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Modernization of irrigation systems: A case of research,

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Irrigation and Drainage Systems 2:63-77 (1988)
© Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Dordrecht - Printed in the Netherlands

Modernization of irrigation systems:

A case of research, oriented to improve management

LUIS SANTOS PEREIRA

Department of Agricultural Engineering, College of Agriculture, Technical University of Lisbon,
Tapada da Ajuda, 1399 Lisboa Codex, Portugal

Received 17 April 1987; revised and accepted 10 September 1987

Key words: irrigation systems, modernization, irrigation research, design, irrigation management,
modelling

Abstract. In recent years, the traditional concept of an irrigation project has been changing. From
just a physical structure for the storage, conveyance and distribution of water, it is now being re-
garded as a more complex system, including farmers' participation. This implies an improved man-
agement in all phases, from reservoir operation to farm management, and therefore the change
from simple "operation and maintenance" to "operation, maintenance and management".
To face this new challenge, existing projects must be modernized. The Sorraia Irrigation Project
is one of those projects. In this paper major problems are identified and it is showed how research
(namely through modelling) can be oriented towards an improved management, regarding the con-
veyance and distribution systems as well as the on-farm systems.
Finally it becomes evident that beyond the technical problems to be solved, the involvement and
participation of farmers must be improved at all levelsof management. Hence, there is also a need
for implementing programs on education, training and extension.

Introduction

The c o n c e p t o f a n i r r i g a t i o n project has c h a n g e d in recent years by enlarging

the scope o f activities to be considered. I n particular, the expression " o p e r a -
t i o n a n d m a i n t e n a n c e " (O&M) is being replaced b y " o p e r a t i o n , m a i n t e n a n c e
a n d m a n a g e m e n t " (OM&M); m u c h richer a n d a d a p t e d to the overall activities
to be p e r f o r m e d in order to achieve the success of a n irrigation project. M a n -
a g e m e n t is therefore a key issue to be considered in all phases o f a project.
M o d e r n i z a t i o n , like r e h a b i l i t a t i o n , is a process that n o t only responds to
technological needs b u t i n t r o d u c e s as well new a p p r o a c h e s o f m a n a g e m e n t in
a given i r r i g a t i o n project, n a m e l y the change f r o m t r a d i t i o n a l O&M to m o d e r n
O M & M . M o d e r n i z a t i o n should r e f o r m u l a t e the project c o n c e p t f r o m just a
t r a d i t i o n a l design of hydraulic a n d i r r i g a t i o n structures, into a new p l a n n i n g
c o n c e p t that relates i n f r a s t r u c t u r e s with O M & M activities a n d f a r m e r s ' partici-
pation.
64

The analysis presented hereafter is an example of such an approach. Being

applied to the Sorraia Valley Project, it may be used to search new approaches
for modernizing other projects and for planning new ones. The paper is orient-
ed to the main lines under research, not to particular results or research find-
ings. It is possible that further developments will give different orientations or
that financial and economic constraints will impose limits to particular solu-
tions now foreseen. But the scope of activities and issues under research keep
the same relative importance when looking for new approaches relating design
and management.

The irrigation project: a c o m p l e x reality

Irrigation projects are development projects of intensive agriculture aiming at

the control of available water in the root zone in order to optimize agricultural
production, by using the best combination of structures and equipments of irri-
gation, drainage and flood control. So they embrace investments and works for
improving the physical environment as well as institutional, organizational,
and political issues for insuring adequate management and social, economic
and cultural progress of farmers and rural population.
To meet the best combination for the physical and the institutional compo-
nents of an irrigation project it is of great importance that:

- planned infrastructure for irrigation and operation of the project have to be

complemented by on-farm structures, equipments and activities, so forming
a complex but coherent system where each subsystem plays a specific role but
in interdependence with the other ones (see Rydzewski 1977; Baumli 1982);
- the overall system and the subsystems need adequate organizational and in-
stitutional solutions which assure that they will work as systems and that co-
herence will be achieved (Sagardoy 1982; Bromley 1982; Pereira 1984);
- this implies an active cooperation between those whose labour and capability
are essential to achieve project goals, so that farmers' participation will be
assured (Vlachos et al. 1978; Rady & Abdu-Zeid 1985; Pereira 1985; Groen-
feldt 1986; Coward & Uphoff 1986);
- it is not enough to make equipment or production factors available but it is
also essential to ensure conditions to make the best use of them, including
education, training, extension and research (Lockheed et al. 1980; Perraton
et al. 1983; Small 1985; Burton 1986; Smout 1986).

Assuming the above concepts, management becomes of importance and makes

evident the need of combining operation, maintenance and management. This
should be done in a very broad scope; covering all the activities from reservoir
 65

operation to soil management. Nevertheless, the scope of each activity being

specific, the agents who are to perform them are different, as responsibilities
and consequences are also different. Hence, OM&M is to be performed by a
network of organizations and farmers, whose complexity must be compatible
with the technological capabilities, traditions, and other institutional condi-
tions.
Specific solutions have to be found. Therefore the technological solutions to
be adopted when planning or modernizing an irrigation project must consider
how OM&M will be performed, what will be the organizational and institu-
tional framework, and how educational, cultural, professional and technologi-
cal evolution will be ensured.
Such an idealistic approach is particularly difficult when planning an irri-
gation project in a region where no OM&M organization exists, farmers are not
involved and, in general, do not have or have small participation in other kinds
of economic or professional organization. So solutions have to be foreseen
after experiences elsewhere, and nothing ensures the design team that proposed
measures of this kind will be considered by policy- and decision-makers unless
particular conditions have been created during the planning phase of a project.
The task is less difficult when planning for modernization and rehabilitation
of an irrigation project that already has a history, where organizations exist
and farmers are involved.

Modernization concept

The following definition of modernization has been proposed by the author

(Pereira & McCready 1987) to the ICID Working Group on Construction, Re-
habilitation and Modernization of Irrigation and Drainage Projects:

the process of up-dating and improving an existing project, which otherwise

is meeting its original objectives, in order to meet enhanced technical, social
or economic objectives. It embraces changes to the physical infrastructure,
on-farm and production systems, all operation, management and institu-
tional aspects including policy measures influencing the overall project.

This definition is based on responses to an ICID questionnaire identifying main

questions and priorities regarding the modernization and rehabilitation pro-
cesses. The definition is coherent with the analysis made above on the complex-
ity of an irrigation project and the need of approaching it as a system.
In fact, responses to the questionnaire not only paid expected attention to
the technological problems regarding the conveyance and distribution systems
(discharge regulation and measurement, remodelling, automation or delivery
66

scheduling), the on-farm irrigation (improvement and changing of irrigation

methods, automation or soil management), the drainage (completion of drain-
age systems, on-farm drainage, coupling irrigation and drainage), but they
gave major importance to problems of operation and management, small ir-
rigation schemes, and agricultural structures and policies (Pereira & McCready
1987).
These results, which agree with those of Rijsberman & Grigg (1985), show
that the modernization process must pay major attention to management and
the organizational, institutional and policy measures that ensure adequate con-
ditions for OM&M of the overall system, as identified earlier.
The research approach to the modernization of the Sorraia Valley Project
takes this into account. On the one hand research is oriented towards the con-
veyance and distribution system aiming at specific technological problems but
also to make it able to respond to the needs of the on-farm irrigation and crops
systems as well as for improving conditions for farmers' participation in
OM&M. On the other hand, research looks for some technical problems relat-
ed to the on-farm irrigation and crop system, to enable improved on-farm
water management, but also to respond to the needs of coupling on-farm with
conveyance and distribution and to support farmers' demands and consequent
participation in management.

Conveyance and distribution systems

The Sorraia Valley Project is a 15000 ha irrigation project in a long and narrow
alluvial valley near Lisbon. Water is made available by two large dams and con-
veyed in an open channel system. By using a large number of constant up-
stream level gates the supply of distributaries is regulated by Neyrpic regulators
(modules) manually operated by watermen according to O&M rules. The dis-
tribution system is mainly constituted by buried pipes. The farm turnouts, of
modular or semi-modular type, are operated by watermen. Main characteris-
tics are included in Table 1 and are reported by Rijo & Pereira (1987).
The system is represented in Fig. 1. It makes evident that it corresponds to
a past concept of irrigation systems, designed for the rotation system and partly
for continuous flow (for rice fields), and to respond to the needs of traditional
surface irrigation, where the irrigator uses a given flow rate (the " m a i n d ' e a u " )
for applying water inside the field.
There are several reasons for modernization:
- the system is much too rigid, despite the change of delivery from a rotation
system to a restricted demand system;
- as it operates with a constant water level, losses are difficult to be controlled;
- during periods of low water use - the night and the week-ends - losses are
very high;
 67

Table 1. Main characteristics of Sorraia Valley Project.

C o m m a n d area 15354 ha
Storage volumes:
Maranh~o 180.9 × 106 m3
Montargil 142.7 × 106 m3
Open channel conveyance system 112.9 km
Open channel distribution system 98.5 km
Low pressure pipe distributors 171.6 km
Constant upstream level gates 303
Constant downstream level gates 85
Modules 567
Main open drains and collectors 134.5 km
Dikes 27.4 km
P u m p i n g plants:
for irrigation 7
for drainage 4
Outlets to users 2026
Farmers 2000
O&M personnel 90

- the rigidity of the system makes operation under drought conditions less ef-
fective;
- t h e relative rigidity of deliveries makes the implementation of irrigation
scheduling programs difficult;
- the constraints of the "main d'eau" limit the use of modern irrigation meth-
ods;
- t h e system is very labour consuming.

Many solutions have been proposed for the successful modernization of the
operation and management of canal systems (Jean 1981; Dedrick &
Zimbelman 1981; Jean et al. 1984; Piquereau et al. 1984; Verdier 1986). But
very few deal with the effect of existing gates (DeLeon 1986), in particular gates
which are designed to maintain a constant upstream level. Studies have been
made which yielded a solution (Rijo 1986; Rijo & Pereira 1987) which makes
use of the main equipment of the system but introduce discharge sensors at
main control points and remote controlled devices. The related research is
oriented towards the modelling and simulation of open canal systems, in-
cluding the effect of existing structures, and to search the consequent needs of
remote sensors and remote devices.
The foreseen solution is shown in Fig. 2. It schematizes the conversion of a
traditional upstream regulated system into an intelligent upstream regulated
system. This conversion allows the control of water losses by responding to real
time water demands. The remodelling of the buried pipes distribution system
is also needed to permit higher and variable flow rates at farm outlets. These
68

STRUCTURES CONTROL
Storage
Regulating O&MORGANIZkTION
I Reservoir I valve
Releases

Conveyance
I Constant ~1__
channels
upstream Design
levelgate ~constraint
Waterlevel 1

Supply I
Offtake Neyrpic I
regulators distributors -~(------Waterman
Discharge II

Oistribution1
I Pipeline pipe ~ Design
distributaries dimension constraint
Hydr.head 1~

Delivery I
I Farm Nodularor ~___
semi-modular Waterman
outlets outels
J
I~ Rotationor restricted
Traditi!nal "main~'eau" demandsystems
sur#aceirrigation andcontinuoL~sflow
Diagramoftheconveyanceanddistributionsystemwithtraditionalupstreamcontrol(Sor-
Fig. 1.
raiaValleyProject).
 69

STRUCTURES CONTROL
Storage
Reservoir I Regulating
valve I
Releases I
Discharge--~
Conveyance + sensor I
Temlor.stora~eopen I IConst.upstream
t
channels Discharge---I~ ' levelgates I
+
sensors I ~I gates
Remotecontrol.I
I Level+dicharge
I
I
Supply I I Neyrpic
I distributors I
I O#~take I
+
regulators I
I ~i gates control. !
Remote

Oiseharge+time 1
Distribution
Pipeline I Remodelled
distributeries distributariesI
Hidraulichead 1

Delivery I _1 Modular, semi-

..............
7 modularoutlets
I I

I Farm +
outlets
.............H Flowmeters'1
Discharge+time
[volume) I

On-farm demand
Improvedon-~arm
irrigation OPERATION& ~ ......
MANAGEMENT
ORGANIZATIONFOROM&M MODEL FARMERS
Fig. 2. Diagram of modernized conveyance and distribution system with intelligent upstream con-
trol.
70

changes also are necessary for maintenance considerations of the existing

buried pipes.
To make the upstream regulation intelligent, a computer model will be devel-
oped for coupling the hydraulic system and the management of the overall
system. Different solutions have been tried to assist in taking management de-
cisions (Swarner et al. 1981; C E M A G R E F 1981; Brower & Buchheim 1984;
Menenti et al. 1984), and a first simulation model is available (Teixeira & Pe-
reira 1985). Present developments are oriented to evaluate and use the
historical data of the project - crops, production, water use, climatic variables
- and to relate them to the basic information on the water balance. This con-
stitutes the first part of the model described in Fig. 3 and approaches the solu-
tion necessary for managing the system, as represented in Fig. 2.
The modernization of the conveyance and distribution system and its man-
agement is therefore oriented:
- to respond to farmers' demand for water by adopting a computerized condi-
tioned demand system of delivery;
- to respond to the demands of modern irrigation methods and related auto-

mation by remodelling the distribution system and farm outlets;

-to control the conveyance and distribution water losses and peak demands
by using remote controlled sensors and regulating devices, associated with
water storage in the canal system;
- to respond to the needs of the overall management by incorporating in the
decision model the information that simulates and predicts the behaviour of
the canal system.

On-farm irrigation

The importance given to the capability of the conveyance and distribution sys-
tem to respond to on-farm demand is explained in Fig. 4:
- yields and incomes depend highly on optimizing water availability for crops,
together with other agricultural practices;
- this availability can be estimated through climatic, soil and plant indicators

on which irrigation scheduling should be based;

- irrigation methods have to be chosen according to a large number of consid-
erations: land form, soil properties, crop systems, etc.;
- together, the irrigation method and the irrigation scheduling define the deliv-

ery conditions by establishing the on-farm demand: flow rate, delivery dura-
tion, irrigation volumes and irrigation intervals;
- therefore the optimization of yields requires on-farm water demand to be op-
timized and delivery to be compatible.
 71

Statistical statistloal/historical
climatic data agricultural data

Actual
climatic data _L, Climatic demand

Actual
I Crop coefficients ~ crop systems

I Crop ET _Water-yield ~.~

relations

Effective rainfall Water balance ~ Soils and

crops data
~.~

,,,,,,

Predicted demand ~ Irrigation

efficiencies

~,, , ,,,,
i Hydraulic ,,,,,,

model Units demand

Unit
I
-~EARMERS 0EMANOS

_ ,
Travel time ~ ~ 1 ?gg
A ~ rregaied
e~ ,d,e,)and,,l
I Initial operation
conditions
J
Field sensors
information REALOPERATION l
Fig. 3. Simplified diagram of operation and management model.

Many research results about on-farm irrigation are available today through
reference books (Jensen 1981), proceedings of technical and scientific meet-
ings, technical and scientific journals and field manuals (WHW 1986). The
question is that effective transfer of technology requires experimentation and
reserach. Hence, research is done to establish appropriate irrigation scheduling
programs (Pereira et al. 1986h) and to improve irrigation methods such as level
basin irrigation (Sousa 1984), furrow irrigation (Tabuada 1986), and paddy
72

f i

02

r- =='1
÷
Z
127
H
I ~ I ~-~ I--

I + I
I r-4 I
H
I ~ I ~

=
÷

~S
0
OJ ~-I
~o

L']
,
 73

rice irrigation (Pereira et al. 1986a). Nevertheless, research is needed to make

models available on irrigation scheduling methods, simulate crop responses to
water management, and on the design and operation of irrigation systems.

Searching a global approach

In the above analsysis of the reality of an irrigation project it has been pointed
out that the project should be considered as a system and as a complex that in-
corporates different sub-systems.
Figure 5 shows the essential elements and responses of crops and on-farm
systems and conveyance and distribution systems, according to the analysis
made above. It identifies two other systems that bridge the gap between the
farm and the physical infra-structures; the irrigation scheduling/irrigation
management system, and the on-farm demand system.
Both systems can be supported by decision models or information models.
This can be of great importance for achieving the goals related to the enlarge-
ment of the scope of OM&M of the overall project and to make the participa-
tion of farmers in project management more effective.
In fact, the same information (including training on how to use it) allows far-
mers and the OM&M staff to make appropriate decisions about how, when,
and how much to irrigate, thus reducing the uncertainty of demand responses.
It is a difficult approach as existing programs make evident (JMLORD 1981;
Snyder et al. 1985). However, it is a process of evolution of the behaviour of
farmers and of OM&M organizations regarding the technological changes in
irrigated agriculture.

Conclusions

The research example described above shows that the design of projects, taking
in consideration its management, requires new approaches for combining on-
farm with conveyance and distribution management.
Such an approach is less complicated when the design concerns the moder-
nization or rehabilitation of an existing project because of the history of the
project, skills of farmers and of the related OM&M agency.
Nevertheless, the needs of management are so diverse, and can be of so great
importance, that studies have to be conducted to search technological solutions
for physical and agricultural structures that respond to such needs. In the case
of modernization the involvement of researchers, namely from universities,
can be of interest for creating the theoretical background for further applica-
tions, and for the development of extension and training programs.
 74

~r
b- t~
t~
rD

H
,H

o~ .E
0
r~

r~

r~
I i
L9 F-- -
I Z
~-t
Z
kU
I .-1
~
~__
kU
I
I Z Z J~
I 6O
J ~
Z Z
O (:3
H H
b- b-
( ( I I I I

I--i H

H H

~ ~ o
4o
~z °

o
° l'
{
ffl
ltt r~
o

~0

~-~ °~

÷1 ~ ~ II

o m
 75

Due attention must be given to the general concept of solutions, the interac-
tion of systems and the managerial capabilities of developed models. Co-
herence between on-farm and distribution systems is of great importance. In
order to strengthen the bridge between such systems information and decision
capabilities must be developed regarding irrigation management programs and
on-farm demand.
Education and training of staff, being able to design systems taking into ac-
count the project management issues and capabilities of farmers and agencies'
staff is needed to meet project goals.

Acknowledgements

This research is being carried by the Department of Agricultural Engineering,

Technical University of Lisbon, under contract with the Junta Nacional de In-
vestigag~o Cientifica e Tecnol6gica (National Board for Scientific and Techno-
logical Research) and the Instituto Nacional de Investigag~o Cientifica (Na-
tional Institute for Scientific Research), in cooperation with the Irrigation As-
sociation of the Sorraia Valley and the Instituto Nacional de Investigag~o
Agr~iria (National Institute of Agricultural Research).

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