APPENDICES

Notes
 General Rules About Bitmapped Images Appendix A

Printing photographic images is not as straight forward as it may at first seem.

0General Rules for Printing Bitmapped Images
0

Although we refer to some kinds of photographs as black and white, in reality they
are actually composed of varying shades of gray. In fact, if you look closely at a
B&W photograph you will notice that the number of grays is virtually unlimited and
that the changes between these shades of gray is subtle and continuous. In other
words, you don’t always see the transition between one gray shade and the next.
This effect explains why the graphics industry refers to B&W photographs as
“continuous tone” or “contone” images.

Using Screens Since the invention of the printing press 500 hundred years ago
the printing process — although refined — has basically
remained unchanged. We still put ink on paper in much the
same way as Gutenberg. With all the modern printing
technology at our disposal it is still impossible to reproduce
continuous tone photographs on a printing press.
Instead, photographs must first be converted into dot patterns
that create an optical illusion of the original photograph. The
various subtle shades of gray are actually simulated by dots of
black ink. This conversion technique is called “screening,”
because it originally was performed using wire screens of
various densities to create the dot patterns. The resulting
“screened” image is called a “half-tone.” Wherever you look,
whether its in your local newspaper or your favorite monthly
magazine, you see half-tones in everyday use. Although
traditional screens are still used, it’s more likely that
newspapers, magazines, and other publications electronically
scan and edit images and generate the needed screens using
computer programs like Adobe Photoshop CS2.
Unfortunately, it is not as simple as replacing one technology
(screening) for another (scanning). For a photograph to make
the transition into the computer you first have to address a set
of limitations and restrictions.

Bitmap limits As mentioned above, photographic images are virtually

unlimited in resolution. A photograph can be enlarged many
times its original size and the only appreciable effect will be that
details in the image will become fuzzy. Additionally,
photographic film can capture almost unlimited shades and
variations of color visible in the real world. Herein lies a major
difference with computer technology. Unlimited resolution and
color is very impractical for the computer.
As you have seen in earlier exercises, higher resolutions and
color translate directly to larger file size. If you try to duplicate
the inherent qualities of a film image on a computer (i.e.,
unlimited resolution and color), you will find that the resulting

General Rules About Bitmapped Images page A-3

 file is so large as to be unmanageable. The question then
becomes: “How can you achieve the quality you need from
computer-based images and still have any disk space left?”
Our answer is actually found not with the computer at all but
with the printing press itself. While it’s true that photographs are
nearly unlimited in clarity and color, printing presses are not.
Even the best, most expensive printing press in the world is only
capable of reproducing a fraction of the actual spectrum of
colors visible by the human eye or those generated by your
computer. In fact, some experts estimate that a four color
process printing press can produce only between 4,000 to
5,000 discernible colors. Remember, your computer is capable
of creating as many as 16.7 million colors and camera film is
capable of even more.
Graphics professionals have always worked within the
restrictions of the best printing press to achieve what the
industry calls “good enough” quality. In other words, they work
backwards from what is achievable. You don’t need unlimited
resolution or color, only enough to achieve the best quality for
the appropriate output.

Basic rules for bitmap images

1. Scan, create and/or edit the image at 100% or larger than
the size it will eventually be used.
€ Remember that bitmapped images are stored as individual
pixels. When you enlarge an image you actually enlarge the
pixels themselves. Enlarge them too much and the pixels
become apparent to the naked eye. This effect is called
pixelization.

€ Therefore, try never to enlarge a bitmapped image from the

size at which it was created or scanned to avoid
pixelization.

€ Images can be scaled smaller without degrading the

quality.

2. Scan or create the image at a resolution (dots-per-inch or ppi)

that is at least two times the halftone resolution (lines-per-inch
or lpi) of your chosen output method. (If you don’t know what
the lpi is, ask your printing vendor.) For typical uses see
“Scanning Resolutions” on page A-5.
3. Scan or convert the image to the output color system. In other
words, don’t use a color photo for black-and-white printing;
don’t use CMYK color for a Web site image.
4. Scale, crop and change color palettes during scanning to save
time and improve quality.

page A-4 General Rules About Bitmapped Images

 Scanning The following chart lists the recommended resolutions for each Note!
Resolutions type of printed output. You can always scan your image at a Resolution is the measure of
higher resolution than the one listed, but there will be little or how many pixels or dots are
no improvement in the resulting output. used per unit of measure-
ment to describe a specific
image. 75 dots-per-inch
Type of output Screening Optimum image (ppi) resolution uses 75 dots
(vertically and horizontally)
resolution resolution per-inch to define an image
or 5,625 dots-per-square-
300 dpi Laser 65 lpi 130 ppi inch. 150 ppi indicates an
printers image using 150 dots-per-
inch or 22,500 dots-per-
Newspapers 85 lpi 170 ppi square-inch. As you can see,
a resolution of 150 ppi actu-
Magazines 133 lpi 266 ppi ally offers four times the
number of dots per square
Art Books 200 lpi 400 ppi inch than 75 ppi and there-
fore four times the effective
35 mm slides 1,000 to 4,000 ppi 1,000-4,000 ppi resolution.

High resolution
laser printers
For laser printers of higher-
resolution (600,1200 dpi or
higher), check with the oper-
ator/owner manual or
contact the manufacturer to
determine the default
screening resolution. Then,
simply multiply that resolu-
tion by 2 to determine an
appropriate scanning
resolution.

General Rules About Bitmapped Images page A-5

Notes

page A-6 General Rules About Bitmapped Images

 System Enhancements Appendix B

To provide the highest level of productivity and to improve system reliability you
0

may consider upgrading your system. To serve as a guide, we offer these

recommendations:

Section 1: System Recommendations

CPU – The heavy use of bitmapped images requires a fast and powerful CPU. We
recommend a Dual-Core processor running at speeds in excess of 2-Gigahertz or
higher or a Mac Pro.
Bus (motherboard) – Just as important as the CPU is the type of bus to which it is
attached. The bus speed pushes the data through the system. Identify the fastest
available and go with it. A fast CPU attached to a slow bus equals a slower
computer.
RAM – You never can have too much RAM. Memory has never been cheaper. Find
out how much your computer and operating system can support and max it out.
You will never regret it. 1GB would be a minimum configuration.
NOTE: Adobe Photoshop CS2 is a RAM-intensive application. You will notice
improved performance in all aspects of Photoshop CS2 by increasing the amount
of RAM you install.
Virtual Memory – Virtual memory uses free hard disk space in place of RAM when
you run low. It is not as fast as RAM, but it allows you to work on files larger than
you could otherwise. Windows and Mac OSX control the installation and
management of the virtual memory. Do not change the default configurations
unless you are knowledgeable in these areas.
Graphics card – There is no substitute for a high-quality graphics card. As much as
the CPU ramps up the overall speed of your computer the graphics card speeds up Note!
the generation and display of the graphics themselves. Look for support of One happy innovation for
resolutions of 1024 by 768 pixels and higher at vertical scanning frequencies of desktop professionals has
been the support for dual
85 Hz or higher. Although some cards are still using the PCI slots of most monitors on the new
computers, choose a graphics card that uses the PCI-Express slot. These are graphics cards. Two moni-
typically faster and more powerful than PCI cards. tors are better than one.
Work on one monitor while
Today, all graphics cards can produce 24-bit color. But some cards are better at you put the tools and
gaming and animation than 2-D image editing. palettes on the other. A
great advantage in effi-
The reason we pay so much attention to the type and quality of your graphics cards ciency.
and other peripherals is that without such equipment it is impossible to edit high-
resolution grayscale or 24-bit images with any certainty that they will output as they
look on your screen.
Monitor/Flat Panel Display – Monitors and flat-panel displays have improved
dramatically over the years and prices have dropped, too. 19- and 20-inch monitors
can be purchased for less than $500 today, flat-panels of similar size are a bit
pricier. Beware. Although large monitors can be obtained often for less than $400,

System Enhancements page B-7

 their usefulness for high-end image editing will be dubious. All monitors are not
created equally.

For high-end image editing or pre-press work

controlling the external environment is essen-
tial. Using a light-dam or monitor hood can
shield the display from uncalibrated light
sources. Such hoods are available from high-
end display manufacturers or pre-press supply
houses.

The gold standard for all monitors are the display resolutions that they support.
Look for resolutions of 1024 x 768 at vertical refresh of 75Hz or higher. Often
cheap monitors claim to support resolutions as high as 1600 x 1200 pixels. But
when you check the refresh rates at that setting it is a dismal 55Hz.
Why do we care? The refresh rate is an indicator of the quality of the monitor and
the quality of the image displayed. The higher the refresh frequency the more stable
the image is, which means less flicker, which means no headaches after 10 hours of
staring at pixels. If at all possible before you buy a monitor test it out at the highest
resolutions and refresh frequencies at which you may use it. If you see it flickering,
don’t buy it. Also, check the return policy. If they won’t take it back when you don’t
like it after two days, then don’t take it in the first place.
The recommended minimum resolution for image editing is 1024 x 768 at
24-bit color.
Hard drive – The hard drive and the computer bus are the two most underrated
components of a microcomputer. Yet, the combination of a fast hard drive and fast
bus can increase data throughput and program performance by several factors. If
you intend to produce many bitmapped images a day, purchase a hard drive as
large and as fast as you can afford. Access time for the hard drive should be
13 milliseconds or faster.
Hard drives used to come in many flavors. Now only a few types exist. Typical off
the shelf drives are based on the ATA form. These are cheap, reliable, and large.
Drives larger than 500 GBs are easily affordable. Desktop ATA drives operate at
speeds of 7200 RPM or higher. Laptops have drives that typically run at 5400 RPM,
although some run more slowly.
SCSI hard drives are still the fastest drives on the market. But the speed offered is
often not worth the cost. SCSI drives are also available at speeds of 10,000 and
15,000 RPM. One downside is that SCSI drives usually require an add-in SCSI
controller card. SCSI drives and controllers are not cheap. Yet, if you need the
ultimate in speed and throughput, go SCSI all the way.
The latest technology for hard drives made its debut in the Macintosh G5. Serial
ATA (SATA) drives offer some of the speed of SCSI at a much lower cost. SATA
drives are promising speeds of 7200RPM with throughput of 150Mbps. Other

page B-8 System Enhancements

 advantages include thinner and longer cables which provide better ventilation and
flexibility, although you still need to buy add-in controller for many computers.
Hard drive controller – Each hard drive is connected to your computer bus by
way of a built-in controller or an add-in interface card. ATA drives are supported
directly by most motherboards, while SCSI and SATA drives require add-in cards. It
is just a matter of time for SATA motherboards to appear, too.

Section 2: Other peripherals

CD-ROM – Today you cannot survive without a CD-ROM drive. All operating
systems and software are currently shipped on laser disc. Floppy disks are all but
dead.
Minimum requirements are for a multi-session drive. CD-ROM are rated by speed.
Look for the fastest, multi-session drive you can find.
CD-RW – More and more people are opting for a CD-burner. Such drives not only
allow you to read standard data and music CD-ROMs, but they also enable you
make your own CDs. Burning your own discs requires special media which can be
purchased in spindles of 25, 50, 100, or more at costs of cents per disc. Each CD-R
disc can hold as much as 800 MBs of data depending on the format and drive.
Most formats are compatible with standard CD players.
DVD-ROM – Rapidly becoming an essential component to current computer users,
the latest laser format is the popular DVD, which can hold up to 4.7GB on a single-
density or 9GB on dual layer discs. Manufacturers who have vast amounts of data
to distribute are experimenting by providing software and other reference materials
by DVD-ROM.
DVD-R/DVD+R – Like the CD-burners, DVD burners enable users to create their
own DVDs. This format is still in development and has not been standardized. The
early discs were the DVD-R format which can only be written to one time. DVD+R
discs can host multiple sessions. Unfortunately, multisession +R discs may not be
compatible on many DVD players or on some Macintoshes. Some discs are
double-sided, requiring you to flip the disc to print on the second side. While newer
dual layer discs can store up to 9GB on one side.

Additional Storage
Today, hard drives have never been cheaper. You can get fast ATA and SCSI drives
in hundreds of gigabyte in sizes for a fraction of the price-per-megabyte several
years ago. However, even the largest hard drive can get filled up quickly working
on high-resolution color images with sizes ranging from 10MB-100MB.
Although multi-gigabyte hard drives do exist, at what point does it become unwise
to put all those eggs in one basket? Even the best and most expensive drives will fail
eventually with the potential of losing all your precise data!!!
One solution is to link multiple hard drives together in what are called “arrays.” The
data written to one drive can be mirrored to another to provide instant backup. But
arrays are expensive and, for most applications, unnecessary.
Several manufacturers offer a variety of on-line or off-line storage devices or
services, ranging from external drives to removable hard drives that can be

System Enhancements page B-9

 swapped and stored on a bookshelf at arm’s reach. Here are some of the
alternatives for removable storage:
Drive arrays – High-priced solution for heavy duty image editing studios. If you
have to put together a product catalog full of four-color images, a drive array is
handy to have and nearly foolproof. Although disk arrays are great for ready on-line
storage, they don’t provide the solution for off-line storage. In other words, what do
you do with the files after the catalog is published?
External and removable hard drives – Another solution rapidly being adopted
by computer users everywhere are external and removable hard drives. Offered in
USB, Firewire, and some proprietary formats, these drives are providing everything
from primary to back-up data storage as well as replacements for internal hard
drives. Considering how much space graphics can consume such drives are almost
a necessity for anyone contemplating a career in image and/or video editing.
In the last few years tape backup systems and removable disc drives have almost
disappeared as drive capacities have dramatically increased. Although tape systems
are still being used in corporate IT departments, most companies are depending on
disk arrays and external drive storage for backup and archiving.
Buy external drives with USB2 or Firewire 800 interface. These are over two times
faster than their alternative cousins. Also, think about using software that automates
the backup and archiving process. Maxtor, Seagate and other manufacturers offer
complete systems for home and office. If you don’t automate it, chances are it
won’t happen!
Jump Drives – Jump drives are small USB flash memory devices that can store
computer files and other data. Today, they come in sizes ranging from 8MB to 4GB.
They are handy, relatively fast and, because they have no moving parts, often safer
than standard hard drives. The form factors of these drives are increasing every year
and allow you to carry your important data along in your pocket or on a key chain.
Backup data, store your latest family photos, or use it for host of other purposes.
One story says that manufacturers are eying flash drives to use in the next
generation of laptops.

Good luck!

page B-10 System Enhancements