History

of
Computers
in
Pictures
 Abacus
2400 BC
Calculating tool
used centuries
before the
written modern
numerical
number system
was adopted.

By HB - Own work, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=88434

 Abacus Soroban
Suanpan
Roman Abacus
Russian Abacus

Supports
Multiplication,
Addition,
Subtraction,
Division,
Square Root

By HB - Own work, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=88434

 Pascaline, 17th Century

https://history-computer.com/MechanicalCalculators/Pioneers/Pascal.html
 Pascaline, 17th Century

Initially called
arithmetic
machine, Pascal’s
calculator. It was
primarily an
adding machine
which could add
and subtract
numbers.
Blaise
Pascal
1623-1662

a French
mathematician,
physicist, inventor,
writer and a
Christian
philosopher

http://totallyhistory.com/blaise-pascal/
 Leibniz Calculator
17th Century

Can perform addition, subtraction, division, multiplication

Actually named Stepped Reckoner
https://www.computerhistory.org/revolution/calculators/1/49
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
1646-1716

Prominent German
polymath and one
of the most
important logicians,
mathematicians
and natural
philosophers of the
Enlightenment.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz
 Analytical Engine – 18 th Century

https://history-computer.com/Babbage/AnalyticalEngine.html
 Analytical Engine
Analytical engine contained many
similar elements to modern digital
computers. For example, Babbage's
engines 'punched card' control; fast
multiplier/divider; a range of
peripherals; even array processing'.

The Science Museum (where lots

of Charles Babbage Inventions are
located) assembled Babbage's
Calculating Engine number 2
according to his original designs in
1991.
 Punched Card

A 12-row/80-column IBM punched card from the mid-twentieth century

*wikipedia.org
Charles
Babbage
1791 – 1871

English mathematician,
philosopher, inventor and
mechanical engineer, who
is best remembered now
for originating the concept
of a programmable
computer; Father of
Computer.
Lady Ada
Lovelace
1815 – 1852

English mathematician,
first computer
programmer; known for
her work on the
Analytical Engine
 Tabulating Machine
Counting
machine used
in the 1890
US census.

It used
punched
cards to
represent an
individual’s
census data

https://web.archive.org/web/20090719073019/https://www.census.gov/history/www/technology/010873.html
Herman
Hollerith
1860 – 1929

American
businessman, inventor,
and statistician who
developed an
electromechanical
tabulating machine
Konrad
Zuse
1910 - 1995

German civil
engineer, inventor
and computer
pioneer; Created
Z1-Z4
Konrad Zuse faced a serious problem, while studying
the construction of buildings and roads.

This type of construction was very hard to be done by means of mechanical

calculator of his time.
Z1 – Z4
1936 - 1943
Checkpoint 1:

1. Give 3 earliest computing devices

2. Give the computing machine associated with the
maker
2.1 Charles Babbage
2.2 Konrad Zuse
2.3 Herman Hollerith
 HP 200A Audio
Oscillator
1939
Hewlett-Packard is founded.
David Packard and Bill Hewlett
found Hewlett-Packard in a Palo
Alto, California garage. Their
first product was the HP 200A
Audio Oscillator, which rapidly
became a popular piece of test
equipment for engineers.
Walt Disney Pictures ordered eight of the 200B model to use as
sound effects generators for the 1940 movie “Fantasia.”
Atanasoff Berry Computer
1942

First electronic digital

computer
Built at Iowa State
College (now
University), the ABC
was designed and
built by Professor
John Vincent
Atanasoff and
graduate student Cliff
Berry between 1939
and 1942.
 Atanasoff Berry Computer
1942
The ABC was at the center
of a patent dispute relating
to which is the first
electronic digital computer

Patent dispute was

resolved in 1973 (in favor
of the ABC) when it was
shown that ENIAC co-
designer John Mauchly had
come to examine the ABC
shortly after it became
functional.
 The first Colossus is operational at

Colossus Bletchley Park. It was designed by

British engineer Tommy Flowers.
1944 The Colossus was designed to
break the complex Lorenz ciphers
used by the Nazis during WWII.
Alan Turing
1912 - 1954

English
mathematician,
computer scientist,
cryptanalyst,
philosopher, and
theoretical biologist

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Turing
Alan Turing is considered to be the father of the modern
computer and was credited by Winston Churchill for making “the
single biggest contribution to the allied victory” in World War II
Harvard Mark 1
1944
 Harvard Mark 1
1944
Harvard Mark-1 is completed.
Conceived by Harvard
professor Howard Aiken, and
designed and built by IBM, the
Harvard Mark-1 was a room-
sized, relay-based calculator.

The Mark-1 was used to

produce mathematical tables
but was soon superseded by
stored program computers.
ENIAC Electronic Numerical Integrator
and Computer
1946
ENIAC
1946
the ENIAC was initially
commissioned for the use
in World War II, but not
completed until one year
after the war had ended .

When ENIAC was announced in 1946 it was heralded in the press

as a "Giant Brain". It had a speed of one thousand times that of
electro-mechanical machines.
ENIAC ENIAC contained
17,468 vacuum tubes,
1946 7,200 crystal diodes,
1,500 relays,
70,000 resistors,
10,000 capacitors and
around 5 million hand-soldered joints.

It weighed more than 30 short tons (27 t),

was roughly 8 by 3 by 100 feet (2.4 m ×
0.9 m × 30 m),
took up 1800 square feet (167 m2), and
consumed 150 kW of power. Speed was
5000 operations per second.

ENIAC was conceived and designed by

John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert of the
University of Pennsylvania
Vaccuum Tube
EDVAC
1947
EDVAC Electronic Discrete Variable
Automatic Computer
1947
The EDVAC is the successor of
the ENIAC. Made by the same
designers: Mauchly and Eckert.

The design would implement a

number of important
architectural and logical
improvements conceived
during the ENIAC's construction
and would incorporate a high-
speed serial access memory
Manchester Mark I
1949

The first stored

program digital
computer

Prototype for the

Ferranti Mark I,
 John von
Neumann
1903 – 1957

Hungarian-born American
mathematician who is
widely credited with
defining that stored-
program computer
architecture, on which the
Manchester Mark 1 was
based.

https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/John_von_Neumann
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchester_Mark_1#CITEREFLavington1998
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plugboard
 Electronic Delay Storage Automatic
EDSAC Calculator was an early British computer.

1949
EDSAC the
second
usefully
operational
electronic
digital stored-
program
computer.
EDSAC
1949 It was constructed by
Maurice Wilkes and his
team at the University of
Cambridge Mathematical
Laboratory in England.

EDSAC ran its first

programs on 6 May 1949,
when it calculated a table
of squares and a list of
prime numbers
UNIVAC
1951
UNIVAC
1951 UNIVAC is an acronym
for UNIVersal Automatic
Computer. It is the first
general purpose computer
for commercial use.

The descendants of the

UNIVAC line continue
today as products of the
Unisys company.
Checkpoint 2:

1. What is the first electronic digital computer?

2. Which computer was used to decipher Lorenz’
codes in WWII?
3. Which computer was used to tabulate election
results in the US in the 1950s?
4. What is the first stored program digital computer
5. Give the computer associated with the following
5.1 Prof Atanasoff
5.2 Mauchly and Eckert
SAGE Semi-Automatic Ground Environment
1954
A gigantic computerized
air defense system, SAGE
was designed to help the
Air Force track radar data
in real time.

Equipped with technical

advances such as
modems and graphical
displays, the machine
weighed 300 tons and
occupied one floor of a
concrete blockhouse.
NEAC 2203 Manufactured by
the Nippon Electric
1960 Company (NEC),
the drum-based
machine was one
of the earliest
transistorized
Japanese
computers.

It was used for

business, scientific
and engineering
applications.
Transistors
CDC For a time the fastest machine in
the world, Control Data
Corporation's 6600 machine was
6600 designed by noted computer
architect Seymour Cray.
1964
 It performed up to 3 million

CDC 6600 instructions per second — a

processing speed three times
1964 faster than that of its closest
competitor, the IBM Stretch.

The 6600 retained the

distinction of being the
fastest computer in the world
until surpassed by its
successor, the CDC 7600, in
1968. Part of the speed came
from the computer´s design,
which had 10 small
computers, known as
peripheral processors,
funneling data to a large
central processing unit.
IBM System 360 IBM announced the
System/360, a family of six
mutually compatible
1964
computers and 40
peripherals that could work
together.
 The initial investment of

IBM System 360 $5 billion was quickly

returned as orders for
1964 the system climbed to
1,000 per month within
two years.
At the time IBM
released the
System/360, the
company was making a
transition from discrete
transistors to integrated
circuits, and its major
source of revenue
moved from punched-
card equipment to
electronic computer
systems.
Integrated Circuit
Chip
 The first successful commercial
DEC PDP minicomputer, the PDP-8, made
by the Digital Equipment
1965 Corporation
DEC PDP
1965
It sold more than 50,000
units upon its release, the
most of any computer up to
that time.

The PDP-8 sold for

$18,000, one-fifth the price
of a small IBM 360
mainframe. The speed,
small size, and reasonable
cost enabled the PDP-8 to
go into thousands of
manufacturing plants,
small businesses, and
scientific laboratories.
Apollo Guidance Computer
1968
Apollo Guidance Computer
1968 The Apollo Guidance
Computer made its
debut orbiting the
Earth on Apollo 7. A
year later, it steered
Apollo 11 to the lunar
surface. Astronauts
communicated with
the computer by
punching two-digit
codes and the
appropriate syntactic
category into the
display and keyboard
unit.
Interface Message Conceived at the height
of the Cold War, when

Processor the U.S. government

sought a way to keep
its network of
1969 computers alive in case
certain nodes were
destroyed in a nuclear
attack or other hostile
act
 Interface Message
Processor
The IMP featured the first
generation of gateways,
which are today known as
routers. As such, IMP
performed a critical task in the
development of the ARPANET
(Advanced Research Projects
Agency Network), the world's
first operational packet
switching network, and the
predecessor of the
contemporary global Internet.
Checkpoint 3:

1. First successful supercomputer

2. First successful mainframe launched by IBM
3. Computer which helped in the development of
ARPANET
Kenbak - 1
1971
 Often considered the
Kenbak - 1 world's first "personal
computer" the Kenbak
1971 was touted as an
easy-to-use
educational tool, but it
failed to sell more than
several dozen units.
Lacking a
microprocessor, it had
only 256 bytes of
computing power and
its only output was a
series of blinking
lights. It closed its
doors in 1973 after
selling only 40 units
Altair 8800
1975
 Within weeks of the
Altair 8800 computer´s debut, customers
inundated the manufacturing
1975 company, MITS, with orders.

Bill Gates and Paul Allen

licensed BASIC as the
software language for the
Altair.

Ed Roberts invented the 8800

— which sold for $297, or
$395 with a case — and
coined the term "personal
computer." The machine came
with 256 bytes of memory
(expandable to 64K)
Apple 1
1976
Apple 1
Initially conceived by Steve
Wozniak (a.k.a. "Woz") as a
build-it-yourself kit
computer, Apple I was
initially rejected by his
bosses at Hewlett-Packard.

Undeterred, he offered it to
Silicon Valley's Homebrew
Computer Club and,
together with his friend The suggested retail price: $666.
Steve Jobs, managed to sell
Though sales were low (200 units
50 pre-built models to The sold), the machine paved the way
Byte Shop in Mountain for the smash success of the
View, California. Apple II (which sold in millions).
Apple II
1977
Apple II The Apple II became an
instant success when
released in 1977 with its
1977 printed circuit
motherboard, switching
power supply, keyboard,
case assembly, manual,
game paddles, A/C
powercord, and cassette
tape with the computer
game "Breakout."

When hooked up to a
color television set, the
Apple II produced brilliant
color graphics.
 At the time of its release, the
Cray Cray-1 was the fastest computing
machine in the world.
1976
 Despite its price tag
Cray — between $5 and
$10 million — it
1976 sold well. It is one
of the many
machines designed
by Seymour Cray, a
computer architect
who devoted his life
to the creation of
so-called
supercomputers,
machines which
prioritized
processing capacity
and speed of
calculation.
TRS
1977
VAX 780
1978
VAX 780
1978

The VAX 11/780 from

Digital Equipment
Corp. featured the
ability to address up to
4.3 gigabytes of
virtual memory,
providing hundreds of
times the capacity of
most minicomputers.
Atari 400
1979 Atari introduces the Model
400 and 800 Computer.

Shortly after delivery of the

Atari VCS game console,
Atari designed two
microcomputers with game
capabilities: the Model 400
and Model 800. The two
machines were built with
the idea that the 400 would
serve primarily as a game
console
Atari 800 While the 800 would be more of a
home computer. Both sold well,
1979 though they had technical and
marketing problems, and faced
strong competition from the Apple
II, Commodore PET, and TRS-80
computers.
IBM PC IBM introduced its PC, igniting a
1981 fast growth of the personal
computer market. The first PC ran
on a 4.77 MHz Intel 8088
microprocessor and used
Microsoft´s MS-DOS operating
system.

Featuring an independent
keyboard, printer and monitor, the
slick, complete-looking package
that was the IBM PC helped push
personal computing out of the
hobbyist's garage and into the
corporate and consumer
mainstream.
Osborne
1981
Commodore 64
1982
Hewlett Packard 150
1983
Apple Lisa
1983
Apple Macintosh
1984
IBM PS2
1987
Checkpoint 4:

1. First attempt at personal computer

2. Who coined the term ‘personal computer’?
3. First real mainstream personal computer
4. Give another supercomputer produced in the
1970s
5. Give a minicomputer produced by DEC
6. Give 3 brands of microcomputers discussed
NeXT
1988
Deep Blue
1997
I Phone
2007
I Pad
2010
Google Glass
2012
https://www.google.com/glass/start/
Apple Watch - 2014
https://www.apple.com/ph/shop/buy-watch/apple-watch
References
A Brief History of Computer History – Photo Essays - TIME
http://content.time.com/time/photogallery/0,29307,1956593,00.html#ixzz
2jkitT1jn

Videos
BBC History of Computers
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6dME3wgaQpM&list=PL1331A4548513
EA81

Cambridge Education – History of Computers

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4diPtsUv3sg

Timeline of Computer History

http://www.computerhistory.org/timeline/?category=cmptr
http://history-computer.com/ModernComputer/Relays/Zuse.html
THANK YOU!!
 Overview of
z Information and
Communications
Technology
Introduction to Computers

Elements of a Computer System

Classification of Computers
Capabilities and Limitations of a Computer
History of Computing
ELEMENTS OF COMPUTER SYSTEM

➢ HARDWARE
Physical components of the computer system

➢ SOFTWARE
Instructions that run the computer system

➢ PEOPLEWARE
The people involved in the information
technology system whether as user or developer
 HARDWARE

Image source: Pinterest

 SOFTWARE

Image source: Simplilearn.com

Image source: Javatpoint.com

Image source: Samsung.com

 PEOPLEWARE

Image source: ogl.co.uk

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
Computer systems can be classified based on the
following:

1. According to Size

2. According to Types of Data Handling

3. According to Purpose
 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

1. According to Size

➢ Supercomputer

➢ Mainframe

➢ Minicomputer

➢ Microcomputer
 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

By size Supercomputer

Used for intensive

computation

• Weather
forecasting
• Climate research
• Oil Exploration
• Molecular
modelling
• Quantum
mechanics
• Cryptanalysis

Image source: Autodesk.com

 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

By size Supercomputer

CRAY
Image source: britannica.com
Watch

Japanese Fugaku Supercomputer Is Now World's Fastest, Twice Faster Than IBM
Summit

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BqebM9SoAlk
 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

Supercomputers

➢ They are used for performing complex mathematical

calculations.
➢ Mostly used by scientists and mathematicians
➢ They have huge memories & tremendous processing
speed.
➢ They are huge computers installed in space centres,
nuclear power stations etc.
➢ They are used for weather forecasting, animation graphics
etc.
 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
By size Mainframe

Usually used for

bulk processing

• Census Data
Processing

• Transaction
Processing

Image source: Itp.net

 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
By size Mainframe

Image source: nbcnews.com

IBM SYSTEM /360
 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

Mainframe Computers

➢ They are big computer systems sensitive to temperature,

humidity, dust etc.
➢ Qualified & trained operators are required to operate them.
➢ They have wide range of peripherals attached.
➢ They have large storage capacity. They can use wide
variety of softwares.
➢ They are not user friendly. They can be used for more
mathematical calculations.
➢ They are installed in large commercial places or
government organizations.
 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

Microcomputers

➢ They are cheap and user friendly.

➢ The main components are Monitor, CPU, Keyboard,
Mouse, Speakers, Modem and Printer.
➢ They have limited peripherals attached to them.
➢ This type of computers can use wide range of softwares.
➢ Their operation can be easily learnt by anyone having
logical aptitude.
 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

By size Minicomputer

Lesser than a
mainframe in
terms of

• Size
• Price
• Memory
• Speed
• Functionality

Image source: Quora

 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

Minicomputers

➢ They have less memory & storage capacity than

mainframe computers.
➢ They offer limited range of peripherals.
➢ Limited range of softwares can be used by them.
➢ The end users can directly operate it.
➢ They are not very sensitive to the external environment
 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

1. According to Data Handling

➢ Analog

➢ Digital

➢ Hybrid
 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

By Data Handling
Analog Vs. Digital

Analog Computers are devices in which continuously variable physical

quantities such as electrical potential, fluid pressure, or mechanical
motion are represented in a way similar to the corresponding quantities in
the problem to be solved.

While

Digital Computers performs calculations and logical operations with

quantities represented as digits, usually in the binary number system of
“0” and “1”, “Computer capable of solving problems by processing
information expressed in discrete form. from manipulation of the
combinations of the binary digits.

https://www.britannica.com/technology/analog-computer
https://www.britannica.com/technology/analog-computer
Analog devices displays data in continuous form

Examples: Speedometer, Oscilloscope

Digital devices transform all data into binary form (0

and 1), and then it executes all operations on them.

Example : personal computers

 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

By Data Handling
Hybrid

Hybrid computer is a digital computer that accepts

analog signals, converts them to digital and
processes them in digital form

Examples:

Gas pump station

MRI, ECG machines in hospitals

* https://www.britannica.com/technology/analog-computer
 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

1. According to Purpose

➢ Special Purpose

➢ Generap Purpose
 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

2. According to Purpose

➢ Special Purpose Computers

- Dedicated to a specific task

- May be more efficient because of specialized
programs (advantage)

➢ General Purpose Computers

- Handles a variety of tasks

- Versatile (advantage)
Capabilities and Limitations of Computers
USES OF COMPUTERS

http://en.allexperts.com/q/Understanding-Computers-
3627/processing.htm

http://www.techspeed.com/dataprocessing.php?gclid=CJT-
1MnguboCFedapgodjmMA_w

http://ejaz007.expertscolumn.com/article/data-processing-operations

http://innovativebox.blogspot.com/2012/12/types-of-data-
processing.html

http://www.datasciencecentral.com/profiles/blogs/batch-vs-real-time-
data-processing
NUMBER SYSTEMS

Whole Number Conversions

 Learning Outcomes
1. Distinguish the various number systems.

2. Perform number system conversion.

3. Perform number system arithmetic.

4. Represent data using the different data representation

techniques.
WHOLE NUMBER CONVERSIONS

1) From Decimal to Other Number System

2) From Other Number System to Decimal

3) From Octal to Binary and Binary to Octal

4) From Hexadecimal to Binary and Binary to Hexadecimal

5) From Octal to Hexadecimal and Hexadecimal to Octal

 VALID VALUES

DECIMAL 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

BINARY 0 1

OCTAL 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

HEXADECIMAL 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F

A = 10, B = 11, C = 12, D = 13, E = 14, F = 15

 CONVERSION

From
DECIMAL
to
ANY NUMBER SYSTEM
CONVERSION FROM DECIMAL TO

BINARY, DIVISOR IS 2

OCTAL, DIVISOR IS 8

HEXADECIMAL, DIVISOR IS 16

Steps :

Divide the decimal number by the divisor until the

quotient becomes zero (0).

The remainder should be noted down for each division

step.

Then the remainders are read in reverse order.

DECIMAL TO Division Quotient Remainder
BINARY 26
CONVERSION ------ = 13 0
2
Convert 26 to 13
binary ------ = 6 1
2

6
26 = 110102 ------ =3 0
2

3
------ =1 1
2

1
------ =0 1
2
DECIMAL TO OCTAL CONVERSION
Convert 426 to octal

Division Quotient Remainder

426
------ = 53 2
8

53
426 = 6528 ------ = 6 5
8

6
------ =0 6
8
DECIMAL TO HEXADECIMAL CONVERSION
Convert 348 to hexadecimal

Division Quotient Remainder

348
------ = 21 12
16

21
348 = 15C16 ------ = 1 5
16

1
------ =0 1
16
 CONVERSION

From
ANY NUMBER SYSTEM
to
DECIMAL
CONVERSION FROM ANY NUMBER SYSTEM TO
DECIMAL

Take note of the positional weight of the digits in the number

systems

Binary number 1 1 0 1 02

Octal number 4 2 68

Hexadecimal number 1 5 C16

Multiply each digit to be converted with its positional weight

depending on the base of the number.
CONVERSION FROM ANY BINARY SYSTEM TO
DECIMAL

Example Binary number 1 1 0 1 02

Multiply each bit with its positional weight depending on the

base (radix) of the number system

= 1 X 24 + 1 X 23 + 0 X 22 + 1 X 21 + 0 X 20
= 1 X 16 + 1 X 8 + 0 X 4 + 1 X 2 + 0 X 1
= 16 + 8 + 0 + 2 + 0
= 26

Hence 1 1 0 1 02 = 2610
CONVERSION FROM ANY OCTAL SYSTEM TO
DECIMAL

Example Octal number 6 5 28

Multiply each digit with its positional weight depending on

the base of the number system

= 6 X 8 2 + 5 X 8 1 + 2 X 80

= 6 X 64 + 5 X 8 + 2 X 1
= 384 + 40 + 2
= 426

Hence 6528 = 42610

CONVERSION FROM HEXADECIMAL SYSTEM TO
DECIMAL

Example Hexadecimal number 1 5 C16

Multiply each digit with its positional weight depending on

the base of the number system

= 1 X 162 + 5 X 161 + 12 X 160

= 1 X 256 + 5 X 16 + 12 X 1
= 256 + 80 + 12
= 348

Hence 1 5C16 = 34810

 CONVERSION

From
BINARY to OCTAL
and
VICE VERSA
CONVERSION FROM BINARY TO OCTAL

In an octal number system the maximum digit is

7, which is represented in binary as 1112

To convert binary to octal,

- Group the digits by 3s starting at the least

significant bit (LSB) which is the leftmost

- Replace each group by the decimal equivalent

CONVERSION FROM BINARY TO OCTAL

Example 1011010102
- Group the digits by 3s starting at the least
significant bit (LSB) which is the leftmost

101 101 010

- Replace each group by the octal equivalent

101 101 010

5 5 2

Hence 1011010102 = 5528

CONVERSION FROM OCTAL TO BINARY

- Each octal digit is converted into a 3-bit-

equivalent binary number

- Combine all the digits to get the final binary

equivalent

Example 5528

5 5 2
101 101 010

Therefore : 5528 = 1011010102

 CONVERSION

From
BINARY to HEXADECIMAL
and
VICE VERSA
CONVERSION FROM BINARY TO HEXADECIMAL

In a hexadecimal number system the maximum

digit is 15, which is represented in binary as
11112
To convert binary to hexadecimal,

- Group the digits by 4s starting at the least

significant bit (LSB) which is the leftmost

- Replace each group by the hexadecimal

equivalent
CONVERSION FROM BINARY TO HEXADECIMAL

Example 1011010102
- Group the digits by 4s starting at the least
significant bit (LSB) which is the leftmost

0001 0110 1010

- Replace each group by the hexadecimal

equivalent

0001 0110 1010

1 6 A

Hence 1011010102 = 16A16

CONVERSION FROM HEXADECIMAL TO BINARY

- Each hexadecimal digit is converted into a 4-

bit-equivalent binary number

- Combine all the digits to get the final binary

equivalent

Example 16A16

1 6 A
0001 0110 1010

Therefore : 16A16 = 1011010102

 CONVERSION

From
OCTAL to HEXADECIMAL
and
VICE VERSA
CONVERSION FROM OCTAL TO HEXADECIMAL

- Convert the octal number to its binary

equivalent
- Form groups of 4 bits starting from LSB
- Write the equivalent hexadecimal for each
group of 4 bits
CONVERSION FROM HEXADECIMAL TO OCTAL

- Convert the hexadecimal number to its

binary equivalent
- Form groups of 3 bits starting from LSB
- Write the equivalent octal for each group of
3 bits
CONVERSION FROM OCTAL TO HEXADECIMAL
Example : 5528
- Convert the octal number to its binary
equivalent
5 5 2
101 101 010
- Form groups of 4 bits starting from LSB
101101010 → 0001 0110 1010

- Write the equivalent hexadecimal for each

group of 4 bits
0001 0110 1010
1 6 A

Therefore : 5528 = 16A16

CONVERSION FROM HEXADECIMAL TO OCTAL
Example : 16C16
- Convert the hexadecimal number to its
binary equivalent
1 6 C
0001 0110 1100
- Form groups of 3 bits starting from LSB
101101100 → 101 101 100

- Write the equivalent octal for each group of

3 bits
101 101 100
5 5 4

Therefore : 16C16 = 5548

CONVERSIONS

1) From Decimal to Other Number System

2) From Other Number System to Decimal

3) From Octal to Binary and Binary to Octal

4) From Hexadecimal to Binary and Binary to Hexadecimal

5) From Octal to Hexadecimal and Hexadecimal to Octal

References:

Digital Principles and Logic Design

A. Saba & N. Manna
DATA REPRESENTATION
Alphanumeric Representation
Alphanumeric Codes

▪ ASCII (American Standard Code for Information

Interchange) code
➢ each character is represented by a string of 7 bit code, 8th
bit for parity bit
➢ 128 characters are defined
➢ Usually used for personal computers
Alphanumeric Codes

▪ EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code)

➢ each character is represented by a string of 8 bit code, 9th
bit for parity bit
➢ 256 characters are defined
➢ Usually used for mainframe
➢ Developed by IBM in 1963
Alphanumeric Codes

▪ Unicode
➢ Unicode is the universal character encoding standard,
maintained by the Unicode Consortium.
➢ Unicode covers all the characters for all the writing systems of
the world, modern and ancient – as of Version 13.0, the
Unicode Standard contains 143,859 characters

https://www.unicode.org/faq/basic_q.html
ASCII Table
EBCIDIC TABLE
Parity Bit

In the process of transmitting binary information, any external

noise introduced may change bit values from 0 to 1 or vice versa.

An error detection code can be used to detect errors during

transmission.

A parity bit is an extra bit added in a string of binary code to

make the total of 1s either odd or even.
Two types :

1.Even parity

2.Odd parity
Two types :

1. Even parity - for a given set of bits, the occurrences of

bits whose value is 1 is counted. If that count is odd, the
parity bit value is set to 1, making the total count of
occurrences of 1s in the whole set (including the parity
bit) an even number. If the count of 1s in a given set of
bits is already even, the parity bit's value is 0.

Even Parity - Examples for ASCII representation, 7 bits for

the character, 8th bit for the parity bit (in red are the parity
bits)

0 101 0011 S (83 – dec, 53 – hex)

1 100 1010 J (74 – dec, 4A – hex)
Two types :

2. Odd parity - For a given set of bits, if the count of bits

with a value of 1 is even, the parity bit value is set to 1
making the total count of 1s in the whole set (including
the parity bit) an odd number. If the count of bits with a
value of 1 is odd, the count is already odd so the parity
bit's value is 0.

Odd Parity (in red are the parity bits)

1 101 0011 S (83 – dec, 53 – hex)

0 100 1010 J (74 – dec, 4A – hex)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parity_bit
How does it work?

▪ In the sending end, the message is applied to a “parity

generation” circuit where the required parity bit is
generated
▪ The message, including the parity bit, is transferred to
its destination
▪ In the receiving end, all the incoming bits are applied to
a “parity check” circuit to check the proper parity
adopted
▪ An error is detected if the checked parity does not
correspond to the adopted one

This mechanism enables the detection of single bit errors

This mechanism enables the detection of single bit errors
If 2 bits flipped during transmission, the error will not be
detected

Odd Parity (parity bits in red)

1 101 0011  original message to be sent

1 110 0011 <- 2 bits changed (in blue) during transmission, but will
pass parity check
ASCII Table

Even parity check

A 0 100 0001
m 1 110 1101
V 0 101 0110

Odd parity check

g 0 110 0111
EBCIDIC TABLE

Odd parity check

A 0 1100 0001
I 1 1100 1001
End
Data Representation
NUMBERS
Introduction

Computers and other digital circuits process data in binary

format.

Various binary codes are used to represent data which

maybe numeric, alphabetic or special characters.

In digital systems in every code used, the information is

represented in binary form, but the interpretation of the data
is only possible if the code in which the data is being
represented is known.

10000102 = 66 (decimal) in straight binary

= 42 in Binary Coded Decimal
= B in ASCII code
Numeric Representation

Decimal Digit Representation

1) Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)

2) Unpacked Decimal Format

3) Packed Decimal Format

Numeric Representation

Decimal Digit Representation

Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) - coding scheme relating

decimal and binary numbers. Four (4) bits are required to
code each decimal number
Examples
789 --→ 0111100010012

7 8 9
0111 1000 1001

105 → 1000001012

0001 0000 0101

123
890
Numeric Representation

Decimal Digit Representation

Unpacked Decimal Format - also called zoned decimal format

➢ Uses 1 byte for each digit of the decimal number

➢ Represents the values 0 to 9 in the least significant 4 bits of 1
byte
➢ In the most significant 4 bits, called the zoned bits, 1111 is stored
➢ The 4 bits that represent the sign is stored in the zoned bits of
the least significant digit (Positive and 0 is represented by 1100
while negative is 1101)
Examples
789 →

7 8 9
11110111 11111000 11001001

-105 →

1 0 5
11110001 11110000 11010101
123
890
Numeric Representation

Decimal Digit Representation

Packed Decimal Format -

➢ One 1 byte represents 2 digits of the decimal number

➢ The least significant 4 bits represent the sign
▪ The bit pattern of the sign is the same as that of the
unpacked decimal format , Positive and 0 is
represented by 1100 while negative is 1101
Examples
789 →

7 8 9 +(sign bit)
0111 1000 1001 1100

-105 →

1 0 5 - (sign bit)
0001 0000 0101 1101
Examples
1789 →

1 7 8 9 +(sign bit)
0000 0001 0111 1000 1001 1100

1 byte 1 byte 1 byte

123
890
5603
Numeric Representation

Binary Digit Representation

1) Signed Binary Numbers

- Absolute value representation

2) Fixed Point

3) Floating Point
Absolute Value Representation

Uses an 8-bit representation where the first bit

corresponds to the sign and the last seven bits to the
value of the number. 0 for positive and 1 for
negative.

Limitations
1. With the 8-bit representation, the range of numeric
values that can be represented is only
-127 to 127
2. Value 0 can be represented as 00000000 (positive)
and 10000000 (negative) which makes the operation
more complicated
Absolute Value Representation

Examples
100011002 = -1210

000011002 = +1210
 FIXED POINT vs FLOATING POINT

A fixed point number just means that there are a fixed number of digits after the
decimal point. A floating point number allows for a varying number of digits after the
decimal point.

For example, if you have a way of storing numbers that requires exactly four digits after
the decimal point, then it is fixed point. Without that restriction it is floating point.

Floating point numbers are more general purpose because they can represent very
small or very large numbers in the same way, but there is a small penalty in having to
have extra storage for where the decimal place goes.

https://stackoverflow.com/questions/7524838/fixed-point-vs-floating-point-number
Floating Point

➢ Used to represent real number data type

➢ Normally used for scientific and engineering fields
requiring complicated calculations
➢ Represents either extremely large or small size of
data

Example:
1,500,000,000 - instead of writing 8 zeroes, this is written
as 15 X 108
In floating point, it would be written as
1.5 X 109 Exponent

Mantissa Radix
Steps in Decimal to Floating Point Conversion (IEEE)
(IEEE - Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineering)

Step 1 : Convert decimal number to binary

Example : 510 -> 1012

Step 2 : Write the binary number in scientific notation
or floating point format (normalized)

Example : 510 -> 1012

510 -> 1012 -> 1.01 X 22

A floating point number is normalized when we force

the integer part of its mantissa to be exactly 1
Step 3 : Write the number in IEEE floating point
representation

Floating point representation

S Exponent Mantissa portion (23 bits)

portion
(8 bits)

Sign bit
0-positive Only binary fraction, lower
1-negative than 1 can be represented

Radix is 2
Step 3 : Floating point representation
Exponent Portion

Example : 510 -> 1012 -> 1.01 X 22

The exponent portion
To bias exponent in IEEE, add 127 to the exponent
(see next slide for the explanation of biasing the exponent)

• Bias the exponent by adding 127 ---> 2 + 127 = 129

• And convert to binary, 129 ---> 10000001

0 10000001

Sign Bit Biased Exponent

Biasing of Exponent

➢ Is used to be able to represent both positive and

negative exponents to be represented as positive
n-bit integers

➢ To get the biased exponent in IEEE, add the bias

which is 127 to the exponent.*

The bias of 127 is taken from

the formula 2n-1 - 1 where n is the number
of bits of the exponent which is 8

* Bias of 127 is for single precision floating point, IEEE 754

Step 3 : Floating point representation
Mantissa Portion

Example : 510 -> 1012 -> 1.01 X 22

The mantissa portion

The binary fraction equivalent to the mantissa -1 is registered.
In other words, 1 is considered to be omitted.

1.01 - 1 = .01

0 10000001 01000000000000000000000
Example # 2

Step 1 : Get the binary equivalent of the decimal

number
.0937510 -> .000112

0.09375 X 2 = 0.1875
0.1875 X 2 = 0.375
0.375 X 2 = 0.75
0.75 X 2 = 1.5
0.5 X 2 = 1.0
Example # 2

Step 2 : Write the binary number in scientific notation

.0937510 -> .000112 -> 1.1 X 2-4

Step 3 : Write the number in floating point format

.0937510 -> 0.000112 -> 1.1 X 2-4

0 01111011 10000000000000000000000

For the exponent,

Bias the exponent and convert to binary.

-4 - > 127 + (-4) = 123 -> 01111011 (biased)

For the mantissa,

1.1 - 1 = 0.1
Example 3: 32.125
Example 3: 32.125

By continuous division By continuous multiplication

convert 32 to binary convert .125 to binary
32 / 2 = 16 r 0 .125 X 2 = 0.25
16 / 2 = 8 r 0 .25 X 2 = 0.5
8 /2=4 r 0 .5 X 2 = 1.0
4 /2=2 r 0
2 / 2=1 r 0
1 / 2= 0 r 1

32 = 1000002 .125 = .0012

32.125 = 100000.0012
Step 2 : Get the scientific notation of the number
32.12510 = 100000.0012

In scientific notation 1.00000001 X 25

Step 3 : Write in floating point format

0 10000100 000000010000000000000
References:

Introduction to Computer Systems

Japan Information-Technology Engineers Examination Center
Information-Technology Promotion Agency, Japan

https://www.wikihow.com/Convert-a-Number-from-Decimal-to-IEEE-754-
Floating-Point-Representation
NUMBER SYSTEMS
Arithmetic
Addition

The procedure of adding two numbers

(octal, hexadecimal, binary) is same as
that of two decimal numbers.

Addition is carried out from the least

significant bit (LSB) and it proceeds to
higher significant digits, adding the carry
resulting from the addition of two
previous digits each time.
Examples

Octal Addition
Example 1

747
+ 007
Examples

Octal Addition
Example 1
1
747 7 4 7
+ 007 + 0 0 7
14
- 8 (subtact 8 once, carry 1)
6
Examples

Octal Addition
Example 1
1
747 7 4 7
+ 007 + 0 0 7
14
- 8 (subtact 8 once, carry 1)
5 6
Examples

Octal Addition
Example 1
1
747 7 4 7
+ 007 + 0 0 7
14
- 8 (subtact 8 once, carry 1)
7 5 6
Examples

Octal Addition
Example 1

747 7 4 7
+ 007 + 0 0 7
756 14
- 8 (subtact 8 once, carry 1)
7 5 6

Example 2
1101
+ 7657
Examples

Octal Addition
Example 1

747 7 4 7
+ 007 + 0 0 7
756 14
- 8 (subtact 8 once, carry 1)
7 5 6

Example 2
1101
+ 7657
10760
Examples

Hexadecimal Addition Example 1

BAD
+ CA
Examples

Hexadecimal Addition Example 1

1 1
BAD B A D
+ CA + C A
23 23
- 16 16
C 7 7
Hexadecimal Addition Example 2
Examples

Binary Addition

(1)
1 0 1 0

+ 1 1 0 1
___________________________________

1 2 1 1 1
2
____________________________________
1 0 1 1 1
Examples

(1) (1) (1) carry

0 1 1 0

+ 1 1 1 1
________________________________
2 3 2 1
- 2 2 2
________________________________
1 0 1 0 1
Subtraction

The procedure of subtracting two (octal,

hexadecimal, binary) numbers using the
direct method is same as decimal
subtraction.

The direct method of subtraction uses

the concept of borrow. In this method,
we borrow from a higher significant
position when the minuend digit is
smaller than the corresponding
subtrahend digit.
Examples

Octal Subtraction

747
- 157
570

1600
- 657
721
Examples

Hexadecimal Subtraction

BAD
- CA
AE3

BEAD
- AFE
B3AF
Examples

1 1 0 1

- 1 0 0 1
________________________________

1 0 0
Examples

1 1 1 0

- 1 0 0 1
________________________________

1 0 1
Examples

1 1 0 0

- 1 0 0 1
________________________________

1 1
Examples

1 0 0 0

- 1 1 1
________________________________

1
Binary Subtraction

Three (3) ways:

▪ The direct method (see previous

slides)
▪ 2’s complement
▪ 1’s complement
Subtraction - By Complements

Complements are used in digital computers for

simplifying the subtraction operation and for logical
manipulations.

There are two types of complements for each number

system of base r:
- the r complement
- The r-1 complement

So for binary the value of r is 2 so we have the 2’s (r’s)

complement and the 1’s (r-1’s) complement
1’s Complement

To get the 1’s complement of a binary number, the “0” and “1”
bits of the original bit string are switched.

Ex. 101102 → 010012

2’s Complement

2’s complement is the 1’s complement bit string plus 1.

Ex. the 2’s complement of 101102

010012  1’s complement of 10110
+ 1
010102  2’s complement of 10110
Binary Subtraction (Using 1’s complement)

Procedure
1. Get the 1's complement of the subtrahend.
2. Add the 1’s complement of the subtrahend to the minuend
3. If carry is generated, remove the carry, add it to the result

1101
1101 (minuend)
-1001 (subtrahend) +0110 <- 1’s complement of 1001

10011 <- remove the carry

+ ___ _ 1 <- add the carry

0100
Binary Subtraction (Using 2’s complement)

Procedure
1. Get the 2's complement of the subtrahend.
2. Add the 2’s complement of the subtrahend to the minuend
3. If carry is generated, remove the carry.

1101
1101
-0111 + 1 0 0 1 <- 2’s complement of 0111
10110
0110
Binary Subtraction (Using 1’s complement)

If the subtrahend is larger than the minuend, then no carry is

granted.

The answer is obtained in 1’s complement of the true result

and opposite in sign.

1001 1001
-1100 + 0 0 1 1<- 1’s complement of the subtrahend
1100
0 0 1 1 <- 1’s complement of the result
0 0 1 1 <- True Result
Binary Subtraction (Using 2’s complement)

If the subtrahend is larger than the minuend, then no carry is

granted. Add the 2’s complement of the subtrahend to the
minuend.

The answer is obtained in 2’s complement of the number and

change the sign.
1001 1001
-1010 + 0 1 1 0 <- 2’s complement of 1010
1111
0 0 0 1 <- 2’s complement of 1111
- 0 0 0 1 <- True Result
Therefore, the reason why negative numbers are
represented using 2’s complement method in
computing is that subtractions can be performed as
additions.

Since subtractions can be performed with addition

circuits, the subtraction circuits are unnecessary ,
thereby simplifying the hardware structure.
Multiplication

The procedure is similar to decimal

multiplication but much simpler.

The multiplication is done by repeated

addition of all partial products to obtain
the full product
Example 1

0 1 1 1
X 1 1 0 1
0 1 1 1
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1
0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 0 1 1
Example

1. 0 1 1
X 1 0. 0 1
1 0 1 1
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1
1 1. 0 0 0 1 1
Division

Binary division follows the same

procedure as decimal division.

Example 1

101
101 11001
101
10
0
101
Division
Exercise : Divide the following binary number

1001 11110
Reference:

Digital Principles and Logic Design

By A. Saha and N. Manna