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Fashion and style as non-verbal communication

Jennifer Lemon
Published online: 04 Dec 2007.

To cite this article: Jennifer Lemon (1990) Fashion and style as non-verbal communication, Communicatio: South African
Journal for Communication Theory and Research, 16:2, 19-26, DOI: 10.1080/02500169008537718

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Fashion and style as non-verbal communication
Jennifer Lemon*
It is only shallow people who do not judge by
appearances. The true mystery of the world is
the visible, not the invisible.
— Oscar Wilde —
SUMMARY
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This article examines the notion that fashion and style can
be studied as important forms of non-verbal social commu-
nication, and discusses the communicative and expressive
functions of fashion and style. The historical development of
the mass media and the concomitant development of a mass
market in fashion and style are investigated, as well as
various theoretical approaches to these phenomena.
OPSOMMING
Hierdie artikel ondersoek die idee dot modeverskynsels en
styl as belangrike vorme van nie-verbale sosiale kommuni-
Icasie bestudeer lean word. Aandag is gegee aan die kom-
munikatiewe en betekenisdraende funksies van mode en styl;
die geskiedkundige ontwikkeling van die massamedia; die
meegaande ontwikkeling van 'n massamark in mode en styl;
asook aan die verskeie teoretiese benaderings t.o.v. mode-
verskynsels en styl.
1 INTRODUCTION
Communication is a multifaceted process, touching
and affecting every area of human existence. It is by
means of communication that human beings are in-
tegrated into society and social life. Communica-
tion is a dynamic and extremely complex process,
which manifests itself in a variety of diverse forms
within the two broad distinctions of verbal and non-
verbal communication.
The purpose of this article is to discuss the rela-
tively unexplored notion that fashion and style may
be studied as important forms of non-verbal com-
munication. The article discusses the communica-
tive and expressive functions of fashion and style,
and examines various theoretical approaches to the
phenomena of fashion and style.
By means of an exploratory literature survey this
article attempts to define fashion and style, and to
examine the relationship between the historical de-
velopment of mass society and the rise of the mass
Jennifer Lemon is a junior lecturer in the Department of Com-
munication, University of South Africa.
Jennifer Lemon is 'n junior lektrise in die Departement Kom-
munikasiekunde, Universiteit van Suid-Afrika.
Communicatio, 16(2) 1990
media, and the concomitant development of a
mass market in fashion and style. The social func-
tions of fashion and style, the influence of the mass
media, and the "language" of fashion and style are
discussed. An interdisciplinary approach is adopt-
ed, drawing from a variety of diverse fields, includ-
ing communication, psychology, sociology, anthro-
pology and cultural studies.
2 NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION
Recent research has shown that non-verbal com-
munication plays a more important role in the pro-
cess of communication than had previously been
realised (cf. Argyle 1975, Fletcher, in Hodder 1989).
The general failure to recognise the importance of
non-verbal communication may be a result of the
fact that since verbal communication is so overtly
characteristic of human communication, the sub-
stantial role of non-verbal communication in daily
life has not been as readily recognised, and has
subsequently been largely excluded from the ongo-
ing research on the human process of communica-
tion (cf. Fletcher, in Hodder 1989, Argyle 1975). One
reason for this omission may be that the study of
what is popularly known as "body language" has
been regarded as essentially incidental, trivial and a
non-academic branch of popular psychology.
We incline to view verbal meaning as the win-
dow into the human mind. With a humanistic
preference for viewing our actions in terms of
intentionality, verbal meaning has seemed to be
the appropriate, sufficient and apparently even
necessary foundation for understanding our cul-
tural behaviour (Hodder 1989: 33).
However, Fletcher (in Hodder 1989: 33) argues
that the mere presence of non-verbal messages
and their meanings specify that verbal meaning
must have a particular and not a universal role in
human communication. He goes so far as to sug-
gest that the profound social role of verbal meaning
exists precisely to make the nature and conse-
quences of active and material non-verbal commu-
nication and behaviour comprehensible (cf. Fletch-
er, in Hodder 1989: 33). Stone (in Solomon 1981:
162) argues pertinently that fashion and style
should necessarily be subsumed as a facet of com-
munication, since "previous to speech and gesture,
generally, there is visual appearance".
In addition, there is a great deal of human experi-
ence and emotion that cannot adequately be ex-
19
 Communicatio, 16(2) 1990
pressed in words. Human beings consequently use
non-verbal communication when verbal coding
proves to be inadequate for fully expressing what
they wish to communicate. Non-verbal communi-
cation is used to support the verbal message in
order to facilitate interpretation and understanding,
and for enhancing the impact of the message, espe-
cially in view of the fact that non-verbal messages
are often more powerful than verbal messages (cf.
Argyle 1975).
Non-verbal communication plays an important
role in human social behaviour. The correct use and
interpretation of non-verbal communication is an
essential social skill which the individual must mas-
ter in order to be socially competent, and a fully
adjusted member of society. In short then, the
study of verbal communication at the exclusion of
the non-verbal is inadequate for a full understand-
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ing of the complexities of human communication
(cf. Argyle 1975, Weissner, in Solomon 1981: 56).
One important example of non-verbal communi-
cation that has not been widely researched is fash-
ion and style — the use of clothing and adornment
as a form of communication. Solomon (1981: 183)
argues that because dress provokes such wide-
spread social reaction, whether that be admiration,
tolerance, indignation or moral outrage, it functions
as an important means of non-verbal communica-
tion, and as such deserves to be studied in greater
depth.
Human ontology begins of necessity with the
physical form or body. The individual's position is
inalienably tied to his physical being, and thus how
the individual chooses to adorn and decorate the
body is an important and revealing function of
human existence.
Dress is an individual's most immediate environ-
ment, acting as a buffer between the biological
self and the wider physical environment...
(Roach & Eicher 1973: xxiii).
Adornment of the body, and a preoccupation
with fashion and style, is indulged in by all cultural
groups and societies, and can be said to be a
universal pursuit both socially and personally. It
may be argued that identification and active partici-
pation in a social group always involves the human
body and its adornment, hence the importance of
fashion and style as a form of non-verbal communi-
cation (cf. Roach & Eicher 1973, Polhemus &
Procter 1978). In order to explain and understand
fashion and style as communication it becomes
necessary to define each term.
3 DEFINING STYLE
The concept of "style" is undeniably a popular
aspect of contemporary society. The word "style"
can be seen repeatedly on glossy and colourful
magazine covers; on the pages of popular publica-
tions on nearly every imaginable topic ranging
from news, fashion and architecture, to music, inte-
rior design, and sport (etc.).
20
The phenomenon of style within contemporary
society however, is varied and complex. Finding an
adequate definition of style is problematic as the
concept of style is often informed by a current and
transient fad, fashion, or mode of behaviour which
renders the concept an elusive and fickle one. Style
registers different meanings to different people or
among different communities. Ewen (1988) points
out that the varying representations and definitions
of style are often a product of the particular history
and experience (albeit contradictory) of the person
who is describing it. Style has to do with the way in
which people express themselves, with the way
they conform and the way they rebel.
A popular notion of style is the one adopted by
art and architecture historians. Within the conven-
tions of these disciplines, style is essentially regard-
ed as a visual motif, characteristic of a particular
era, and employed to describe the ornamental
tastes of the privileged elite. This definition of style
falls within the elitist approach to culture. Ewen
(1988: 3) points out that this conception of style is
both perceptive and confounding. He argues that to
limit "style" to the objects and artifacts of the elite
is too narrow a focus for understanding its place in
contemporary culture. Although notions of style
are still often linked to prestige, style today is a
preoccupation of nearly all sectors of society. It
draws its inspiration from anywhere and every-
where, and the varied assortment of styles that are
presented appear to be anything but a unified ex-
pression. Nevertheless, it must be recognised that
the imagery of elite culture is an ongoing aspect of
style as it is communicated as a result of its histori-
cal heritage and definition.
Significantly, style is often defined in terms of its
currency, and its relative consumption — that is to
say — its popularity. In the past decade "style" has
gained substantial mass appeal, and can be de-
scribed as a product of popular culture. The prod-
ucts of popular culture are designed for mass con-
sumption, and appeal to and express the tastes of
the majority of the public, ostensibly free of control
by minority standards. However, style can reflect
the values, convictions, and patterns of thought
prevalent in society as a whole, or those of an
influential and powerful minority.
In short, "style" may be regarded as an expres-
sive device which communicates meaning to its
users or beholders— whether consciously or un-
consciously. Style can be defined along the dimen-
sions in which cultural products are described as
communication. It may thus be argued that style is
an important medium of social and personal com-
munication (cf. Hodder 1989, Solomon 1981).
4 FASHION AND STYLE
When examining the phenomena of fashion one is
again inundated with a vast range of contrasting
perspectives and opinions. The philosopher John
Locke (in Solomon 1981: xi) defined fashion as the
"science of appearances". This succinct definition

applies equally well to the concept of style as it
does to fashion. In contemporary Western civilisa-
tion the term "fashion" is often used as synony-
mous with the term "style", and vice versa. There is
a natural association between fashion (what is fash-
ionable or stylish) and the concept of style in that
they share a number of important characteristics
and functions.
The relationship between fashion and style is
apparent in Nylstrom's (in Solomon 1981: 53) defi-
nition which defines fashion simply as "the prevail-
ing style at any given time". The concept of fashion
is shared by Lauer (in Solomon 1981: 53) who
defines fashion as "simply the modal style of a
particular group at a particular time... the style
which is considered appropriate or desirable".
The contemporary view of fashion adopts a pro-
cess-oriented approach, and defines fashion as "a
process of social contagion by which a new style or
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product is adopted by the consumer after commer-
cial introduction" (King, in Solomon 1981: 53).
Sproles (in Solomon 1981: 53) defines fashion as "a
way of behaving that is temporarily adopted by a
discernible proportion of members of a social
group because that chosen behaviour is perceived
to be socially appropriate for the time and situa-
tion".
What becomes clear from the various definitions
is that fashion is essentially a dynamic and evolving
social process. Fashion is not simply a change of
styles of dress and adornment, but rather a "sys-
tematic, structured and deliberate pattern of style
change", influenced by social norms and trends,
individual expression, and technology (Polhemus
& Procter 1978: 15, cf. Lurie 1981).
Fashion, like the concept of style, is defined in
terms of its currency and consumption, and is a
dynamic mechanism symbolising social and cultur-
al change.
Fashion is a mode of symbolic expression — a
clue to sexual identity, socialisation, culture, sta-
tus, age, occupational role, personality, mood
and possible communicator style (Gorden et al.
in Solomon 1981: 161).
5 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF FASHION AND
STYLE
5.1 Historical and theoretical orientation
A number of researchers have attempted to explain
the universal preoccupation with fashion and style
throughout the centuries, within the framework of
various theoretical paradigms.
The oldest and most common approach to the
rationale of clothing and adornment concerns their
functions. Functionalism, as developed by Bronis-
law Malinowski (in Polhemus & Procter 1978: 9),
suggests that human beings function as they do to
satisfy a limited range of human needs, which gen-
erate various cultural responses. Thus, the need for
bodily comfort, for example, prompts people
throughout the world to create various forms of
Communicatio, 16(2) 1990
shelter. The functionalist regards clothing as mere-
ly a response to practical requirements for shelter
in order to sustain bodily comfort against the
elements.
This argument, however, clearly excludes the
seemingly 'frivilous fashions' worn by fashion
conscious Westerners, which demonstrate little or
no regard for the elements. The old adage of "beau-
ty knows no pain" is particularly applicable in this
respect. In contemporary society, climatic factors
do not always determine whether or not clothes are
worn, nor what kind of clothes are worn.
An alternative approach suggests that adorn-
ment and the wearing of clothing, particularly
clothing that is unnecessary for protection from the
elements, fulfils a human need for modesty. How-
ever, it must be recognised that there is "no essen-
tial connection between clothing and modesty,
since every society has its own conception of mod-
est dress and behaviour" (Polhemus & Procter
1978: 10). This is clearly demonstrated by the ex-
treme cross-cultural variability in the expression of
modesty in dress. The contention that the idea of
clothing originated from the human being's innate
sense of modesty has been exploded by anthropol-
ogists. As far back as 1901, Westermarck (in Bergler
1953: 24) observed that the facts pointed to the
existence of shame as a result of the custom of
clothing the body, not as the cause.
There is a great deal of confusion concerning the
origin, functions and social significance of clothing.
Research has demonstrated that modesty is not
innate in man, with different cultures perceiving
modesty differently. Modesty is thus highly depen-
dent upon social and cultural convention. Bergler
(1953: 26) concludes that modesty is merely the
feeling of acute self-consciousness due to appear-
ing unusual or feeling exposed, and as such is the
result of clothing rather than the cause. The argu-
ment as to which came first— modesty or cloth-
ing — is the time-honored question of the chicken
and the egg (cf. Bergler 1953, Polhemus & Procter
1978).
An oppositional and somewhat controversial the-
ory has been proposed which suggests that cloth-
ing and adornment fulfil man's need for immodesty
and exhibitionistic display. This, however, is hardly
an adequate explanation since much adornment
merely decorates what is already covered, and a
great deal of clothing is deliberately unerotic (cf.
Polhemus & Procter 1978: 10).
While fashion and style (in clothing and adorn-
ment) have many functions, these more often than
not exceed the somewhat limited and practical
functions of human activity which Malinowski (in
Procter & Polhemus 1978) originally identified.
What is important is that Malinowski failed to re-
cognise the basic human need for communication,
expression and identification, which is arguably a
serious flaw in his reasoning. Indeed, the universal-
ity of adornment suggests that it is itself a basic
human need, or so fundamental to human exis-
tence and experience that the needs which Mali-
21
 Communicatio, 16(2) 1990
nowski presumes to be so important— such as
bodily comfort, health, movement, (etc.), are ig-
nored for its sake.
5.2 The rise of the mass media, and style
The nineteenth century saw the development of
mass society, and the concomitant flowering of
style on a mass scale. The phenomenon of conspic-
uous consumption, the trade in objects and arti-
facts for financial gain, made style something one
could acquire, as opposed to something which only
the elite could claim by birth and nobility. Style
became the iconography of prestige and accom-
plishment (cf. Ewen 1988: 27).
Significantly, the question of access to style is
fundamentally inseparable from that of production,
and particularly, mass production. Before the nine-
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teenth century, style was defined by elegant hand-
crafted goods, individually produced from concep-
tion to completion.
To be a person of style — aristocrat or bour-
geois — implied the ability to pay for and com-
mand the patient skills of artisans in the satisfac-
tion of one's desires (Ewen 1988: 30).
By the beginning of the nineteenth century, with
the rise of urbanisation and the industrial revolu-
tion, the ability to mechanically produce standard-
ized goods, signalled the inception of a mass mar-
ket in style.
Thus, ironically, the contemporary conception of
style, which had traditionally been associated with
and seen in terms of the elite and so-called 'high'
culture, grew from the historical development of
mass society (culture), along with popular culture.
Back (in Solomon 1981: 12) argues that fashion
had a fundamental role to play in the crisis of the
individual in the transition from a tightly structured
society to a mass society, and that the importance
of fashion and style is inevitably linked to the devel-
opment of technology and the mass media. Today,
the fashion industry, responsible for the production
of style on a mass scale, is reliant on the mass com-
munication media.
Significantly, a characteristic of fashion and style
in a mass society is an increased dependence on
clothing cues (the language of fashion and style) in
social encounters. Due to the fragmentation of soci-
ety people do not come to know one another inti-
mately, and thus depend to a greater extent on
appraisals of the cues that dress provides. People
react to those they do not know by interpreting and
making judgements about their appearance (cf.
Roach & Eicher 1973:183). In a mass society surviv-
al depends to a greater extent on the ability of the
individual to make quick judgements based largely
on visual evidence. Matters of dress and personal
appearance have thus taken on new meaning in
contemporary society. In a highly mobile society,
where first impressions are important, the con-
struction of appearances has become an essential
skill. "Image management" has become a lucrative
22
business jn the fields of commerce, industry, poli-
tics, and interpersonal relations. These factors con-
tribute to the importance of fashion and style as a
form of non-verbal communication in contempo-
rary society.
Roach & Eicher (1973: 190) identify two factors
that influence the individual's choice of fashion and
style within a mass society, namely accommoda-
tion and reaction.
5.2.1 Accommodation
The first factor which may influence the individual's
choice of fashion and style is that of accommoda-
tion. Accommodation implies conformity to the
prescriptions of the system or society, motivated by
a promise of social reward. Accommodation occurs
when the individual adopts certain norms of dress
in an attempt to be socially acceptable, "salable",
or influential, and conforms to the trends set, and
made available, by the system. The executive im-
age (pin-striped suit and tie, etc.) is an outstanding
example of this kind of conformity for the sake of
attaining certain social rewards. In this way dress
may be carefully manipulated by those who pos-
sess power within the system to control interper-
sonal interaction and behaviour.
Accommodation also occurs at the level of
shared beliefs or ideology. Fashion and style be-
come a kind of "shared style-of-life", reflecting so-
cial values, myths, ideologies, and societal preoc-
cupations. As Roach and Eicher (1973: 190) point
out
... a feeling of shared well-being, shared roles,
common interests, and common concerns
comes to people from consuming the same kind
of objects.
5.2.2 Reaction
The second factor that may influence the individ-
ual's choice of fashion and style within a mass
society takes the form of some type of reaction to or
against society. "Reaction" is the opposite of ac-
commodation, and refers to a failure on the part of
the individual to conform to social prescriptions
regarding dress. This "reaction" is expressed by
means of an iconoclastic view of fashion and style,
which is reflected in the unconventional choices of
clothing and adornment made by the individual.
Fashions and styles are carefully selected in order
to make a particular social "statement".
Klapp (in Roach & Eicher 1973: 191) identifies
three types of reactions to fashion and style that are
common within a mass society, namely dandyism,
ego-screaming, and puritanism.
(a) Dandyism symbolises the rejection of the soci-
etal work ethic, reflected in the choice of fashion(s)
adopted by the individual. In most cases, only the
wealthy can participate in this type of reaction to
mass society. Those who react in this way live
purely for hedonistic display, marked by an obses-
sive concern with fashion and style, or appear-

ances. They reject and are opposed to a devotion to
work and responsibility. The ethic of conspicuous
consumption is the value by which such individuals
live. Within the so-called 'yuppie' culture of the
1980s can be seen the ultimate expression of the
middle class ideal of conspicuous consumption.
This subculture is essentially concerned with the
appearances of success, and hence the obsessive
concern with keeping up to date with the ever-
changing symbols of the 'good life' represented by
fasionable and stylish designer clothing, cars, furni-
ture, and other commodities (cf. Ewen 1988).
(b) Ego-screaming refers to the iconoclastic use of
dress and adornment in order to shock others. In
this way the individual is able to set him/herself
apart, establishing a unique and individual identity
in the eyes of others. This type of behaviour may
represent a symbolic rejection of the impersonal
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and functionalistic nature of mass society, and may
be a reaction to a loss of individual influence and
power within the large bureaucratic social struc-
tures of mass society.
Hebdige's (1978) analysis of youth subcultures,
such as the punks, skinheads, rastafarians, mods,
rockers, (etc.), and the styles associated with these
cultures provides a thorough insight into the use of
fashion and style as iconoclastic symbols. Hebdige
(1978: 3) points out that each subculture creates its
own style(s), often by breaking old codes and creat-
ing new ones. This construction of style is often a
deliberate gesture of defiance or contempt for soci-
etal structures. At the "profoundly superficial level
of appearances" these subcultures create their own
iconoclastic meanings encoded in the language of
fashion and style (Hebdige 1978: 17).
(c) Puritanism: The puritan sets him/herself apart
from those who conform to social prescriptions
regarding acceptable fashion and style. These indi-
viduals abstain from any interest in appearance,
and their choice of attire is modest and simple. The
puritan renounces any form of materialism, hedo-
nism, or conformity, and thus consumes minimally.
An example of this type of reaction is epitomised by
the choice of dress adopted by the Amish people,
who live apart from conventional social norms.
These three types of reactions are not exhaustive
or mutually exclusive, and are subject to a great
deal of social and environmental influence. From
the above it is evident, however, that mass society
and culture have a profound influence on fashion
and style, and the way in which people use clothing
to express themselves.
6 FASHION AND STYLE AS COMMUNICATION
Fashion is in many ways an extreme form of cultur-
al activity. It is concerned with a basic human
need — clothing — but goes far beyond the simple
biological necessity, and is intimately related to
aesthetic, social and cultural factors (cf. Roach &
Eicher 1973: 211, 212). According to Solomon
(1981) the need of the whole of society for clothes
Communicatio, 16(2) 1990
links fashion directly to the structure of society. It
may thus be argued that a closer analysis of cloth-
ing and fashion can provide the opportunity for
understanding human beings and human commu-
nication far beyond outward appearances.
A somewhat provocative and controversial ex-
ample of this kind of analysis is Bergler's (1953)
psychoanalytic approach to fashion and style.
Bergler's contentious theory suggests that clothes
are essentially a masculine invention, which have
been imposed upon women. He argues that men
unconsciously fear the female body, and thus in-
vent or design clothing that restricts the movement
and activities of women. Based on clinical reports
of psychoanalysis, he presents evidence to suggest
that male homosexuals are largely responsible for
what women wear and, by analysing historical
data, shows how designs have been created which
attempt to "punish" women, and make them ap-
pear weaker. In effect, the fashionable designs not
only make women appear the weaker sex, but en-
sure that they are in fact weaker because of their
cumbersome and restrictive clothing.
6.1 The language of fashion
Psychologists and social researchers suggest that
clothing permits and facilitates individualistic, per-
sonal and social expression, and as such is an
important medium for interpersonal communica-
tion (cf. Polhemus & Procter 1978, Solomon 1981).
Dress and adornment not only allow the individual
the opportunity to assert him/herself as an individ-
ual, but as a part of a larger social collective. Thus,
the expressive and communicative functions of
fashion and style are basically twofold:
• to express individuality by stressing unique
physical features or by using unique aesthetics,
and
• to express group affiliation or the values and
standards of the group (Roach, in Polhemus &
Procter 1978: 11).
According to Solomon (1981) fashion is nothing
more and nothing less than the systematic encryp-
tion, transmission, and interpretation of social and
cultural meaning. A fashion item itself is a vehicle,
or medium, for transporting cultural information to
its destination — the consumer, or recipient — and
is used or worn by the recipient in order to commu-
nicate to others. Fashion can thus be seen as inten-
tional communication. Eco (in 1978: 100) states
simply that "I speak through my clothes". Contem-
porary fashion theory is thus essentially concerned
with the process by which meaning is encoded and
transmitted.
Various theoretical paradigms have been applied
to the study of fashion, including sociological anal-
ysis, psychoanalysis, functionalism and semiotics,
(etc.) (cf. Barthes 1983, Bergler 1953, Davis, in Solo-
mon 1981, Lurie 1981, Hebdige 1979, Goffman
1963). According to Barthes' (1983) semiological
approach language is a systematised set of conven-
23
 Communicatio, 16(2) 1990
tions necessary to communication, a social institu-
tion, and a system of values. He argues that cloth-
ing as language consists of an array of fashions and
styles currently available, and their attendant con-
ventionalised values and normative meanings.
According to Barthes (1983) fashion can be seen
as a set of artifactual symbols that approximate the
semiotic concept of a code (cf. Simon-Miller, in
Solomon 1981: 71). In this way fashion and style
can be seen to constitute a code, consisting of signs
(for example, colour, fabric, texture, pattern, vol-
ume, etc.), and rules that govern their use. Lurie
(1981) too claims that clothing constitutes a visual
language, with its own distinctive grammar, system
and vocabulary. Davis (in Solomon 1981: 72), how-
ever, distinguishes fashion from a conventional
clothing code, inasmuch as fashion constantly
seeks to modify key elements of the code. The sig-
nificance of fashion and style is then, that it will lose
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its significance.
The two basic concepts used to define a sign are
the signifier and the signified. When applied to the
concept of fashion, the signifier is the particular
fashion and style currently in vogue, and the signi-
fied refers to that which is connoted, understood,
evoked, or expressed by those particular designs.
The relationship between signifier and signified,
however, is extremely arbitrary, since the same
cultural goods may connote different things for
different individuals, groups and cultures. In terms
of fashion and style meanings are particularly am-
biguous in that it is difficult to induce people to
interpret clothing symbols in a similar way. The
relationship between the signifier and the signified
is thus extremely unstable.
Fashion is a complex form of social communica-
tion in which the communicator is the message.
This form of communication serves more purposes
than the mere transmission of information. Endur-
ing combinations of social norms, social factors,
personal expression, and aesthetic values form the
style of a person, a group or a period, which com-
municate relative meaning.
7 THE ROLE AND INFLUENCE OF THE MASS
MEDIA
The mass media play a crucial role in defining
human experience. They provide the individual
with the most available categories for classifying
and making sense of the social world. It may be
argued that in modern society it is primarily
through the media — press, television, film,
(etc.) — that the individuals' experience is organ-
ised, interpreted, and made to "cohere in contradic-
tion" (cf. Hebdige 1979).
As social groups and classes live, if not in their
productive then in their "social" relations, in-
creasingly fragmented and sectionally differenti-
ated lives, the mass media are more and more
responsible (a) for providing the basis on which
groups and classes construct an image of their
24
lives, meanings, practices and values of other
groups and classes; (b) for providing the im-
ages, representations and ideas around which
the social totality composed of all these separate
and fragmented pieces can be coherently
grasped (Hall, in Hebdige 1979: 85).
Ewen (1988) argues that in the contemporary
world, where the mass media serve as increasingly
powerful arbiters of reality, the primacy of style
over substance has become the normative con-
sciousness. Technological developments and mass
production offer a wider range of alternatives and
choices in terms of fashion and style. The develop-
ment of automation has resulted in mass products
being produced quickly and efficiently. The mass
communication media convey fashion and style to
all regions of society, ensuring that anyone can
obtain the mass "style-of-life" symbols that fashion
provides.
Ewen (1988) points out that even if the life-style
presented by the mass media is not realisable in
real life, it is nevertheless the most constantly avail-
able lexicon from which many people draw the
"visual grammar" of their lives. It is a "hard to
define... but easy to recognise" aspect of social
life. The world of fashion and style, often silently
and unacknowledged, influences the ways in which
people understand and relate to the world around
them.
The mass media encourage consensus in choice
among the mass produced products of the fashion
industry, and thereby act as organising mecha-
nisms within the mass society. The media familiar-
ise people with competing products, with con-
sumption trends, and reflect the values and ideol-
ogies of society (cf. Roach & Eicher 1973: 184, Ewen
1988). The propagation and communication of style
is linked to consumption, and to the power of the
mass media to convey, magnify, refract, and influ-
ence popular notions of style (cf. Ewen 1988: 10).
People gain a concept and understanding of what
style is, what is stylish and fashionable, and what is
not, via the mass media.
Ewen (1988: 14) describes style today as an "in-
congruous cacophony of images, strewn across the
social landscape". In a world saturated with seduc-
tive and alluring images, presenting immaculate
surfaces, appearances are an all important fact of
existence. Fashion and style have to do with sur-
face impressions, with "appearances" both literally
and figuratively. Fashion and style offer a represen-
tation of the self defined by these surfaces and
commodities. The media tend to reinforce this out-
look by offering visual guideposts, or reference
points, against which people can measure them-
selves (cf. Ewen 1988). Ewen (1988: 259) points out
that in countless aspects of life, the power of ap-
pearances has come to overshadow, or to shape,
the way in which people comprehend matters of
substance. Images have become more significant
and meaningful than reality. The true mystery of
the world lies increasingly in the immaculate visual

images of popular culture, and the mass media,
and in the glossy surfaces of fashion and style.
8 SOCIAL FUNCTIONS OF FASHION AND STYLE
A vast amount of literature exists in social psychol-
ogy and other related fields in the social sciences,
on the subject of identity formation, identification,
the establishment of the social self, and the devel-
opment of the self-image. The human need to es-
tablish a self-image through social comparison is
considered by many authors to be a basic cognitive
process in human beings (cf. Weissner, in Hodder
1989: 57).
Weissner (in Hodder 1989: 57) argues that the use
of fashion and style is one of several means of com-
munication through which people negotiate their
personal and social identity in relation to others. In
this way people are able to project a particular
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image, to mask an aspect of identity, or even raise
questions about a person's identity. Within a partic-
ular context (i.e. the occasion), and with due con-
sideration of the image the individual would like to
project, a style is chosen, consciously or uncon-
sciously, that communicates relative identity.
Argyle (1975) argues that the wearing of clothes
that communicate particular messages are learnt
during the process of socialisation. Each culture
and society develops fashions of appearances —
styles— which constitute a set of symbols of
agreed upon meanings. These meanings are learnt
by means of primary and secondary association
with socialisation agents, such as parents, teachers,
peers, and, importantly, the mass media.
The functions fulfilled by fashion and style are
numerous, and cannot be fully discussed within the
scope of this article. However, fashion and style are
a fundamental reality of human existence, and are
thus tied to the human process of life and death.
Fashion has been regarded as one of the oldest
"fountains of youth", and is used as a remedy
against ageing, as a process of self-discovery, or as
a reaction against mass society, in which the indi-
vidual attempts to assert his/her individuality.
One's style of dress is one's personal signature, and
individuality and creativity are expressed largely by
means of the way in which people dress (cf. Dichter,
in Solomon 1981: 30).
In summary, fashion functions to express emo-
tion and communicate interpersonal attitudes; as a
support to language; as a means of self-presenta-
tion; and as a social ritual (cf. Argyle 1975: 7). The
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Argyle, M. 1975. Bodily communication. London: Methuen.
Barthes, R. 1983. The fashion system. New York: Hill & Wang.
Bergler, E. 1953 Fashion and the unconscious. New York: Robert Brunner.
Ewen, S. 1988. All consuming images. The politics of style in contemporary culture. New York: Basic Books.
Goffman, E. 1963. Behaviour in public places. New York: The Free Press.
Hebdige, D. 1979. Sub-culture: the meaning of style. New York: Methuen.
Hebdige, D. 1988. Hiding in the light. London: Comedia.
Communicatio, 16(2) 1990
particular choice of fashion and style often reflects
the mood, personality and character of the wearer.
Choice in terms of design, contour, texture, colour
and other factors all contribute to an impression,
image or statement which the communicator
(wearer) wishes to make to others.
In appearances, selves are established and mo-
bilised. As the self is dressed, it is simultaneous-
ly addressed, for whenever we clothe ourselves,
we dress "toward" or address some audience
whose validating responses are essential to the
establishment of the self (Stone, in Solomon
1981: 162).
9 CONCLUSION
In a fast-developing and continuously changing
world, dominated largely by the mass communica-
tion media, human beings are increasingly begin-
ning to break out of the conventional modes of
communication, such as the written and printed
word, and have begun to investigate new forms of
communication such as pantomime, symbolism,
theatrical performance, pose, dance, (etc.). The re-
sult is that closer attention is being paid to the non-
verbal aspects of human communication.
Clothing is a medium of communication that is
metaphorically and literally closest to the self (cf.
Solomon 1981: 6). It covers what is to be private
and shows the world the presentation a person
wants to make. It is in part determined by social and
cultural norms and is a function of society and
period. And as such fashion and style can be de-
fined along the dimensions in which cultural prod-
ucts are described as communication (cf. Solomon
1981).
In conclusion: fashion and style have a signifi-
cant influence on nearly all aspects of social life.
This article has highlighted only a few of the inter-
esting theories and approaches in an enormous
and, as yet, largely unexplored field. Dichter (in
Solomon 1981: 37) suggests that clothing in new
forms can assist in bridging the communication
gap and psychological distance which separate
people. He argues that the clothing industry's real
task is more significant and lies deeper than mere
decoration and attraction. Once the meaning of
fashion and style is better understood, it can begin
to function as a more effective medium of commu-
nication, which may ultimately help to promote
mutual understanding between people.
25
 Communicatio, 16(2) 1990

Hodder, I. (ed.) 1989. The meaning of things. Material culture and symbolic expression. London: Unwin Hyman.
Lurie, A. 1981. The language of clothes. New York: Random House.
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Roach, M. E. & Eicher, J. B. 1973. The visible self: perspectives on dress. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall.
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