Introduction

1
Introduction
The process by which fresh air is introduced and contaminated air is removed from an occupied space is termed ventilation.
Purposes of Ventilation
The purposes of ventilation are:
1. To provide a continuous supply of oxygen necessary for human existence.
2. To remove the products of respiration and occupation, that is; heat, moisture and carbon dioxide from people.
o At rest a normal adult inhales between 0.10 and 0.12 litre/s of air.
o The exhaled breath contains between 3% and 4% of carbon dioxide, which is equal to 0.003 to 0.005
litre/s.
o The amount of heat from occupants is about 100 Watts sensible and 40 watts latent heat from a
sedentary worker.
o The amount of moisture produced by a sedentary person is about 59g of water vapour per hour.
3. To remove contaminants such as:
 Water vapour
 Heat and smells from cooking
 Gases and vapours from industrial processes.
 Formaldehyde from; insulation foam, furnishings, wallpaper, carpets, resin in wood products and
plasterboard.
2
 Outdoor aerosol pollutants such as; smoke, soot, mist, fumes, pollen, plant fibres, mould spores, viruses
and bacteria
 Indoor aerosol pollutants such as; carpet fibres, furniture fibres, clothing fibres, skin flakes, mites,
viruses and bacteria.
In practice most ventilation systems for rooms inhabited by people dilute contaminants such as Heat and Carbon Dioxide to
acceptable limits for short and medium term exposure.
cal Ventilation System

A typical plant layout is shown below.

Fan
Incoming Incoming Outgoing Exhaust air Exhaust air

Air from Air Air to outside
outside
Room
The photograph below shows a typical ventilation fan.

3
Ventilation Rates
The building regulations require those habitable rooms and toilets are to be vented by natural or mechanical means.
Natural Ventilation
A habitable room requires one or more ventilation openings, the total area of which must not be less than 1/20 th. of the
floor area of the room, and some part of the opening must be more than 1.7 metres above floor level.
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When ventilation is by mechanical means, one air change per hour must be provided to habitable rooms and three air
changes per hour to bathrooms and kitchens.
Design Criteria
To design a ventilation system, the engineer has to meet two basic requirements:
1. To supply fresh air for the occupants
2. To change the air in the room sufficiently so that smells, fumes and contaminants are removed.
Ventilation Rates in CIBSE guide

The following table gives Ventilation Rates for buildings.
Table 3.1 CIBSE Guide B2 (2001) Summary of recommendations
(Extract from Table)
Section
Building sector Recommendations
number
Animal husbandry 3.24.1 See Table 3.20
Assembly halls 3.3 See Table 3.6
Atria 3.4 See section 3.4.3
Broadcasting studios 3.5 6 -10ACH (but heat gain should be assessed)
Call centres 3.24.2 4 - 6 ACH (but heat gain should be assessed)
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Catering (inc. commercial kitchens) 3.6 30 - 40 ACH

Cleanrooms 3.7 See Tables 3.11 and 3.12
Communal residential buildings 3.8 0.5 - 1 ACH
Computer rooms 3.9 See Table 3.13
Court rooms 3.24.3 As for typically naturally ventilated buildings
Darkrooms (photographic) 3.24.4 6 - 10 ACH (but heat gain should be assessed)
Dealing rooms 3.24.5 As offices for ventilation (but heat gain should be assessed)
Dwellings (inc. high-rise dwellings) 3.10 0.5 - 1 ACH
Factories and warehouses 3.11 See 3.11.1 for regulatory requirements
High-rise (non-domestic) buildings 3.12 4 - 6 ACH for office areas; up to 10ACH for meeting space.
Horticulture 3.24.6 30 - 50 litres/s/m2 for greenhouses (45 - 60 ACH)
Hospitals and health care buildings 3.13 See Table 3.15
Hotels 3.14 10 - 15 ACH minimum for guest rooms with en-suite bathrooms
Industrial ventilation 3.15 Sufficient to minimise airborne contamination
Laboratories 3.16 6 - 15 ACH (allowance must be made for fume cupboards)
Museums, libraries and art galleries 3.17 Depends on nature of exhibits
Offices 3.2 See Tables 3.2 and 3.3
Plant rooms 3.18 Specific regulations apply, see section 3.18
Schools and educational buildings 3.19 See Table 3.18
Shops and retail premises 3.20 5 - 8 litres/s per person
Sports centres (inc. swimming
3.21 See Table 3.19
pools)
Standards rooms 3.24.7 45 - 60 ACH
Toilets 3.22 Building Regulations apply; opening windows of area 1/20th of floor
area or mechanical ventilation at 6 litres/s per WC or 3 ACH minimum
for non-domestic buildings; opening windows area 1/20th of floor area
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(1/30th in Scotland) or mechanical extract at 6 litres/s (3 ACH in

Scotland) minimum for dwellings.
Transportation buildings (inc. 6 ACH for car parks (normal operation)
3.23
carparks) 10 ACH (fire conditions)
The Table below gives Ventilation rates required to limit CO2 concentration where level of activity is known.
Table 3.2 CIBSE Guide B2 (2001) Ventilation rates required to limit CO2 concentration for differing activity levels
Activity Minimum ventilation requirement

Litres /s per person
0.5% CO2 limit 0.25% CO2 limit
Seated quietly 0.8 1.8
Light work 1.3 – 2.6 2.8 – 5.6
Moderate work 2.6 – 3.9 N/A
Heavy work 3.9 – 5.3 N/A
Very heavy work 5.3 – 6.4 N/A
The following table gives fresh air rates.
Table 3.3 CIBSE Guide B2 (2001) Recommended outdoor air supply rates for sedentary occupants.
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Outdoor air supply rate

Level of Smoking
(litre/s per person)
No smoking 8
Some smoking 16
Heavy smoking 24
Very heavy smoking 36
The table below is an extract from Table 3.6 and gives rates for Assembly Halls and Auditoria
Design Requirements : Assembly halls and auditoria
Parameter Design requirement

Fresh air ventilation rates To suit occupancy levels
3 – 4 air changes per hour for
displacement strategy
Air change rate
6 – 10 air changes per hour for high
level mechanical strategy
Ventilation Calculations
8
The following formulae may be used:
1. For General Mechanical Ventilation

Ventilation rate (m3/h) = Air Change Rate (/h) x Room Volume (m3)
Air Change Rate (/h) comes from CIBSE Guide B2 Table 3.1
Ventilation rate (m3/s) = Ventilation rate (m3/h) / 3600
2. For Calculating Fresh Air Ventilation Rates

Fresh Air Rate (m3/s) = Fresh Air rate per person (l/s/p) x number of occupants
Fresh Air rate per person (l/s/p) comes from CIBSE Guide B2 Table 3.3.
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Ventilation Systems
Natural ventilation cannot be relied upon to always provide enough fresh air to meet requirements.
Also more control can be obtained by using fans to supply air to a space or to remove contaminated air from a space.
Some mechanical ventilation systems use fans for both supplying and extracting air, thus mechanical ventilation systems
may be classified as follows:
1. Supply system
2. Extract system
3. Balanced system.
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1. Supply Ventilation System

Fresh air is supplied to a space from outside as shown below; this air provides oxygen for breathing and ventilation for
occupants.
Air is removed from the space by ‘natural’ means since the room is pressurised by the supply air.
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In some cases it is advantageous to heat incoming air to offset fabric losses and avoid cold draughts in winter.
This is known as a plenum system and is useful in large rooms with a high ceiling, which can be difficult to heat with
radiators.
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2. Extract Ventilation System

The principal function of an extract ventilation system is the removal of an unwanted contaminant, whether it is solid,
gaseous or thermal.
Air is extracted from the space and replaced by fresh air entering from outside; the space is under negative pressure;
therefore air is naturally drawn into the building as shown below.
Extract Fan
Fresh Air In Supply Air Exhaust to

outside
Room
The photograph below shows a typical domestic extract hood.

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In industrial ventilation, airborne dust, toxic fumes, vapours and excessive heat have to be removed.
This is sometimes carried out at source, thus minimising the contamination of the occupied space.
The spread of contaminant is decreased by installing hoods or canopies over the source and connecting these to the extract
ventilation system as shown below.
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The photograph below shows a typical commercial kitchen extract canopy.

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Kitchen Extract
In kitchen extract ventilation it may be necessary to install a fire damper and enclose the duct which passes through upper
floors in a fire resisting shaft.
This is because there is a possible danger of fire and smoke spreading throughout a building in the ductwork system.
Obviously when designing for the event of a fire in the building one should be careful to provide a safe and protective
ventilation installation.
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Consult all relevant standards and get as much advice as possible especially from the local Fire Authority.
A simple extract system for a kitchen is shown below.
The photograph below shows a typical commercial kitchen extract canopy incorporating lights and removable grease filters.
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3. Balanced Ventilation Systems

A balanced system enables full control of ventilation to be achieved by the use of separate mechanical supply and extract
systems.
It is usual to provide a surplus of supply air over extract air so as to maintain the pressure in the building at a slightly higher
pressure than outside.
This minimises natural infiltration which reduces the likelihood of draughts.
A typical system is shown below:
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It is a good idea to filter outside air so that atmospheric pollutants are excluded.
Also in winter, cold outside air may cause discomfort so the fresh air is heated. This can be used to offset heat losses thus
providing the means of heating the building or room as shown below.
This is the same as a plenum heating system with return air system.
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In most balanced systems, the supply air quantity, which is required, works out to be much more than that needed for fresh
air supply to occupants.
It is possible therefore, to recirculate some of the extract air back into the supply duct to make use of the heat which it
contains as shown below.
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The amounts of fresh air in each section of ductwork are controlled by dampers, which can be set during commissioning so
that the design quantity of air with the correct proportion of fresh air is supplied to the space.
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Recirculation only works if the air has not been contaminated in the space. In kitchens, toilets, smoke filled spaces, etc.,
where the air contains odours or other contaminants all the extract air is removed and no recirculation takes place.
Filters are usually fitted in supply and balanced ventilation systems to remove any airborne particles in the fresh air intake
duct.
A finer filter may be installed in a balanced ventilation system after the mix point to remove dust generated within the
space.
The photographs below show typical filters.
The bag filters are for collecting fine particles of dust and are sometimes referred to as fine filters.
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Natural Ventilation Systems

Natural ventilation is ventilation without the assistance of fans or other mechanical air moving equipment.
Natural ventilation uses no energy or little energy therefore reduces building running costs.
Air moves naturally due to the buoyancy effect when a temperature difference exists and less dense air rises.
This is called the stack effect.
Air also moves unassisted by wind.
These effects can be utilised in a building to create a ‘free’ ventilation system that requires no fans.
Some systems incorporate fans and are partially natural ventilation but with a greater degree of control.
Natural ventilation systems in use
In large buildings where large amounts of air need to be changed in rooms, natural ventilation can be used if special
features are used.
Also is commercial building the ventilation system should be controlled to meet comfort criteria in rooms.
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This can be achieved by careful building design and using technology to provide adequate ventilation.
The diagram below shows a building layout that uses the stack effect to increase natural ventilation.
Exhaust outlets at roof level can be disguised or used as a feature of building design as shown below.
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Low level vents are shown below

25
Another natural ventilation system uses the sun to assist air movement.
The vertical shafts in the building are glass fronted so that the sun heats up the air inside and causes it to rise out the
openings at roof level.
The high level openings in this case are stainless steel chimneys.
As air flows out of the chimneys at roof level replacement air is drawn from the rooms into the shaft and thus naturally
ventilated.
This is shown below.
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One of the difficulties with Natural Ventilation is that buildings have to be specially designed to incorporate features to
assist air flow; these features may not look very good from the inside and outside and are sometimes disguised.
Effectiveness
The effectiveness of natural ventilation for commercial buildings depends on several criteria.
These are wind strength and direction, size of openings, air temperatures and height of building.
For effective controlled ventilation the designer should not rely solely on the wind but more on the stack effect and air
controls.
Dampers can be used to control air entering and/or exiting a natural ventilation system.
These dampers could be linked to occupancy sensors, temperature sensors, time switches and other weather sensors to
give automatic control of ventilation which is the key to a useful system.
The diagram below shows some of the features of a Natural Ventilation system for a four-storey building.
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Warm extract air

Room outlet louvre with
motorised dampers
Sensor to operate dampers Central Atrium
Fresh air intake with

motorised dampers .. ..
.. ..
.. ..
.. ..
Through flow .. ..
ventilation in .. ..
rooms
.. ..
.. ..
Naturally Ventilated
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Designing Natural Ventilation Systems

CIBSE guide Applications Manual AM10 (1997) Natural Ventilation in non-domestic buildings gives design details.
Section 4.2 of AM10 gives details of how to control Natural ventilation systems.
Section 5 gives methods of calculating flow rates for wind driven and stack effect ventilation.
Stack Driven Ventilation Calculations

Stack ventilation calculations in the simplest form ignore wind effects, although these can be allowed for in a more complex
analysis.
The pressures developed in stack systems can be determined from the following formula.
Ps = - ins . g . T ins (h2 – h1) (1/Tout - 1/Tins)

where;
Ps = Stack Effect Pressure (Pa)
ins = Air density inside stack (kg/m3)
g = Acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2)
h1 = Height of inlet of stack above datum (m)

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h2 = Height of outlet of stack above datum (m)
Tout = Temperature of air outside stack (oK)
Tins = Temperature of air inside stack (oK)
The equation below can be used to determine air flow rates in stack driven ventilation or the opening areas required.
Q = Cd . A [ ( 2 / insins . g . (hnpl – h ) (Tins - Tout / Tins ) ]

where;
Q = Air flow rate through a large opening (m3/s)
Cd = Discharge coefficient (0.61 for large openings)
A = Opening area (m2)
hnpl = Height of neutral pressure level above datum (m)
h = Height of opening above datum (m)

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Neutral Pressure Level
This is where the outside pressure equals the internal pressure.
At this level there would be no flow of air in or out of the building.
This is usually high up in a building otherwise the stack effect would not work.
The neutral pressure level for most buildings is about 0.25 metres above the level of the top floor ceiling.
Temperatures
The internal room temperatures need to be calculated since in summer heat gains elevate the room temperature.
This can be done using software where summertime temperature can be predicted along with required air flow rates to
keep room temperatures to acceptable levels.
The HEVACOMP software package and other programmes may be used.
Outside summer temperatures may be obtained from the CIBSE guide A section 2.
It would seem that the outdoor temperature in summer rarely exceeds 27oC, and if the temperature does rise above 27oC it
is only for a maximum of 4 days in the south of England and less than one day in the north of the U.K.
If a solar chimney is used to assist stack suction pressure then the temperature inside the stack would have to be altered.
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It is important to obtain accurate inside and outside temperatures since this difference creates the driving force inside the
stack or the pressure difference to move air up the stack to outside.
Example 1
Calculate the ventilation opening area required in a Stack ventilation system for the building shown below.
Warm extract air
Outside air
temperature 2m
25oC 0.25 m
28oC
Lecture Room 2
.. Stack
Fresh air intake
25oC
..
28oC
9m
4m Lecture Room 1
..
25oC
..
1m Datum
Naturally Ventilated with Stack

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DATA:
The flow rate required each room is 4 air changes per hour.
Each lecture room measures internally 24 m x 10 m x 4m high.
ANSWER:
Air flow rate for each room Q = Room volume x Air change rate / 3600
Q = 24 x 10 x 4 x 4 / 3600
Q = 960 x 4 / 3600 = 1.07 m3/s
Rearranging above formula for Area (A) gives;
A = Q / Cd [ ( 2 / ins) ins . g . (h npl – h) (Tins - Tout / Tins ) ]

For Ground floor room;
A = 1.07 / 0.61 [ ( 2 / 1.1656 ) 1.1656 x 9.81 ( 9 – 1) ( 301 – 298 / 301 )
A = 1.07 / 0.61 [ 1.716 x 1.1656 x 9.81 x 8 x 0.00997 ]

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A = 1.07 / 0.61 [ 0.19557 x 8 ]
A = 1.07 / 0.61 x 1.565
A = 1.121 m2.
For First floor room;
A = 1.07 / 0.61 [ ( 2 / 1.1656 ) 1.1656 x 9.81 ( 9 – 5) ( 301 – 298 / 301 )
A = 1.07 / 0.61 [ 0.19557 x 4 ]
A = 1.07 / 0.61 x 0.782
A = 2.242 m2.
Note: The upper floor has less stack suction pressure so openings are larger.
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Example 2
Calculate the ventilation opening area required and the size of fresh air louvre required in a Stack ventilation system for the
building shown below.
Warm extract air
26oC
Outside air
temperature 4m Stack
23oC
26oC 8m
3m Class room
..
Fresh air intake 23oC
louvre
..
1m Datum

35
DATA:
The flow rate required for the Class room is 10 air changes per hour.
The Class room measures internally 18 m x 10 m x 4m high.
The Fresh air louvre has a 50% free area.
ANSWER:
Q = 18 x 10 x 4 x 10 / 3600
Q = 720 x 10 / 3600 = 2.0 m3/s
Rearranging above formula for Area (A) gives;

36
A = 2.0 / 0.61 [ ( 2 / 1.1605 ) 1.1605 x 9.81 ( 8 – 1) ( 299 – 296 / 299 )
A = 2.0 / 0.61 [ 1.723 x 1.1605 x 9.81 x 7 x 0.01003 ]
A = 2.0 / 0.61 [ 1.377 ]
A = 2.0 / 0.84
A = 2.38 m2 fresh air area required
The fresh air louvre has a 50% free area so the size of louvre is;
Louvre area = fresh air area / ( percent free area / 100 )
Louvre area = 2.38 / ( 50 / 100 )
Louvre area = 4.76 m2.
Stack Outlet
The opening at the top of a stack can be sized in a similar manner to the fresh air inlets.
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The height difference in the formula is between the NPL and the stack outlet.
The flow through the stack outlet is the sum of all the flows through the rooms in a building feeding the stack.
A outlet = Q total / Cd [ ( 2 / ins) ins . g . (h – h npl) (Tins - Tout / Tins ) ]

where;
Q total = Total air flow rate through stack (m3/s)
Cd = Discharge coefficient (0.61 for large openings)
A outlet = Stack outlet area (m2)
hnpl = Height of neutral pressure level above datum (m)
h = Height of stack outlet above datum (m)

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Example 3
Calculate the stack outlet opening area required in the system given in Example 1.
Warm extract air
Outside air
temperature 2m
25oC 0.25 m
28oC
Fresh air intake Lecture Room 2

.. Stack
4.76 m2 free area
25oC
..
28oC
9m
Fresh air intake 4m Lecture Room 1

..
2.38 m2 free area
25oC
..
1m
Datum

39
DATA:
The flow rate required each room is 4 air changes per hour.
Each lecture room measures internally 24 m x 10 m x 4m high.
ANSWER:
Air flow rate for each room Q = 1.07 m3/s (already calculated in Ex.1)
Total air flow rate Q total = 1.07 x 2 = 2.14 m3/s
A = 2.14 / 0.61 [ ( 2 / 1.1656 ) 1.1656 x 9.81 ( 11 – 9) ( 301 – 298 / 301 )
A = 2.14 / 0.61 [ 1.716 x 1.1656 x 9.81 x 2 x 0.00997 ]
A = 2.14 / 0.61 [ 0.19557 x 2 ]

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A = 2.14 / 0.61 x 0.391
A = 8.97 m2.
Fittings Pressure Drop
In a rigorous analysis of a stack ventilation system the pressure drop from fittings such as intake and exhaust louvres should
not exceed the driving pressure from the stack and the stack pressure drop.
The driving pressure (dPs) can be found from the formula at the beginning of this section and the pressure drop from the
stack and fittings can be determined by the normal method for ductwork fittings.
Using Curves for Q/A
The following curves may be used to calculate air flow rates if the areas of openings are known.
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42
Natural Ventilation Systems

Example 4
Size the fresh air intake and shaft outlet openings for the building shown below.
(a) Use the formulae given below to calculate the openings based on summer temperatures and compare this with the
results given in Figure 5.3, given in the text.
(b) Use Figure 5.4 to estimate winter opening areas required for spring and winter conditions.
(c) Calculate air velocity rates at fresh air intakes in summer and winter.
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Warm extract air
Outside air
temperature 28oC 2.0 m
25oC 0.25 m
Office 3
..
Fresh air intakes 25oC
.. 28oC
Stack
4.0 m
Office 2
..
.. 25oC
28oC
14.0 m
4.0 m
Office 1 ..
25oC
..
2.0 m
Datum

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DATA:
The rooms measure 12 m x 12 m x 4m high.
Occupancy = 60 people
Summertime: The flow rate required for each Office is 8 air changes per hour in summer.
This is to reduce internal temperature rise due to heat gains.
Spring& Winter: The flow rate required for each Office is 3 air changes per hour.
This is to supply occupants with sufficient fresh air calculated as follows;
8 l/s/person x 60 people = 480 l/s = 0.48 m3/s = 1728 m3/h / room volume 576 m3 = 3 AC/h
The inside and outside spring temperatures are 10oC and 0oC respectively.
The inside and outside winter temperatures are 21oC and 0oC respectively.
ANSWER (a):
Q = 12 x 12 x 4 x 8 / 3600
Q = 576 x 8 / 3600 = 1.28 m3/s

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Fresh Air Openings:
For Ground floor room;
A = 1.28 / 0.61 [ ( 2 / 1.1656 ) 1.1656 x 9.81 ( 14 – 2) ( 301 – 298 / 301 )
A = 1.28 / 0.61 [ 1.716 x 1.1656 x 9.81 x 12 x 0.00997 ]
A = 1.28 / 0.61 [ 0.19557 x 12 ]
A = 1.28 / 0.61 x 2.347
A = 0.89 m2.
For First floor room;
A = 1.28 / 0.61 [ 0.19557 . (14 – 6 ) ]
A = 1.28 / 0.61 [ 0.19557 x 8 ]

46
A = 1.28 / 0.61 x 1.565
A = 1.34 m2.
For Second floor room;
A = 1.28 / 0.61 [ 0.19557 . (14 – 10 ) ]
A = 1.28 / 0.61 [ 0.19557 x 4 ]
A = 1.28 / 0.61 x 0.782
A = 2.68 m2.
Stack Outlet Opening:
Air flow rate for each room Q = 1.28 m3/s
Total air flow rate Q total = 1.28 x 3 = 3.84 m3/s

47
A = 3.84 / 0.61 [ ( 2 / 1.1656 ) 1.1656 x 9.81 ( 16 – 14) ( 301 – 298 / 301 )
A = 3.84 / 0.61 [ 1.716 x 1.1656 x 9.81 x 2 x 0.00997 ]
A = 3.84 / 0.61 [ 0.19557 x 2 ]
A = 3.84 / 0.61 x 0.391
A = 3.84 / 0.2385
A = 16.1 m2.
A table can be drawn to accommodate data for summer time.
Inside to outside temperature difference = 28oC - 25oC = 3deg.C
Building Level Height A/Q Area by Graph

Air flow Area (A) by from Q/A from
rate (Q) Calculation opening to graph below = A/Q x Q (m2)
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NPL
(m3/s) (m2) (m3/s/m2)
(m)
Ground floor fresh air
opening
1.28 0.89 12 0.92 1.087 1.39
First floor fresh air

opening
1.28 1.34 8 0.77 1.299 1.66
Second floor fresh air

opening
1.28 2.68 4 0.55 1.818 2.33
Stack outlet 3.84 16.10 2 0.37 2.703 10.38

49
ANSWER (b):
50
A table can be drawn for spring and winter conditions.
The air flow rate from DATA = 0.48 m3/s
Spring inside to outside temperature difference = 10oC - 0oC = 10deg.C
Winter inside to outside temperature difference = 21oC - 0oC = 21deg.C
Height from Area by Compare

Air flow Q/A from
opening to Graph summer Area
rate (Q) graph below
Building Level NPL Condition A/Q by Graph
= A/Q x Q
(m3/s) (m3/s/m2) (m2)
(m) (m2)
Ground floor fresh air Spring 1.75 0.571 0.27
opening
0.48 12 1.39
Winter 2.50 0.400 0.19
First floor fresh air Spring 1.40 0.714 0.34

opening
0.48 8 1.66
Winter 2.05 0.488 0.23
Second floor fresh air Spring 1.00 1.000 0.48

opening
0.48 4 2.33
Winter 1.45 0.690 0.33
Spring 0.51 1.961 2.82
Stack outlet 1.44 2 10.38
Winter 0.75 1.333 1.92
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Note that the fresh air and stack outlet areas required in winter are less than in spring.
Also the spring and winter areas are much less than the summer areas.
This means that automatic dampers would need to be used to change the air flows.
ANSWER (c):
Air velocity (m/s) = Volume flow rate (m3/s) / Cross sectional area (m2)
Air flow rate (Q) Area by Graph Air velocity at inlet

Building Level Condition
(m3/s) (m2) (m/s)
Summer 1.28 1.39 0.92

Ground floor fresh air opening
Winter 0.48 0.19 2.53
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Summer 1.28 1.66 0.77

First floor fresh air opening
Winter 0.48 0.23 2.09
Summer 1.28 2.33 0.55
Second floor fresh air opening
Winter 0.48 0.33 1.46
It would be important to check that the velocity in winter does not exceed comfort criteria in the room.
The manufacturer’s catalogue for the fresh air intake louvres should give appropriate data.
Types of Fans
There are several types of fan to choose from in ventilation.
These are:
1. Propeller
2. Axial flow
3. Centrifugal
4. Mixed flow
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54
55
56
1. Propeller Fan
Used in situations where there is minimal resistance to air flow.
Typical outputs are; up to 4 m3/s and up to 250 Pa pressure.
Fan efficiency is low at about 40%.
Suitable for wall, window and roof fans where the intake and discharge are free from obstacles.
Can move large volumes of air.
Low installation cost.
2. Axial Flow Fan

High volume flow rate is possible with this type of fan with high efficiency, about 60% to 65%.
Typical outputs are; up to 20 m3/s and up to 700 Pa pressure.
The fan is cased in a simple enclosure with the motor housed internally or externally.
57
Aerofoil blades can be used to increase efficiency.

Adjustable pitch blades can be used for greater flexibility.
Ductwork can be simply connected to the flange at either end of the fan.
3. Centrifugal Fan
High pressure air flow is possible with this type of fan.
Used in air handling units and other situations to overcome high resistance to air flow.
The impeller is made of thin blades which are either forward or backward curved.
The air changes direction by 90 degrees in a centrifugal fan so more space is required.
58
Usually the motor is placed external to the casing and a vee belt and pulley drive is commonly used.
Centrifugal Blades
Centrifugal curved fan blades generally have higher efficiencies than if a plain flat blade is used.
The efficiency of a fan with forward curved blades is about 50% to 60%.
The forward curve has a scoop effect on the air thus a higher volume may be handled.
Blade
Directio
n of
rotation
ED
FORWARD CURV
59
Backward curved blades offer even better efficiency, 70% to 75%.
Volume Flow rate

This improves airflow through the blade and reduces shock and eddy losses.
High pressures can be developed with backward curved blades.
Static Pressure
Characteristic
Characteristic
Even further improvements may be made by using an aerofoil section blade in which case the efficiency may be 80% to 85%.
Fan Power
Another feature of backward curved blades is their non-overloading characteristic.
Flat section non-
overloading
FAN CHARACTERISTIC CURVES
A disadvantage is the high blade tip speed, necessary to obtain a comparable rate of discharge to forward curved blades, makes
the fan noisy.
Pressure or
4. Mixed Flow Fan

Power
60
Mixed Flow fans can be used for return air, supply, or general ventilation applications where low sound is critical. As compared
to similarly sized axial fans, a mixed flow fan can be 5-20 dB quieter.
Characteristics of Axial Flow and Centrifugal Fans

Axial Flow Fans
kW
Fan Power
1. Axial flow and backward-curved centrifugal fans have similar characteristics as shown below.
0
1.
2.0
TYPICAL FAN CHARACTE
0
1.
Power
fan
Axial flow
Centrifug
Backwar
2.0
curved
STIC CURVES
Fan
3.0
Power
61
m3/s
Airflow
Efficiency
2. The axial flow fan is very convenient from an installation point of view, it can be directly duct mounted even in restrictive
areas but they tend to be noisy. This is because they run at a higher speed compared to a centrifugal fan.
3. Like the Backward-bladed centrifugal fan, the Axial flow fan has a self-limiting power curve as shown above.
Centrifugal Fans
4. The backward curved centrifugal fan runs at a higher speed than the forward curved fan for the same output.
5. A forward-curved centrifugal fan may be liable to overloading because the power rises as the volume increases. An
example of this in practice is if the main dampers are left wide open when the fan is first started up, too much air will be
handled and the excessive power absorbed will overload the driving motor.
6. The backward–curved fan is less liable to over-loading than the forward-curved centrifugal fan and it is also able to deliver
a relatively constant amount of air as the system resistance varies. The power of a backward curved fan reaches a peak and
kW
then begins to fall, this is called the self-limiting characteristic. This is shown below. Fan Power
0
1.
2.0
CENTRIFUGAL FAN CHARACTERISTICS
0
1.
Power
Centrifugal fan
Forward-curved
2.0
Centrifug
Backwar
3.0
Po
m3/s
Airflow
r
urved
Fan
62
7. A backward-curved centrifugal fan must run at higher speed to deliver the same amount of air as a forward-curved fan
because of the shape of the impeller blades and the direction of rotation.
8. The backward-bladed fan is used in high velocity systems where high pressures are required and is often made with
aerofoil blades to increase efficiency.
9. Up to about 750 N/m2 fan pressure, the forward-curved centrifugal fan tends to be quieter and cheaper. Above this value of
pressure backward-curved fans take over.
10. Choosing a Fan
11.
12.To choose a suitable fan one must look at the performance curves.
13.Performance curves are found in fan catalogues.
14.
15.These curves show the pressure developed by a fan at a given flow rate.
16.The pressure to be developed by the fan is found from duct sizing data (See DUCT SIZING section) and the flow rate is
found from design data (See VENTILATION DESIGN section).
17.The operating point of the system is marked as a point on the curve.
18.
19. Example 1
20.
21.The example below shows a system operating point of 250 Pascals (Pa) pressure and 0.48 (m3/s) flow rate.
63
22.
23.Go to the curve above the operating point, this is the fan curve for the appropriate fan.
24.The fan size is chosen as a 250mm-diameter fan (1350 r.p.m. speed).
25.
26. Example 2
27.
28.The example below shows a system operating point of 320 Pascals (Pa) pressure and 1.25 (m3/s) flow rate.
64
29.
30.The fan performance curve for a 400mm-diameter fan will be suitable for the requirements for this example since the
curve is above the operating point.
31.
32.The fan size is chosen as a 400mm-diameter fan (1350 r.p.m. speed).
33.
34. Example 3
35.
36.An axial flow fan is required for a ventilation system for a Workshop.
37.Four fans are represented below in the four curves – 2 green and 2 red curves.
65
38.The left-hand diagram shows fans with 4-pole electric motors, and the right hand diagram shows fans with 2-pole electric
motors.
39.
40.Four pole electric motors are slower than two pole motors, in this example 4-pole is at 1420 r.p.m. and 2-pole is at 2840
r.p.m.
41.The system operating point requirements are 100 Pascals (Pa) pressure
42.and 0.60 (m3/s) flow rate.
43.
44. The fan size is chosen as a 350mm-diameter fan (1420 r.p.m. speed).
The electric motor for this fan has a 4-pole winding and will run at 1420 r.p.m. which will be slower than a 2-pole
motor and therefore quieter.
45.
66
46. Fan Laws and Running Costs

47.
48.The Fan Laws are as follows:
49.
50.No.1 Speed / Volume
51.
52. N1 Q1
53. =
N2 Q2
54. Where;
55. N = Fan speed (rev. per minute or r.p.m.)
56. Q = Volume flow rate of air (m3/s)
57.
58.This means that fan speed and volume flow rate of air are directly proportional.
59.
60.No.2 Speed / Pressure
61. 2
62. N1 p1
63. =
N2 p2
64.
65. Where;
67. p = Fan pressure (N/m2)
68.
69.This means that as the fan speed is doubled, for example, the pressure developed is raised by a factor of 4.
70.
71.No.3 Speed / Power
72. 3
73. N1 P1
=
74. N2 P2
75.
67
76. Where;
78. P = Fan power (Watts)
79.
80.This means that as the fan speed is doubled, for example, the power required to drive the fan is raised by a factor of 8.
81.The above three laws may be written differently to aid calculations, as follows;
82.
83. No.1 Speed / Volume
84.
85. Q N2 Q2
2 = Q1 or N2 = N1
86. N1 Q1
87.
88.
89. No.2 Speed / Pressure
90. 1/2
N2 p 2
91. p
2 = p1 or N2 = N1
92. N1 p1
2
93.
94.
95. No.3 Speed / Power
96.
1/
97. N2 P2 3
98. P2 = P1 or N2 = N1
99. N1 P1
3
100.
101.
102.
103.
104. Fan Running Costs
68
105.
106. Running costs can be examined as follows;
107.
108. Fan power (W) = Fan pressure (N/m2 or Pa) x Air Volume flow rate (m3/s) / Efficiency
109.
110.
111. Annual running cost (£/annum) = Fan power (kW) x Hours run per annum x Electrical price £ per
kWh
112.
113. For example; if a fan runs for 2496 hours per year and delivers 0.625 m3/s against a pressure of 200 Pa, then
the annual running costs can be calculated as follows;
114. Take electricity cost at 11.2 p/kWh = 0.112 £/kWh.
115.
116. Fan power (W) = Fan pressure (N/m2 or Pa) x Air Volume flow rate (m3/s) / Efficiency
117.
118. Fan power (W) = 200 x 0.625 / (say) 0.6
119.
120. Fan power (W) = 208 Watts.
121.
122. Fan power (kW) = 0.208 kW.
123.
124. Annual running cost (£/annum) = 0.208 x 2496 x 0.112
125.
126. Annual running cost (£) = £58.15 per annum
69
Ventilation Design
Design Methodology
When considering ventilation design the following approach could be adopted before sizing begins and the following
questions should be considered:
1. What areas need ventilation?
The contaminants should be listed for these areas.
2. What type of system should be used, supply, extract or balanced?
3. Are there any alternative systems to consider?
4. Is air conditioning necessary in the building?
If air conditioning is necessary then should it be incorporated into the ventilation system?
5. Where should the fan(s) and plant be installed?
6. What type of fan(s) and plant should be used?

70
7. Is a separate heating system necessary?
8. What type of control system should be used?
9. What type of air distribution system should be used, upward or downward?
10. Have I considered what will happen in the event of a fire in the building?
11. Have I considered the noise from fans?
After all the above questions have been answered the sizing process may commence.
Sizing
The sizing procedure is as follows:
1. Calculate Ventilation rates.

2. Decide on number of fans and grilles/diffusers.
3. Draw scale layout drawing:

71
Position fan(s).
Lay out ductwork.
Lay out grilles and diffusers.
Indicate flow rates on drawing.
4. Size ductwork
5. Size fan
6. Size grilles and diffusers.
Design Criteria
To design a ventilation system, the engineer has to meet two basic requirements:
1. To change the air in the room sufficiently so that smells, fumes and contaminants are removed. (See Table 3.1)
2. To supply fresh air for the occupants. (See Table 3.3)

72
1. Ventilation Rates
Section
number
Animal husbandry 3.24.1 See Table 3.20
Assembly halls 3.3 See Table 3.6
Atria 3.4 See section 3.4.3
Broadcasting studios 3.5 6 -10ACH (but heat gain should be assessed)
Call centres 3.24.2 4 - 6 ACH (but heat gain should be assessed)
Catering (inc. commercial kitchens) 3.6 30 - 40 ACH
Cleanrooms 3.7 See Tables 3.11 and 3.12
Communal residential buildings 3.8 0.5 - 1 ACH
Computer rooms 3.9 See Table 3.13
Court rooms 3.24.3 As for typically naturally ventilated buildings
Darkrooms (photographic) 3.24.4 6 - 10 ACH (but heat gain should be assessed)
Dealing rooms 3.24.5 As offices for ventilation (but heat gain should be assessed)
Dwellings (inc. high-rise dwellings) 3.10 0.5 - 1 ACH
Factories and warehouses 3.11 See 3.11.1 for regulatory requirements
High-rise (non-domestic) buildings 3.12 4 - 6 ACH for office areas; up to 10ACH for meeting space.
Horticulture 3.24.6 30 - 50 litres/s/m2 for greenhouses (45 - 60 ACH)
Hospitals and health care buildings 3.13 See Table 3.15
Hotels 3.14 10 - 15 ACH minimum for guest rooms with en-suite bathrooms
73
Industrial ventilation 3.15 Sufficient to minimise airborne contamination

Laboratories 3.16 6 - 15 ACH (allowance must be made for fume cupboards)
Museums, libraries and art galleries 3.17 Depends on nature of exhibits
Offices 3.2 See Tables 3.2 and 3.3
Plant rooms 3.18 Specific regulations apply, see section 3.18
Schools and educational buildings 3.19 See Table 3.18
Shops and retail premises 3.20 5 - 8 litres/s per person
Sports centres (inc. swimming pools) 3.21 See Table 3.19
Standards rooms 3.24.7 45 - 60 ACH
Building Regulations apply; opening windows of area 1/20th of floor
area or mechanical ventilation at 6 litres/s per WC or 3 ACH minimum
Toilets 3.22 for non-domestic buildings; opening windows area 1/20th of floor area
(1/30th in Scotland) or mechanical extract at 6 litres/s (3 ACH in
Scotland) minimum for dwellings.
6 ACH for car parks (normal operation)
Transportation buildings (inc. carparks) 3.23
10 ACH (fire conditions)
The following table gives fresh air rates.
Table 3.3 CIBSE Guide B2 (2001) Recommended outdoor air supply rates for sedentary occupants.
Outdoor air supply rate

Level of Smoking
(litre/s per person)
74
No smoking 8
Some smoking 16
Heavy smoking 24
Very heavy smoking 36
The table below is an extract from Table 3.6 CIBSE Guide B2 (2001) and gives rates for Assembly Halls and Auditoria
Design Requirements : Assembly halls and auditoria
Parameter Design requirement

Fresh air ventilation rates To suit occupancy levels
3 – 4 air changes per hour for
displacement strategy
Air change rate
6 – 10 air changes per hour for high
level mechanical strategy
The following Table gives suitable duct air velocities in various buildings.
75
Air Velocity (m/s)

Building
Main Duct Branch
Domestic 3 2
Auditoria 4 3
Hotel bedroom, Conference hall 5 3
Private office, Library, Hospital ward 6 4
General office, Restaurant, Dept. store 7.5 5
Cafeteria, Supermarket, Machine room 9 6
Factory, Workshop 10-12 7.5
For Extract ventilation systems the rate in air changes per hour is obtained from Table 3.1 above.
76
A typical extract system is shown below.
ROO
Exhau M
Extract
st Air Fan air rate
rate
EXTRACT VENTILATION
For Balanced with No Recirculation ventilation systems the fresh air rate is obtained from Table 3.3 and the supply air rate
in air changes per hour is obtained from Table 3.1.
The larger of the two rates is then chosen.
The Extract Rate may vary slightly from the supply air rate depending on whether a positive or negative pressure is
desirable.
Fresh Air Supply

rate Air rate
ROO
Exhau M
Extract
st Air air rate
rate
BALANCED VENTILATION WITH NO RECIRC. AIR QUANTITIES
77
For Balanced with Recirculation ventilation systems the fresh air rate is obtained from
Table 3.3 and the supply air the rate in air changes per hour is obtained from Table 3.1.
The Recirculation Rate is the Supply Air Rate minus the Fresh Air Rate.
Fresh Supply
Air Rate Air Rate
Recirculatio ROO
Exhau n Air Extract M
st Air air rate
rate
BALANCED VENTILATION WITH RECIRC. AIR QUANTITIES

78
For an Air Conditioning system the supply air flow rate for cooling is found from the following formulae:
m = H / (Cp x (tr –ts))

where;
H = Sensible heat gain (kW)
m = mass flow rate of air (kg/s)
Cp = Specific heat capacity of air (1.005 kJ/kg K)
tr = room temperature (oC)
ts = supply air temperature (oC)
Convert this to a volume flow rate:

Volume flow rate (m3/s) = mass flow rate (kg/s) / density of air (kg/m3)
Convert this to an Air Change rate for comparison.
Supply Air Rate (AC/h) = Volume Flow Rate (m3/h) / Room Volume (m3)
If this rate less than the Air Change Rate given in Table 3.1 CIBSE guide, then use the higher value.
Coolin Heater
g Coil
Fresh Air Supply
Rate Air Rate
Recirculatio ROO
Exhau n Air Extract M
st Air air rate
rate
AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM WITH AIR QUANTITIES

79
1. Ventilation Calculations
1.1 For General Mechanical Ventilation
Air Change Rate (/h) comes from CIBSE Guide B2 (2001) Table 3.1
1.2 For Calculating Fresh Air Ventilation Rates
Fresh Air Rate (m3/s) = Fresh Air rate per person (l/s/p) x number of occupants
Fresh Air rate per person (l/s/p) comes from CIBSE Guide B2 (2001) Table 3.3 (for most buildings).
80
2. Number of Fans and Grilles
Several fans are often better than one since its makes the ventilation system more flexible.
Also the air to be supplied or removed may be in different areas of a room or building where individual fans can be more
effective.
The number of grilles or diffusers may depend on the ceiling layout, lighting layout and amount to air to be transferred.
Sometimes it is necessary to complete a preliminary grille size to decide on the final number in a room.
3. Drawings
Accurate, scaled plan drawings are necessary for installation, fabrication, estimating and commissioning a ventilation
scheme.
Sometimes elevations, sections and details are also necessary especially in complicated installations.
Drawings should show:
1. Flow rates of air.

81
2. Ductwork to scale with sizes indicated.
3. Air flow direction
4. Items of plant
Other details such as; builder’s work, support details, fan specification, grille and diffuser details, louvre details, plant
details, insulation, ductwork specification may be given on a drawing or in a specification document.
4. Size Ductwork
See duct sizing in PLANT SIZING section of these notes.
5. Size Fan
See fan sizing in FANS section of these notes.
6. Size Grilles and Diffusers.

82
See grille sizing in GRILLES section of these notes.
Good Ventilation Design

Good ventilation design should have the following features:
1. Not noisy
2. Concealed
3. No draughts
4. Efficient fan
5. Good control of air flow with dampers and appropriate diffusers.
6. Good control of room temperature.
7. Appropriate duct sizes.
8. Well supported ducts and equipment.
9. Prevent spread of smoke in the event of a fire with smoke/fire dampers.
10.Ensure that supply air is clean by using a filter.
11.Ensure that vermin cannot enter the duct system by using a bird/insect screen in the fresh air intake.
12.Minimise risk of infection in some buildings (e.g. hospital) by having no recirculation duct.
13.Use recirculation duct in some buildings to save energy.
14.Use appropriate air change rates to meet room requirements.
15.Use appropriate fresh air rate to meet room occupants’ requirements.
16.Use suitable system to fit in with building aesthetics.
17.Avoid duct leaks by using proper jointing method.
83
Ventilation (and Air Conditioning) of Large Rooms
Large rooms and buildings such as lecture rooms; theatres, conference rooms, exhibition halls, auditoria and halls for public
gatherings need careful designing for ventilation or air conditioning.
Two of the most important design criteria are:

o The ventilation rate.
o The distribution of air in the space.
Ventilation Rate
The ventilation air change rate (Theatres) given in the CIBSE guide Table B2.3 is 6-10 air changes per hour.
This table is in the Ventilation Design section of these notes.
This is total air supply rate.
We can choose a higher figure if necessary.
The amount of fresh air supplied per occupant is given in Table B2.2.
This is 8 litres per second per person for non-smoking areas and 16 litres per second per person for smoking areas.
If we assume that a building is non-smoking, therefore 8 l/s/p of fresh air is required for the fresh air amount.
These two figures can determine the air flow rates in the ventilation system.

84
Example
The THEATRE building shown below requires mechanical ventilation.

Determine the air flow rates in the system.
CIBSE guide table B2.3 gives a supply ventilation rate of 6 - 10 air changes per hour.
Use a supply air ventilation rate of 10 air changes per hour for this example.
DATA:
Room width = 20 metres
Occupancy = 750 seats.
1.8 m
Ceiling
9m
Stage
25 m
SECTION THROUGH LARGE HALL

85
AIR FLOW RATES

Room Volume (m3) = L x W x H
Room Volume (m3) = 25 x 20 x 9
Ventilation rate (m3/h) = 4500 m3
Ventilation rate (m3/s) = 12.5 m3/s
Ventilation rate (m3/h) = 10 x 4500
3
= 45,000 m /h
Choose an Outdoor Air Recommended minima Rate from Table B2.2 for a room with non-smoking = 8 l/s/p
Fresh Air Rate (l/s) = Number of occupants x Outdoor Supply air per Person (l/s)
Fresh Air Rate (l/s) = 750 x 8 = 6000 l/s
Fresh Air Rate (m3/s) = Fresh Air Rate(l/s) / 1000
Fresh Air Rate (m3/s) = 6000 / 1000 = 6 m3/s
For comparison convert Fresh Air Rate to an Air Change Rate.
Fresh Air Rate (m3/h) = Fresh Air Rate (m3/s) x 3600

Fresh Air Rate (m3/h) = 6 x 3600 = 21,600 m3/h
Fresh Air Rate (AC/h) = Fresh Air Rate (m3/h) / Room Volume (m3)
Fresh Air Rate (AC/h) = 21,600 / 4500 = 4.8 AC /h
Fresh Air Rate (AC/h) = 4.8 air changes of fresh air per hour
86
The supply air ventilation rate is 10 air changes per hour.

These figures can now be put on a drawing for clarity.
Return air
10 AC/h
100%
Exhaust
Air
AC/h
48%
Return air at
ceiling grilles Recirculated Air
Air supplied from
AC/h
under seats. Flexible
52%
branches are
Stage omitted for clarity
Fresh Air
AC/h
48%
Supply air
10 Ac/h
100%
AIR FLOW RATES FOR LARGE HALL
87
Ventilation Rate if Air Conditioning is Used
The previous ventilation rate may change if air conditioning is necessary.

If air conditioning is to be incorporated into a design then the heat gains should be calculated to ascertain the supply air
rate into the building.
The following formula may be used to calculate the supply air rate.
H = m x Cp x (tr -ts)
Where;
H = Sensible heat gain (kW)
m = mass flow rate of air (kg/s)
Cp = Specific heat capacity of air (1.005 kJ/kg K)
tr = room temperature (oC)
ts = supply air temperature (oC)
If the heat gain in the previous example is 135 kW, the room air temperature is 22 oC and the supply air temperature in
summer is 14oC, then the mass flow rate of supply air is
m = H / (Cp x (tr –ts))

m = 135 / (1.005 x (22 –14))
m = 16.8 kg/s
Convert this to a volume flow rate:
Volume flow rate (m3/s) = mass flow rate (kg/s) / density of air (kg/m3)
Volume flow rate (m3/s) = 16.8 / 1.2 kg/m3 =14m3/s
88
Volume flow rate (m3/h)= 14 x 3600 = 50,400 m3/h
Convert this to an Air Change rate for comparison.
Supply Air Rate (AC/h) = Volume Flow Rate (m3/h) / Room Volume (m3)
Supply Air Rate (AC/h) = 50400 / 4500 = 11.2 ac/h
This rate is more than the Air Change Rate given in Table 2.3 CIBSE guide of 10 ac/h.
For good practice we will use the higher of the two values in the actual design which is: 11.2 Air Changes per hour.
Air Distribution
Air distribution in a large hall poses some difficulties which must be addressed.
The object of good air distribution is to allow air to be supplied to all parts of the room, to avoid draughts and to have
effective air mixing in a space.
This means that all the areas in a room should have the benefit of cool air if required or warm air if required. Also all
occupants should have a supply of fresh air.
In a heating system warm air will naturally rise so supplying at low level and extracting at high level is a good way to employ
buoyancy effects.
In an air conditioning system cool air may be supplied at high level and allowed to drop to low level to be extracted.
The drawing below shows upward ventilation in an Auditorium.
One advantage is that small adjustable louvres near seats can be used to give the occupants control over their environment.
89
Air is returned from high

level through ceiling Space for return air
grilles. ductwork
Lecture Hall/
Theatre
Space for supply air

ductwork Air is supplied at low level,
possibly under seats through
small louvres. Velocity must be
low to avoid draughts
AIR DISTRIBUTION
The velocity of air supplied at low level is about 0.5 m/s to reduce draughts at floor outlets.
Outlets may also be positioned at low level on side walls.
90
The upward system can be cheaper to install since propeller fans can be used in the roof to extract the air.
The drawing below shows a typical example of Downward ventilation in a Concert Hall.
One advantage of this type of air distribution is that there is no supply at seating level therefore no possibility of draughts
and no difficulty in installing ductwork under seat areas. Another advantage is that if air conditioning is used, the cool
supply air will tend to drop in the warmer room air, thus assisting distribution.
High level
extract
Air is supplied
through diffusers Space for
mounted in the ductwork
ceiling.
Low Low
level Level
extract extract
Lecture Hall/
Theatre
DOWNWARD AIR DISTRIBUTION

Space required Space required
for ductwork for ductwork
91
One disadvantage however, is that low level extract grilles are required and these can be difficult to assimilate into the
building fabric.
Also vertical ductwork is required from these low level grilles and this takes up floor and wall space and normally requires
to be hidden from view.
In some halls with a very high ceiling the velocity of air supplied at high level needs to be high to get the air down into the
occupancy space.
The problem with high velocity at diffusers is noise.
The diffusers must be carefully chosen to minimise the risk of noise yet maintain an adequate ‘throw’ to distribute the air
down at low level.
The air diffusers become like nozzles in a jet so that adequate velocity is reached.
An outlet velocity of about 3-5 m/s is available from jet diffusers.

An example of this type of ventilation is used in Usher Hall Edinburgh where 65 jet diffusers are installed, each handling 280
litres/s at an outlet velocity of approximately 3 m/s.
Because of their aerodynamic design jet diffusers give a long throw even at high outlet volumes.
In some diffusers the jet can be adjusted over 360
As these jets handle different supply temperatures the jet can be oriented upwards or downwards for heating or cooling
mode.
This can be achieved by hand or by electric motor.
92
The diagram below shows a sizing diagram and photo of a jet diffuser.
93
94
95
AIR DISTRIBUTION
Air is supplied into rooms via air diffusers.
These are used to direct the air in one, two, three or four directions if square or rectangular units are installed.
Return or Extract air is removed via a grille. These are not required to direct the air and are simpler in construction.
For continuity and aesthetic reasons diffusers may be used for both supply and extract.
It is difficult to supply or extract air at low level in rooms because draughts may result from low-level supplies and vertical
ductwork in rooms is not generally feasible.
It is therefore usual to supply or extract air from the ceiling as shown below, but this means that air velocities at diffusers
must be sufficient to ensure adequate mixing within the space otherwise short-circuiting of grilles may occur.
Short-circuiting
96
Good mixing
Circular diffusers may be used in some areas especially if they blend into the ceiling layout or room shape.
Another option is to use linear slot diffusers which can give a continuous long system of air distribution. This may be an
advantage in some types of room.
In rooms with a very high ceiling it may be necessary to use a nozzle which acts like a jet to force the air down to the
occupied space. One difficulty associated with high velocity jets is noise production. This is one of the aspects of air
distribution which must be addressed by the engineer.
VENTILATION SYSTEM LAYOUT

When designing ventilation systems it must be remembered that since most of the ductwork is installed within ceiling spaces,
it is a good idea to liaise closely with the Architect at the early stages of design so that space requirements are met.
97
Figure 1 below shows a typical balanced ventilation system layout. One method, which can be adopted, is to run main supply
and return ductwork in the ceiling space above corridors and the branches into adjoining rooms.
Ceiling heights in corridors may be lowered to accommodate larger ductwork.
It is common practice to use flexible ductwork to grilles and diffusers. These have several advantages; sharp bends are
eliminated, flexible ductwork has better sound adsorption qualities compared to sheet metal, it is easier to install especially in
a congested area and it allows more freedom in positioning the grille or diffuser.
A plenum box can be used to connect the ductwork system to the grille or diffuser. This has a larger cross sectional area than
the connecting duct and reduces the air velocity before it enters the diffuser thus giving better air distribution over total
diffuser area. A less expensive method is to use diffusers with factory-fitted square or round necks, which can be fitted
directly to the flexible duct connection.
Each grille or diffuser should have a damper to regulate flow of air. This damper can be an opposed blade type incorporated
within the diffuser or a butterfly volume control damper (VCD) positioned in the branch duct. All dampers require access.
98
99
Figure 2 below shows a typical ventilation system using linear or slot diffusers. These have the advantage that air can be
distributed over a wider area and the ‘coanda’ effect can be utilised. This is where cool air ‘sticks’ to the ceiling before falling
gradually into the space below.
BUILDING REGULATIONS
The Regulations cover Natural and Mechanical Ventilation
The areas to which Mechanical Ventilation applies are:

Domestic
Habitable room
Kitchen
Utility
Bathroom
Other Sanitary Accommodation separate from Bathroom
Non-domestic
Occupiable room
100
Kitchen
Bathroom including shower rooms
Other Internal Sanitary Accommodation
To implement the requirements of an EU Workplace Directive part K has been split into Domestic and Non-domestic
buildings.
As a consequence of this, the term occupiable rooms is introduced to provide for rooms such as:
Office, Workroom, Classroom, Hotel bedroom
INTERACTION OF MECHANICAL EXTRACT WITH OPEN-FLUED HEATING APPLIANCES.
Mechanical ventilation can suck flue gases back into a room from a heating appliance. This could happen at a leaking joint in
a flue spigot or flue section or entrance into a chimney for example. Recommendations:
(a) Seal flue outlet from oil-fired boiler
(b) For gas-fired heating appliance - max. 20 litres/second mechanical ventilation rate.
(c) No mechanical extract in same room as solid fuel appliance.

101
DOMESTIC BUILDINGS
Use CONTROLLABLE BACKGROUND VENTILATION everywhere by installing:
 Trickle Vents in windows
 Air Bricks with “hit and miss” ventilator
 Other
Use a PASSIVE STACK VENTILATION system.
Passive Stack Ventilation (PSV) may be used as an alternative to mechanical extract ventilation in:
KITCHENS
BATHROOMS
SANITARY ACCOMMODATION
Passive Stack Ventilation (PSV)

System shall be designed and constructed in accordance with BRE information Paper 13/94.
Definition
Passive Stack Ventilation (PSV) is a ventilation system using ducts
from the ceiling of rooms to terminals on the roof, which operate by a combination of the natural stack effect, ie the
movement of air due to the difference in temperature between inside and outside, and the effect of wind passing
over the roof of the dwelling.
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OPEN FLUED HEATING APPLIANCES

Open-flued heating appliances take their combustion from the room where they are installed and so contribute to the
extract ventilation when in operation.
Mechanical extract ventilation need not be provided in a room where there is either:
(a) an open flued appliance which provides the primary source of heating, cooking or hot water production, or
(b) an open flued appliance min. 125mm dia (approx) with permanently open air inlets.
OPENING WINDOW IN KITCHENS
An opening window is to be provided as a supplement to extract ventilation.
1/20 th of floor area.

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VENTILATION FOR COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL - NON-DOMESTIC BUILDINGS
Note - Large Kitchens see CIBSE guide B2.3 and B2.11
For example B2.3 - Kitchens, hotel and industrial
Total air supply rate, not less than 17.5 litres per m2 of
floor space, not less than 20 air changes per hour.
VENTILATION OF SPECIALIST ACTIVITIES
(a) School or other educational establishment.
(b) Workplaces
(c) Hospitals
(d) Building Services plant rooms
(e) Rest rooms where smoking is permitted
(f) Commercial Kitchens

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(a) School or other educational establishment.

Fume Cupboards - DFE Design Note 29
(b) Workplaces
Specific workplaces and work processes - HSE Guidance Note EH22
(c) Hospitals
Specific rooms in hospitals - DHSS Activity Data Base and Department of Health Building Notes 4,21 and 46.
(d) Building Services plant rooms

If emergency ventilation is required to disperse contaminating gas releases
 HSE Guidance Note EH22.
(e) Rest rooms where smoking is permitted

Min. 16 litres/second per person in addition to requirements of Table 3.1
(f) Commercial Kitchens
Examples:
For a Kitchen which measures 5 metres x 4 metres x 2.4 metres high, 60 litres per second is equivalent to 4.5 air changes per
hour.
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For a bathroom which measures 3 metres x 2 metres x 2.4 metres high, 15 litres per second is equivalent to 3.75 air changes
per hour.
Other guidelines:
C.I.B.S.E. Guide
BRE Digest 398 1994
Continuous Mechanical Ventilation in Dwellings:

Design, installation and operation.
1. Discusses ducted extract and/or supply ventilation running continuously.
2. Less reliance on natural ventilation.
3. Better control of ventilation rate means less wasted energy.
4. Opportunity for heat recovery system as shown in diagram.
5. Dwelling must be fairly airtight.
6. A total ventilation rate for the whole house of 0.5 air changes per hour is typical.
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BS 5925:1991
Code of Practice for

Ventilation principles and designing for natural ventilation
Continuous Mechanical Ventilation
Introduction
There are some advantages in having a ventilation system that operates continuously.
Compared to natural ventilation, a continuous mechanical system has better control over air flows and air change rates.
The air change rates vary in natural ventilation systems with wind direction, wind strength, air temperatures and height of
building.
This does not happen in mechanical systems.
A continuous system of ventilation is efficient at controlling humidity levels in buildings and in many cases is the answer for
damp buildings.
The system runs for 24 hours per day continuously but does not consume a lot of electrical energy since fan power is small.
Operation
Air is extracted from areas of high contamination e.g. Toilets, Showers, Bathrooms, En-suites, Kitchen and Utility Rooms.
The air is removed and exhausted at high level usually through the roof.
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Replacement air is either drawn in naturally as shown below or supplied by a fresh air supply fan.
Replacement air is normally able to be provided via structural air leakage with background ventilation openings like trickle
vents not normally needed.
Exhaust at high level
Extract Fan Roof Space
Extract through ceiling
Replacement fresh air

through windows and
doors
House
Simple Continuous Extract Ventilation System

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To provide more control over the system, fresh air may be delivered into the building by a fan as shown below.
Supply Fan with

filter
Extract Fan
Fresh Air Inlet
Roof Space
Extract through
ceiling
Fresh Air Supply at
Ground level ceiling
House
Simple Continuous Supply and Extract Ventilation System

109
It is normal to supply air, with no extract, to ‘dry’ rooms such as; bedrooms, dining rooms, living rooms, etc.
The extract grilles are installed in ‘wet’ rooms such as; kitchens, bathrooms, shower rooms, utility rooms and WC’s.
If there are not enough ‘wet’ rooms an extract terminal may be positioned in a large ‘dry’ room along with a supply
diffuser.
Air Flow Rates
A whole house ventilation rate of 0.5 air changes per hour is recommended.
Rooms with an extract grille will have a high rate, typically 2 AC/h to 5 AC/h.
Additional ventilation is required when showers and cookers are in operation to minimise build-up of humidity levels.
Total air flow rates are divided among the rooms on a floor area basis.
Some extract fans have a boost facility to enable more ventilation in times when contamination is occurring such as when a
shower or a cooker is switched on.
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Airtightness
BRE Digest 398 – Continuous Mechanical Ventilation in dwellings, recommends the building being as airtight as practicable
for efficient operation.
Heat Recovery
A heat exchanger can be installed in the exhaust system to recover heat in the air.
This heat is then transferred into the fresh air system in the Roofspace.
Modern heat exchangers can have an efficiency of over 90% which makes them worthwhile.
This is probably the best continuous ventilation system for houses since little heat is lost and the system is well controlled.
111
Heat Recovery Unit with fans
Fresh Air Inlet

Roof Space Supply Fan with filter
Extract through
ceiling
House
Simple Continuous Ventilation System with Heat Recovery

112
Noise
The system should be very quiet in operation since it runs during the night as well as during the day.
Typical Continuous Mechanical Extract Ventilation Unit
The following are some features of a typical unit;
 Low energy fan (often d.c. motor).
 2 No. 120mm diameter extract ducts with balancing dampers.
 4 No. 100mm diameter extract ducts with balancing dampers.
 Acoustic noise insulation.
 Fan motor to be speed-variable with boost facility.
 Boost facility to be switched from more than one point ( Bathroom light switch or Kitchen switch)
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 Fan to have adjustable ‘run-on’ facility.
 Easy-access filter to protect fan and motor.
Air Supply Only Systems
Air can be supplied into a building from the Roofspace to reduce dampness and surface condensation.
This is the opposite of the previous forms of ventilation.
Roofspace air tends to be warm and dry and can be recirculated down into the living space below to reduce condensation.
Air Intake at high level

in roofspace
Supply Fan Roof Space
Ventilation at
eaves level
Supply through ceiling
House
Roofspace Ventilation System
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Transfer grilles may be installed in Bathroom doors to assist air circulation.
Note:
Building Regulations should be consulted when designing a continuous mechanical ventilation system.
In Building Regulations (England& Wales) part F (2006) information is given for whole house ventilation e.g. ventilator areas
and sizing of ventilators for rooms.
Extract
Provide continuous extract from wet rooms at the following rates, making no allowance for infiltration:
Kitchen - 13 litres/second
Bathroom, utility room - 8 litres/second
Sanitary accommodation (WCs) - 6 litres/second.
Control of Ventilation Systems in the Event of a Fire

115
It is important in large buildings to control a ventilation system in the event of a fire.

Smoke from a fire can spread quickly through a building and this spread of smoke can be assisted by the ductwork system if
incorrectly designed.
Some of the strategies to prevent spread of smoke are as follows;
1. Switch off all fans automatically when a fire alarm control panel is activated.
2. Provide ductwork fire dampers between fire zones and provide a system of automatic closure of dampers.
3. Fire stop all holes around ductwork.
4. Provide smoke roof vents.
5. Provide pressurising fans.
6. Providing smoke extract fans.
See CIBSE Guide E (2003) Fire Engineering for more details.

It is always a good idea to consult the local Fire Authority for advice on control of ventilation in the event of a fire in a
building.
Smoke Vents
Fire venting is a means of preventing the spread of flames and smoke in the event of a fire.
This is appropriate to buildings with large open floor areas such as; factories, warehouses.
A series of vents are opened automatically when a fire starts and these vents direct flames and smoke into the atmosphere.
116
The normal position for fire vents is on the rooftop and they operate automatically when a signal is received from a fire
detector.
The aim of these fire vents is to allow occupants to escape and to contain a fire until the fire brigade takes other measures.
Since most fatalities from fire are a result of smoke and fumes causing asphyxiation, the control of such fumes is important
in fire fighting.
Smoke can be distributed throughout a building by the action of wind, stack pressure and fire pressure and by ventilation
plant.
Whereas fire vents are used mainly in large warehouses and factories, smoke control is more important in office blocks and
high occupancy buildings.
Factories, warehouses, shopping centres and large buildings are prone to uninhibited smoke spread in the event of a fire.
To remove smoke at source a roof vent can be used.
The vents are equipped with a 74ºC fusible link for automatic operation.
There are various methods of opening the vents quickly to remove smoke, these are;
1. Spring
2. Compressed air
3. Electric motor.
The advantage of torsion spring drives is that no electric energy is needed to open the covers or louvres automatically.
The automatic device can be reset after the fire is extinguished.
Closing the vents may be done by pull handles, worm and screw manual device or electric motors.
117
The opening of a smoke vent will aid people in their escape and assist the fire service to see and promptly tackle the source
of fire.
The heat removed prevents risk of an explosion, flash-over and distortion to the structural steel frame.
Open smoke vent
Screens to
Heat and smoke
reduce
Fire spread of
smoke
Smoke vents in factory roof

118
Grilles and Diffusers
A grille is a device for supplying or extracting air vertically without any deflection.
A diffuser normally has profiled blades to direct the air at an angle as it leaves the unit into the space, as shown below.
Round neck for duct fitting

Airflow Airflow
Curved
Plenum box
blades
Straight
blades Ceiling level
Extract grille 2-way diffuser
Grilles and Diffusers can be manufactured in:
 Aluminium
 Mild steel
 Stainless steel
 Plastic
119
Finishes can be white, any colour, brushed or anodised aluminium, stainless steel or chrome.
Grilles and diffusers may be mounted in ceilings, floors, walls, doors and in ducts. Some are suitable for horizontal or vertical mounting while floors grilles
tend to be especially strong to withstand foot traffic.
Types of Grille and Diffuser
There are several types of grille and diffuser to choose from, as follows;
 Egg grate grille

 Bar grille
 Transfer grille
 Louvre bladed diffuser
 Straight bladed diffuser
 Linear slot diffuser
Less commonly used diffusers are as follows;

120
o Swirl diffuser
o Floor outlet diffuser
o Jet diffuser
o Punkah diffuser
o Barrel diffuser
o Perforated diffuser
o Valves
o Plain face diffuser
Egg Crate Grille
The Egg Crate Grille is probably one of the simplest and cheapest grilles.
In some cases the plenum box above the grille is visible from the room below.
If air is to be removed by an extract ventilation system then a diffuser with profiled blades to direct the air is not necessary
and an egg grate grille can be used.
121
Bar Grille
The blades of this type of grille are shaped as a bar compared to a narrow blade.
The bar profile may be ‘T’ shaped to reduce ‘see through’ visibility.
122
Some linear bar grilles have adjustable blades or angled blades to reduce ‘see through’.
123
Transfer Grille
These are often used in doors and walls to provide ventilation but stop the spread of smoke and fire should it occur. An
intumescent fire damper is incorporated in some Transfer grilles as a means of isolation in the event of a fire.
124
Louvre Bladed Diffuser
These are used to supply air at ceiling level.
The curved blades deflect air in one, two, three or four directions depending on where the diffuser is situated.
125
Diffusers may also be circular as shown below.

126
Straight Bladed Diffuser

These are cheaper than Louvre Bladed Diffusers.
Some types have adjustable bladed as shown below.
Linear Slot Diffuser
These are used for an alternative air distribution pattern and for aesthetic reasons.
Air can be delivered around the perimeter of a room as opposed to point sources interposed in a ceiling space.
Linear slots can be used for return air as well as supply.
In many cases blanking plates are used to create ‘dummy’ slots so that a continuous linear effect is created.
127
One to four slot widths are common depending on how much air is to be delivered.
128
Some proprietary plenum boxes are quite tall are require a large ceiling void, to overcome this a special box can be
manufactured to fit the available space.
Some Slot Diffusers have an adjustable air pattern so that the air distribution can match the room shape.
If sound insulation is required in an air conditioning system then a lined plenum box may provide sufficient sound
attenuation.
There are some specialised grilles and diffusers as described below.
Swirl Diffuser
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High turbulence occurs immediately within the proximity of the diffuser, which allows high air change rates to be
successfully supplied into the room.
With careful selection swirl diffusers can handle up to 30 air changes per hour while still satisfying relevant comfort criteria.
Floor Outlet Diffuser
There is an advantage in supplying cool air conditioned air at low level.
This can be achieved by floor outlets.
Floor diffusers are also useful in areas with raised floors so that ductwork can be accommodated under the floor.
Another area for floor outlets is under large areas of glass so that condensation and cold down draughts are eliminated.
130
Jet Diffuser
Used in areas where the ceiling is high and large air velocities are needed to reach the occupied space.
131
The high volume and long throw of these diffusers makes them suitable for large halls
Some jet diffusers can be reversible and rotatable which allows the air jet to be adjusted for both pattern and deflection.
Punkah Diffuser
Used to give flexible air direction, sometimes in the back of seats so that occupants have control over flow and direction of
air.
132
Perforated Diffuser
Perforated diffusers are suitable for installation in 600mm ceiling tiles.
The face plate may be pivoted down to gain access.
The diffusers are constructed from aluminium or stainless steel the flat face plates are perforated, this means that they are
easily cleaned and are used in some kitchens.
Valves
Valves are used where the air flow needs to be regulated or throttled and are suitable for supply and exhaust applications.
133
Diffuser Terminilogy
There are several terms used in diffuser and grille systems as follows;
o Isovel - A contour of equal velocity.
o Throw - The distance from the terminal to the position where the velocity has decayed to 0.5 m/s.
The lower velocities of 0.5 m/s and 0.25 m/s are important because this is near the comfort zone.
o Spread - This is the width of the 0·5 m/s isovel.
o Drop - This is the vertical distance from the centre-line of the terminal to the bottom edge of the 0·25 m/s
isovel.
134
Diffuser outlet
Room
Isovels
Throw Air Flow
0.5 m/s Isovel
Elevation
Air Flow from a Diffuser into a Room
The Coanda effect occurs when an air stream is discharged along an unobstructed flat surface.
Air near the ceiling tends to cling to the ceiling because it has a low pressure caused by the friction loss with moving air in
contact with the ceiling material.
A projection may well destroy the Coanda effect causing the air stream to become detached prematurely from the surface;
throw is reduced by about one-third when the Coanda effect does not occur.
135
Sizing Diffusers
When sizing air diffusers the room air flow rate for ventilation is required.
This can be ascertained from the VENTILATION RATES section of these notes.
The following information refers to supply diffuser design but can be applied to return air diffusers.
Design Criteria for Diffuser Design
There are three criteria that determine diffuser size and number.
These are:
o Throw
o Pressure loss
o Noise level

136
The throw is discussed on the previous page.
Pressure loss is the pressure resistance to air flow and is required in duct and fan sizing calculations.
The maximum Noise level is determined for various room types.
Noise Rating (NR) levels are given in section NOISE AND NOISE LIMITS in these notes.
Example 1
Design the diffuser system for the supply and return air ventilation for the room shown below.
DATA:
Air change rate from Table A3.1 in CIBSE guide B2 (2001) is 6 – 10 ACH. Choose 10 ACH for this room.
The Noise Rating level from Table 1.17 CIBSE guide for Television (Audience Studio) is 25dB.
The throw required is Ceiling height 3.0 minus 0.8m = 2.2 metres.
Keep the pressure drop below 20Pa.
Use Waterloo Aircell M Series 4-way diffusers.

137
Broadcasting 10 metres
Studio, TV
Audience
6
metres
PLAN Ceiling height = 3.0

m
138
Answer.
1. Calculate ventilation rate for room in litres / second.
Ventilation rate (m3/h) = 10 ACH x 10 x 6 x 3
Ventilation rate (m3/h) = 10 ACH x 180 m3.
Ventilation rate (m3/h) = 1800 m3/h
Ventilation rate (m3/s) = 1800 m3/h / 3600
Ventilation rate (m3/s) = 0.5 m3/s
Ventilation rate (l/s) = Ventilation rate (m3/3) x 1000
Ventilation rate (l/s) = 0.5 m3/s x 1000
Ventilation rate (l/s) = 500 l/s

139
2. Look at Waterloo catalogue and choose suitable sizes of diffusers to provide air into the room and meet the design
criteria.
The design criteria are; Throw 2.2m, NR 25 and 20Pa.
If two diffusers are used each flow rate is; 500 / 2 = 250 l/s
From the sizing chart below for a flow rate of 270 l/s, an M450/M500 gives 2.5m throw, 33NR, 33 Pa.
140
This is too noisy with too much pressure drop.
If three diffusers are used each flow rate is; 500 / 3 = 167 l/s
From the sizing chart below for a flow rate of 180 l/s, an M450/M500 gives 2.0m throw, 23NR, 15 Pa.
This is good, the throw is just slightly less than 2.3m.
If four diffusers are used each flow rate is; 500 / 4 = 125 l/s
From the sizing chart below for a flow rate of 135 l/s, an M450/M500 gives 1.5m throw, - NR, 9 Pa.
The throw is not enough but the other criteria are met.
On the basis of the above data three M450/M500 diffusers are chosen.
141
3. Show diffuser layout on a drawing.
1.67 m 3.33 m 3.33 m 1.67 m

Supply
diffusers
1.5 m
6 metres 3.0 m
Return air
diffusers
1.5 m
10 metres
PLAN
142
The final diffuser layout should consider ceiling layout and lighting layout.
If ceiling tiles are used the diffusers position will be determined by the tile grid pattern.
Careful co-ordination is required to install all the equipment into modern ceilings including warning devices and other
services.
Kitchen Ventilation
Kitchen’s need adequate ventilation to remove;

o Heat
o Smells
o Steam and vapours.
o Fumes from gas burners.
DW 171
The HVCA produce DW/171 Standard for Kitchen Ventilation Systems (1999)
143
This document gives details of;
 Air change rates and air flow rates.

 Kitchen Canopies, grease filters, lights
 Materials for ductwork
 Fan details, attenuators.
 Fire suppression
 Heat recovery
 Air conditioning
 Smoke extract
Ductwork Design
The HVCA publishes guide DW/l44 Specification for Sheet Metal Ductwork Low, medium and high pressure/velocity air
systems (1998).
This document provides information on how ductwork and components are to be manufactured.
Ductwork Classification
Ductwork is classified according to static pressure of the air as follows;
Static Pressure Limit (Pa)

Ductwork Pressure
Class Classification Positive Negative
A Low Pressure 500 500
B Medium Pressure 1000 750

144
C High Pressure 2000 750
Information in DW144
This guide specifies details such as;
 Classification of ductwork.
 Jointing methods, joint seals, seams, screws, welds,
 Standard sizes.
 Materials, sheet thickness.
 Stiffeners, turning vanes, splitters.
 Section lengths
 Supports.
 Dampers
 Air leakage.
 Insulation
 Standard drawing details and abbreviations.
Duct Sections
The maximum length of a duct section depends on the size of the longer side. The sections can be flanged at each end,
transported to site and bolted together in-situ.
The table below gives typical section lengths for rectangular ducts using flanged joints in a Low Pressure system.
145
Joint Class and Length of longer side (mm)

Minimum
angle size for Type of sheet 400 600 800 1000 1250 1600 2000 Standard Sizes of Ducts.
flange Maximum Spacing between Flanges (mm)
(mm x mm) Rectangular ducts no longer have
standard sizes since modern
Plain sheet 1600 1250 625 machines can fold sheet metal to
J1 any required size.
Stiffened
3000 1250 625
sheet Circular ducts have typical
Plain sheet 2000 1600 1250 625 standard sizes as follows in
J2 3000 millimetres diameter;
Stiffened
3000 1600 1250 625 63, 80, 100, 125, 150, 160, 180,
sheet
200, 224, 250, 280, 300, 315, 355,
J3 - 25 x 3 Plain sheet 2000 1600 1250 1000 800 800 400, 450, 500, 560, 630, 710, 800,
J4 - 30 x 4 900, 1000, 1120, 1250, 1500.
J5 - 40 x 4 Stiffened
3000 2000 1600 1250 1000 800
J6 - 50 x 5 sheet
146
Clean Rooms
Introduction
Clean rooms are used in areas where airborne particles are detrimental to the process or activity in the room.
The semiconductor industry, pharmaceutical industry, food production establishments, scientific research industry and
hospitals often have Clean rooms.
Ventilation System
The system usually adopted for Clean rooms is a piston ventilation system where outdoor air is introduced and this pushes the
contaminated room air in front of it to the extract system.
Supply Air
Room Exhaust
Air
Piston Ventilation System
To keep the Supply air from mixing with room air the air velocity is kept as low as possible.
147
This means that the contaminated room air is expelled, turbulence is minimised and fresh Supply air replaces the expelled air,
thus creating a ‘clean’ indoor environment.
This can be achieved by supplying air through ‘laminar flow’ panels containing high efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters
or ultra-low penetration air (ULPA) filters. These panels with the filters are placed on the ceiling or wall depending on
whether a down flow or cross flow system is adopted, as shown below.
The room air velocity in these systems is about 0.4 m/s to 0.5 m/s.
Supply Air
HEPA filters
Room Exhaust Air
Piston Ventilation System with HEPA Filters
Filters
HEPA filters have a very high filtration efficiency of 99.97% on particle sizes of 0.3m. ULPA filter efficiency is even better
at 99.999% on 0.12 m particles.
148
Classification
Clean rooms are classified by American Federal Standard 209E.

The maximum number of particles of each size per cubic foot of air is given for each class of Clean room.
Maximum number of Particles /ft3

Class Particle Size
≥ 0.1 m ≥ 0.2 m ≥ 0.3 m ≥ 0.5 m ≥ 5.0 m
1 35 7.5 3 1 -
10 350 75 30 10 -
100 - 750 300 100 -
1,000 - - - 1,000 7
10,000 - - - 10,000 70
100,000 - - - 100,000 700
ISO 14644-1 also gives details of standards for Clean rooms as shown below.
Maximum number of Particles /m3 air

Class ≥ 5.0
≥ 0.1 m ≥ 0.2 m ≥ 0.3 m ≥ 0.5 m ≥ 1.0 m
m
ISO 1 10 2
ISO 2 100 24 10 4
ISO 3 1,000 237 102 35 8
ISO 4 10,000 2,370 1,020 352 83
ISO 5 100,000 23,700 10,200 3,520 832 29
149
ISO 6 1,000,000 237,000 102,000 35,200 8,320 293

ISO 7 352,000 83,200 2,930
ISO 8 3,520,000 832,000 29,300
ISO 9 35,200,000 8,320,000 293,000
Airflow Patterns
The airflow patterns can be classified as either unidirectional or non-directional.

ISO 14644-4 (2001) suggests that airflow patterns for Clean rooms of ISO Class 5 and cleaner are often unidirectional while
non-directional and mixed flow is typical for ISO Class 6 and less clean IN operation.
Unidirectional airflow may be either vertical or horizontal.
Filters
Supply Air
Supply Air
Filters
Exhaust
Air
Exhaust
Room
Room Air
Unidirectional Vertical Airflow Unidirectional Horizontal Airflow

150
Toilet Ventilation Example
Design a ventilation system for the toilets in an Auditoria as shown in the accompanying drawings.
The Male Toilet and Female Toilet should each have separate extract ventilation systems to avoid ‘cross-talk’ and spread of
smoke within the ductwork system.
The mechanical ventilation rate from Table 3.1 CIBSE Guide B2 (2001) is at least 3 air changes per hour.
For the purposes of this exercise use a value of 8 AC/h.

151
MALE TOILET
The volume of the Male Toilet is: 4.5 x 3.0 x 2.7 m = 36.45 m3
The ventilation rate in m3/h is:
Ventilation Rate (m3/h) = Room volume (m3) x air change rate (ac/h)
Ventilation Rate (m3/h ) = 36.45 m3 x 8 AC/h
= 291.6 m3/h. Divide by 3600
The ventilation rate is = 0.081 m3/s.
A simple method of duct sizing would be: Duct area = volume flow rate / air velocity.
An appropriate maximum air velocity for a toilet is 4 m/s. (See Ventilation - Ventilation
Design section)
Therefore duct area = 0.081 / 4 = 0.02025 m2.
If a square duct is used then the duct size is: ( 0.02025 )0.5 = 0.142 m x 0.142 m
The nearest standard size is 0.150 m x 0.150 m or, 150mm x 150mm.
The drawing below shows the ductwork layout for the Toilets.
153
The flexible ductwork may be sized using the same technique as above.
Volume flow rate through each flexible = 0.081 m3/s / 2 = 0.041 m3/s.
A simple method of duct sizing would be: Duct area = volume flow rate / air velocity.
An appropriate air velocity for a flexible in this situation is 4 m/s
Therefore duct area = 0.041 / 4 = 0.01025 m2.
Cross sectional area =  . d2 / 4 d = ( 4 . CSA /  )0.5
Therefore flexible diameter = ( 4 x 0.01025 /  )0.5 = 0.114 m = 114

mm diameter.
154
The nearest standard size of PVC flexible is 125mm.
The flexible size should be smaller than the duct to which it is attached to enable a boot or
branch to be spot welded into position, as shown below.
Round neck for Flange is spot

fixing flexible with welded into
jubilee clip position
Branch or pop
for circular Branch
flexible
Side Of Duct Section Through Duct
BRANCH CONNECTION TO DUCT
The Female Toilet may be sized using the same method but since the physical dimensions
are so close to the Male Toilet then the same duct sizes can be used, this also standardizes
the complete ventilation system so that the two fans are also identical.
Fans
To choose suitable fans for this example the duct pressure drop and fittings pressure drop
would be calculated.
If the total pressure drop is assumed to be 200 Pa and the flow rate is 0.081 m3/s (81 litres/s)
then a suitable catalogue can be used to pick the fan.
See http://www.flaktwoods.com. Go to Other Fans section.
A tube fan or boxed fan can be used for this project.

155
Kitchen Ventilation Example
The following example is for a Kitchen in a small Restaurant building.

Air is extracted from kitchens from the source of contaminant, that is, the cooking island
incorporating ovens, cookers, fryers, water boilers, etc.
The fan can be located in the duct.
Table 3.1 CIBSE Guide B2 (2001) recommends 30 to 40 AC/h for a Commercial Kitchen.
Extract duct Extract duct

5.0 m Extract
hood at
Extract high level
hood at
high level 3.0 m
Cooking About
Equipment 2.0
metres
PLAN Ceiling height = ELEVATION

5.0m
Kitchen Extract System
The ventilation extract system for a kitchen should be kept separate from all other ventilation
systems.
This is because contaminants (smells from cooking, water vapour, steam, heat) are being
removed.
No recirculation is used in a Kitchen.
1. Calculate a suitable duct size based on an air velocity of 5m/s.
The ventilation rate to be extracted from the kitchen in the example is:
30AC/h x 75 m3 = 2250 m3/h

156
Volume flow rate 2250 m3/h / 3600 = 0.625 m3/s
The ductwork can be sized if an air velocity (in the duct) is chosen.
For a main duct in a kitchen 7.5 m/s is recommended. (See Ventilation - Ventilation
Design section)
Duct cross sectional area= Volume flow rate / air velocity
= 0.625 m3/s / 7.5
= 0.083 m2
If a square duct is used the dimensions are:
(0.083) 0.5 = 0.289 m x 0.289 m = 289 mm x 289 mm
The next standard size is: 300 mm x 300 mm.
2. Re-calculate the duct size based on 40ACH.
The ventilation rate to be extracted from the kitchen in the example is:
40 AC/h x 75 m3 = 3000 m3/h
Volume flow rate 3000 m3/h / 3600 = 0.833 m3/s

157
The ductwork can be sized if an air velocity (in the duct) is chosen.
For a main duct in a kitchen 7.5 m/s is recommended. (See Ventilation - Ventilation
Design section)
Duct cross sectional area= Volume flow rate / air velocity
= 0.833 m3/s / 7.5
= 0.111 m2
If a square duct is used the dimensions are:
(0.111) 0.5 = 0.333 m x 0.333 m = 333 mm x 333 mm
The next standard size is: 350 mm x 350 mm.
Air Change Rate
One way to understand air change rates is to say 30 AC/h is one room volume changed
every;
60 minutes / 30 = 2 minutes.
If 40 AC/h is used then the room volume is changed every 1.5 minutes which means that
smells have less chance to linger in the room.
Another aspect of air change rates is the cost of installation and running.
The more air changes the more cost.
Running Costs
158
Running costs can be examined as follows;

For the above example at 30 AC/h, if the fan pressure to be developed to overcome
resistances is 200 Pa, then the fan power can be calculated as follows:
Fan power (W) = Fan pressure (N/m2 or Pa) x Air Volume flow rate (m 3/s) /
Efficiency
Fan power (W) = 200 x 0.625 / (say) 0.6
Fan power (W) = 208 Watts.
If the fan is operating for 8 hours per day x 6 days per week x 52 weeks per year = 2496
hours/ annum, the annual running cost can be calculated.
Annual running cost (£/annum) = Fan power (kW) x Hours run per annum x
Electrical price per kWh (assume 0.112 £/kWh)
Annual running cost (£/annum) = 0.208 x 2496 x 0.112
Annual running cost (£) = £58.15 per annum
If 40 AC/h is used then the fan running cost is;
Fan power (W) = 200 x 0.833 / (say) 0.6
Fan power (W) = 278 Watts.

159
Annual running cost (£/annum) = 0.278 x 2496 x 0.112
Annual running cost (£) = £77.72 per annum
For a kitchen of this size the increase in duct size and fan running costs is not significant
between 30 AC/h and 40 AC/h.
The situation may be different for large kitchens with larger duct and fan sizes.
Fan Selection
To choose a suitable fan for this example the duct pressure drop and fittings pressure drop
would be calculated.
Normally the pressure drop is calculated as shown in the Duct Sizing section.
If the total pressure drop is assumed to be 200 Pa and the flow rate is 0.833 m3/s then a
suitable catalogue can be used to pick the fan.
See http://www.flaktwoods.com. Go to Products – Fans – Axial Fans – JM Aerofoil section.
To download a technical brochure go to; Downloads – Document Library (Fans – Axial Fans –
JM Aerofoil)
Open – Express International JM Aerofoil pdf document.
An Axial Flow fan would be suitable for this project since it can be mounted directly into the
ductwork system.
Fan Duty: 0.833 m3/s against 200 Pa pressure.
Go to 31JM to 35JM 2 pole fan. A 31JM 16/2/5/34 sound level 61dB meets the criteria.
This fan is a 2-pole fan running at 2840 rev/min.
A 4-pole fan runs slower and is therefore quieter. Try for a 4-pole fan.
160
A Flaktwoods 56JM 16/4/5/28 4-pole fan runs at 1420 rev/min and has a 58dB noise
output.
The fan diameter is 560mm. Choose this fan.

161
Design Example - Workshop
Design a ventilation system for the building shown below.

The building is a small workshop used for general metal fabrication and welding.
No welding booths are installed.
If the building gets too warm the door may be opened for free cooling.
DATA:
Building dimensions : 15.0 metres long x 7.0 metres wide x 5.0 metres high to eaves.
Roof ridge height is 7.5 metres.
The air change rate for mechanical ventilation is to be 6 air changes per hour.
Roller Shutter
door
WORKSHOP
162
PLAN
The building volume may be calculated from: Scale 1:100
V = ( L x W x H to eaves ) + ( 0.5 x W x perpendicular height from eaves to ridge x L )
V = ( 15 x 7 x 5 ) + ( 0.5 x 7 x 2.5 x 15 )
V = 525 + 131.25 = 656.25 m3.
DESIGN METHODOLOGY
1. What areas need ventilation?

Answer: The total area of the workshop.
The contaminants are welding fumes and heat.
Answer: Extract.
Answer: No, supply air is not required.
Answer: No, external door to be opened.
Answer: On the roof.
Answer: Roof mounted units with weatherproof cowl.
Anti-backdraught shutters on each fan. No ductwork.
Answer: No, not for extract only.
Answer: Variable speed fan(s) for a flexible system.

163
Answer: Upward for extract systems, with duct mounted extract grilles.
Answer: The fans could remove smoke in the event of a fire.
Answer: In a workshop, fan noise is not a problem.
SIZING

2. Decide on number of fans and grilles/diffusers.
3. Draw scale layout drawing:
Position fan(s).
Lay out ductwork.
4. Size ductwork
5. Size fan
1. VENTILATION RATES
For Extract ventilation systems the rate in air changes per hour is obtained for some
buildings in Table 3.1.
There is no explicit rate given for Factories and warehouses or Industrial ventilation due to
the variations in building design and usage.
164
The rate for this example is given in the question as 6 air changes per hour.
FOR GENERAL MECHANICAL VENTILATION
= 6 x 656.25
3
= 3937.5 m /h
3
Ventilation rate (m /s) = Ventilation rate (m3/h) / 3600
= 3937.5 m3/h / 3600
3
= 1.094 m /s.
Three extract roof units are used so each will remove 1.094 / 3 = 0.365 m3/s.
The resistance to air flow is negligible since there is no ductwork or grilles connected to the
fans.
It is a good idea to look at several types of extract unit to ascertain the best option for the job. A
typical unit is shown below.
CHOOSING A FAN
To choose a suitable fan one must look at the performance curves.

These curves show the pressure developed by a fan at a given flow rate.
The operating point of the system is marked as a point on the curve. To accurately establish
a fan size the air flow resistance would have to be calculated (see DUCT SIZING).
165
In the absence of duct resistance data we can look at typical fans for the job. There are several
options to choose from, for example, from the Woods Air Movement Ltd catalogue:
SIZE VOLUME SOUND

PRESSURE SPEED
REF. FAN TYPE Dia. FLOW RATE LEVEL
(Pa) (rpm)
(mm) (m3/s) (dB)
Woods DSP 315 Propeller 315 0.37 32 1420 48
Woods DSM 330 Mixed flow 330 0.37 230 1300 57
Woods DSC 250 Centrifugal 250 0.37 135 1350 51
Woods DSJ 315 Axial flow 315 0.37 55 1420 49
From the above table, the propeller type fan and the axial flow fan produce 32Pa and 55 Pa
pressure which is sufficient for the proposed system.
The noise output from both fans is similar.
I would choose the DSP 315 propeller type unit since a speed controller is available. The
ductwork resistance can be calculated later to ascertain an accurate fan size.
3No. fan speed 3No. Roof mounted

controllers extract units
166 0.182 m3/s. 0.182 m3/s.
0.182 m3/s.
PLAN Scale 1:100

167
Design Example – Restaurant
Scenario
The drawing below shows a Restaurant building with four rooms.

It is the ground floor of a three storey building in a terrace of buildings.
Other rooms such as Toilets are upstairs and have a working ventilation system already
installed.
The two external walls are shown on the drawing.
The heat gains are not excessive and cooling by air conditioning can be avoided.
A plastered suspended ceiling is to be incorporated into the Restaurant and Conference
room.
The ceiling in the Corridor, Kitchen and Food Prep. is suspended with 600mm square tiles.
Data
The level of cooking is Medium.
Complete the following tasks;
(a) Design a suitable ventilation system for the Restaurant shown below.
(b) Select suitable air terminal devices for the ventilation system.
(c) Size the Kitchen extract canopy.
(d) Select suitable duct sizes and submit a duct sizing table for the above system.
(e) Select suitable fans for the above system.
(f) Design a suitable control system.
(g) Discuss the builder’s work necessary to complete the ventilation system.
Rear door and

fire escape in
External wall
street.
2m 8m 8m
Kitchen
Extract
canopy
8m
Corridor Kitchen Food Prep. Room
3.2 m ceiling height,
168 0.8m ceiling space
above in all rooms
15m
Restaurant Conference Room

Answer
Design Methodology
Following the methodology as described in previous sections;
1. What areas need ventilation?Front

All rooms Entrance External wall at
on building
frontage
Choose one separate extract system for each room since this gives a very
flexible design. Also no smells or noise can spread across the ducts from one
GROUND FLOOR PLAN
room to the next.
A balanced system could be considered to make up the air that is removed. This
would require heater batteries to heat incoming air in winter to avoid
discomfort. The cheaper alternative is an extract system with replacement air
coming in through doors and openable windows.
No.
Fans should be located in accessible positions; in the corridor, above ceilings.
Consider asking Architect to drop ceiling in Corridor, Kitchen and Food Prep.
Room to facilitate fan positioning.
See drawing below.
In-duct axial flow fans take up less space than centrifugal fans.
Possible use of wall mounted fan in Food Prep. Room.
Yes. Possibly a wet system with under floor heating or radiators.
Fan speed control on all fans to give flexibility.
Upward with diffusers installed in suspended ceilings.
Use separate extract systems so that smoke will not spread from room to room
through ducts. Consider fire dampers in ducts.
Yes, fans are positioned as far away from Conference room and restaurant as
possible. Choose fans from catalogue with decibel levels less than 85dB if
possible.
169
170
Extract Kitchen Canopy

Fans
2m 8m 8m Extract Fans
8m
15m
171
After all the above questions have been answered the sizing process may commence.
Sizing

2. Decide on number of fans and grilles/diffusers, size canopy.
3. DrawScale
scale1:100
layout drawing:
Position fan(s).
Lay out ductwork.
4. Size ductwork
5. Size fan
1. Ventilation Rates
Section
number
Catering (inc. commercial
3.6 30 - 40 ACH
kitchens)
Section 3.6 CIBSE Guide B2 (2001) gives details of ventilation requirements in Catering and Food Processing areas.
172
Table 3.9 gives Hood face velocities for Kitchen Extract Canopies.
Hood Face
Cooking Duty
Velocities (m/s)
Light 0.25
Medium 0.40
Heavy 0.50
More information may be obtained from Table B2.3 (CIBSE 1986) Ventilation requirements for a range of building types.
173
Recommended total air supply rate

Recommended fresh air
Room or building type Air changes/hour unless otherwise
supply rate
stated
Boardrooms, conference As required for
rooms occupants (with 6-10
allowance for smoking)
Canteens As required for
8-12
occupants
Dining Halls, Restaurants As required for
10-15
occupants
Kitchens: hotel and As required for Not less than 17.5 litre/m2 of floor
industrial appliances space, nor less than 20 air changes/h
Ventilation Calculations
For General Mechanical Ventilation
Air Change Rate (/h) comes from CIBSE Guide Table 3.1 (2001) and Table B2.3 (1986)

174
Restaurant
Room volume = 15 x 10 x 3.2 = 480 m3.
Extract rate = 15 AC/h x 480 m3.
Extract rate = 7200 m3/ h
Extract rate = 7200 m3/ h / 3600 = 2.0 m3/s
Estimate of Extract duct area (m2) = Volume flow rate (m3/s) / Air Velocity (m/s/)
Extract duct area (m2) = 2.0 / 5 = 0.4 m2.
Duct diameter = ( 4 x CSA ) /  )0.5
Duct diameter = ( 4 x 0.4 ) /  )0.5
Duct diameter = 0.714 m
Duct diameter = 714 mm
Nearest standard diameter = 750mm.
Ventilation Food Prep Room
Volume = 8 x 8 x 3.2 = 204.8 m3

Ventilation Rate = 8 AC/hr (assume).
Ventilation Rate = 8 x 204.8 = 1638 m3/h
Ventilation Rate = 0.46 m3/s (460 l/s)
Pressure Drop in ductwork:

Total pressure drop = Pressure drop in straight duct + Pressure drop in fittings.
Assume for this example total PD is 200 Pa.
Extract Fan
Fan Duty: Volume flow rate of 0.46 m3/s against a pressure of 200 Pa.
Flakt-Woods Single Boxed fan type 355H.
175
Dimensions: 600mm x 600mm x 467mm high. 355mm diameter duct spigot.

Will fit into 800mm ceiling space. Check steelwork drawings.
Access through ceiling tile. Leave sufficient space on top to remove cover.
Supported from concrete floor above with screwed rod.
Fire/Smoke: Only extracting from one room, no branches to other rooms.
Noise: No cross talk since only one room on system.

Over 80 dB would be a noisy fan.
This fan has an output of no more than 72dB at 125 Hz frequency.
Flexible Design: Use speed controller ME1.6.
Electrical Data: 220v-230v ,50Hz.,1-phase motor rated at 0.91 kW, starting current 8.1 amps. Motor speed 1150 rpm.
Extract Diffusers
Ceiling mounted 2No. Each extracting 230 l/s
2No. Waterloo Aercell polymer diffusers 2600 (600mm x 600mm).
Pressure drop = 20Pa.
176
Drawings for Ventilation Systems.

A good drawing should show as much detail as is necessary and be clear and easy to read.
It is a good idea to remember what the drawing is for or who is going to read it to obtain information.
The drawing may be used by;

 An installer or ventilation contractor.
 A draughtsman /CAD designer to produce a more detailed drawing.
 A main contractor or builder.
 A sub-contractor – electrical, controls, heating/plumbing.
 An estimator or quantity surveyor.
 A clerk of works.
 A commissioning engineer.
The following information and details should be produced in a ventilation drawing;
Drawing information
1. Draw outline of building.

2. Show cavity wall
3. Show internal partitions, doors and windows.
4. Draw diffusers / grilles.
5. Show kitchen canopy.
6. Show ducts as 2 lines.
7. Show branches as; shoes / boots / pops.
8. Show direction of air flows.
9. Add notes for; Duct sizes and air flow rates.
10. Position fans
11. Add note for fan size.
177
12. Add Index run identification i.e. sections.

13. Add Title block showing;
 Building Services Consultants name.
 Job, job address.
 Client
 Drawing description
 Drawn by
 Date
 Drawing Number
 Scale
 Revisions.
Further information to be given.

1. Show other building details such as; stairs, lifts, structure, roof, roofspace, ceiling spaces, void spaces, shafts.
2. Show steelwork details where appropriate.
3. Show flexible ductwork.
4. Show grid pattern for ceiling tiles and building grid if appropriate.
5. Show table of diffusers and grilles.
6. Show table of External louvers.
7. Show table of Fans with duty and specification
8. Show furniture.
9. Show Volume Control Dampers (VCD’s)
10. Show fire dampers.
11. Show Attenuators if appropriate.
12. Show what symbols represent in a legend e.g. FD – Fire damper.
13. Show any other equipment such as; AHU (Air Handling unit), Chiller, cassette unit, air cooled condenser, heater battery, cooling
coil, fan coil unit, etc.
14. Installation Notes and fixing methods.
15. References to other drawings e.g. steelwork drawing.
178
16. Drawing details of important areas e.g. fixing, weatherproofing.
Some of the above details may be given in a specification but it is a good idea to produce the same information again on a drawing if space per
to give a full picture of the job.
One of the reasons for this is that the drawings or drawings that are used for installation purposes often don’t tell the whole story and mistakes
be made.
Also installers don’t always have access to specification documents.
One must remember that if changes are made to equipment then both specification and drawings should be updated.
179
Heating Systems
Most heating systems for buildings use hot water which is pumped through pipework from a boiler (or boilers) to heat emitters in
the rooms.
This has proved to be cheaper than warm air heating because installing pipework is less expensive than ductwork and more
equipment is necessary in warm air heating which increases installation costs.
It is possible to heat large spaces with warm air using fan convectors fed with hot water but these have several disadvantages, one
of which is they tend to be noisy when running at high speed.
Radiators have proved to be the most common type of heat emitter for small to medium sized spaces, although under floor heating
systems are becoming more popular.
Most radiators act more like natural convectors because of the extended finned surface which is readily obtainable.
2-Pipe Heating Systems

Older heating systems sometimes used a 1-pipe system of distribution.
This has been superseded by the more effective 2-pipe system as shown below.
Top connection to Bottom return connection

radiator with hand with lock shield valve for
wheel valve setting.
Flow
branch to
radiator
Radiator Radiator Radiator
FLOW RETURN
Return water from radiator is mixed with flow water in
pipe progressively reducing water temperature
180
Single Pipe or 1-Pipe System is

Superseded by 2-Pipe System
The 2-pipe heating system is most common today and uses a pump to circulate water at about 80oC through heat emitters as shown
below. Bottom connection to
radiator with hand Bottom return connection
wheel valve with lock shield valve for
setting.
Flow
branch to
radiator Radiator Radiator Radiator
FLOW
RETURN
Two pipes
2-Pipe Distribution System
Steel or copper pipework can be used; copper for small installations and steel for larger sizes (above 50mm diameter pipe) or where
there is risk of damage to copper pipework.
Recent developments have made possible the use of 'plastic' polypropylene pipework and this has the advantage that it will not
corrode.
181
Taking Care of Expansion

As water heats up it expands by about 3% if it’s original volume.
To allow for this increase in volume an expansion vessel is required.
This is a steel cylinder that has a flexible diaphragm inside that allows for water movement.
Pipework
Isolating
Valves
Safety valve Space Heating

Pump
Emitters
Flow
Boiler
Return
Double Check Valve

Pressure Gauge
Flexible connection
Expansion vessel
Isolating Valve
Mains water supply

182
The system is filled from a Mains Water connection and is slightly pressurised to about 1 bar pressure.
This pressure does not help the water circulation but is there so that negative pressures can never exist in the system when it cools.
Sub-zero pressures are dangerous since steam can be formed.
Because the heating system is sealed and pressurised, a safety valve is required.
If excess pressure builds up in the system, a spring on the safety valve lifts and releases an amount of water to drain.
When a system is commissioned and filled with water, the flexible connection can be removed.
This is to ensure that heating water cannot back feed into the clean mains water supply.
Advantages of Pressurised Heating Systems

There are many advantages in pressurising a heating system. Some of the benefits are:
1. No Feed & Expansion vessel required.

2. No vent pipe required.
3. No cold feed pipe required.
4. No roof space area required.
5. System cannot pump over.
6. System is completely sealed, reducing evaporation losses.
7. Air cannot be sucked into the vent pipe.
8. No ball valve and float required in tank reducing maintenance.
9. In commercial heating systems pressurisation allows the system operating temperature to be above 100oC if necessary.
A typical small-scale pressurised system is shown below.

183
Also known as a sealed system.
There are some practical recommendations for these systems.
1. Fit expansion vessel close to inlet side of pump to take advantage of pump suction pressure.
184
2. Fit safety valve on top of boiler or above boiler.

3. Fit pressure gauge near filling point.
Combination Boilers
The combination boilers take pressurisation one stage further.
In these boilers the pressure vessel and all safety devices are incorporated inside the boiler casing.
This makes the unit very compact and some can even fit into a kitchen cupboard.
Another advantage of the combination boiler is the ability to produce hot water for washing and cooking as well as hot water for a
heating system.
This is achieved by a heat exchanger, which is divided into two sections or sometimes by a diverting valve.
The diagram below shows a simplified combination boiler.
185
186
The photograph below shows a white cased combination boiler installed in a kitchen.
The flue outlet for a Combination boiler can be quite small approximately 80mm to 100mm diameter because the products of
combustion are expelled with the assistance of a fan.
187
Open Vented Systems

The traditional method of allowing for the expansion volume in a heating system was to install a small tank at high level, usually in a
roof space in a domestic system.
To avoid pressure building up in the system an open vent is added and the water level is allowed to rise on heat up in the small tank
called a feed & expansion (F & E) tank.
Also a cold feed pipe is used to fill the system automatically on commissioning or in the event of a leak.
188
The F & E tank is equipped with a valve and ball float arrangement so that mains water can enter and fill up to a level in the tank
determined by the ball float.
The open vent should be clear of all valves and obstructions and any valves should be positioned near the pump for isolation and
pump removal.
The isolating valve on the cold feed pipe is best positioned in domestic installations in the roof space where it cannot be shut off and
forgotten about when the system is running.
Open Vent Feed & Expansion Tank (F&E)

pipe
Water level when system has
Cold level
heated up
Cold Feed pipe

Pipework Isolating Valves
NOTE: Pump
No valves on Space Heating
vent pipe Emitters
B
FLOW
Boiler
A C
RETURN
Open Vented 2-Pipe Heating System

189
Although the open vented system has been extensively used in the past there are some difficulties associated with it.
One of the main problems is pumping over; this is where water may be pumped into the F&E tank via the vent pipe especially if the
pump is a high head variety.
If the pump is installed on the return pipe near the boiler or on the flow before the vent at positions A and B then pumping over
could occur.
The pressurised or sealed heating system is therefore recommended for small or large heating system.
If the pump is installed at position C then pumping over will not occur.
190
Commercial / Industrial Heating Systems

Small Installations
A typical small commercial heating system is shown in the schematic diagram below.
191
It is common to have more than one boiler in commercial systems.

This helps to make the system more efficient during part-load conditions.
Single pumps are shown for each circuit for this installation.
The system is pressurised. Safety valves are shown.

Safety valves are installed to relieve high pressure in the system and are usually sized to discharge at 21/2 times normal working
pressure.
The header pipes are large diameter pipes from which branches or circuits are installed.
A header is a good location for installing; isolating valves, gauges, drains, spare connections and other items.
Isolating valves are used to isolate and remove an item of plant for maintenance or replacement.
Larger Installations
In larger installations it is normal to have pump sets in which one pump is running when required and one pump is standby.
192
These may be switched over periodically to ensure equal running life.

A non-return valve is installed after each pump so that no back-flow of water occurs and no short-circuiting is possible through the
pumps.
Sometimes in small commercial installations the pumps are not duplicated to save installation costs.
To achieve good control over the heating system 3-port control valves may be used.
Two types of control valve are in common use; a Mixing valve which gives variable temperature (between 70oC and 80oC) to radiator
circuits or a Diverting valve which gives a variable flow rate of water to convectors or the hot water cylinder.
193
Flow measuring valves or Regulating valves can also be used to balance heating circuits and achieve the desired water flow rate for
each circuit.
Double regulating valves (DRV) are in common use.
For more information on heating system controls see CONTROLS section.
The items mentioned above are shown in the diagram below.
Best Domestic Heating System
The following discussion is for northern European countries where air conditioning is not required in summer.
The criteria that I would use for the best type of domestic heating system would be as follows:
194
1) Cheapest running costs.

2) Cheapest installation costs.
3) Efficient
4) Individual room temperature control
5) Different zones for Bedrooms and Living Spaces
6) Hot Water only facility in summer
7) Pressurised system for heating and for hot water.
8) Quick heat-up from cold.
9) Even heat distribution throughout building.
10) Robust system.
1. Cheapest running costs

In the U.K. at present oil or natural gas are the cheaper of the common energy sources so an oil-fired or natural gas-fired boiler is
required.
Other sources such as wood pellet boilers could be considered.
2. Cheapest installation costs.

A wet system with pipes and emitters is cheaper to install than an all air system with ducts, so conventional water boilers, pipes and
radiators are the cheapest.
Under floor heating systems tend to be slightly more expensive to install than radiator systems
195
3. Efficient
Most oil and gas-fired boilers are well over 80% efficient; choose the boiler with the highest efficiency rating.
This may mean a condensing boiler but the extra cost for 93% efficiency may not be worth it.
4. Individual Room Temperature Control

To achieve this, Thermostatic Radiator Valves (TRV’s) should be used in all or most rooms.
This means that any room can be set at a room temperature to suit the activity and room usage.
5. Different Zones for Bedrooms and Living Spaces

The heating circuits should be divided into two sub-circuits.
Each sub-circuit should have a separate heating pump as shown below in Figure 1 below.
Each pump can be switched on and off by the time clock and room thermostat so that the bedrooms can have heat at different times
to the Living Spaces.
See Controls section of these notes for a schematic diagram with controls.
6. Hot Water only facility in Summer

This can be achieved by having a separate sub-circuit with a separate pump for the primary flow and return to the hot water cylinder
as shown in Figure 1.
196
Alternatively if a combination boiler is used, as shown in Figure 2, then no separate hot water cylinder is required.
Always check the hot water flow from a combination boiler to see if it matches the demand.
7. Pressurised system for heating and for hot water.

An expansion vessel for the boiler and pressurised hot water cylinder is used as shown below in Figure 1.
An oil or gas-fired combination boiler can be used to obtain pressurised heating and hot water.
A combination boiler achieves criteria No’s. 1, 2, 3 and 6.
Motorised valves are required to achieve criterion No.5 as shown below in Figure 2 below.
8. Quick heat-up from cold

This is achieved by using convector radiators as heat emitters, correctly sizing radiators and boiler and insulating exposed pipework.
Aluminium radiators heat up quickly and are physically smaller compared to steel panel radiators but are from 200% to 300% more
expensive to purchase.
In some dwellings more expensive radiators can be used to augment the interior décor.
9. Even heat distribution throughout building.

197
The best system to meet this criterion is under floor heating, but to achieve a compromise between quick heat-up and even heat
distribution a carefully designed radiator system in a well-insulated house should provide fairly even distribution of heat and meet
No.2 criterion.
10. Robust system.

Steel boilers can corrode over time but the extra expense of a cast iron boiler (up to 150% more) probably isn’t warranted.
Steel and aluminium radiators are robust enough for the domestic market.
Motorised control valves are not as robust as domestic heating circulators (pumps) but are useful to convert a Combination (Combi)
boiler installation to two separate heating zones as shown in Figure 2.
198
Hot Water Service

Ro
Safety valve Combined Expansion Vessel Therm
and drain
Primary flow pipe to Hot
Water Cylinder
Flow pipe to
Bedroom radiators
Pumps
PRESSURISED
HOT WATER
CYLINDER
Flow pipe to
Flow pipe Living Space
3 separate radiators
sub-circuits
Oil or
GasBOILER
Safety valve
and drain
Return pipe
Drain
valve
Return pipe Flexible connection

Expansion
Vessel Isolating Valve
Figure 1 - Heating System with Three Pumped Circuits using Conventional Bo
Room Thermostatic Rad

Thermostat Valves (TRV)
T
Flow pipe to Bedroom radiators

Two 2-port motorised valves to
separate Bedrooms and Living
199 Space.
Heating Pump incorporated in Flow pipe to Room

boiler unit Living Space Thermostat
WATER AS HEATING MEDIUM radiators
T
Safety valve
Water as a heating medium offers many advantages: among the various heat transfer
liquids, it has a high heat capacity and a high thermal conductivity. This means that water
CombiBOILE
can transport high amountsRof heat and can readily transfer that heat to air via heat
emitters.
Drain
Within the temperature range 20-200oC, although the specific heat capacity rises by about
Flow pipe
8%,
Hot theService
Water specific mass falls by about 13% with the result that the volumetricReturn
heat capacity
pipe
varies by only 5%. This is another useful property of water since a large expansion
Mains water supply
volume requires large tanks or vessels to contain the increase in water quantity as the
Double Check Valve
temperature rises.
Isolating Valve
Stop Valve
Mains water supply
Properties to
of Water:
rest of house
Volumetric Heat
Temperature Specific Mass Heat Capacity
o Capacity Pressure Reducing Valve
C kg/m3 kJ/kgK
Gas or Oil Supply kJ/litre K
20 998.2 4.183 4.125
70 977.7 4.191 4.098
80 971.8 4.199 4.080
Figure 2 - Heating System using Combination Boiler
100 958.3 4.219 4.043
150 916.9 4.322 3.961
180 886.9 4.422 3.920
The heat capacity of air varies as follows:
At 20oC the specific heat capacity Cp = 1.0044 kJ/kg K, at 40oC Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg K.
This means that air has roughly one quarter of the heat capacity of water and thus can
transfer much less energy per unit mass.
Pipework to transfer water from heating source to emitter takes up much less space than
ductwork and associated equipment.
Another advantage of water as a heating medium is its flexibility in that various water
temperatures can be used to meet the requirements of the heating system. Transporting
water is also easier since pumping is more efficient than moving air with a fan.
Fans tend to generate noise in the air system whereas pumped water systems are quiet.
One of the main disadvantages of a wet system is that the response time for heating up is
greater since water heats up pipework and emitters before heating the air whereas a ducted
system of warm air heating will heat air in a room directly.
200
The Table below shows the design Temperatures for Water Heating Systems:
Flow ReturnTemp.o
System
Temp. oC C
Low temperature warm
40-70 35-60
water
Low temperature hot
80 70
water
Medium temperature hot
110-130 85-110
water
Most small and medium systems use Low Temperature Hot Water (L.T.H.W.) with a
design flow temperature of 80oC and return temperature of 70oC. These are design
conditions and in practice boiler thermostats may be set at lower temperatures especially
in mild weather. Also in domestic heating systems it may be dangerous to have high
emitter surface temperatures and a lower water temperature is used.
In large commercial and industrial heating systems more heat can be transmitted using
higher water temperatures; therefore Medium Temperature Hot Water is sometimes used.
This means that emitters such as radiant panels, radiant strips and radiant ceilings work
much more effectively.
In some countries air conditioning is required in the summer, even in houses. It is

therefore normal to use this air conditioning system for heating during the winter period,
thus making a separate wet system unnecessary. However, it should be remembered that
air conditioning systems are more expensive to install and to run when compared to a
water based heating system. If the cold period only extends for a short time, then an
electric heater in the air conditioner may be suitable.
The diagram below shows a typical heating system using water in pipes to convey the
heat to Radiators and an indirect coil inside a Hot Water Cylinder. Not all systems are
installed this way, but this is a typical example. Some pipework such as vent and cold
feed are not shown for clarity.
201
Primary flow pipe

to Hot Water
Cylinder
Flow pipe to FIRST FLOOR

heating system RADIATORS
Pumps
Flow pipe to
First floor
radiators
HOT
WATER
CYLINDER
Flow pipe GROUND FLOOR
Flow to Ground RADIATORS
pipe floor
BOILER radiators
Return pipe
Return pipe
Water Flow Rate
Heating System with two pumped circuits
It is necessary to calculate the water flow rate in heating systems to; size pipes, size
pumps and size control valves.
For heating systems using water the mass flow rate in (kg/s) is found from the following
expression:
H = m x Cp x t
Where;
H = Heat load (kW)
m = Mass flow rate of water (kg/s)

202
Cp = Specific heat capacity of water 4.187 kJ/kg degC - approx. 4.2 kJ/kg degC.
t = The temperature difference between flow and return water. (degC)
This can be re-written as;
H
m = ___________________
Cp x (tflow - treturn)
Where;
m = Mass flow rate of water (kg/s)
H = Heat load (kW)
Cp = Specific heat capacity of water 4.187 kJ/kg degC - approx. 4.2 kJ/kg degC.
tflow - treturn = 80oC - 70 oC = 10 deg C for LTHW systems.
H
This approximates to: m = _____
42
Example 1
Calculate the mass flow rate of water from a boiler in a Low Temperature Hot Water (LTHW)
domestic heating system with a boiler output of 20kW.
203
H 20
m = _____ = _____ = 0.476 kg/s.
42 42

204
Example 2
Calculate the mass flow rate of water through the Secondary pumps, the Primary pumps
and the Low loss header in the LTHW system shown below.

Heat Output
= 32 kW
Second Heat Output =

ary 25 kW
Pump
Set Second Safety
No.1 ary Valves
Pump
Set
No.2
3-port
Low
motorised
Pressur
Mixing valves
e Drop
Flow Primar
Header
Pipe Boi Bo y Pump
ler ile
No. r
1 No
.2
205
Mass flow rate through Secondary pump set No.1;

H 32
m = _____ = _____ = 0.762 kg/s
42 42

Mass flow rate through Secondary pump set No.2;

H 25
m = _____ = _____ = 0.595 kg/s.
42 42
Total heat output = 32kW + 25kW = 57 kW.

206
Assume each primary pump has half the total flow rate of water passing through it.
Heat load through each boiler = 57kW / 2 = 28.5 kW

H 28.5
m = _____ = _____ = 0.679 kg/s.
42 42

The flow rate through the Low Loss Header is;

H 57
m = _____ = _____ = 1.357 kg/s.
42 42
The flow rates are shown on the drawing below.

207
0.762 kg/s Heat Output =

32 kW
Seconda 0.595 kg/s Heat Output = 25

ry Pump kW
Set No.1
Seconda
ry Pump 0.762 kg/s
0.595 kg/s Safety
Set No.2
Valves
1.357 kg/s 1.357

kg/s
3-port
0.679 kg/s Low
motorised
Pressure
Mixing valves
Primary Drop
Flow
Boil Boil 0.679 kg/s
Pump Header
Pipe
er er
No. No.
1 2
Heating – Gravity Circuits
Gravity Circuits
Gravity heating systems use the fact that hot water will tend to rise and circulate in a
pipework system if cooling water becomes less buoyant and descends.
Gravity heating systems were installed before circulating pumps were used and do not act
quickly enough for modern systems.
For gravity circulation to work best the heat emitters are higher than the boiler. Pipes also
have a gradient to assist circulation.
A Gravity system can be used for a solid fuel heating system because the hot water
cylinder can receive heat at night when the fire is banked and act as a heat leak. This is a
safety measure.
It is recommended that a heat leak radiator is also installed on the same circuit; this is
usually the radiator in the bathroom.
208
To assist circulation an 'Injector Tee' can be used as shown below.
Another method of ensuring safe operation of a solid fuel appliance is to pump both
radiators and hot water cylinder primary circuit and install a high limit pipe thermostat on
the flow pipe at the boiler outlet.
This means that if the flow temperature gets dangerously high (say 90oC) then the pump is
automatically switched on by the pipe stat. to relieve a build up of temperature in the
boiler.
Gravity circulation is not recommended in most modern heating systems.

This is because gravity systems are difficult to control and pumps can circulate water
much faster and heat up a house much quicker.
209
ZONING
A heating system may be divided into sub-circuits or zones for several reasons. These
are:
1. Different floors
2. Different usage
3. Consideration of sun path and solar radiation on building.
4. Different clients in one building
5. Internal gains vary.
6. Heat losses vary throughout the building.
7. In tall buildings heat rises so that upper floors can be overheated.
Certain areas of a building have common characteristics and hence similar heat
requirements and these may be grouped into one zone.
An example of this is where southern facing rooms gain heat from the sun while
northern facing rooms do not have solar heat gain.
The building may initially be divided into two zones; south and north zones.
The southern zone will require less heating when the sun is shining and a control valve
will determine the reduced heat input into this zone.
In some buildings various rooms are used at different times so a separate zone may be
required to accommodate this.
In tall buildings the upper floors may be zoned separately to allow for the build up of
heat from below.
210
Lecture theatres can become occupied quickly and internal gains may rapidly increase
therefore a separate heating zone would be a good idea.
The ultimate solution to good control of heating is to have a zone for every room
although this is rather expensive to install and maintain.
A compromise solution is to group rooms together that have similar ‘heating’

characteristics.
Typically three to five zones are used for small to medium sized buildings.
Another factor to consider is that the more zones are installed, the more pumps and/or
control valves are required.
There are usually space limitations in plant rooms and the number of pump sets is
usually limited to space available.
In summary, it is a good idea to divide a heating system into zones for better control but
the final number of heating zones is a compromise.
Zone Design
There are several ways to design zones.
Two popular methods are; to have a separate pump set for each zone or to have one
large pump set with control valves downstream.
Several Pump Sets
One Pump with Control Valves

211
Factors that Influence the Choice of Heating System

The following is a list of some of the factors that influence the type of heating system that
may chosen:
o Cost
o Fuel or Heat Source
o Safety
o Type of Building
o Comfort
o Power Supply
o Space
o Vandalism
o Security of Supply of Heat Source
o Let Buildings
o Environmental Issues
o District Heating
o Outside Conditions
o Fluctuating Heat Demand
o Appearances
o Industrial Waste Heat
These factors are explained on the next page.

212
Factors that Influence the Choice of Heating System
The following is a list of some of the factors, which influence the type of heating system:
1. Cost
Installation cost - Pipes are cheaper than ducts.
Running cost - Oil, Coal or Gas or Economy 7 electricity or wood products.
Life Cycle costs - Reliable system, long working life e.g. Cast Iron boiler.
Maintenance costs - Coal as a fuel may be expensive to maintain. Other systems have
less maintenance requirement.
- Gas burns cleaner than oil and there is less soot to clean out of a
gas boiler and flue.
2. Fuel or Heat Source

There is a choice in most countries between;
Oil, Coal, LPG (Liquid Petroleum Gas), natural gas, Economy 7 electrical heating, Ordinary
Rate electrical heating, Wood products.
In some countries peat, lignite or soft brown coal is available.
The economics of burning this on a large scale would have to be considered.
There are various grades of oil, some of the more viscous (heavier) oils are cheaper but
require specially heated burners and heated pipes.
Calculate the less expensive option.
3. Safety
Some open gas and coal fires and paraffin heaters have a poor safety record.
213
Ensure all apparatus is approved and meets standards and regulations.
Systems that use steam should be inspected annually to ensure that pressure vessels are safe
and safety valves function.
4. Type of Building
There are many types of building encountered in building services, the following are a few
suggestions:
Large areas benefit from the quick warm-up of air heating.
Ventilation systems with ductwork require ceiling void space.
For Warehouse radiant heating may be a suitable option since the air temperature need not
be high.
Hospitals require clean environment; thus filtered air heating may be necessary, usually in a
full air conditioning system.
Museums and Archive Stores require constant control of room temperature and humidity -
air-conditioning may be necessary.
In some buildings it is difficult to run services through e.g. stone walls, solid concrete slabs,
therefore electrical heating may be used.
In buildings with large occupancy a ventilation system may be necessary to provide

adequate fresh air for occupants e.g. concert hall, auditoria.
In buildings with high heat gains air-conditioning may be necessary to maintain comfort
levels.
Schools have limited wall space so underfloor heating or low temperature ceiling heating is
sometimes used.
In some buildings like nursery schools and nursing homes, if radiators are utilised, it is
advisable that low surface temperature radiators are used.
In wet areas like shower rooms and bathrooms underfloor heating has an advantage in that it
keeps the floor dry.
214
Some buildings like churches may be intermittently used so electrical heating may not
completely ruled out.
High temperature roof mounted quartz electric heaters have been used in this type of
building.
Prestigious areas may have full comfort air conditioning to reflect the importance of the
room e.g. board room.
5. Comfort
To maintain adequate comfort conditions a controllable heating system will be necessary e.g.
automatic controls on oil or gas-fired system or electrical heating system.
A solid fuel system cannot be easily controlled.
Wood pellet boilers are automatically controlled in the same way as other boilers.
A comfortable heating system may incorporate some radiant heating as well as convective.
Radiant heating is not always achievable but radiators produce about 70% convective and
30% radiant heating.
It may be difficult to obtain comfort levels in an office if a purely radiant system is used such
as radiant panels so a mixture of convective and radiant heating is desirable.
If noise levels in a room such as a Library are to be at a minimum then fan convectors are not
a good option and some other quieter form of heating is better such as radiators, underfloor
heating, natural convectors or a radiant ceiling.
6. Power Supply
When using electrical heating there must be an adequate electrical power supply.
For a large building or group of buildings this may mean a new or upgraded electrical sub-
station has to be provided.
7. Space
Plant requirements; room for plant and equipment, storage space for fuel.
215
Some construction methods do not provide adequate space for large plant e.g. a trussed roof
space is awkward to use for services plant.
A basement plant room can be compromised if the area is prone to flooding.
An apartment or flat may not have sufficient room for water tanks or boiler.
An inner city building may have no space for fuel storage therefore electrical heating could
be the option if natural gas in unavailable.
8. Vandalism
Some systems do not stand up to abuse.
Keep walls clear of pipes in some buildings e.g. prisons, detention centres.
Use steel instead of copper pipework in exposed areas.
Some emitters are not robust e.g. economy 7 electrical heaters.
Heavy-duty radiators can be used e.g. cast iron.
Some types of steel panel radiators are suitable for flush fitting in a wall if a recess is
provided.
Prison cells can be heated with surface mounted low-level pipes.
Temperature sensors should be protected.
9. Security of Supply of Heat Source

Some fuels at certain times may be liable to unsecured supply e.g. oil prices can fluctuate
during a Middle East crisis.
It may be advisable to have a dual fuel system so that burners can easily be changed over to
burn the cheaper or more readily available fuel.
Alternative sources of energy are not always secure e.g. the wind doesn't always blow on a
wind farm.
The sun doesn’t always shine if the system relies on solar panels.
216
A hybrid system is more secure or back-up boilers can be used.
10. Let Buildings

Most landlords prefer the tenant to look after payment of their own heating bills.
Individual meters for gas or electricity in a block of flats means that the tenants are
responsible for the payment of bills.
In a large office building with several tenants, economy 7 electrical or natural gas heating
may be used otherwise it is difficult to divide up a wet heating system serving a whole
building so that suitable payments can be made for heating.
Some heat meters are expensive and not always reliable.
Some billing arrangement needs to be in place to charge tenants for heating.
11. Environmental Issues

The products of combustion of oil, coal and gas pollute the atmosphere.
Coal is probably the worst offender since carbon dioxide contributes to the greenhouse
effect and sulphur dioxide causes acid rain.
Smoke causes urban smog and soot and ash add to the problem.
Oil produces contaminants to a lesser extent and gas is probably the best of the three.
Using electricity is of little benefit because power stations burn fuel to produce electricity or
use nuclear fusion or fission as a source of heat which has its own impact on the planet.
A totally 'green' source of heat may be wind power or wave power or solar energy if you live
in an area with plenty of sunshine.
Wood products such as pellets have zero Carbon emission since trees can be replanted to
replace this fuel source.
Wood pellets boilers use pellets from an on site storage facility.
12. District Heating

217
If un-used hot water from a power station or other industrial plant is utilised for domestic
and commercial heating then the system could be designed to utilise this cheap source of
energy.
13. Outside Conditions

In some countries the outside temperature in winter is very low i.e. minus 10 decC to minus
30 degC.
Because of high emitter output requirements it may be better to heat with warm air as
opposed to hot water.
In some temperate climates it is not worth the expense of having a wet heating system and
electrical heaters are suitable for occasional use.
If a building has high internal heat gains, even in winter, then an electrical heater battery can
be used in the air conditioning system instead of a wet system if occasional use is envisaged.
In rooms or buildings, which have an intermittent net heat gain and heat loss, then a heat
pump may be used.
A typical use of heat pump is in a heavily glazed building where in a sunny period the heat
pump is in cooling mode and if the outside temperature drops the heat pump switches to
heating mode.
14. Fluctuating Heat Demand

In some buildings the demand for heat fluctuates widely throughout the day.
To meet this demand economically, a modular boiler system is a good option.
This means that the required number of boilers is automatically switched on to meet the
demand.
In some circumstances it is recommended that condensing boilers can be used to meet the
base heating load and non-condensing boilers can be utilised to meet the peak loads.
Condensing boilers squeeze more energy out of the fuel by taking extra heat out of the flue
gases with a heat exchanger, Efficiency can be 98%
218
15. Appearances
In some rooms or buildings the designer may require the heating system to be totally hidden
e.g. underfloor heating, heated ceiling or air heating.
In some buildings the designer may wish to make a feature of the heating system or heat
emitters e.g. warm air ductwork system painted a bright colour in a swimming pool hall or
sports hall, Victorian cast iron radiators in a period building.
16. Industrial Waste Heat

In some factories heat is available from the process e.g. condensate or steam available as a
by-product.
Steam can be used directly in a warm air heater or ‘stepped’ down to low temperature hot
water in a heat exchanger for use in the normal L.T.H.W. emitter system.
There are many ways in which waste heat can be utilised to pre-heat water or up-grade in
heat pumps for further use in space heating.
Hot water from Combined Heat and Power (CHP) systems can be used to heat a factory or
sold to neighbours.
A useful tool for designers is to make up a table of various systems suitable for different
buildings.
The table below is my attempt at doing this; you could think of some amendments.
Heating / Cooling Systems and Buildings
Heating System /
Building Heating Media
Emitters
Full air conditioning central Used where air needs
Air
plant Draughts of cool air m
Hospital - Ward
Plenum heating Air Can be used if heat ga
Cleaner than radiator
Radiant ceiling Water
High radiant tempera
Hospital – Full air conditioning central Clean air essential. Sp
Air
plant required.
Operating Advantage no air – no
Theatre Chilled ceiling / beams. Chilled water
Condensation may be
219
Cheap to run. May be

Industrial warm air heaters Oil/gas fired to air
May use up floor spac
Steam, HTHW,
Large Workshop, A unit heater is simply
Unit heaters MTHW, LTHW to
Compact. May be nois
Industrial air.
Building, Steam / HTHW /
No noise, especially if
Factory Radiant tubes MTHW /direct gas
Suitable for between i
fired.
Steam, HTHW, Usually roof mounted
Radiant panels
MTHW May be cheaper to op
Industrial warm air heaters Oil/gas fired to air Cheap to run. May be
Small Workshop,
Unit heaters MTHW, LTHW to air Compact. May be nois
Garage
Fan convectors MTHW, LTHW to air. Suitable for smaller w
Air conditioning central plant Air Prestigious offices. Inn
Fan coil units Hot/chilled water to air Not quiet running. Ind
Room air conditioners Hot/chilled water to air Individual room contr
Used in low heat gain
Plenum heating Air
conditioning.
Office Building, Radiators LTHW to air Require wall space. E
Public Building Natural convectors LTHW to air Require wall space. Q
Fan convectors LTHW to air May be noisy.
No floor space require
Underfloor heating LTHW
sufficient
Storage heaters E7 electricity to air Easy to charge occupi
Calculate fresh air req
Large Public Hall, Air conditioning central plant Air
Air distribution is imp
Auditoria Plenum heating Air Cheaper than air cond
Radiators LTHW to air High output usually re
Underfloor heating LTHW If no wall space is ava
Quartz lamp heaters Electric quartz tube Electric heating may b
Church, High temperature panels Electric metal plate. Small heat emitters. C
Ecclesiastical Low temperature panels Electric elements in plate Can be roof mounted.
Building, Electric element to
Skirting heating Low output. May be u
air
Library
Electric element to
Tubular heaters Mounted at low level.
air
Pipe coils LTHW to air Heaters under pews.
Air conditioning central plant Air Large Prestigious stor
Hot/chilled water to
Department Room air conditioners
air
Good control possibili
Store, Plenum heating Air Used if heat gains are
Supermarket Radiators LTHW to air Use in small store.
Fan convectors LTHW to air Use in small store. M
Radiators LTHW to air Can be easily controll
220
Radiators LST
Warm water to air In Nursery schools lim
(Low Surface Temperature)
School, High radiant tempera
College, Radiant ceiling Water
No wall space require
University. Underfloor heating LTHW No wall space require
Warm air or air conditioning. air In larger areas e.g. lec
Radiators LTHW to air Easy room control. Be
Large hotel or in large
Air conditioning central plant Air
Use in areas of high he
Hot/chilled water to
Room air conditioners Good control possibili
air
Hotel
Plenum heating Air Used if heat gains are
Use in areas requiring
Fan convectors LTHW to air
May be noisy.
Electric element to
Natural convectors Possible key entry sys
air.
Radiators LTHW to air Different types and m
Underfloor heating LTHW Invisible system.
House Electrically
Areas of high summer
Air conditioner operated refrigerant
Use quieter systems.
to air.
Easier to charge client
Storage heaters E7 electricity to air
Difficult to control.
Flat, Underfloor heating Electric cables Expensive to run if no
Apartment Underfloor heating Water Invisible system. Requ
LTHW gas /oil-
Radiators Natural gas easier to c
fired
The first system with a pump set for each zone and a 3-port Mixing valve for each zone
works were the heat emitters are radiators since 3-port Mixing Valves are used in
radiator circuits.
The second system with one large pump set and a 3-port Diverting Valve for each zone
works for the other emitter types such as; convectors, heater batteries, under floor
heating, trench heating and radiant panels.
Variable temperature circuits use first system.
Variable flow rate systems use second system.

Some Variable flow rate systems require a Mixing Valve to adjust the water
temperature to emitters incorporated into a Compensator system.
221
A compensator controller adjusts water temperature between 70oC to 80oC depending

on how cold it is outside.
The system shown below is a way to achieve compensating control for a variable flow
zone system.
222
Introduction
There are many types of heat emitter used for space heating requirements.
Most of the common ones in use are listed below.
Ref. Heating System Emitter Types
Steel Panel
Cast Iron
1. Radiators Aluminium
Bathroom
Natural Convectors
Fan Convectors
Industrial Warm Air Heaters
2. Warm Air Heaters Unit Heaters
Skirting Heaters
Trench Heating
Metal Radiant Panels

Metal Radiant Strips
3. Radiant Heaters Metal Radiant Ceilings
Gas Radiant Heaters
Piped Underfloor Heating

4. Underfloor Heaters Electrical Underfloor Heating.
Electrical Tubular Heating

5. Electrical Heaters Storage Heaters
High Temperature Heaters
Heating -Heating Emitters - Page 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Radiators
Radiators do not strictly speaking 'radiate' all their heat into the space but up to 80%
may be convected, typically for a double panel radiator about 30% of total heat
output is radiated and 70% is emitted by convection.
223
Radiators are used in a wide variety of buildings to provide central heating in rooms.
These emitters are usually positioned at low level, typically under windows, although
other positions can be used.
Heat outputs vary up to around 3 kW.
A typical radiator height for a house is 600mm, but other sizes are used depending
on location.
Radiators can be described by various means but the type of material used in the
manufacture is the main method of distinction.
Six radiator types as listed below show various methods of manufacture and style to
suit different conditions.
{1} Steel Panel - Simple convoluted panel which may be single, double or more.
{2} Cast Iron - Column type.
{3} Aluminium - Extruded sections.
{4} Tubular - Using vertical and horizontal steel tubes.
{5} Bathroom Radiator - Various shapes and materials some for drying towels.
{6} Low Surface Temperature - Usually steel.
Steel Panel
224
Cast Iron
Cast iron sections are bolted together.
Robust, heavy radiator.
Good heat transfer but expensive.

225
Aluminium Sectional
A selection of aluminium radiators are shown below.
Aluminium radiators are more expensive than steel panel but are light with high heat
output for size.
The material used and production techniques ensure a clean smooth finish but one
of the problems with using aluminium is corrosion of the metal in contact with hot
water which may have a small quantity of air absorbed in it.
An inhibitor can be provided as a capsule inserted in the radiator during installation

or special additives can be added to the water during commissioning of the system
to overcome this problem.
226
Tubular
In some types steel tubes are welded to top and bottom headers.
Shown in photograph above.
Decorative appearance, useful where tall, narrow radiators are required.
Easier to clean than steel panel.
The photo below shows a radiator with horizontal flat tubes.

227
Bathroom Radiator
Bathroom radiators are made in various materials and shapes, some are also
used to dry towels.
Low Surface Temperature (LST)

Some manufacturers make low surface temperature (LST) radiators for use in
hospitals, old people’s homes, nursery schools, and kindergartens.
These prevent injury if hot radiators are used in these areas.
One method of limiting the surface temperature of a radiator to about 45oC is to

cover the hot metal parts with an outer casing as shown below.
228
Warm Air Heaters

1. Natural Convectors
Convectors are used to heat up spaces more quickly than radiators.
Typical locations may be entrance hall, foyer, kitchen, bathroom, small hall or
auditoria, small workshop.
A natural convector has no fan but has more output than most radiators.
2. Fan Convectors
A fan-assisted convector has even more output and is more common but in some
areas fan noise can be a nuisance.
Convectors can be recessed into walls so that they appear to be part of the fabric of
a building and may have a decorative panel on the front to add to their appearance.
Convectors operate by heating air, which passes over the finned pipe through which
warm/hot water passes.
The fins are mechanically fixed to the tube(s) and extend the heating surface so that
all the heat output is purely convective. The heating tubes are enclosed in a cabinet
229
with louvres at the bottom to allow cooler air to enter and louvres at the top to emit
heated air into the space.
The convector may also have some form of control such as a damper to alter the
flow of air as shown in the diagram below.
Natural convectors rely on air movement over the heating element by natural
convection and forced convectors use a fan or fans to assist the movement of air.
Small convectors called ‘kickspace’ heaters are sometimes used in domestic

kitchens or hallways.
230
3. Industrial Warm Air Heaters

The type of unit illustrated below is used for space heating and has the advantage
of being simple in both construction and operation. Hot gases from an oil (or gas)
fired burner are directed over a heat exchanger and then exhausted through a flue to
outside.
Air is passed over the heat exchanger by a fan or fans and is subsequently heated to
about 30oC to 40oC. The warm air is supplied into a space through outlet diffusers,
which can direct the air where it is required and throw heated air up to about 10
metres from the point of discharge.
231
These units are suitable for large areas, which require heating since large amounts
of heated air can be supplied. Warehouses, factories, workshops and supermarkets
use this type of heating and outputs range from 30kW to 400kW.
It may be advisable to provide a protective area around floor standing units so that
it is not tampered with or machines such as forklift trucks don’t cause damage.
In some areas it is best to position industrial warm air heaters at high level or at roof
level to avoid possible damage and to give uninterrupted floor space. The unit may
be supported from or suspended from the roof structure with the nozzles arranged to
blow warm air into the space below.
One disadvantage of these units is that they can be noisy since a fuel burner and
fan are incorporated in the casing.
In some cases ventilation ductwork can be fitted to the outlet nozzles to heat other
areas such as offices in a factory.
The photo below shows a typical industrial floor standing warm air heater.
232
4. Unit Heaters
Unit heaters are very like fan convectors in operation in that they blow out warm air
from a heat exchanger. The heat exchanger uses steam or hot water to heat air,
which is forced over the tubes and fins by a powerful fan.
Since the steam or water temperature may be high e.g. over 100oC and the fan may
develop a high volume of air, the output is 10kW to 300kW.
Unit heaters may be used in factories, workshops and warehouses.
One advantage of this convective form of heating is that a relatively small unit can
produce a high heat output, but fan noise has to be considered.
233
The photograph below shows an all-electric unit heater, which obviates the need for
pipework but is more expensive to run than wet oil and gas fired systems.
5. Skirting Heating
This form of low level convective heating can be used in areas where unobtrusive
emitters are required.
Since the heat output per metre linear run is low then a substantial skirting length is
required in each room to offset heat losses.
The heat output is about 450 Watts per metre.
The units consist of one or two finned tubes inside a casing, which emits slow
moving warm air through a linear outlet at the top.
234
One disadvantage is that efficiency is reduced by dust collecting in the fins.
Skirting heating can be used as perimeter heating below glazing or for background
heat in some areas.
6. Trench Heating
This type of heating is useful for some areas where perimeter heating at floor level is
required.
Trench heaters consist of finned tube elements which are fully or partially recessed into
a steel casing within a concrete floor.
A trench is required around the perimeter of the room into which the tubular heater is
installed.
This has been used successfully in airports where large areas of perimeter glass require
an up-current of warm air to cancel out heat losses.
235
Trench heaters do not take up wall space and require a floor grille to withstand foot
traffic.
Some aluminium floor grilles can be rolled up for cleaning.
Outputs up to 1000 Watts per metre can be achieved.

Electric trench heating units have a fan in the trench which gives a higher heat output
compared to natural convention systems.
236
Radiant Heaters
1. Metal Radiant Panels
Radiant panels are a good way to heat up large spaces such as factory, workshop
and warehouses because the air is not heated directly but the surfaces below the
panels are heated.
This is a less expensive way to heat large volumes.
High temperature water or steam is passed through a series of pipes that are
connected to steel panels. The panels heat up to about 100oC to 150oC and radiate
heat downwards into the occupied space.
Panel sizes are usually several metres long by about 1 metre wide.
They can be suspended from the roof or from a wall at high level, either vertically or
at an angle to direct radiant energy into the space below.
2. Metal Radiant Strips

For workshops, strip heaters can be used when supplied with high or medium
temperature hot water or steam.
The radiant strip shown below uses a single pipe, other systems use 2, 3 or 4 pipes
to increase the radiant heat output.
237
Strips may be up to 1 metre wide but usually are continuous throughout the length of
a factory or workshop.
They are also suitable for mounting between stacking rows in a warehouse.
To enhance the effectiveness of the system a fin is added to increase the hot surface
area, in the diagram below the fin is a profiled aluminium plate that is clipped to the
pipe.
Some high outputs can be achieved with radiant strips e.g. 3kW per metre at 100oC.
The photo below shows two radiant strip heaters at high level in a factory.
3. Metal Radiant Ceilings

238
This type of radiant heating system incorporates the whole ceiling.
One type uses a ceiling made from metal plates above which are clipped pipes
containing hot water.
The pipes heat the metal ceiling below which in turn heats the rooms by radiation.
Typical heat output is about 160 Watts per square metre of floor area.
To make the system work effectively, some insulation is added on top of the pipes,
as shown below.
Radiant ceilings can be used in a wide variety of buildings such as: schools and
offices.
The system is silent but requires careful temperature control to ensure a comfortable
environment.
Some radiant ceilings are invisible from beneath as the photograph below shows.
This type uses ceiling tiles with pipes above.
239
4. Gas Radiant Tubes

The main elements of Radiant Tubes are; a burner, a steel tube of about 60-70 mm
diameter, a reflector plate and an extractor fan discharging to outside the building.
Gas is burnt and the products of combustion are drawn through the tube, which
reaches a temperature of about 540oC.
The units are in lengths of about 4-7 metres with outputs of 12-14 kW.
Radiant Tubes are used in areas with high ceilings or roofs because the hot tubes
must be well away from the working area.
They are used in workshops and factories.

240
5. Ceramic Gas Heaters

The domestic gas fire operates when the radiant heat output from a hot ceramic is
reflected into a room.
Some units have a boiler attached so that a central heating system with emitters can
be connected to heat other rooms.
NOTE: All permanent gas appliances must have a permanent flue and adequate
fresh air supply from outside.
241
Larger ceramic gas radiant heaters are designed primarily for commercial and
industrial applications in buildings with a high ceiling and are piped to a natural
gas or LPG supply.
For permanent installations when wall mounted or suspended from a roof, they
may be rated up to 30kW but a range between 3kW and15kW is more common.
Construction of one type takes the form of a heavy-duty rectangular reflector with
refractory elements and a burner array fitted behind a safety guard.
Portable versions are mounted on a telescopic stand and a propane cylinder is

mounted at the base.
Flue connections are not usually provided and manufacturers quote minimum rates
of fresh air to be provided for safe use.
In the case of portable units, these are usually sited in temporary positions within
open buildings, stockyards and construction sites.
Most other types of infrared heaters are used where it is too expensive to heat all of
the air in a building and local heating by radiation is acceptable.

242
Underfloor Heaters
Underfloor heating is suitable in areas where wall space is not available for other
emitters and where a warm floor is not a disadvantage.
In some cases underfloor heating cannot be used due to the nature of the floor and
the type of materials proposed.
One of the disadvantages is that it may take some time before the benefit is felt in a
room particularly if a concrete slab or other materials have a high thermal
capacitance.
This time lapse is called thermal lag.
One area where underfloor heating is useful is in shower or changing areas, where
the floor feels comfortable to stand on and is kept dry.
Two types of underfloor heating system are detailed below, they are:
(1) Piped Underfloor Heating (Wet System)
(2) Electrical Underfloor Heating

1. Piped Underfloor Heating

This consists of 15-20mm bore plastic pipes, laid without joints at 150-450mm
centres.
The pipes can be laid above a solid concrete slab and within a graded floor screed
not less than about 75mm thick, or under a suspended timber floor.
243
Copper tube is sometimes used (soft copper pipe to BS 2871 Table Y) but more
often Polyethylene tube having outside diameters of 17mm and 20mm, with 2mm
thick walls, in coil lengths of up to 120 metres is the preferred material.
When fixing polyethylene tube metal strips holding plastic clips are laid on the base
slab, at right angles to the coil line, to form a locating grid. An emulsifying agent is
added to the screed mix to improve contact with the coils.
A typical tube layout is shown below.
A section through a solid floor is shown below with pipe clips fixed to a grid and sand
/ cement screed covering.
244
It is generally accepted that a floor surface temperature of 24oC should not be

exceeded where occupants are static, 27oC where they are able to move about and
about 30oC in corridors and halls.
A variety of finishes may be used over heated floors and almost all types of hard
material, marble, slate, stone, terrazzo and brick are suitable provided that provision
is made for expansion and that no cavities are left in the finish to impede heat
transmission.
In the case of softer materials, wood blocks may be used if properly seasoned, cork
tiles are satisfactory and carpets can be used if not foam backed.
2. Electrical Underfloor Heating

Most electrical forms of Underfloor heating use off-peak electricity and are therefore
storage-heating systems.
An alternative direct system can be used were heating elements are laid on a solid
floor with an output of around 150 W/m2, laid close to the finished floor surface with
about 50mm of insulating material under the coil elements.
245
Such an arrangement is suitable for a building used intermittently and for short
periods such as churches, etc.
Floor warming can be successfully carried out by using Economy 7 off-peak

electricity to heat elements in the floor.
There are three system designs as shown below:

246
Electrical Heaters
1. Electrical Tubular Heaters
These are steel or aluminium tubes usually round or oval in section as shown below.
They consist of an electrical heating element, which extends from end to end and is
surrounded by air.
The surface temperature is about 80oC. A single tube at 50mm diameter has an out
put of about 180 Watts per metre length and tubes may be mounted in banks, one
above the other, for higher outputs.
An electrical skirting heater with an output of 400 Watts per metre run is typical of
some installations requiring background or low level heating.
Tubular heaters are used in churches, under pews, in greenhouses, conservatories

and foyers. They can be placed at the bottom of high windows to prevent
downdraughts of cold air or be set to prevent frost in greenhouses or conservatories.
247
2. Storage Heaters
Electrical storage heaters store heat overnight in thermal material and release the
heat the next day to heat a building.
One of the advantages of electrical storage heaters is that cheaper electricity can be
used at night to heat up thermal storage material from which heat is emitted later the
next day.
In the U.K. this cheaper tariff is called Economy 7 because it is available for seven
hours during the night-time.
There are several methods of storage and several types of room electrical storage
heater, such as; storage radiators, storage fan heaters and warmed floors or walls.
Heat energy can also be stored centrally in several devices such as warm air units,
dry-core boilers, wet-core boilers and thermal storage cylinders.
One of the advantages of using a central system of storage is it is possible to obtain

better control of the heating system in a large building if for example a wet-core
boiler is used and conventional hot water controls are utilised.
248
NOTE: A wet core boiler uses electricity to heat water in a steel or cast iron boiler.
An electric current is passed between electrodes through the water, which due to its
resistance, becomes heated.
An electrode boiler is about 98% efficient.
Domestic Storage Heaters
Storage heaters or storage radiators comprise a number of sheathed elements

enclosed within blocks of refectory material or Feolite to form the heated core, which
is surrounded by insulation.
The surface temperature of the casing reaches a maximum of about 80oC at the end
of the charging period and this reduces to about 40oC during the following day.
Output is both radiant and convective in almost equal proportions.
Heater ratings vary with different makes but are usually 1.7, 2.55 and 3.4kW, the
seemingly odd figures being related to rounded 7 hour charge acceptances of 12,18
and 24kWh.
Storage heaters are used in houses, flats, apartments and office buildings.
They have the disadvantage that the heat output during the day is not easily
controlled and may not match the heat loss in a building for any given period. Also
the lower electricity tariff (Economy 7) may not work out to be cheaper than oil or
gas. See fuels section of the notes.
3. High Temperature Heaters

There are several types of Electrical High Temperature Heater:
249
(1) Infra red heater
(2) Quartz lamp heater
(3) High temperature panel

3.1 Infra Red Heater
The electrical elements used are similar to those fitted to luminous fires but, for a
given rating, are commonly longer as shown below, and arranged to operate at
about 900oC.
Wall or ceiling models of these are suitable for kitchens and bathrooms, ratings are
up to 3 kW.
3.2 Quartz Lamp Heater
The elements of this type of heater operate at about 2000oC and consist of a
tungsten wire coil sealed within a quartz tube containing gas and a suitable halide
- rating of elements about 1.5kW.
Some quartz lamp heaters are shown below.

250
These are used in large spaces either where the requirement is intermittent or where
only local areas require spot heating.
3.3 High Temperature Panels
These consist of either a vitreous enamelled metal plate or a ceramic tile behind
which a resistance element is mounted within a casing.
Panels of this type operate at a temperature of about 250oC and have ratings in the
range 750 W to 2 kW; they are normally used in washrooms in industrial situations.

251
Heat Transfer from Emitters

Heat transfer in emitters occurs in various forms as shown below.
The media for heating is the substance used to transfer heat from a central point to
the emitters or within the emitter to the space.
Some heaters are ‘Direct’ in that they consume fuel or electrical energy in the heater
and heat the surrounding space.
Ref: Heating System Emitter Types Media
1 Radiators Radiators - all types water
Convectors - all types water
Industrial Warm Air Heaters air
2 Warm Air Heaters Unit Heaters water
Skirting Heating water
Trench Heating water
Metal Radiant Panels, Strips and water

Ceilings
3 Radiant Heaters Gas Radiant Tubes direct
Ceramic Gas Heaters direct
Piped Underfloor Heating water

4 Underfloor Heaters
Electrical Underfloor Heating. direct
Electrical Tubular Heating direct
5 Electrical Heaters Storage Heaters direct
High Temperature Heaters direct
Heat transfer may be by three methods or any combination of the three as follows:
1. Conduction
2. Convection
3. Radiation
252
Conduction of heat is generally a small proportion of the total heat output from
equipment and is not useful heat transfer since most of the conducted heat ends up
in ceiling voids or through external building fabrics as a heat loss.
Most heaters are either purely Convective or purely Radiant or a combination of the
two – for example, with added fins on radiators the percentage convective heat
transfer can be up to 80%, the remaining 20% being radiant heating.
Types of Boilers
Boilers may be defined by the material for manufacture as follows;

 Steel
 Cast Iron
Also boilers can be classified by fuel used as follows;

 Oil-fired
 Gas-fired
 Coal-fired
 Electric boiler
 Wood pellets
Another classification is used for large boilers as follows;

 Shell type boiler
 Packaged boiler
 Water tube boiler
Steel and Cast Iron Boilers
Small domestic and commercial boilers can be made using welded steel construction
with a water way between two steel plates.
253
A more robust and longer life boiler is made from cast iron sections that are bolted
together.
Flue outlet
Baffles to reduce flue

gas rate for better
heat transfer Double skin welded
steel case
Waterways between double

Burner mounting skin steel casing
Combustion
chamber
Water connections
Steel Domestic Steel Boiler
Cast iron boilers sometimes as long as 30 years or more.

254
Classification by Fuel
Large oil and gas-fired boilers can be similar in construction.
Some boilers can have dual fuel burners to reduce running costs.
Coal-fired boilers have special methods of admitting coal into the combustion chamber.
This may be by using pulverised fuel or using a hopper and a chain grate stoker for
example.
The simplest of small coal fired boilers with a stoking system uses a gravity feed
arrangement so that the hopper is filled periodically with grains or small easy flow coal
particles.
One of the best ways to heat water using electricity is by utilising the electrode boiler.
Pellet boilers are fed small wood pellets with a slow moving auger as a cheap form of
fuel. See Energy Sources – Wood Burning Systems.
Shell, Packaged and Water Tube Boilers
The shell boiler may incorporate one or more furnace tubes within a pressure shell.
The flue gases pass inside these furnace tubes and heat water inside a steel shell as
shown below.
Furnace tubes Flue
Water
Burner
Combustion Chamber
Shell Boiler
255
In the water tube boiler the tubes contain water.
Special Boilers
These include;
 Back boiler
 Condensing boiler
 Combination boiler
Back Boiler
Back boilers can be attached to a fire front to provide heat to water.
The back boiler is usually positioned behind or at the back of a fire front.
256
This means that flue gases from a coal or gas fire can be utilised to heat hot water in a
small steel boiler which can heat a hot water cylinder or radiators.
Some gas-fired units can heat the back boiler without the front fire being lit.
Back Boiler
Some solid fuel stoves have a high performance back boiler that is designed to take
maximum heat from the combustion area and from flue gases.
This ‘wrap around’ back boiler is shown below.
Double skin steel wrap around

Back boiler inside stove water ways
Flue outlet
Flue gases
Pipe connections
Outer stove covers
Wrap around Back Boiler

257
Condensing Boiler
A secondary heat exchanger is used in a Condensing boiler to extract more heat out of
the flue gases.
This means that water in the flue gases condenses in a stainless steel heat exchanger and
drains away at the bottom of the boiler, latent heat is given up when a liquid condenses.
The efficiency of a condensing boiler can be 15% more than a conventional boiler with
figure about 93% to 96% quoted.
When the flue gases are cooled after the secondary heat exchanger the temperature is
reduced so that the natural buoyancy is minimised.
This means that a fan is required to remove the flue gases.
Some designs split the heat exchanger into two parts and use an ordinary non-
condensing copper heat exchanger for the first, and an aluminium condensing heat
exchanger for the second. Aluminium doesn’t react well with water so it is lined with
copper.
258
Condensing Boiler
In practical terms you should expect a condensing boiler to be 'A' rated (which means a
stated efficiency greater than 90%) and the gains depend on what you compare it with.
Current law in England and Wales
From 1 April 2005 all central heating boiler installations fall under the control of building
regulations (the change does not apply to oil-fired central-heating boilers until 1 April
2007). The new legislation states that all gas boilers fitted in both new and existing
homes must be condensing boilers with either an ‘A’ or ‘B’ efficiency rating (A= greater
than 90%, B= 86%-90%). There are several important points which need to be noted:
Combination Boiler
259
A combination boiler heats water for the central heating system together with water for
washing and cooking.
This means that a separate hot water cylinder is not required.
The hot water for the taps is fed directly from the mains rather than from a hot water
storage cylinder.
An advantage of the combination boiler, or a "combi boiler" as it is usually called, is that

they eliminate the need for both an expansion tank in the roof space and a hot water
cylinder.
Another advantage is that the continuous flow of hot water is delivered at mains
pressure or a reduced mains pressure so that showers have adequate flow, unlike gravity
fed shower systems.
260
Pressure gaug
Flue outlet
to wall or
roof
Safety Valve
Exhaust Fan
(gas boilers)
Expansion
Heat exchanger vessel
Control
panel
Heating flow a
Hot water service

Mains water supply
Gas supply
Diagrammatic drawing of Combination B

261
Pump Types
Common Types of Heating Pump
The table below shows commonly used pumps for heating systems.
Pump Type Construction & Installation Use

Centrifugal In-line Pump is connected in line with the Pipeline mounted for LTHW
pipes and may be supported on feet as and MTHW.
well as by pipe.
Centrifugal End Suction Pump and Motor are placed on a LTHW and MTHW.
concrete base.
Can handle more flow than In-
The fluid enters the horizontal inlet and line pumps.
discharges out the vertical outlet.
In larger installations pump and motor
may be separate and the shaft may have
to be aligned.
Multi-stage Centrifugal Several centrifugal impellors connected Feed water to steam boilers.
to one vertical shaft. Often stainless
steel is used for impellors.
Smaller pumps tend to be in-line, that is, installed in the pipeline.

Larger pumps may be seated on a concrete base, these are often end suction pumps where
the water is sucked into the pump end and comes out at 90 degrees at the outlet.
Centrifugal In-line Pump End Suction Pump

262
A positive displacement pump with piston inside a cylinder was the first type of pump to
be used for water.
When using a ‘bicycle pump’ the bottom of the pump gets warm indicating inefficient
pumping.
The more efficient Centrifugal pump has now superseded the positive displacement pump.
Centrifugal pumps account for about 90% of the pumps used in industry.
The photos below show four different centrifugal pumps.
Centrifugal Action
In the centrifugal pump, the impellor rotates usually at motor speed and increases the
water velocity.
The impellor with backward curved blades rotates inside a casing or volute.
The volute has an increasing area so that most of the velocity energy is converted into
pressure energy.
Water outlet
Volute or Casing
Impellor with backwar

curved blades
Centrifugal Action
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Pump Installations
In a plant room it is sometimes a good idea to have all the heating pump sets together.
Access is easier if all pumps are mounted on brackets on a wall or on a concrete plinth at
floor level.
This means they are easier to maintain and monitor.
The diagram below shows pumps mounted on a wall bracket.
Plant room wall
Vertical support bracket

In-line pumps
Electrical Isolators
Pipes
Isolating valves
Non-return valve not Anti-vibration pad
shown
Flexible pipe Steel channel bracket

connectors
Wall fixings Vertical steel channel

support
F.F.L.
Elevation view of Four Pumps mounted on Vertical Bracket End Elevation
264
Rubber Flexible connections between pumps and pipework minimises vibration in the
pipes.
Domestic Heating Pumps
Small Centrifugal In-line pumps are used.

Domestic pumps are sometimes called circulators.
That is because the pressure or head developed by the pump only overcomes resistance in
the pipework and fittings.
A high pressure is not necessary in domestic heating installations, usually about 3 metres
head is more than sufficient for most houses.
Most manufacturers require domestic pumps to be installed with the motor shaft in the
horizontal position as shown below.
Motor Shaft
Domestic Centrifugal In-

line Pump
Pump Maintenance
Pumps can either be glanded or glandless.
The domestic canned rotor pump (circulator) is glandless, that means there is no shaft seal
or anywhere for water to leak out.
The glanded type pump has a replaceable mechanical seal or gland that may need to be
replaced if it leaks.
A seal is required since the rotating shaft must pass through a casing to the electric motor.
Some manufacturers make seal replacement easy by using split couplings.
If a canned rotor pump is not used for several months the impellor may stick.
This can be remedied by unscrewing the plug on the shaft and turning the shaft with a
screwdriver.
265
Variable Speed Pumps

Pump pressure and water flow rate can be altered by changing the pump speed.
When a system is being commissioned the pump speed is set to give the correct pressure
(head) and flow rate of water.
Domestic Pumps usually have several speeds (often 3 speeds) and can easily be set by a
controller attached to the motor.
Variable speed drives are used for larger 3-phase electric motor driven pumps.
This flexibility in pump speed can be used as a control mechanism so that when less heat
is required the pump speed slows down.
See Controls section – Energy Saving Devices for more information on VSD’s.
See Plant Sizing section – Pump Sizing, for details of how to size pumps.
266
Introduction
Refrigeration is necessary for the cooling process in full air-conditioning as well as
process cooling and freezing.
The refrigeration cycle takes in energy at a relatively low temperature and discards it at
some relatively higher temperature. For example in the domestic 'fridge the evaporator
takes in heat from the body of the fridge or the 'ice box' and discards heat at the back of
the fridge through a series of coiled pipework called the condenser.
Basis of Mechanical Refrigeration

The principle of mechanical refrigeration is that a liquid is made to 'boil' at a low
temperature.
When a liquid boils a significant amount of energy is required to make the molecules
vibrate enough to break free of the surface and change state into vapour.
If ethyl alcohol is poured onto a sheet of glass the alcohol will evaporate quickly at room
temperature and the heat required for this vapourisation is taken from the glass thus
cooling the glass, as shown below.
Vapour Alcohol
Glass
Also, if petrol is poured onto your skin (not

VAPA PORIrecommended)
SING LIQUID after a while the skin feels
cooler because the petrol has evaporated. This principle is adopted for mechanical
refrigeration. A highly volatile liquid is passed through a heat exchanger where it boils
when in contact with warmer air or water. Heat is extracted from the air or water thus
cooling it down.
This heat exchanger is called an EVAPORATOR since the volatile liquid is evaporated
into the vapour state from the liquid state as shown below.
267
Gas or vapour out
Evaporation
Highly Volatile Warm water in

Liquid in
Chilled water out
SIMPLE EVAPORATOR
In the case of water it takes about 2500 kJ of energy per kg of water at 100oC to change
water into steam.
This is also known as the latent heat of vapourisation.
For a continuous cycle where the volatile liquid doesn’t need to be replaced, the liquid can
be condensed back to a liquid and then re-boiled in the evaporator. The CONDENSER
is another heat exchanger where the vapourised gas is turned back into liquid.
If we call the volatile liquid the REFRIGERANT and ethyl alcohol is used as in the
previous example given, then the vapourised alcohol needs to come in contact with
something cool to condense it back to the liquid state. If mains water at 10oC was used as
shown below a simple condenser can be made.
Vapourised alcohol in
Vapour condenses
on cold pipes
Cold mains water in
Condensed Liquid out
SIMPLE CONDENSER
268
If the evaporator shown above is put in a system with the condenser then a continuous
refrigeration cycle is the result as shown below. A pump or compressor can be used to
circulate the refrigerant.
Heat is rejection to
Cold water in cold water
Condenser
Expansion
valve or
Pressure
reducing valve
or capillary Compressor
tube.
Refrigeration
pipework Evaporator
Heat Input
SIMPLE REFRIGERATION CYCLE

Refrigeration Cycle
Compresso
r
Condenser Evaporator
Heat
Rejected Cooling
Refrigerant inside pipe
Expansion Valve
MECHANICAL REFRIGERATION CYCLE

269
Refrigerant is like a sponge, compress it and heat comes out of it. Let it expand, and it
will soak up heat.
This soaking up of heat can be used to cool air or anything else, like water to form ice.
The compressing and releasing of the refrigerant takes place between the compressor and
the evaporator in the standard air-conditioning system. It is the evaporator that does the
cooling.
In most air conditioning systems the evaporator is indoors and the condenser is outdoors.
Compressor
Low-Pressure, Low-Tempera
High-Pressure, High-Temperature
Vapour.
Vapour.
Condenser Evaporator
Heat
Rejected Cooling
Low-Pressure, Low-Temper
High-Pressure, High-Temperature Liquid.
Liquid.
Expansion Valve
REFRIGERATION CYCLE WITH TEMPERATURES AND PRESSURES.

270
Two copper pipes connect the outdoor compressor to the indoor evaporator. One pipe
brings in the compressed refrigerant in its liquid form to the evaporator, where it is slowly
released and allowed to expand. When it expands, the liquid changes back to a vapour,
and in doing so, absorbs large amounts of heat from the surrounding air. In other words it
cools the surrounding air.
Meanwhile, the expanded refrigerant gas, with its new warmth, is being sucked out of the
evaporator into the compressor through the second pipe. This pipe is larger than the one
supplying liquid to the evaporator, because the refrigerant has expanded and needs more
room, it is known as the suction pipe. The compressor then compresses this refrigerant
vapour and pumps it through the condenser.
A condenser in refrigeration is just a piece of apparatus to remove heat out of the system.
There are several types of condenser.
The air cooled condenser has a fan, which drags outdoor air over the refrigerant. The
outside air is warm in summer, but still cools enough to "chill" the refrigerant and help it
return to the liquid state.
When the cycle is complete then the refrigerant goes around to be compressed, condensed,
expanded and evaporated again and again to achieve cooling in homes, refrigerators,
freezers and in commercial buildings.
271
Refrigerants
A refrigerant is the working fluid in a refrigeration system.
At some stages it is a gas and others it is liquid.
An ideal refrigerant should;
Be non-toxic.
Be non-flammable.
Have a low boiling point, boil or evaporate easily.
Condense easily.
Not mix with oil since compressors are lubricated.
Have a high latent heat capacity to transport energy around the ‘fridge system.
Operate at moderate pressures to reduce compressor work and leakage.
Be relatively cheap to produce and store.
Most modern refrigerants, except ammonia incorporate chlorine, fluorine and carbon
and are called fluorocarbons.
R11 is a single Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) compound. It has high chlorine content.
CFC’s are ozone depleting.
R22 is a single Hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC) compound. It has a low chlorine content

and low ozone depleting potential.
272
Most older refrigeration systems use either R12 for refrigeration or R22 for air
conditioning.
Ammonia is used in large ice making plant.
Modern refrigerants (HFC’s) hydroflurocarbons are mixtures and are used to reduce
harmful ozone depleting properties of some older refrigerants.
The tables below give properties of common refrigerants.

273
Older Refrigerant Properties
Condensing
Operating
Boiling pressure (bar cfm Critical
pressure
Refrigerant Formula temp. gauge) C.O.P per temp. P
o (bar)
C 30oCcondensing 1TR o
C
at 40oC
temperature
Non flammable, no
R11 C Cl3F 23.8 0.24 9.1 5.0 36.5 198 stable, faint odour
Little odour, colour

R12 C Cl2F2 -30.0 6.4 4.7 5.8 112 non flammable,
non corrosive of or
Little odour, colour

R22 CH Cl F2 -40.8 10.8 14.4 4.7 3.6 96 toxic, non irritating
corrosive, stable
C Cl2 F2 A mixture of R12 a
(73.8%)
R500 CH3 CH F2 -33 7.7 4.7 5.0 - Similar to R12
(26.2%) Refrigerating effec
C Cl F2 A mixture of R22 a
(48,8%)
Non flammable, no
R502 C Cl -45.6 12.0 4.4 3.6 90 stable.
F2 - CF3
(51.2%) High condensing pr
Penetrating odour,
Harmless in concen
Non flammable, ex
Very efficient refrig
Attacks copper.
Ammonia has exce
credentials, no ODP
It has been extensiv
in industrial refrige
and breweries.
Ammonia Ammonia has only
NH3 -33 10.5 4.8 3.4 133 Usage in air condit
R717
Despite its advanta
significant drawbac
Highly toxic, conce
be rapidly fatal.
It is also flammable
between 15 to 28 p
Whilst the highly n
aids leak detection
unpleasantness can
The new European
limits on the use of
274
Abbreviations
TR = Ton of refrigerating effect, i.e. the refrigerating effect of 1 ton of ice melting over
24 hours. 1 TR = 3.5 kJ/s.
cfm per 1TR = Cubic feet per minute of refrigerant flow per ton of refrigerating effect
i.e. the rate of flow of refrigerant needed for a given cooling duty.
ODP = Ozone Depleting Potential.
GWP = Global Warming Potential
HFC = Hydroflurocarbons
CFC = Chlorofluorocarbon
HCFC = Hydrochlorofluorocarbon.
COP = Coefficient of Performance.
HydroFluoroCarbon (HFC) Refrigerants
HFC’s such as R134a, R404A, R407C and R410A have dominated the replacement of
CFC’s and HCFC’s, mainly because they broadly possess similar characteristics as well as
having been extensively marketed by manufactures.
275
HFC Refrigerant Properties
Operating
Boiling Maximum cycle
pressure GWP
Refrigerant Temperature efficiency Properties
(bar) o (100 yr)
C (%)
at 40oC
Low pressure
Centrifugal a
o
R134a 9.2 -26 C 83% 1300 Widely used
Its low operat
Good COP’s.
Advantages o
R404A High pressure

o
R-125/143a/134a 18.0 -46 C 75% 3260 Non-toxic, Limited appli
Low efficien
No chlorine High pressure

content,
High critical
Used between
The specific h
R407C Non ozone the heat trans
As a zeotrope
14.4 -44 Co
80% 1520 depleting, (evaporating
R-32/125/134a Glide has an a
heat exchange
For best perfo
No restrictions exchangers.
on use Glide can also
restriction in
Very high pre
R410A Low critical t

Small system
Used in some
50% R32, 50% 23.0 -52oC 76% 1720
Very high ref
R125
than R22.
Heat transfer
R410A has ra
chillers and so
276
Zeotropic and Azeotropic Mixtures
Mixtures fall into two categories; Zeotropic and Azeotropic.
A zeotropic liquid mixture shows no maximum or minimum when vapour pressure is

plotted against the composition at a constant temperature.
An Azeotropic mixture is a constant boiling mixture.
When an azeotropic mixture is boiled, the resulting vapour has the same ratio of
constituents as the original mixture of liquids. Because composition is unchanged by
boiling, azeotropes are also known as constant boiling mixtures.
Azeotropes are refrigerants with R5xx designation and zeotrope with R4xx designation.
In flooded systems, zeotropes will change their composition due to the different vapour
pressures in the system.
As the system operates, the chemicals with a lower boiling point accumulate within the
high pressure-side, and higher boiling point chemicals shift to the low pressure side of
the cycle.
Consequently compression ratio increases, refrigerating capacity reduces leading to

lower system efficiency.
In flooded systems zeotropes are not recommended for use.
Domestic refrigeration
277
Following the phase-out of R12, R134a was adopted within the domestic refrigeration
sector but since then R600a has become widely used because it enables lower noise
levels to be achieved.
In addition, R600a offers a slight efficiency improvement.
Commercial Refrigeration
Commercial refrigeration includes stand-alone units such as vending machines, ice cream
freezers and bottle coolers, to remote systems such as those used for cold stores and
display cabinets in retail outlets.
Integral units generally use R134a (mainly for medium temperature applications) and
R404A (mainly for low temperatures).
Air Conditioning
Air conditioning systems includes; small window and split units, multi-split systems and
central chillers that provide cooling water to air handlers.
Most integral and split systems previously used R22 until R407C was introduced, but the
larger manufacturers are now adopting R410A due to smaller components and marginal
gains in efficiency.
R290 is also being used because of its favourable environmental characteristics and good
efficiency, and for similar reasons systems using CO2 are being investigated.
Multi-split systems are following the trend of shifting from R407C to R410A for much the
same reasons.
278
Most chillers for air conditioning within Europe are positive displacement machines,
using reciprocating, scroll or screw compressors. R22 had been the primary choice for
these chillers, but the most common refrigerants are now R134a and R407C.
Heat pumps had almost exclusively used R22, but recently most manufacturers have
offered units with a selection of refrigerants
including R290, R407C and lately R410A.
The Future
It may be that three refrigerants will dominate commercial air conditioning over the next
few years.
R407C – a Zeotropic blend
R134a – a single substance
R410A – an azeotropic blend

279
p-H Diagrams
The pressure enthalpy (p-H) diagram is a useful way to show changes in system pressure and
energy changes.
Pressure
(Pa or bar)
Sub-cooled Liquid Region Superheated Vapour
Region
Condensing
3 2
Expansion
Compression
Saturated
Liquid Line
4 Evaporating 1
Liquid & Vapour Region
Saturated Vapour Line
Enthalpy (kJ/kg)
p-H Diagram of Refrigeration Cycle
The refrigerant exists as a mixture of vapour and liquid under the Saturated Liquid and
Saturated Vapour line.
To the left of the Saturated Liquid line the refrigerant exists as a liquid.
To the right of the Saturated Vapour line the refrigerant exists as a superheated vapour.
On the diagram, the refrigeration cycle is represented by the line 1-2-3-4.
1-2 is where the gas is compressed causing a rise in pressure and enthalpy which equals
the energy put into the gas by the compressor, all in the superheat region.
2-3 is where the gas is condensed to a liquid.
3-4 is where the liquid / vapour is passed through an expansion device, the pressure is
reduced without any enthalpy change.
4-1 is where the liquid / vapour is evaporated completely to a gas and where enthalpy is
extracted from surroundings. This is the REFRIGERATION or COOLING effect as shown
below.
Pressure
(Pa or bar)
Sub-cooled Superheated
Liquid Region Vapour Region
Condensing
3 2’
2
Expansion
Compression
4 1
Liquid &
Vapour
280 Saturated Vapour Line
Region
Cooling Effect Enthalpy (kJ/kg)
Line 2-2’ represents cooling of the superheated gas in the condenser down to the saturated
vapour temperature.
The remainder of the condensing takes place from 2’-3 where latent heat is removed.
If the condenser can sub-cool the refrigerant to a temperature less than saturation vapour
temperature then extra Cooling Effect will result as shown below.
The work input at the compressor can also be determined from the p-H diagram as shown
below.
Sub-cooled Liquid Region

Pressure Sub-
(Pa or bar) Cooling
Superheated
Vapour Region
3 2
Saturated Liquid
Line
4 1
Increased Work Input

p-H Diagram of Refrigeration Cycle with

Sub-Cooling
281
A typical p-H diagram can be shown for refrigerant R134a.
Pressure
(bar) Sub-cooled
Liquid Region
Superheated
Vapour Region
3 34oC
10 bar 2
4oC
3.5 bar
4 1
50 100 150 200 250 300 Enthalpy

68 242 315 (kJ/kg)
p-H Diagram of Refrigeration Cycle for

134a
Compressor Work
It can be seen from the above diagram that the compressor compresses refrigerant from 3.5
bar to 10 bar.
The suction pressure is therefore 3.5 bar.
The delivery pressure is 10 bar.
The Work Input to the compressor is 315 kJ/kg - 242 kJ/kg = 73 kJ/kg.
The Compressor Work can be calculated as follows;
W comp = m ref (h2 - h1)

Where;
W comp = Compressor work (kW)
m ref = Mass flow rate of refrigerant (kg/s)
282
h2 = Specific enthalpy at point 2 (kJ/kg)

If the refrigerant flow rate in the above example is 0.3 kg/s then the compressor work is;
W comp = m ref (h2 - h1)

W comp = 0.3 (73)
W comp = 21.9 kW
Refrigeration Effect
The Refrigeration Effect can also be determined from the above diagram by using the
following formula;
RE = m ref (h1 – h4)

Where;
RE = Refrigeration or Cooling Effect (kW)
m ref = Mass flow rate of refrigerant (kg/s)
RE = 0.3 (242 – 68)

RE = 0.3 ( 174)
RE = 52.2 kW.
Coefficient Or Performance
The Coefficient of Performance is an indication of how efficient a refrigeration system is.
COP = Refrigeration Effect / Work Input

or
COP = RE / W comp
In this example the COP is;
COP = 52.2 / 21.9 = 2.38
Efficient Running
For efficient running the Evaporator temperature should be as high as possible. This is
restricted by the dew-point temperature in an air conditioning application. The Condenser
283
temperature should be as low as possible. Maximum cooling is generally required in the

hottest summer weather when the condensing arrangements are least efficient and caution is
thus necessary in selecting an appropriate temperature.
Further Examination of p-H Diagram
A p-H diagram with some more detail is shown below.
Sub-cooled Liquid Region

Pressure
(Pa or bar) Superheated
Vapour Region
4 CONDENSER 3
5 2
EXPANSION DEVICE
COMPRESSOR
Saturated EVAPORATOR
Liquid Line 6 7 1
The stages in the cycle are as follows:

Stage 1 to 2: the superheated vapour is compressed.
Stage 2 to 3: the hot superheated vapour enters the condenser where the first part of the
process is desuperheating.
Stage 3 to 4: the hot vapour is condensed back to a saturated liquid.
Stage 4 to 5: the liquid is subcooled before it enters the expansion valve (this may occur
in the condenser, a second heat exchanger or in the pipework connecting the condenser
with the expansion valve).
Stage 5 to 6: the high pressure liquid passes through an expansion device.
Stage 6 to 7: low pressure liquid refrigerant in the evaporator absorbs heat from the air or
water being cooled and evaporates to become dry saturated vapour.
Stage 7 to 1: the refrigerant vapour absorbs more heat while in the evaporator and while in
the pipework joining the evaporator to the compressor, to become a superheated vapour.
284
Chillers
Introduction
For large installations the Condenser, Evaporator, Compressor and Expansion device can
be purchased as a package unit, known as a Chiller.
The usual package consists of electrically driven compressor(s) mounted on top of two
shell and tube heat exchangers, one for the evaporator and the other for the condenser.
The cooling coil(s) are piped up to the chiller in the conventional manner as shown
below.
Chiller
Heat Rejection
Fans
3 Condenser 2
Expansion Refrigerant Gas

valve
Refrigerant Liquid Heat Input

+ Vapour
Evaporator 1
4
Chilled
Chilled
Water
Water
flow
return
Pump
Control
Valve Co
Chiller Schematic Diagram
with Air Cooled Condenser
285
In some countries the Cooling tower is the preferred method of removing heat from the
system.
Cooling towers that are open to atmosphere are not often used since the water may
become contaminated.
A closed cycle cooling tower or evaporative cooler can be used to reduce contamination
risk.
Condenser Water
Cooling Tower
Chille
Heat Rejection
3 Condenser 2
Expansion Refrigerant Gas

valve
Refrigerant Liquid Heat Input

+ Vapour
Evaporator 1
4
Chilled
Chilled
Water
Water
flow
return
Pump
286
Control
Valve C
Chiller Schematic Diagram

with Cooling Tower
Alternative arrangements are shown for smaller installations where the condenser may
be mounted on the roof or external wall of a building and cooled by outside air.
The evaporator may be installed directly into the ductwork or air handling unit (AHU) for
smaller installations.
This is known as a Direct Expansion (or DX) coil.
A typical Direct Expansion (or DX) system is shown below.
This avoids using condenser water and chilled water in the system and installing the
accompanying plant.
Heat Rejection
Fans
3 Condenser 2
Expansion Refri
valve
Liquid + Vapour
4
287
Refrigerant
Return
Refrigerant
Flow
Direct Expansion (DX)

System
Chilled-water System
In larger buildings and particularly in multi-story buildings, the split-system approach

begins to run into problems.
Either running the pipe between the condenser and the air handler exceeds distance
limitations (runs that are too long start to cause lubrication difficulties in the
compressor), or the amount of duct work and the length of ducts becomes
unmanageable.
At this point, it is time to think about a chilled-water system.
In a chilled-water system, the entire air conditioner is situated on the roof or behind the
building.
It cools water to between 4.0oC and 8.0oC.
288
This chilled water is then piped throughout the building and connected to the cooling
coils in air handlers as needed.
There is no practical limit to the length of a chilled-water pipe if it is well-insulated.
Chilled Water Temperatures
Typically chilled water flow and return temperatures to cooling coils is generally between
7oC and 12oC, depending upon the dew point to be maintained.
When this water is pumped through the evaporator section of the chiller this water
temperature will be lowered by about 4oC to 6oC.
In order that the necessary heat transfer may take place, the refrigerant must be at some
temperature below that of the leaving water but, at the same time, it must generally be
slightly above freezing point.
In a typical case, the following water temperatures may be used:
 Apparatus dew point 12°C
 Cooling coil outlet 10°C
289
 Cooling coil inlet 6°C

 Water at evaporator outlet 5.5°C
The refrigerant in the evaporator would in this case be maintained at about 1°C giving a
differential for 4.5°C for heat transfer.
As will be appreciated, this small temperature potential means that the cooling surface of a
simple tubular type would need to be very extensive: a variety of devices has been
developed to augment the transfer rate.
Ethylene/glycol solutions may be used in cooling coils in order to allow lower air
temperatures to be obtained.
The temperatures of the fluid circulating may be -7°C from the evaporator and -3°C
returning to it, or lower as required.
In instances where cooling for an air-conditioning system is provided from a refrigeration

machine by direct expansion, the refrigerant is piped directly to cooling coils in the air
stream which thus become the evaporator.
The surface temperature of the coils is a function of the leaving air temperature required,
the form of the coil surface and the velocity of the air flow.
Refrigerant temperatures much below freezing point are inadmissible owing to the risk of
build-up of ice on the coil surface when dehumidification is taking place.
An apparatus dew point of 3°C is normally considered as the practical minimum for such
coils if frosting is to be avoided.
Thermosyphon Cooling
Water chilling may be accomplished without using the compressor under

favourable, cool, outside conditions.
If the condenser is at a higher level than the evaporator the compressor may
be by-passed and the evaporator connected directly to the condenser.
Superheated refrigerant vapour leaves the evaporator and migrates upwards
to the condenser.
If the condenser coolant (air or water) is cold enough, the refrigerant will
condense and sub-cool.
The expansion valve or the float valve is also bypassed and sub-cooled liquid
refrigerant drains by gravity into the evaporator and is available for chilling
water.
The performance is like a heat pipe and the compressor is not used.
290
Absorption Chillers
The vapour absorption refrigeration cycle uses two fluids in solution, one a
refrigerant and the other an absorbent.
The affinity of the absorbent for the refrigerant on the one hand and the
application of heat on the other, are used to vary the strength of the
concentration of refrigerant in the absorbent.
An absorber and a generator take the place of the compressor (heat being
supplied at the generator instead of power at the compressor), but the
evaporator and the condenser remain as the pieces of equipment where
heat is removed from the water being chilled and where surplus heat in the
process is rejected to the outside.
Water chillers using lithium bromide as the absorbent and water as the
refrigerant are commercially available with capacities from 350 kW to 6000
kW of refrigeration employing steam at absolute pressures from 115 kPa to
1293 kPa as the source of thermal energy for the generator.
MTHW and HTHW have been used, instead of steam; but have not given
satisfaction because of the thermal expansion associated with the difference
between the flow and return temperatures.
Because of fundamental thermodynamic limitations, coefficients of

performance exceeding 1.0 are not really practical in Absorption Chillers.
Realistic coefficients at design conditions are 0.6 to 0.72 and steam
consumptions are about 0.9 g/s for each kW of refrigeration.
The refrigerant may crystallize because of control mal-function, air in the
system, failure of the expansion valve, or interruption to the electrical supply
(needed to operate certain pumps in the plant).
Crystallization is a nuisance rather than a disaster but water-cooled
machines are preferred over air cooled because there is less risk of
crystallization.
291
Refrigeration – Heat Pumps - Page 1 2 3 4 5 6
Introduction
The heat pump is used to produce heat from a low-grade energy source such as outside
air, a lake, pond or seawater.
The refrigeration cycle is utilised so that the heat rejected at the condenser is used to heat
a building as shown below. This is the opposite function of the condenser when the
‘fridge cycle is used for air conditioning, in which case the heat rejected is lost to the
atmosphere.
Heat output
Condenser
Expansion
device
Compressor
Refrigeration
pipework Evaporator
Heat Input from HEAT SOURCE
Heat Pump Refrigeration Cycle
The compressed gas from the compressor is passed to the condenser where heat is
removed for use, and in the evaporator the refrigerant absorbs heat at a relatively low
temperature from the heat source.
292
A typical example would be an air to air heat pump, which extracts heat from outside air
even at very low winter temperatures by using the vapour compression refrigeration cycle
in reverse mode. This can produce warm air at the condenser to heat a building.
Heat pumps work best when a building needs to be heated during winter and cooled in
summer.
One of the disadvantages of a heat pump is the amount of electrical energy used to drive
the compressor. This can be overcome in large installations by running the compressor
from a gas driven engine. Another difficulty is noise and several heat pumps can be linked
to one remote compressor to reduce local noise. This has the added advantage that
compressor maintenance is centralised.
Heating and Cooling
The diagram below shows a refrigeration plant with a reversing valve to reverse the
direction of flow of refrigerant.
The reversing valve is set for the HEATING mode.
293
The indoor heat exchanger becomes a condenser giving out heat whereas the outdoor heat
exchanger is the evaporator and takes in heat energy from a low grade source.
Heat output
Indoor heat
exchanger
Expansion valve
for cooling Reversing valve
mode NRV
Compresso
Expansion
valve for
heating mode
NRV
Refrigeration
Outdoor heat
pipework
exchanger
Heat Input
Heat Pump in Heating Mode

294
The diagram below shows the same plant with the reversing valve set for the COOLING
mode.
The refrigerant travels around the system in the opposite direction and arrives at the
Outdoor heat exchanger first after the compressor.
This is effectively the condenser where heat is rejected to atmosphere.
The refrigerant passes through a non-return valve and expansion valve where it then
passes through the Indoor heat exchanger, which is the evaporator or cooling coil.
Heat Input
Indoor heat
exchanger
Expansion valve
for cooling Reversing valve
mode NRV
Compressor
Expansion
valve for
heating mode
NRV
Refrigeration
Outdoor heat
pipework
exchanger
Heat Output
Heat Pump in Cooling Mode
The reversing valve is an effective method of using one item of plant to heat and cool.
295
This is appropriate for rooms such as glazed foyers where the temperature is low in the
morning and high when the sun shines.
Heat pumps are similar to room air conditioners in that the same components are used
with the addition of a reversing valve.
This means that the designer could consider up-grading a room air conditioning scheme to
a heat pump scheme.
A split system can be used for heat pumps as in air conditioning so that indoor and
outdoor units are similar to those used in air conditioning. See Air Conditioning section of
the notes.
Coefficient of performance (COP)
This is used to define heat pump efficiency.
COP = T1 / ( T1 - T2 )
Where;
COP = coefficient of performance
T1 = condensing temperature (oK).
T2 = evaporating temperature (oK).
It is normal to express this coefficient as the ratio of energy output to energy input, rather
than use temperatures, as shown below.
COP = Q / W
296
Where;
Q = high grade energy output (kWh or kJ).
W = electrical or mechanical energy input (kWh or kJ).
Typically, a heat pump operating from a source temperature of 5°C and designed for
heating only would have a COP of about 3.0, whereas a reversible machine for the same
conditions would have a COP of about 2.6.
The diagram below shows typical COP’s for a heat pump.

It can be seen that the COP is increased with higher evaporating temperatures, this means
that the higher the low grade energy source temperature the higher the COP.
In winter water sources can be at a higher temperature than outside air, these include;
lakes, deep ponds and rivers.
Other sources of low grade energy are sub-soil, and waste products from industry such as
effluent and power station waste water.
High grade heat output

or condensing
temperature (oC)
COP 45oC
4.4
4.2
4.0 50oC
3.8
3.6
55oC
3.4
3.2
3.0
2.8
2.6
-10 oC -5 oC 0 oC +5 oC
Low grade source or evaporating
temperature (oC)
TYPICAL HEAT PUMP PERFORMANCE
297
In summary, the coefficient of performance (COP) is improved if the temperature of the cold
side (heat source) is raised.
For this reason heat pumps can be seen as devices able to convert low grade thermal energy
to useful heat.
Types of Heat Pump
Heat pumps may be classified under the following types;
1. Air-to-air (air source to air heating system).
2. Air-to-water (air source to water heating system).
3. Water-to-water (water source to water heating system).
4. Water-to-air (Water source to air heating system).
5. Ground source to water.

298
The diagram below shows a heat pump using pipes buried in sub-soil as the low grade
energy heat source.
Heat rejection to rooms

via heat emitters
Radiators
Hot/Warm water
flow
Pump
CONDENSER Pipework
Expansion Valve
EVAPORATOR Drive un
e.g. elec
Compressormotor
Heat input from source

- water pipes laid in
subsoil.
HEAT PUMP USING SUB-SOIL AS HEAT SOURCE AND

REFRIGERANT TO WATER CONDENSER
299
It is possible to use solar energy in the heat pump system, this is suitable in countries
where solar radiation is not at consistently high levels throughout the year and the low
temperatures achieved from solar panels can be upgraded to a higher more useable
temperature for space heating.
De-icing
Air to air heat pumps can be effective in their use of energy. But one problem with most
heat pumps is that the coils in the outside air collect ice. The heat pump has to melt this
ice periodically, so it switches itself back to air conditioner mode to heat up the coils. To
avoid pumping cold air into the building in air conditioner mode, the heat pump also
switches on electric heaters to heat the cold air that the air conditioner is pumping out.
Once the ice is melted, the heat pump switches back to heating mode.
300
Refrigeration - Heat Pumps - Page 1 2 3 4 5 6
Ground Source Heat Pump
Introduction
In this country the earth, a few meters below our feet, is at a constant temperature of
about 11-12oC throughout the year.
Because of the ground's high thermal mass, it stores heat from the sun during the
summer.
Ground source heat pumps (GSHP) can pump this heat from the ground into a building to
provide space heating.
For every unit of electricity used to pump the heat, 3-4 units of heat are produced.
There are three important elements to a GSHP:
• Ground loop - Comprises lengths of plastic pipe buried in the ground,

either in a borehole or a horizontal trench.
The pipe is a closed circuit and is filled with a mixture of

water and antifreeze, which is pumped round the pipe
absorbing heat from the ground.
301
• Heat pump - A heat pump works by using the evaporation and

condensing of a refrigerant to move heat from one place to another.
In this case, the evaporator the takes heat from the

water in the ground loop; the condenser gives up heat to
a hot water storage tank, which feeds the distribution
system.
A compressor, which uses electricity, moves the

refrigerant around the heat pump.
It also compresses the gaseous refrigerant to increase

the temperature at which it condenses, to that needed for the
distribution circuit.
• Heat distribution system - Consists of underfloor heating or radiators for

space heating.
Some systems can also be used for cooling in the

summer.
Distribution System inside building

e.g. Warm water flow to radiators or
to underfloor heating pipes.
Pump
Pipe
CONDENSER
Expansion Valve
EVAPORATOR Com
Ground loop pipe
302 Ground Loop Heat Pump
Installation Costs
The installed cost of a GSHP ranges from about £800-£1,200 per kW of peak heat output,
excluding the cost of the distribution system.
Trench systems tend to be at the lower end of this range.

303
The installed cost of a typical 8kW system would therefore vary between £6,400-£9,600
plus the cost of the distribution system.
Earth Loops
Horizontal loops are common in some areas.

A 1.2 to 2.0 metre deep trench is dug using a backhoe or chain trencher.
The pipe is laid out, sealed and pressure tested.
Then the trench is filled.
The land area required ranges from 75 to 150 square metres per ton (3.5kW) of
refrigeration.
Ground loop pipes
Earth
Vertical loops require less pipe than horizontal loops.

Well-drilling equipment bores small diameter holes 15 to 60 metres deep.
Two pipes joined with a U-bend are inserted into each hole.
The system can use one deep hole or several shallow ones.
Verticals can be installed almost anywhere.
The cost of drilling is often greater than trenching.
Pond loops reduce excavating costs by placing much of the loop in a pond, lake or stream.
In most cases, 1/4 to 1/2 acre of water surface and a minimum depth of 2 to 2.5 metres is
required.
The Heating Cycle
In the heating cycle, the ground water, the antifreeze mixture, or refrigerant (which has
304
circulated through the underground piping system and picked up heat from the soil), is
pumped back to the heat pump unit inside the building. It then passes through the
refrigerant-filled primary heat exchanger for groundwater or antifreeze mixture systems.
In DX systems the refrigerant enters the compressor directly, with no intermediate heat
exchanger.
The heat is transferred to the refrigerant, which boils to become a low temperature vapour.
In an open system, the ground water is then pumped back out and discharged into a pond
or down a well.
In a closed-loop system, the anti-freeze mixture or refrigerant is pumped back out to the
underground piping system to be heated again.
The reversing valve sends the refrigerant vapour to the compressor.

The vapour is then compressed which reduces its volume, causing it to heat up.
Finally, the reversing valve sends the now-hot gas to the condenser, where it gives up its
heat to a water heating system.
Having given up its heat, the refrigerant passes through the expansion device, where its
temperature and pressure are dropped further before it returns to the first heat exchanger
or to the ground in a DX (direct expansion) system, to begin the cycle again.
Underflo
heat emi
450C.
Condenser
Expansion
valve for Reversing
cooling NRV valve
mode
Expansion
valve for
heating
mode NRV
Refrigeration Refrigerant
pipework Primary Heat
Exchanger
Ground loop p
305 110C to 120C
Ground Source Heat Pump linked toUnderfloor heating

system
Cooling Cycle
A heat pump can also be used for air conditioning in summer.

The cooling cycle is basically the reverse of the heating cycle.
The direction of the refrigerant flow is changed by the reversing valve.
This works best if a ground source to air heat pump is used instead of a ground source to
water unit.
The refrigerant picks up heat from the house air and transfers it to the outside into a water
body or return well (in the case of an open system), or into the underground piping (in the
case of a closed-loop system).
Environmental Issues
Because heat pumps consume less primary energy than conventional heating systems,
they are an important technology for reducing gas emissions that harm the environment,
such as carbon dioxide (CO2), sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx).
However, the overall environmental impact of electric heat pumps depends very much
on how the electricity is produced.
Heat pumps driven by electricity from, for instance, hydropower or renewable energy
reduce emissions more significantly than if the electricity is generated by coal, oil or gas-
fired power plants.
306
Heat Pump Economics
Coefficient of Performance (CoP)
In order to transport heat from a heat source to a heat sink, external energy is needed to
drive the heat pump.
Theoretically, the total heat delivered by the heat pump is equal to the heat extracted
from the heat source, plus the amount of drive energy supplied.
Electrically-driven heat pumps for heating buildings typically supply 100 kWh of heat
with just 20-40 kWh of electricity.
Many industrial heat pumps can achieve even higher performance, and supply the same
amount of heat with only 3-10 kWh of electricity.
The efficiency of a Heat Pump system is measured by the Coefficient of Performance

(CoP).
This is the ratio of the number of units of heat output for each unit of electricity input
used to drive the compressor and pump.
Typical CoPs range between 2.5 - 4.0.
The higher end of this range is for underfloor heating, because it works at a lower
temperature (35-45oC) than radiators (60-80oC).
307
In simple terms, if a heat pump has a COP of 3.0 then for every 100 KWh of electrical
energy input there will be 300 kWh of heat energy available, since;
COP = Q / W
Where;
Q = high grade energy output (kWh or kJ).
W = electrical or mechanical energy input (kWh or kJ).
Rearranging Q = COP x W
Q = 3 x 100
Q = 300 kWh
Running Costs
Based on current fuel prices, assuming a CoP of 3-4, a GSHP can be a cheaper form of
space heating than gas, oil, LPG and electric storage heaters.
An approximate evaluation is given by;
Normal tariff Electric cost = 15.03 p/kWh. (2009) (see Fuel Costs section)
If the heat pump CoP is 3 then, cost of heat is 15.03 / 3 = 5.01 p/kWh.
This is cheaper than oil at current price of; 5.44 p/kWh and gas at 6.59 p/kWh. (2008)
(see Fuel Costs section)
308
If grid electricity is used for the compressor and pump, then an economy 7 tariff usually
gives the lowest running costs.
Current E7 electricity cost is 6.60 p/kWh, therefore cost of heat with GSHP is; 6.60 /
COP 3 = 2.20 p/kWh.
This is significantly cheaper than any other heating energy source but installation cost is
higher than oil or gas fired heating.
This assumes that all the heating can be achieved at night time and there is a storage
system so that hot water can be pumped around the underfloor heating system when
required.
This does not include the increased maintenance costs of the compressor and associated
equipment in a heat pump.
The economics for heat pumps are even better if low cost electricity is used or the
compressor is driven by a gas or oil engine using very cheap fuel.
Also the installation cost may be justified if air conditioning as well as heating is
necessary.
If 2 hours of ‘topping up’ is required from the grid on very cold days then the cost is;
Assume the heat pump is sized to heat the building during 7 hours of off-peak electricity.
7 hours x 6.60 p / kWh = 46.20 p / day / kWh
2 hours x 15.03 p/ kWh = 30.06 p / day / kWh
Total = 76.26 p / day / kWh
Average cost of electricity per day = 76.26 p / kWh / 9 hours

309
= 8.47 p / kWh
= 8.47 p / kWh / COP 3
= 2.82 p / kWh
This makes the system still less expensive than oil or gas heating at about 2.8 p/kWh.
The extra installation and maintenance costs of a heat pump and ground source pipe coil
may defer some of these savings.
A storage vessel (or buffer vessel) may be incorporated into the heating system that
stores heat at nighttime in readiness for use the next day.

310
Comparison of Fossil Fuels, Biomass and Electricity

for Heating Buildings
We will look at four fossil fuels, one biomass fuel and two common forms of electricity
available in most countries:
 Coal
 Oil
 Natural Gas
 Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG)
 Wood Chips and pellets
 Electricity Ordinary rate
 Electricity Low Tariff rate.
There are several ways to compare the various sources of energy.

The following discussion looks briefly at some of the factors.
The factors are:
1. Calorific value
2. Electrical tariffs
3. Efficiency
4. Availability & Security of supply
5. Security
6. Payment
7. Handling
8. Safety
9. Environmental issues
10. Other uses
11. Running costs

1. Calorific Value
The calorific value of a fuel is the quantity of heat energy released in Mega Joules per kg
of fuel as a result of combustion.
The gross calorific value (GCV) includes the latent heat of any water in the fuel as it
turns to steam and the net calorific valve (NCV) excludes this extra small amount of heat
energy.
311
Anthracite may contain up to 3% moisture, light oils and gas contain less than 0.5%
moisture.
Generally the GCV is used in cost calculations.
The GCV of coal is around 30 MJ/kg

For oil the GCV is about 46 MJ/kg
The GCV of wood pellets is around 18 MJ/kg and wood chips about 12 MJ/kg.
It can be seen that oil has a higher calorific value than coal (about 53% higher) and wood
pellets and chips have calorific values much less than coal.
It is not so easy to compare the Calorific value of a gas since figures are normally in Mega
Joules per cubic metre or Mega Joules per litre if the gas is under pressure and liquefied
as in Liquid Petroleum Gas.
The GCV for natural gas is about 38 MJ/m3

The GCV for LPG is about 25 MJ/litre under pressure at 6 bar.
Gross Calorific Value

Fuel Density (kg/m3)
(MJ/kg)
Wood chips (30% moisture content) 12.6 250
Log wood (stacked - air dry: 20% m.c.) 14.7 350-500
Wood (solid - oven dry) 19 400-600
Wood pellets 17-18 600-700
Miscanthus (bale - 25% m.c.) 13 140-180
House coal 27-31 850
Anthracite 33 1,100
Heating oil 46 845
Natural gas (NTP) 54 0.7
LPG 49.7 510
Lignite 20-24 650-780
Peat – sod (35% m.c.) 13 350
Peat – briquettes (15% m.c.) 17 750
2. Electrical Tariffs
312
Some electricity suppliers provide different tariffs for the user.

A tariff is the cost per unit of electricity used.
A unit of electricity is a Kilowatt hour or 1 Kilowatt for one hour.
One typical tariff is for weekend use; another is for night-time use.
This is because electricity-generating plant can’t really be switched off at night-time or
periods of very low demand, so companies try to sell ‘unwanted’ electricity as best they
can.
Some tariffs in use are:
1. Domestic Tariff
2. Small Business Tariff
3. Industrial Tariff
4. Off-peak tariff
5. Seasonal Tariff
6. Weekend Tariff (Commercial)
Some tariffs have limitations e.g. Domestic Tariff (estimated maximum demand not
exceeding 70kVA).
The off-peak tariff can be also known as Economy 7 tariff because it is available for seven
hours at night-time.
In some cases, if a boost during the day is required this may be charged to the user at a
higher rate.
Other charges can be made by electricity suppliers such as standing charges; these have
not been included in any cost analysis.
Some suppliers also divide up the cost to the user on a volume basis e.g. for the first 250
units the cost is 10 pence per unit and for additional units the cost is 9 pence per unit.
3. Efficiency
The efficiency of boilers, stoves, fires and furnaces may be a subject of debate.
Modern oil and gas boilers have efficiencies above 80%.
That is 80% of the energy in the fuel is used to heat water or air.
Coal fired plant generally has a lower efficiency.
Modern wood pellet and chip boilers have efficiencies as high as 80-90%.
An open fire has a very low efficiency but let’s assume that solid fuel is burnt in some
kind of boiler with an efficiency of 70%.
Condensing boilers have an efficiency usually above 90%.
Electricity can be taken as 100% efficient but storage heaters are normally oversized to
allow for the difference between the rate of electrical energy input and the slower rate
of heat release from the storage material.
313
Also storage heaters are not as 'controllable' as other forms of heating since the storage
blocks heat up at night whether or not their full capacity is used the next day.
It may be necessary in cold weather to have a top-up of electricity during the latter part
of the day at a higher cost than the low tariff or Economy 7 rate.
This means that in practice the low tariff or Economy 7 heating process can have a much
lower efficiency than 100% and the actual figure will vary for each project.
For this costing exercise we will assume 100% efficiency but a more detailed study
should be made for greater accuracy.
The efficiency of plant may deteriorate over time; therefore in the Comparison of Fuel
Costs section rather conservative figures have been used.
4. Availability and Security of Supply

Sometimes there can be problems with the supply of fuels.
Oil supply is dependent on variable world prices on the ‘spot’ market and a war or unrest
can upset this price.
Union strikes can also lead to supply problems.
Sometimes to be safe, a dual fuel burner can be used to burn oil or gas, and so the
cheaper or available fuel can be used.
Also large boilers can have two different sets of burners e.g. to burn oil or pulverised
coal.
The supply of coal in a country can also be unsecure and suffers some of the same
problems as oil e.g. union strikes, closure of inefficient coalmines.
Bad weather, union strikes, and lack of primary fuel or faults can interrupt electricity
supply in the system.
Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG) is a by-product of the oil refining industry and the price is
linked to the world crude price.
The production of LPG is also to some extent dependent on security of oil supply
although local storage is a benefit.
The amount of primary fuel left on the planet is a debating point.

Several decades ago it was thought that the world reserves of oil might run out in our
lifetime but new finds have been discovered and new ways to extract oil have been used,
sometimes in the most difficult circumstances.
Although we shouldn’t be complacent, there seems to be enough primary fuel to give us
time to find and develop new ways to produce energy for heating and other uses.
Wood pellets and wood chips are a relatively new source of heat in the UK but not in
some other European countries.
314
The industry that supplies wood products is growing rapidly but not mature enough to
supply to a high proportion of users.
It defeats the sustainability of wood products if they are transported over long distances.
The wood supply industry has some catching up to do to meet an ever growing demand
for pellets and wood chips.
5. Storage
One of the benefits of using piped natural gas and electricity is that a storage facility is
not required.
Oil, coal, LPG and wood pellets/chips require appropriate storage installations.
In the case of oil a tank or tanks is the usual way to store the fuel.
Tanks can be made in plastic (polyethylene) or steel for larger installations.
Ultraviolet protected Polyethylene will not rust and does not require to be painted.
Oil tanks for larger installations may be installed underground to free up space.
It is a good idea to protect oil tanks from vandalism with a fence or wall.
Coal bunkers vary from small concrete, plastic types to large constructions.
If large quantities of coal are stored in a confined space (e.g. a ship’s hold) it is possible,
given the right conditions, that self-combustion can occur if heat builds up.
Storage rooms and bunkers are required for wood pellets and chips.
Smaller boilers may have a hopper beside the boiler but an area is required for long term
storage of wood products.
Space is also required for augers to transport pellets and chips to the boilers.
Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG) installations vary from a cylinder to several tanks.
LPG can be stored at around 7 bar pressure in the liquid form with pressure reducing
stations at the tank and as the supply enters the building.
The pressure is further reduced at the gas appliance.
Gas tanks are steel welded and usually installed above ground.
LPG is heavier than air so there should be no drain in the vicinity of the gas tanks.
LPG tanks are normally placed in a remote area or as far away from buildings as possible;
there are regulations for plant location and safety distances for LPG tanks and cylinders.
6. Payment
In some circumstances it is important that an easy payment system in available for a
building occupier.
If an office building has a central heating system and is divided up and let to several
clients, it is quite difficult to charge the occupier for the amount of fuel used.
315
In this type of building it may be appropriate to use natural gas or electricity to heat the
building in a de-centralised system so that occupiers can be charged directly by the gas
or electricity supplier.
It is worth noting that some suppliers of fuel and energy give discount for prompt
payment.
There is an obvious benefit for large users of fuel and electricity to negotiate a fixed
price over a given time period.
7. Handling
Of all the fuels, coal (in its many forms) is the most difficult to handle.
To get coal from the bunker into the boiler presents some problems.
Mechanical conveyors are used in large plant and automatic feed systems have been
developed to supply coal in the right quantity to a boiler.
One system uses pulverised coal, which is easier to transport since it moves more like a
fluid than a solid.
Also pulverised coal burns more efficiently since more air is in contact with the smaller
particles of fuel.
Two of the difficulties in conveying coal are dampness causing the fuel to become
clogged in the system and coal dust causing electric motors to fail and bearings to wear
prematurely.
Oil can be conveyed over vertical and horizontal distances with pumps.
The heavier oils need to be preheated in the tank to make them fluid enough to move in
the pipeline.
Trace heated pipes are also a feature when using heavy oil and the burner also needs to
be heated in some cases.
Class E,F and G oils need to be heated to at least 10oC, 30oC and 45oC respectively to
enable them to move in pipework.
Gas moves from the storage tank or gas main under its own pressure, so of all the fuels it
ranks with electricity as easier to handle.
If a vapourising gas supply pipe is too small and a high pressure drop is experienced with
a high volume flow rate then it can be possible to cause freezing of the pipeline but this
is unusual in the building services field of engineering.
Wood Pellets are relatively easily handled with electrically driven augers.
8. Safety
316
It is difficult to say which of the energy sources has the best or the worst safety record.
There are potential difficulties with any of the fuels; oil, coal, natural gas, wood
pellets/chips and LPG all have a fire risk, although if a gas leak does occur, the results
can be devastating.
There are various safeguards, which must be designed into a fuel storage system.
The following are some of the safeguards we use:
o Vent on oil tank.

o Overfill alarm on large oil tank.
o Careful siting of plant and pipework.
o Fire wall in fuel storage area. Protect oil tanks in hot countries.
o Fire wall between wood storage facility and pellet/chip boilers.
o Pellet /chip augers that prevent fire and smoke spread into storage
areas.
o Level alarms on oil daily service tank.
o Automatic or Fire Authority foam system in basement oil tank rooms.
o Inert gas (e.g. Halon) burner protection system.
o Fire authority approval of storage site.
o In the event of a fire, adequate fire-fighting systems available near fuel
storage.
o Heat/smoke detector at burner or fusible link at burner.
o Electrical continuity and earthing of LPG tanks.
o Safety valves on oil/gas supply. Visible safety shut-off valves.
o Flame failure device and other safety devices incorporated into oil / gas
burner.
o Burner purging system to remove un-burnt fuel.
o Pressure relief valve on LPG tank.
o Manholes on large LPG tanks for inspection.
o Shut-off valve and emergency shut-off valves on LPG tanks.
o LPG tanks should be protected from corrosion.
o Appropriate marking and information on LPG tanks
o Pressure and vacuum relief valves on LPG tanks.
o Gas pressure regulator at appliances.
o Electrical earthing systems for steel tanks, pipes, etc.
o Gas leak detection system.
o Appropriate signage and warning signs.
o Appropriate pipework and pipework jointing system. Tests on systems.
o Electrical supply protection devices.
o Adequate air supply to burner.
317
o Plant room safety – alarm, emergency shut-off, fire extinguisher systems.
Incomplete combustion can lead to production of carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide.
Burners should be well maintained and have adequate air supply.
Solid fuel appliances in homes should be supplied with air for combustion and an
appropriate chimney system.
Rooms, in which there is a device for burning fuel, should be well ventilated.
Carbon monoxide gas, if produced, does not have a smell and is lethal.
Most countries have regulations for room heaters, fires and stoves and the engineer
should be aware of all the design issues.
9. Environmental Issues
When fuel is burnt there are some by-products.
Some of the gaseous by-products are carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide,
the Nox gases and water vapour.
Some of the liquid by-products, which can occur, are dilute sulphuric acid and
condensation.
The solid by-products from coal burning are ash, clinker and soot.
To minimise these products from boilers the engineer can choose low sulphur fuels or
some of the ‘cleaner’ fuels such as natural gas.
Natural gas is 95% methane and contains no sulphur. It burns cleanly and is relatively
easy to combust.
It is quite difficult to burn coal, even good quality coal, as ‘cleanly’ as the other fuels.
Pulverised coal burning in a fluidised bed is an attempt to reduce the emissions and
make the combustion process more efficient.
In some urban areas normal coal burning is prohibited in domestic appliances and
‘smokeless’ coal has to be used.
A hybrid system, which uses alternative or sustainable energy sources as well as fossil
fuels, is a step ahead in terms of reduced environmental impact.
Using high efficiency boilers e.g. condensing boilers reduces the amount of fuel used and
therefore the amount of harmful emissions.
Ash produced from wood pellet and chip boilers is minimal and can be used to improve
soil quality.
10. Other Uses

If natural gas or LPG is used for heating, it may also be used for cooking and
refrigeration/air conditioning.
318
Some householders prefer to cook with gas and it is the popular fuel for commercial
kitchens.
The savings in running costs are quite substantial even for domestic use as demonstrated
in the section – Comparison of Fuel Costs.
The heat absorption refrigeration cycle uses gas as a heat source instead of a
compressor driven mechanical refrigeration process.
It should be pointed out, however, that the heat absorption cycle is not as efficient as
the more commonly used mechanical refrigeration system.
Natural gas can also be used to drive internal combustion engines for a Combined Heat
& Power scheme where electricity is generated and rejected heat is utilised to heat a
building. Diesel fuel can be used in a similar manner or in larger scale CHP schemes a gas
driven turbine may be the prime mover.
11. Running Costs

The running costs of a heating system depend on various factors.
The following is a list of some of these factors:
 Purchased price of fuel. May be negotiated.
 Efficiency of process. Usually in the range 70% to 100%.
 Maintenance cost. Totally automatic systems require less looking after.
 Coal-fired systems require more maintenance.
 Domestic systems may be inspected once a year.
 Disposing of by-products. Ash, clinker from solid fuel plant.
 Flue gas clean up. Large-scale systems using coal or heavy oil may need flue gas
scrubbing plant.
 Heavy oil plant trace heating and tank heating costs. If electric heating is used this
may be a substantial cost.
Summary
In summary, a fuel with; low purchase price, high efficiency and low maintenance would
be ideal for heating systems.
This usually narrows the choice to; Kerosene (28 sec), Gas Oil (35 Sec), Natural gas,
Wood Chips/pellets or LPG for most installations in most countries.
If the off-peak electricity tariff is low enough and the overall daily efficiency is above 80%
then one could add off-peak electricity to the above choice.
319
Comparison of Domestic Fuel Costs
There are several ways to compare fuel costs for heating systems.
A similar calculation can be done for air conditioning systems.
One method is to compare on a price per kilowatt-hour basis; another is on a price per
Mega joule of available heat from the fuel basis.
A Mega joule (MJ) is a unit of energy.
The comparison below uses price per kilowatt-hour (In the U.K. this is pence/kWh).
We will take into consideration the differing Calorific Values of fuels and different
efficiencies of boilers and combustion processes.
We will look at seven sources of energy available in most countries, which are:
1. Oil
2. Coal
3. Natural Gas
4. Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG)
5. Electricity Ordinary rate
6. Electricity Low Tariff rate
7. Wood Pellets
The table below shows the current fuel prices in Northern Ireland.
The prices are for Domestic use with no discounts.
For high volume commercial/industrial use, prices may vary considerably.
You could compare prices in your own area.

320
Current Fuel Prices
DATE : 31st October 2011
Price including
Fuel or Heat Source Type Net Price Additions
5% VAT
Kerosene 28
Oil secs.
£0.58 per litre
£15.00 per 50kg
Coal Anthracite
bag
Methane
6.095 p/kWh 6.40 p/kWh
Natural Gas - First 2000 kWh Direct debit discount is £22.05 (inc. VAT) for
Domestic Tariff Methane consumption above 2000 kWh per year.
4.065p/kWh 4.259 p/kWh
After 2000 kWh
Methane
6.095 p/kWh
First 2000 kWh
Methane
From 2000 kWh
Natural Gas – to 73,200 kWh 4.065p/kWh
consumption per
Industrial and year.
Commercial Tariffs Methane
More than
73,200 kWh 3.75 p/kWh
consumption per
year.
LPG -Stored Gas. Propane 57.6 p/l
321
Ordinary
Electricity Domestic rate – http://www.nihe.gov.uk/latest_tariffs
15.31 p/kWh
Home Energy
Tariff
Economy 7 rate
Electricity (1am to 8am)
7.50 p/kWh Standing charge 11.96 pence per day.
Small Business
Electricity Popular Tariff
Wood by-
Wood Pellets product, Bulk £200 / tonne
delivery
322
Let us look at each fuel and fuel price in some more detail.
1.0 Heating Oil

In commercial and industrial buildings 35second oil is used, that is, oil with a viscosity of 35sec Redwood No.1.
In domestic premises 28second oil is used, this is sometimes known as Kerosene.
Usually 35second oil is about 0.5 pence per litre cheaper than 28second oil but the saving is out-weighed by the slightly lower calorific
value.
Price Comparison
28 sec. Price 58 p/litre

GCV = 45.5 MJ/kg and Relative Density = 0.835 kg/m3
Therefore GCV per litre = (45.5 X 0.835 X 1000) \ (1000) = 38 MJ/l.

since ( p/l) / (MJ/ I) = p/MJ
so 58 / 38 = 1.53 p/MJ
If an oil-fired boiler is 85% efficient then the price per MJ can be weighted for the efficiency of the process.
323
Therefore cost is: 1.53 p/MJ / 0.85 = 1.80 p/MJ.
1 kWh = 1 kJ/s . h = 1 kJ/s.3600 s = 3600 kJ = 3.6 MJ.
Therefore 1 MJ = 1 / 3.6 kWh = 0.278 kWh
The actual cost per kWh is therefore: 1.80 / 0.278 = 6.46 p / kWh.
2.0 Coal
The fuel chosen for comparison is Anthracite.
Anthracite is suitable for combustion in several types of fire or stove (furnace) and burns well with little clinker and ash.
Also Anthracite has a fairly good calorific value of 32 MJ/kg.
You may have figures for other types of solid fuel to compare costs.
Price Comparison
Anthracite costs: £15.00 per 50kg bag = 30 p / kg
GCV Anthracite = 32 MJ/kg.

324
since ( p/kg) / (MJ/ kg) = p/MJ
so 30 / 32 = 0.938 p/MJ
If a coal-fired boiler is 70% efficient then the price per MJ can be weighted for the efficiency of the process.
Therefore cost is: 0.938 p/MJ / 0.7 = 1.34 p/MJ.
1 MJ = 1 / 3.6 kWh = 0.278 kWh
3.0 Natural Gas

Price Calculation
The price in pence per kWh is calculated as follows:
Price: 6.40 p/kWh for the first 2000 kWh, and 4.259 p/kWh after the first 2000 kWh in Northern Ireland. (the GCV of natural gas is 38.2
MJ/m3)
325
To allow for the natural gas lower tariff after the first 2000 kWh we need to estimate annual energy usage.
The average annual heating energy bill for a household is £780 (2004)
Divide this by the 2004 cost per kWh of gas @ 4.38 p/kWh.
78,000 p / 4.38 p/kWh = 17,808 kWh annual energy usage.
The average natural gas price is as follows;
6.40 p/kWh x 2000 kWh = 12,800 p
4.259 p/kWh x (17,808 – 2000 = 15,808 kWh) = 67,326 p
80,126 p
Divide by total annual energy consumption; 80,126 / 17,808 = 4.50 p/kWh (average)
If a gas-fired boiler is 90% efficient then the price per kWh can be weighted for the efficiency of the process.
Therefore actual cost is: 4.50 / 0.90 = 5.00 p/kWh

326
4.0 Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG) Propane

Price Calculation
Price 57.6 p/litre.
This is a price per litre as supplied bulk delivery and pressurised to about 6 bar.
The GCV of gas is 25.5 MJ/litre of liquid gas under pressure.
so 57.6 / 25.5 = 2.26 p/MJ
If an gas-fired boiler is 85% efficient then the price per MJ can be weighted for the efficiency of the process.
Therefore cost is: 2.26 p/MJ / 0.85 = 2.51 p/MJ
1 MJ = 1 / 3.6 kWh = 0.278 kWh
327
5.0 Ordinary Rate Electricity

Price Calculation
1 unit =1 kWh
Cost per unit = 15.31 p = 15.31 p/kWh
Take electricity at 100% efficient for heating.
The actual cost per kWh is therefore: 15.31 p / kWh.
6.0 Economy 7 or Low Tariff Electricity

Price Calculation
Cost per unit = 7.50p = 7.50 p/kWh
Electricity can be taken as 100% efficient but storage heaters are normally oversized to allow for the difference between the rate of
electrical energy input and the slower rate of heat release from the storage material.
328
Also storage heaters are not as 'controllable' as other forms of heating since the storage blocks heat up at night whether or not their
full capacity is used the next day. It may be necessary in cold weather to have a top-up of electricity during the latter part of the day at
a higher cost than the E7 rate.
This means that in practice the Economy 7 heating process can have a much lower efficiency than 100% and the actual figure will vary
for each project. For this costing exercise we will assume 100% efficiency but a more detailed study should be made for greater
accuracy.
Add standing charge of 11.96p per day = £43.65 per year.
Average annual energy consumption = 17,808 kWh
Standing charge = 4365 p /17,808 = 0.245 p/kWh
Add standing charge = 7.50 + 0.245 = 7.745 p/kWh
Cost per unit; 7.75 p/kWh
7.0 Wood Pellets

329
Wood pellets have a gross calorific value of 18 MJ/kg, source; http://www.biomassenergycentre.org.uk/
Price Comparison
Pellets cost: £130 to £250 per tonne
Say cost is £200 per tonne bulk delivered in Northern Ireland
£200 / tonne = 20 p / kg source
GCV pellets = 18 MJ/kg.
since ( p/kg) / (MJ/ kg) = p/MJ
so 20 / 18 = 1.111 p/MJ
If a pellet-fired boiler is 80% efficient then the price per MJ can be weighted for the efficiency of the process.
Therefore cost is: 1.111 p/MJ / 0.85 = 1.307p/MJ.
1 MJ = 1 / 3.6 kWh = 0.278 kWh
The actual cost per kWh is therefore: 1.307 / 0.278 = 4.70 p / kWh = 4.70 p / kWh.
330
Table of Fuel Costs (p/kWh)
2012
Fuel 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
p/kWh
Oil 3.97 4.40 5.44 5.44 6.40 7.02 6.46
Coal 4.44 4.44 4.82 4.82 4.82 4.82 4.82
Natural Gas 5.06 4.32 6.59 4.16 4.90 5.46 5.00
Stored Gas (L.P.G.) 5.24 5.24 8.30 8.30 8.70 9.03 9.03
Electricity Ord. Rate 11.57 11.22 15.81 15.03 15.80 17.10 15.31
Electricity E7 Rate 4.49 4.34 6.64 6.60 7.20 7.83 7.75
Wood Pellets 2.66 3.75 3.75 3.75 4.20 4.70 4.70

331
Bar Chart of Fuel Costs (Year 2009)
Elec.
Ord.
Rate
Stored
Gas
(LPG)
Elec.
E7
Oil
Natural
Gas
Coal Wood
Pellets
332
Summary
It would appear, at present, that Wood Pellets at approx. 4.70 p/kWh are the least expensive of the seven energy sources.
Coal is a little more expensive than pellets at 4.82 p/kWh, but there are difficulties in controlling and maintaining coal-fired systems.
Natural gas price is 5.00 p/kWh.
Oil, Stored Gas and Economy 7 are more expensive and are above 5.00 p/kWh.
If the security of supply and installation cost of Wood Pellets systems is a problem then Oil or Natural Gas would be the next fuels to
choose if available.
If natural gas is used for cooking; this costs much less than if electricity is used for ovens and may be advantageous for natural gas
running costs.
333
Alternative Energy for Buildings

Introduction
There are several ways to use alternative energy or renewable energy sources in buildings.
The ultimate alternative energy is electricity because it is a high grade energy source and can be easily transported and if necessary
converted back to heat.
However, it is not always feasible to produce electricity and some energy sources convert energy to heat only.
The table below gives a summary of alternative energy and renewable energies.
Technology Brief Description Comments

Plant material is used to produce gas or heat.
Typical Biomass fuels are;
Biomass Wood chips, wood pellets, wood logs, bioethanol from sugar beets and grains, biodiesel Requires no external energy source.
from rapeseed and sunflower seeds, biogas (methane) from a large range of waste
products such as animal wastes.
Combined Heat & Generates both heat and electricity from a gas or diesel engine. Requires an external fuel source to
Power (CHP) Larger systems use gas or steam turbines. drive the engine.
Fuel Cell Electrochemical device that produces electricity and heat. Requires no external fuel source.
Ground Source Heat from the ground is used to heat air. Requires no external energy source
-air This heated air can be used to preheat fresh air intake into a building. other than pumps.
Ground Source - Requires no external energy source
Underground water sources are used to provide cool water for cooling a building.
water other than pumps.
Ground Source - Ground heat is used and upgraded in a refrigeration cycle (heat pump) to provide Requires an external energy source to
central heating. drive the compressor in the heat
Heat pump
334
pump and the water pumps.

Photovoltaics Sunlight is converted to DC electrical supply and is then inverted to AC. Requires no external energy source.
Requires no external energy source
Solar air heating Air is warmed by the sun and this is then used to heat a building.
other than fans.
Requires no external energy source
Solar cooling Heat from the sun is used in an Absorption refrigeration cycle to provide cool air.
other than fans.
Solar Water Heat from the sun is used to heat water usually in a hot water cylinder for domestic hot Requires no external energy source
heating water supply. other than a pump.
A wind turbine is used to generate electricity.
Wind The electrical output can be connected to the building and connected to the grid or Requires no external energy source.
used to charge batteries.
See BSRIA Guide – A Illustrated guide to Renewable Technologies (2008) BG 1/2008.
The alternative energy sources discussed below include:

1. Heat pumps
2. Solar systems
3. Water turbines
4. Combined heat & power
5. Biomass
6. Wind generators
7. Geothermal energy
8. Fuel cell
9. Tidal energy systems and Wave power systems
335
One or several of the systems may be incorporated into a building to produce heat, electrical energy or mechanical energy for a
process.
A heat pump works by converting energy from a low-grade source such as sub-soil to a higher-grade heat that would be suitable to
warm up a building.
Heat pumps move warmth from one place to another, transferring heat from the soil to the house in winter and from the dwelling
into the ground in summer if it can be reversed for cooling.
The refrigeration cycle is utilised so that the heat rejected at the condenser is used to heat a building as shown below.
Heat rejection or heat to

rooms via heat emitters
CONDENSER Pipework
Expansion Valve
EVAPORATOR Drive unit e.g.

Compressor electric motor
Heat input from source such

as pipes laid in subsoil.
VAPOUR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION CYCLE
336
Solar panels attract heat from the sun and transfer this to water or if photovoltaic cells are used then transfer the energy directly to
electricity.
Another type of solar system is a passive system and this has a high mass, high thermal capacitance wall that heats up when the sun
shines on it and passes that heat in a controlled fashion into the heated spaces.
Solar Collector
mounted on roof Solar Radiation
Control damper
Warm air
Radiation ROOM
from sun Glazed
High mass, high
area thermal
capacitance wall
Pipes to heat
PASSIVE SOLAR HEATING
emitter
SOLAR PANEL
337
Water turbines can be used to generate electricity or drive a machine.
The site for a hydro scheme should be carefully selected to ensure that an adequate flow of water is obtainable throughout the
year.
338
The type of turbine can be selected after the site has been evaluated.
In some buildings it is economical to produce electricity using a generator by installing a Combined Heat & Power scheme.
This is where an electricity generator is used to meet all the electric demand of a building and the heat that is produced as a by-
product is utilised to heat all or part of the building.
An example is shown below where a diesel driven generator set produces 850 kW of electricity and heat is also produced at the
water cooling system and even in a flue heat recovery heat exchanger.
Flue gas
Heat
recovery
Water flow to
heating system heating system
From engine
339 cooling system
Electrical
Output
Diesel 850kW
Engine Alternator
1 MW
Fuel input
COMBINED HEAT & POWER PLANT
Biomass can be used where a source of decomposable matter is available.

Willow trees, sugar cane, wood, rice or soybean can be grown, harvested and used and converted into energy.
The technologies include a variety of thermal and thermo chemical processes for converting biomass by combustion, gasification, and
liquefaction, and the microbial conversion of biomass to obtain gaseous and liquid fuels by fermentative methods.
340
An example of microbial conversion is the anaerobic digestion of willow plants to yield a relatively high-methane-content fuel gas
(biogas) which can then be used to drive a gas engine coupled to a generator to produce electricity.
Wind generators can be a method of converting ‘free’ energy to useful electricity.
If a suitable windy site is available then a wind turbine can be installed to provide some or all of electric demand of the building.
Controls are required to adjust the rotor into the wind, feather the blades in a storm and regulate the electricity produced so that
it can be used in buildings.
This may involve rectifying the voltage and smoothing the frequency of the electricity produced.
341
Geothermal energy is to be found underground in some parts of some countries.
Geothermal heat is a renewable energy source primarily produced when ground water descending from the Earth's surface meets
molten magma rising toward it.
Some of this geothermal water circulates back up through faults and cracks and reaches the Earth's surface as hot springs or
geysers, but most of it stays deep underground, trapped in cracks and porous rock
A bore hole can be sunk to reach hot rocks where water can be heated and pumped to the surface where it is used to heat building
through heat exchangers or if steam is produced then a power station can be used to generate electricity.
In some cases heat pumps can be used. The geothermal heat pump is one of the most efficient and non-polluting home heating /
cooling systems available.
Other sources of energy are being developed such as fuel cells.
The hydrogen fuel cell has been researched for some years since hydrogen is abundant and clean burning.
One way of obtaining hydrogen is by cracking a water molecule into the components hydrogen and oxygen.
The hydrogen is then fed into a fuel cell, a battery-like device that generates DC current.
It supplies electricity by combining hydrogen and oxygen electrochemically without combustion.
Unlike a battery, however, a fuel cell does not run down or require lengthy recharging.
It will produce electricity and heat as long as hydrogen and oxygen are supplied.
342
The oxygen comes from ambient air, but the hydrogen comes from a system called a reformer, which produces the gas by breaking
down a fossil fuel.
Reformers do release pollutants as they break down the hydrocarbons to release hydrogen.
Fuel cells are basically electrochemical engines that produce electricity by harnessing the reaction of hydrogen and oxygen.
The only byproducts of the cell itself are clean water and useful heat.
Tidal energy works on the same principal as the water wheel.
The difference in water elevation is caused by the fluctuation between low and high tides.
A dam is built across an estuary to block the incoming or outgoing tide.
When the water level on one side of the dam is higher than the level on the other side due to a tidal change, the pressure of the higher
water increases.
The water is then channelled through a turbine in the dam, which produces electricity by turning an electric generator.
Wave power could be harnessed to produce electricity.

One system being studied is one in which the energy from a wave is converted to compressed air and the air compressor drives an
electrical generator.
The machine is positioned at sea and anchored to the sea bed.
One drawback is the hazardous environment in which the machinery has to operate.
343
Combined Heat & Power
Introduction
It is feasible in some buildings to provide heat and electricity from plant rooms to meet demands as they occur.
A Combined heat and power facility will produce heat for central heating as well as electrical power.
There are several ways to achieve this and the following are prime movers used in CHP; diesel and gas engines, gas turbine coupled or
steam turbine each coupled to an alternator.
The following table gives information about the prime movers.
Heat to power
Prime Mover Notes
ratio
Used for similar heat and power
Diesel and gas engines 1.5 : 1 building energy demands.
Noisy.
The ratio can be increased by adding
Gas turbine 3:1 supplementary boilers or waste heat
recouperators.
Used for installations with high heat
Steam turbine 10 : 1 demand
344
The first task of the engineer is to match the equipment with the building heat and power demands.
Diesel & Gas Engines
With modern diesel and gas engines in which both the cooling water and the exhaust gases are at high temperatures, it becomes possible
to use waste heat produced as steam or hot water, or both. When compared with the other prime movers, diesel engines have excellent
thermal efficiencies. Up to 39% of the calorific value of the fuel can be converted to shaft power. There are three sources from which
heat can be recovered, when operating diesel and gas engines. They are:
1. Exhaust gases
2. Jacket water heat extraction
3. Lubricating oil cooler. Hot water to
heating system.
(via storage
vessel)
Flue gas
Heat recovery Hot Water flow

unit
Electric
al
Energy
Diesel Alternator Output
Fuel input Engine
Hot Water flow

heat recovery
Hot Water flow
unit
345
Oil Cooler
heat recovery
unit or heat
exchanger
Small Scale Economics
Small Scale Economics
If a small scale diesel engine was used to drive a generator and produce electricity for a small building, how much would it cost to run
the plant and would it be cheaper than buying electricity from NIE at about 10.5 p/kWh?
35 sec. Gas oil Price 39 p/litre
GCV = Gross Calorific Value or heat in the fuel which can be liberated by combustion.
GCV = 46 MJ/kg and Relative Density = 0.835
Actual density = 0.835 x 1000 = 835 kg/m3
Therefore GCV per litre = (45.5 x 835 ) \ (1000) = 38 MJ/I.
so 39 / 38 = 1.026 p/MJ
A diesel engine has a thermal efficiency of 39% at best.

An alternator has an efficiency of about 80%.
If a value of 35% is taken for the diesel engine efficiency and 80% for the alternator then the overall efficiency is 0.35 x 0.8 = 0.28.
(28%)
The price per MJ can be weighted for the efficiency of the process.
Therefore actual cost is: 1.026 p/MJ / 0.28 = 3.66 p/MJ.
To covert to pence per kilowatt hour (p/kWh) divide by 0.2777. (1/3.6)

346
3.66 / 0.2777 = 13. 18 p/ kWh
say 13.2 p/ kWh
This is more expensive than buying electricity from the grid at 10.5 p/kWh but we have the advantage of recoverable heat from the flue
gases and lubricating oil.
The above calculation does not consider the part load efficiency of running plant at less than peak load. The purpose of the exercise is to
evoke discussion on economics of small scale production of electricity.
If the gas oil price is 31 p/litre then the cost to run a CHP plant is 10.5 p/kWh.
It would be cheaper to run the CHP plant on natural gas if it was available.
Natural gas costs about 3.20 p/kWh (corrected for domestic consumer using average amount per year – see Energy Sources – Fuel Costs
section)
Using the efficiency as above;
Therefore actual cost is: 3.20 p/kWh / 0.28 = 11.43 p/kWh.
The above figure is closer to the grid price for electricity at 10.5 p/kWh.
347
Example 1
On commissioning a CHP scheme it was found that the oil flow rate for a 400 kW diesel engine was 12.5 x 10-3 kg/s.
The electrical power output was 150 kW and the heat output was measured as water flow rate and temperature.
DATA
Fuel GCV = 46 MJ/kg
Hot water temperature = 80oC flow & 70oC return.
Water flow rate = 2 kg/s
(a) Calculate the heat to power ratio

(b) Calculate the overall efficiency – fuel in to power out.
(c) Calculate the percentage of heat recovered over possible recoverable heat.
Exhaust gas
Hot water Exhaust gas heat

exchanger
Electrical Power
Output
Cooling water heat

exchanger
Diesel Alternator
Oil flow IN Engine
348
349
Example 1 - Answer:
Exhaust gas
Hot water Exhaust gas

heat exchanger
Electrical Power
Output 150kW
Cooling water
heat exchanger
Diesel Engine Alternator

Oil flow IN rated 400kW
350
(a) The electrical power output from the alternator is 150 kW.
The heat output can be calculated from:

H = m x Cp x T
where: H = Heat output (kW)
m = Water mass flow rate (kg/s)
Cp = Specific heat capacity of water , 4.2 kJ/kgdegC
T = Temperature difference (degC)

351
H = 2.0 x 4.2 x (80 - 70)
H = 84 kW
Therefore the heat to power ratio is:
Heat Power
85 kW : 150 kW
1 : 1.77
(b) The overall efficiency from fuel input to electrical power output can be calculated from:
Power output (kW)

x 100%
Efficiency=
Energy in fuel (kW)
Toto Energy in fuel input (kW) = m x GCV

352
where: GCV = Gross Calorific Value of the fuel (kJ/kg)
m = fuel mass flow rate (kg/s)
Therefore: GCV = 46 x 1000 = 46,000 kJ/kg
Mass flow fuel = 12.5 x 10-3 kg/s
Energy in fuel input (kW) = 12.5 x 10-3 kg/s x 46,000
= 575 kW
Therefore:
150 (kW)
Efficiency = x
575 (kW) 100%
Efficiency = 26%
(c) Calculate the percentage heat recovered over the possible maximum theoretical heat recoverable.
Actual useful heat recovered (kW) x 100%

% Heat recovered =
Maximum theoretical heat recoverable (kW)
353
The maximum theoretical heat recoverable = Heat input in fuel - Engine rating.
= 575 kW - 400 kW
= 175 kW
84 kW
x 100%
% Heat recovered = 175 kW = 48%
Example 2
A CHP scheme comprised a 1 MW diesel engine.

The alternator power output is 850 kW.
The heat is recovered from cooling water.
DATA:
Heat recovery system water flow rate = 5.622 kg/s
Water temperatures = 80oC flow, 62oC return.
Diesel oil mass flow rate = 175.057 kg/h.
Diesel oil G.C.V. (Gross Calorific Value) = 46 MJ/kg
Exhaust gas temperature rise = 300 K

Exhaust gas specific heat capacity = 1.1 kJ/kgK
354
Exhaust gas flow rate (air to fuel ratio) = 14 : 1
Neglect heat in the combustion air into engine.
Complete the following:
(a) Calculate the heat to power ratio.
(b) Calculate the overall efficiency from fuel input to electrical power output.
(d) Draw an energy flow diagram of the processes.
Exhaust gas
Fuel input Output 850kW

Diesel
Engine Alternator
1 MW
Water flow
Heat recovery unit

CHP Schematic Diagram
355
356
Example 2 - Answer:
(a) The electrical power output from the alternator is 850 kW.
The heat output can be calculated from:

H = m x Cp x T
where: H = Heat output (kW)
m = Water mass flow rate (kg/s)
Cp = Specific heat capacity of water , 4.2 kJ/kgdegC
T = Temperature difference (degC)
H = 5.622 x 4.2 x (80 - 62)
H = 425 kW
Therefore the heat to power ratio is:
Heat Power
425 kW : 850 kW
1 : 2
357
(b) The overall efficiency from fuel input to electrical power output can be calculated from:
Power output (kW)

x 100%
Efficiency=
Energy in fuel (kW)
Energy in fuel input (kW) = m x GCV
where: GCV = Gross Calorific Value of the fuel (kJ/kg)
m = fuel mass flow rate (kg/s)
Therefore: GCV fuel = 46 x 1000 = 46,000 kJ/kg
Mass flow fuel = 175.057 / 3600 = 0.04863 kg/s
Energy in fuel input (kW) = 0.04863 x 46,000
= 2236.84 kW
Therefore:
850.00 (kW)
Efficiency= x 100%
2236.84 (kW)
358
Efficiency = 38%
DATA:
Exhaust gas temperature rise = 300 K

Exhaust gas specific heat capacity = 1.1 kJ/kgK
Exhaust gas flow rate (air to fuel ratio) = 14 : 1
Neglect heat in the combustion air into engine.
The percentage heat recovered over the possible maximum theoretical heat recoverable is found from the following:
Actual useful heat recovered (kW)

% Heat recovered = x 100%
Maximum theoretical heat recoverable (kW)
The maximum theoretical heat recoverable = Heat input in fuel - Engine rating.
= 2237 kW - 1000 kW
359
= 1237 kW
425 kW
x 100%
% Heat recovered = 1237 kW = 34.4%
(d) An energy flow diagram of the processes can be drawn if a breakdown of the energy flows is calculated.
Heat lost in exhaust gas = m x Cp x t

The exhaust gas mass flow rate = 14 parts air + 1 part fuel
The fuel flow rate = 0.04863 kg/s
Therefore the exhaust gas flow rate = 0.04863 x 15 parts

= 0.7294 kg/s
Heat lost in flue gas = 0.7294 x 1.1 x 300
= 240.7 kW say 241 kW.
Energy Flows
360
(given) Energy to electrical power = 850 kW
(1000 - 850) Alternator losses = 150 kW
______________
(given) Diesel Engine rating = 1000 kW
(calculated) Heat lost in exhaust gas = 241 kW
(812 - 241) Heat lost from engine = 571 kW
________________
(1237 - 425) Total Heat losses = 812 kW
(calculated) Heat recovered to water = 425 kW
________________
(2237 - 1000) Total heat flows = 1237 kW
(calculated) Energy input = 2237 kW
Energy Flow Diagram

361
The energy flow diagram helps to understand where the energy goes in the CHP plant.
1000 kW Electrical Power

Diesel 850 kW
Engine
Rating
Energy Input
Alternator losses
in Fuel
150 kW
2237 kW
Heat loss in flue gas
241 kW
812 kW
Heat
Losses Heat lost from engine
571 kW
Heat recovered to water

425 kW

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1

1. To provide a continuous supply of oxygen necessary for human existence.

cal Ventilation System

Incoming Incoming Outgoing Exhaust air Exhaust air

The photograph below shows a typical ventilation fan.

1. To supply fresh air for the occupants

Ventilation Rates in CIBSE guide

Table 3.1 CIBSE Guide B2 (2001) Summary of recommendations

(Extract from Table)

Catering (inc. commercial kitchens) 3.6 30 - 40 ACH

(1/30th in Scotland) or mechanical extract at 6 litres/s (3 ACH in

Activity Minimum ventilation requirement

The following table gives fresh air rates.

Outdoor air supply rate

Design Requirements : Assembly halls and auditoria

Parameter Design requirement

The following formulae may be used:

1. For General Mechanical Ventilation

Ventilation rate (m3/s) = Ventilation rate (m3/h) / 3600

2. For Calculating Fresh Air Ventilation Rates

1. Supply Ventilation System

2. Extract Ventilation System

Fresh Air In Supply Air Exhaust to

The photograph below shows a typical domestic extract hood.

The photograph below shows a typical commercial kitchen extract canopy.

3. Balanced Ventilation Systems

Natural Ventilation Systems

This is called the stack effect.

Air also moves unassisted by wind.

Natural ventilation systems in use

Low level vents are shown below

Warm extract air

Sensor to operate dampers Central Atrium

Fresh air intake with

Designing Natural Ventilation Systems

Stack Driven Ventilation Calculations

Ps = - ins . g . T ins (h2 – h1) (1/Tout - 1/Tins)

Ps = Stack Effect Pressure (Pa)

ins = Air density inside stack (kg/m3)

g = Acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2)

h1 = Height of inlet of stack above datum (m)

h2 = Height of outlet of stack above datum (m)

Tout = Temperature of air outside stack (oK)

Tins = Temperature of air inside stack (oK)

Q = Cd . A [ ( 2 / insins . g . (hnpl – h ) (Tins - Tout / Tins ) ]

Q = Air flow rate through a large opening (m3/s)

Cd = Discharge coefficient (0.61 for large openings)

A = Opening area (m2)

ins = Air density inside stack (kg/m3)

g = Acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2)

hnpl = Height of neutral pressure level above datum (m)

h = Height of opening above datum (m)

Tout = Temperature of air outside stack (oK)

Tins = Temperature of air inside stack (oK)

Neutral Pressure Level

This is where the outside pressure equals the internal pressure.

At this level there would be no flow of air in or out of the building.

The HEVACOMP software package and other programmes may be used.

Warm extract air

Naturally Ventilated with Stack

Each lecture room measures internally 24 m x 10 m x 4m high.

Q = 960 x 4 / 3600 = 1.07 m3/s

Rearranging above formula for Area (A) gives;