAN, CHINA, MYANMAR, THAILAND,
BANGLADESH, JUMMALAND, SRI LANKA, PAKISTAN
237
Jummaland
238
Kingdom Of Chacomas Map (Jummaland) – 16th AD
239
India-Myanmar-china-Border-Jummaland map
240
Bikrampur Vihara -820 AD
Somapura_Mahavihara 995-1043 AD
241
Shalvan Vihara 700C.E.
242
Chakma Raj Vihara-17th AD
243