PALAEOGRAPHY,

EPIGRAPHY AND
CALLIGRAPHY

Submitted By: Arya A Varma

Register Number: 19KA03SG01
Class: Third Semester M.A Degree
Department: Sanskrit General
Course: Manuscriptology (PSGS10117)
 PALAEOGRAPHY

INTRODUCTION TO PALAEOGRAPHY

Epigraphy or the study of inscriptions has two-fold approach: The ability to

decipher the script and ability to interpret the language and contents of the
epigraph. Palaeography becomes relevant in this respect. It is a subset of
epigraphy, since it is directly connected with evolution and formation of letters.
The term 'Palaeography' is derived from the Greek word 'Palaios' and 'Graphein'
(meaning old and to write respectively). It is the study of ancient and
historical handwriting, that is, the forms and processes of writing. The discipline of
Palaeography consists of the practice of deciphering, reading, and dating historical
manuscripts writing and the cultural context of writing, including the methods with
which writing and books were produced.

India too exhibit considerable diversity in scripts. Apart from decipherment and
interpretation of an inscription, epigraphist is required to understand the subtle
nuances connected with the development of various early scripts right from Brahmi
and its derivatives.

Writing may be thought of a set of commonly accepted graphic signs used to

represent communication, historical writing a set of signs which represents a
spoken language. Thus, a writing system is a set of visible or tactile signs used to
represent units of language in a systematic way. True writing is the content of a
linguistic utterance encoded so that the other reader can reconstruct, with a fair
degree of accuracy, the exact nature of written down, is later development.
The history of writing instruments by which humans have recorded and conveyed
thoughts, feelings and grocery lists is, in some ways, the history of civilization
itself. Writing is thus regarded as the mark of civilization.
PREHISTORIC WRITING

Scholars make a reasonable distinction between prehistory and history of early

writing. The concept of writing in essence, is the transference of thought or
language into a re-readable form. Language existed long before writing, emerging
probably simultaneously with sapience, abstract thought and the Genus Homo. The
earliest forms of this art have been long considered to be represented by
Pictograms, simple images which enabled the transfer of information through
pictures. Before letters were invented, the easy way to communicate thoughts in
writing was to use symbols and pictures that usually represented the things they
were about. The transfer of more complex information, ideas and concepts from
one individual to another, or to a group, was the single most advantageous
evolutionary adaptation for species preservation.
It is thought that human beings developed language approximately 35,000 BC as
evidenced by cave paintings from the period of the Cro-Magnon Man
(approximately 50,000-30,000 BC) which appear to express concepts concerning
daily life. These images suggest a language because, in some instances, they seem
to tell a story (say, of a hunting expedition in which specific events occurred)
rather than being simply pictures of animals and people.
The advent of a writing system, however, seems to coincide with the transition
from hunter-gatherer societies to more permanent agrarian encampments when it
became necessary to count ones property, whether it be parcels of land, animals or
measures of grain or to transfer that property to another individual or another
settlement.
Overtime, the need for writing changed and a development sign into script is what
we call ‘Cuneiform’ in Mesopotamia. . It has been widely accepted that writing
evolved in the Middle East. Mesopotamian scribes recorded daily events, trade,
astronomy and literature on clay tablets. The standard, widely repeated story is that
clay tokens were used in Mesopotamia around 8,000 to 7,500 BC onward to record
quantities of agricultural commodities being traded; and, this is certainly true.
There have been many explanations concerning the origins of writing, from
mythological to scientific. Often writing is so revered that myths and deities were
drawn up to explain its divine origin.
In ancient Egypt, the invention of writing is attributed to the god Thoth (Dhwty in
Egyptian), who was not only the scribe and historian of the gods but also kept the
calendar and invented art and science. In Mesopotamia, among the Sumerians the
god Enlil was the creator of writing. Later during Assyrian, and Babylonian
periods, the god Nabu was credited as the inventor of writing and scribe of the
gods. Among the Maya, the supreme deity Itzamna was a shaman and sorcerer as
well as the creator of the world. In China, the invention of writing was not
attributed to a deity but instead to a ancient sage named Ts'ang Chieh, who was a
minister in the court of the legendary Huang Ti (Yellow Emperor). The Indian
tradition believed that the script of Brahmi was given to mankind by the God
Brahma.

GENERAL CONCEPT OF EVOLUTION OF WRITING IN WORLD

The invention of writing was not a one time-event, but a gradual process initiated
by the appearance of symbols. The early writing system begins with small images
used as words, literarily depicting the question. Man used all sorts of methods and
devices for transmission of thought, image symbols, artillery symbols etc. This
crude system of conveying ideas are found everywhere around 40,000 BC or
earlier. The pictures began as representing what they were, pictographs, and
eventually, certain pictures represented an idea or concept, ideographs, and finally
to represent sounds.

There are several ways which the early writing evolves beyond the pictorial stages.
Scholars have noticed a few broad phases in the development of writing since it
first emerged around the close of the fourth millennium B.C. in Western Asia and
Northern Africa. In the earliest of the phases, man expressed his ideas by drawing
picture, and in this picture-writing, a picture represented a whole word or vocal
expression indicating as idea or an object. Gradually, as time passed on, the
pictures came to convey something more than their visual implications, while the
shapes of the pictures were also undergoing slight modifications in course of time.
Thus the pictographs came to be ideographic symbols. The next phase of
development witnessed the evolution of phonetic values for some of the hundreds
of symbols available so that they became syllabic symbols whereas the others
remained ideographic signs. At the following stage, alphabetic value of some of
the syllabic symbols gradually developed. At first most of the signs remained
syllabic only a few becoming alphabetic; later a limited number of symbols
bearing alphabetical value were found sufficient to write the language. The writing
on the prehistoric seals discovered in India belongs to a transitional stage between
the last two stages, the symbols being partly syllabic and partly alphabetic.

EVOLUTION OF WRITING IN INDIAN SUBCONTINENT

The writing in the Indian Subcontinent begins with the undeciphered script found
on the seals and other relics of the Indus Valley civilization, which flourished,
according to recent estimates, around 2,600 BC. But after the decline of the Indus
Valley culture, the graphic record of India is virtually a total blank for well over a
thousand years until the time of the Asokan inscriptions, the earliest definitely
datable written records of the historical period, around the middle of the 3rd
century BC.
The Brahmi script is one of the most important writing systems in world by virtue
of its time depth and influence. This script appeared in India most certainly by 5th
century BC in some of the earliest historical inscriptions. The script was wide
prevalent in the Edicts of Asoka of 3rd century BC in the entire Indian
Subcontinent. Most importantly, it is the ancestor to hundreds of scripts in South,
South-East and East-Asia.
The Kharosthi script more or less contemporary with the Brahmi script, appearing
around 3rd century BC mainly in North-Western Indian Sub-continent and some
examples do occur in India.
In the list of 64 scripts occurring in the Lalitavistara, a text in Buddhist Hybrid
Sanskrit, Brahmi occupied first and followed by Kharosthi. Thus both of them
were considered to be the two major scripts of Indian subcontinent during the
Mauryan period. Both Kharosthi and Brahmi were first encountered in the Edicts
of Asoka. The Aramaic and Greek versions were also found in some minor rock
edicts of Asoka in North – Western Indian Subcontinent. In the post-Mauryan
period, the Greek language and script were used in the coin legends of the Indo-
Greeks, Indo-Scythians, Indo-Parthian and Kushanas.

BEGINNING OF PALAEOGRAPHY STUDIES IN INDIA

The establishment of the Asiatic Society in Calcutta in 1784 marks an important

land mark in the Indological studies, with special emphasis on epigraphical and
Indian paleographical studies. That was a period when the entire Indian sub-
continent was agog with archaeological and epigraphical activities. The history of
the study of Indian Palaeography falls into three definite stages.
THE FIRST PHASE OF PALAEOGRAPHIC STUDIES

The first phase was the discovery of the inscriptions and the decipherment of the
script, which were brought to light during the late 18th and early 19th centuries.
The first successful effort was made by Charles Wilkins in 1785 by reading the
Badal Pillar Inscription of the Pala King Narayanapala. In the same year Pandit
Radhakant Sharma read the Delhi Topra Pillar inscription of the Chahamana
King Visaladeva. Again, Wilkins made effort to decipher Maukhari inscriptions
from the Barabar Hills and this paved the way for him to tackle Gupta inscriptions.
Another scholar, who got himself engaged in this task, was James Tod who
collected large number of inscriptions from Rajasthan, Central India and Gujarat
between 1818 and 1823.These inscriptions, which ranged from the 7th to 15th
centuries A.D., were partially deciphered, with the assistance of Yato
Jnanachandra. Among the early paleographers, who made efforts to prepare table
of letters was Babington in 1834 based on Sanskrit and Tamil inscriptions reported
from Mammallapuram. Subsequently, Walter Elliot published an elaborate
comparative table of the older forms of the Kannada alphabet in 1833. Another
significant achievement during this period is the decipherment of Gupta and
Matrkas of Valabhi inscriptions.
With the presence of James Prinsep, the Father of Indian Epigraphy, epigraphical
studies brought in revolutionary changes in the decipherment of inscriptions,
especially older ones. The script that was found in bilingual coins from north
western regions of India and many rock and pillar inscriptions which later proved
to be of the great Mauryan King Asoka. It is for the first time James Prinsep held
the key to the decipherment of Brahmi script.
THE SECOND PHASE OF PALAEOGRAPHIC STUDIES

Prinsep laid the foundation of the second stage. Indian palaeography became a
recognized study, and James Burgess defined it as the “Study of the gradual
modification of alphabet in the course of time”. A.C. Burnel in 1874 published the
first book on the subject, and 'Elements of South Indian Palaeography (From the
4th to the 14th Century A.D)' being an introduction to the study of South Indian
inscriptions and manuscript. Almost in the same period, a Dutch scholar, K.F.
Holle was working in South East Asia and brought out a publication in 1877 and
followed by him in Burgess in 1883.
The study of these scripts was greatly facilitated by the publication of copies of the
inscriptions in various specialized journals. In 1877, Alexander Cunningham
published 'Inscriptions of Asoka' and in 1888, J.F. Fleet produced his 'Inscriptions
of the Guptas and their Contemporaries'.
All these materials were utilized and for the first time in 1894, a comprehensive
book on Indian Palaeography called 'Prachina Lipimala' was brought out in Hindi
by G.H. Ojha. Subsequently, Rudolf Hoermle thoroughly analyzed the Bower
Manuscript, and along with J.F Fleet's work paved the way for the study of the
regional scripts in North India. E Hultzseh by his edition of the 'South Indian
Inscriptions' served the cause of south Indian Palaeography in the same manner.
Later, Johan Georg Buhler brought out a standard work on the subject, 'Indische
Palaeographic' in 1896.
Thus, the main purpose of the scholars in the second stage was to produce as
accurately as possible charts of the various writings from the original records. The
motive of dating the ancient record or the monument on which it occurred with the
help of palaeography became a very important aspect for the Indologists who, in
the absence of others means for reconstructing the chronology of ancient India,
discovered in palaeography a handy time scale for that purpose.

THE THIRD PHASE OF INDIAN PALAEOGRAPHIC STUDIES

The third stage in the study of Indian Palaeography begins from the close of the
19th century, when the Government of India started to issue regular volumes of
'Epigraphia India'. In these journals every inscription edited has some introductory
paragraph’s dealing with it's palaeography. Another work of the same journal is C.
Sivaramamurtis 'Indian Epigraphy' and 'South Indian Scripts'. During the same, Raj
Bali Pandey wrote and brought out book on Indian Palaeography. A
comprehensive book on the development of the Kharosthi Script by C C Dasgupta
was published in 1958.
Ahmad Hasan Dani wrote book Indian Palaeography in a very comprehensive way
by incorporating all earlier researches, as he puts it – My Particular approach to the
Post – independent India has acquired large number of inscriptions reported from
different parts of the country belonging to different dynasties and rulers, of course,
some dynasties and rulers already known, and some new. There is a greater need to
re-examine and review the earlier studies made by different scholars in the light of
the new material available. Compared to the vast material available the scholars
who are seriously involved in paleographical studies are very few.

SCRIPTS IN INDIA

The earliest script used in India is Brahmi, which appeared for the first time in the
Asokan inscriptions. Simultaneously Kharoshti, Aramaic and Greek scripts are also
used to write Asokan edicts, especially in the north-western parts of India. Most of
the early inscriptions that are found from 3rd C.B.C. onwards up to 5th c. AD are
written in Brahmi script. It is a very popular script found throughout the length and
breadth of the country and it is the mother of all the scripts found in the subsequent
period not only in India, but even the scripts used in South East Asia. Between 3rd
century B.C. and 5th century A.D, the Brahmi script underwent changes due to the
use of new writing tools and techniques. The Brahmi script used in Tamil Nadu
have some additional signs corresponding to certain sounds which are peculiar to
the Tamil language. Hence this script is popularly known as Tamil-Brahmi.

From the 6th to about 10th century A.D., the inscriptions in North India were
written in a script, called as Siddhamatrika or Kutila. During 4th to 7th century
A.D., early form of Telugu-Kannada script developed in the regions ruled by the
early Kadambas of Banavasi and the early Chalukyas of Badami in the west and
the Salankayana and the early western Chalukya in the east. From 7th century A.D.
Tamil Nadu witnessed the development of three different scripts – Grantha, Tamil
and Vatteluttu, during the rule of the Pallavas, Cholas and Pandyas. Brahmi gave
birth not only to the Indian alphabets, but also of the scripts of most of the other
countries that originated under the influence of Indian civilization. All the
alphabets of Ceylon, Tibet, Indochina and Indonesia have their root in the Indian
Brahmi script. A large number of inscriptions found in South-east Asian countries,
which are akin to Indian epigraphs in respect of their language and script, reflect
the expansion of Indo-Aryan culture in these countries.
 EPIGRAPHY

INTRODUCTION TO EPIGRAPHY

The word epigraphy is derived from two Greek words, ‘Epi’, meaning on or upon
and ‘Graphie’, meaning to write. Epigraphy is the study of writings engraved on
different materials like stone, metal, wood, shell, terracotta, etc., known as
inscriptions or epigraphs. It deals with the art of writing. The word inscription is a
Latin word derived from inscriber which means to write on or upon. Both words
'Epigraphy' and 'Inscriptions' are synonymous. Simply it can be otherwise called as
the study of inscriptions or old inscriptions. Any writings or engravings cut upon
stone, metal, conch, shell, bricks, pottery, wood or any other permanent materials
which forms the subject matter of Epigraphy. Epigraphy concerns with inscriptions
and paleography.

In India the study of Epigraphy is considered to be the part of Archaeology.

Engraving is the chief characteristic of an epigraph, however the old writings were
written in ink or paint on rocks, boulders and caves. These writings are also
considered to be epigraphs. Embossing or engravings of the letters on the surface
of the slab are the main characteristic feature of an inscription. There is a
difference between Manuscript and an epigraph. Manuscript is a copy of a copy of
the original but the inscription is the original itself. However we do come across
the later copies of the earlier inscriptions on the surface of the walls of the temples
or slabs. In Tamil Nadu, these kind of re - engraving of old inscriptions are referred
to in the renovated temples. While the old temple got renovated, the old
inscriptions of the old temple again re engraved by the renovator and those old
inscription have been specifically mentioned as the copy of the old inscription (idu
palankarpadi). In the states of Karnataka and Andhra, the practice of copying the
old records were in vogue. Some of the copper plate records are fine examples of
this kind.

HISTORY OF EPIGRAPHY

There is a strong belief that the epigraphy studies in India were practically begun
only after the arrival of Europeans in India around 18th century C.E. However,
there are quite a number of references to reveal that the Indians had the sound
knowledge of reading and preserving the old records. Rajatarangini of Kalhana of
11th century C.E. narrates the old copper plate charters have been consulted for
practical purposes. Shams-I Siraj, the historian of Muhammadan period mentions
that the Firuz Shah Tughlug, the Sultan of Tugluq dynasty of Delhi took interest to
know about the old writings which were engraved on the Asokan Pillars. He
brought some of the Asokan Pillars to his capital city Delhi from faraway places
and ordered the Brahmin Pandits to read them. The Asokan Pillars from Meerut
and Topra were some of them which were transported to his capital city.

In South India, the practice of preserving the old record is very common. The
Velvikkudi Copper Plate of Pandya dynasty records the practice of keeping the old
records and further the king ordered the beneficiary that he should show the
original document that was issued by his ancestors and to get the benefit from the
royal throne. An interesting painting on the wall of Brihadisvara temple at
Tanjavur belonging to the period of Rajaraja - I narrates the story of Sundarar, one
of the Saiva saints of 7th century C.E. The Lord Siva appeared as an old Brahmin
priest and prevented the marriage of the Saint Sundarar after showing the palm leaf
document which was written by the Saint as a promissory deed to Lord Siva that he
was an eternal slave of him. When the saint had forgotten his promise, the
promissory note in the form of Palm leaves has been shown.
Whenever the old temple or brick temple either got renovated or replaced with
stone slabs, the existing old records in the temples were once again re engraved
without changing the contents and referred to as that was an old document (idu
palankarpadi). Kurralam inscription of Rajaraja - I refers to the order of the king
that the replacement of old Vatteluttu inscription of the temple in to Tamil script in
to newly renovated temple at that time. Thus shows that the people knew the art of
reading the old scripts and the government had the curiosity to preserve the old
records. All these evidences clearly suggest that the preserving and keeping the
records were very common in India prior to the Europeans arrival.

SYSTEMATIC EPIGRAPHIC STUDIES BY EUROPEAN SCHOLARS

The systematic research in epigraphy has been appeared during the British rule in
India. Charles Wilkins initiated the first publication of an old inscription in
Sanskrit published in 1781. The same was later on translated in to English
published in Asiatic Researches in 1788 by him. His article entitled "An inscription
on a Pillar near Buddal" has appeared in the Asiatic Researches Journal. Wilkins
also translated the "Nagarjuni hill cave inscription" which is considered to be the
important one in the history of early Maukari king Anantavarman. In the early
stage, the most of the articles related to Epigraphy were mere translations without
any texts or introductory matters. Wilkins attempted all the inscriptions accurately
but he wrongly fixed the chronology of these inscriptions wrongly.

Charles Wilkins tried to decipher the late Brahmi inscriptions earlier than to James
Prinsep. He was a master in Late Brahmi or Early Siddhamatrika.

Sir William Jones was another renowned Indologist who made significant
contribution to the study of Indian Epigraphy. Henry Thomas Colebrooke was an
English orientalist and mathematician. He published epigraphic paper in the
Asiatic Researches on the title "Translation of one of the inscriptions on the pillar
at Delhee, called the Lat of Feeroz Shah", in which he translated the inscription of
the Chamana King Vigrahapala. He correctly identified the date of the inscription
as Vikrama Era 1220, i.e., 1164 CE. In this article Colebrooke published the
facsimile of the text as well as correct transliteration of the inscription. The editing
method initiated by him was then followed by the successors while dealing with
the epigraphical researches. The methodology of Colebrooke became the
permanent pattern in the study of Epigraphy. He also tried to attempt the
decipherment of Asokan inscription which is found on the same pillar at Delhi. He
published the facsimile of the Asokan inscription which was later on used by the
Epigraphists for decipherment. In the Asiatic Researches, he contributed an article
entitled "On Ancient Monuments containing Sanskrit inscriptions", containing nine
inscriptions mostly on copper plates, published in Devanagari and English
translations. He emphasized the importance of inscriptions as a source material for
writing the political and cultural history of India.

In the succeeding publications of Asiatic Researches, articles related to

Epigraphical studies have been published by scholars like W. Price, A. Stirling, E.
Fell R. Jenkins and E.C. Ravenshaw and H.H. Wilson. Not much attention has
been given for another three decades in this study. In the middle of 1830’s
Epigraphy is witnessed the glorified advancement in decipherment of many
unknown ancient scripts which were employed in the inscriptions.

The significant contribution of J. Stevenson and Christian Lassen in the field of

Indian epigraphy is worthy. Stevenson deciphered the Brahmi inscriptions of Karle
and Allahabad Pillar inscription of Samudragupta. He correctly identified many
letters of Brahmi in these inscriptions. Christian Lassen was a pioneer to read the
legends of Indo-Greek coins. Their identification of Brahmi letters paved to the
successful decipherment attempt by James Prinsep.

James Prinsep studied numismatics systematically and tried to decipher the Brahmi
and Kharoshthi scripts on the coins. He successfully read the Brahmi and
Kharoshthi legends on the coins. He contributed articles on numismatics,
chemistry and mineralogy in the journals of the Asiatic Society. He studied the
variety of coins and interpreted the legends of Bactria, Kusana and series of Indian
Coins. He studied the Brahmi legends on the Gupta coins. He also took interest to
study the Indian Punch - marked coins and he thought they were issued by the
native Indian Kings. He identified the consonantal characters of Asokan Brahmi
with phonetic values and five vowels were also been successfully identified except
the 'I' sign. Initially, Prinsep assumed that the Devanampriya Piyadasi of the edicts
was a Srilankan King. Then he realized that the title was adorned by the Maurya
King Asoka on the basis of the Srilankan evidences. Prinsep’s studies on the
inscriptions helped his followers to determine the chronology of many Indian
rulers. His initiation of publishing 'Corpus of Inscriptionum Indicarum' was finally
completed by Alexander Cunningham in 1877.

After the death of James Prinsep, his brother Henry Thoby Prinsep published
books on Numismatics of Afghanistan which were collected by him. He not only
studied Indian inscriptions and coins but also concentrated on the early history of
Afghanistan. He also studied the Kharosthi script which he found on the bilingual
coins of the Indo-Greek and Indo-Scythian kings. Unless Brahmi script, for a long
time the script Kharosthi was not properly studied by the scholars until the 3rd
decade of the 19th century. Scholars like Ventura, Charles Mason and Prinsep
collected large number of bilingual coins in Afghanistan.
J.F Fleet was another noteworthy personality to promote the research of Indian
Epigraphy. He was appointed as the first Epigraphist of India in the year 1883 for a
term of three years. He concentrated on the publication of further series of 102
volumes. He published the inscriptions of the early Gupta dynasty. James Burgess,
another noteworthy Epigraphist of that period published "Epigraphia Indica" in the
year 1888. Besides, Lewis Rice published "Mysore Inscriptions" and in the year
1886 he also published "Epigraphia Carnatica". Under the editorship of E.
Hultzsch, the first volume of "South Indian Inscriptions" was published. Many
scholars concentrated on the origin and palaeography of Indian scripts. Between
the years 1901 to 1947, many publications of epigraphy research emerged.

NATURE OF EPIGRAPHS

Inscriptions are broadly divided into two categories - stone inscriptions and copper
plate grants. Majority of the stone inscriptions are donative in nature. They are
engraved on different architectural members of a temple, sacrificial-post, Dhvaja
Sthambha, boulders, pedestal of images, hero-stones, Sati-stones, etc. Inscriptions
of Asoka called as edicts form a separate class and they give the message of
morality and piety. The copper-plate inscriptions mostly record land-grants made
to various learned individuals.

EPIGRAPHY AND LANGUAGES

The Epigraphy is also dealt with the origin, structure and development of
languages of Indian sub-continent since the Mauryan age. The earliest written
records - the Asokan edicts - are in Prakrit Language. They are also written in
Greek and Aramaic languages. In North India Prakrit was replaced by Sanskrit
about the end of 3rd century C.E., while this change took place about a century
later in South India. From the 4th century C.E. onwards, under the patronage of the
Guptas, Sanskrit became the language of the inscriptions. Their contemporary
rulers in Central India and parts of the Deccan like the Vakatakas, the Kadambas,
later Gangas of Karnataka and the Pallavas in South India also employed Sanskrit
in their inscriptions. Sanskrit continued to be used in the inscriptions of all parts of
India along with regional languages in the subsequent centuries. The copper-plate
charters of Pallavas, Cholas and Pandyas are written in both Sanskrit and Tamil.
Kannada is used in the inscriptions dating from about the 5th century C.E.
Inscriptions in Telugu language began to appear from the 6th – 7th century C.E.
Malayalam made its beginning in the inscriptions from 15th century C.E. Neo
Indo-Aryan languages like Marathi, Oriya, Hindi, Gujarati, Bengali, etc., appeared
in inscriptions at a comparatively later date. At the end of 1st century B.C.E., the
Prakrit influence on Sanskrit can be observed. With the emergence of Gupta
Empire Sanskrit takes the centre stage and Sanskrit becomes Pan Indian language
even in the south. Sanskrit continued as an epigraphic language along with other
regional languages.

TECHNIQUE OF COPYING INSCRIPTIONS

1. STONE INSCRIPTIONS
The various tools used for copying the stone inscriptions are:
 Map-litho paper of 80 GSM thicknesses for taking estampage.
 prepared ink, made by mixing together: Lamp black powder, Arabic gum,
 Water-proof drawing ink and water.
 Bent beating brush made up of horse hair, for pressing the paper into the
writings engraved on the stone.
 Dabber made of leather in different sizes, for applying ink on to the paper.
 Wire brush and coir brush for cleaning the stone.
 Sponge.
  One bucket of water.
Before copying, the stone on which the inscription is engraved is photographed and
examined properly to identify the written and unwritten areas. Then the stone is
cleaned properly with water using coir brush so that all the dust and soil particles
are removed. Wire brush has to be used only if necessary to remove any hard
chemical objects like cement, lime, etc. sticking to the stone. However usage of
wire brush is to be avoided if the stone is in worn-out condition to prevent its
defacing. After cleaning the stone has to be washed carefully with clean water.
Then the Map-litho paper is dipped completely into a bucket of water and placed
on the wet stone carefully and uniformly. While placing the paper, care should be
taken that no air goes underneath it. With the help of bent beating brush the paper
is beaten uniformly and carefully, so that it receives the impression of the letters.
Beating of the paper should always start from the middle to the sides, so that no air
gets underneath it. If air enters into the middle of the paper, it may cause it to fold
and tear, which prevents from taking a good estampage. During this entire process
care should be taken that the paper is wet and sticks uniformly to the stone. If it
becomes dry then little water can be sprinkled wherever required. Then with the
help of the dabber the ink is applied uniformly on the paper in a systematic way, so
that it receives the exact copy of the inscription engraved on the stone. After taking
estampage, it has to be carefully removed by folding slowly from top to bottom
and placed to dry in a shade. After the estampage dries the find spot of the
inscription has to be written on its backside.

2. COPPER PLATE INSCRIPTIONS

The technique of taking estampage of copper plate inscriptions and the tools used
are different from that of stone inscriptions. The tools include:
 Map-litho paper of 80 GSM thicknesses.
  Black coloured printing ink.
 Brass wire brush for cleaning.
 Citric acid for cleaning.
 Rubber roller for applying ink on the copper-plate.
Before taking estampage of the copper-plate, its condition is to be noted and one
should feel satisfied that it is not brittle and withstands the process of taking
estampage. Then the copper-plate is photographed and if it is brittle, estampage is
not taken and another photograph is obtained after applying chalk on the copper-
plate, thereby highlighting the engraved portion. If on examination, the copper-
plate is found to be rusted, it can be removed by soaking it in a bucket of water
with a little solution of citric acid added to it. For taking estampage of the copper-
plate, ink is directly applied on it using rubber-roller. First, some amount of ink is
placed on a flat hard surface like a metal sheet or glass and the ink is spread
uniformly on to the rubber. The copper plate is placed on a flat surface with some
papers underneath for support and the ink is rubbed uniformly on it using rubber-
roller. Care should be taken that the ink is not applied heavily and it does not enter
into the engraved letters. The borders of the copper-plate should also be applied
with ink. The Map litho paper is placed on the copper-plate and a little pressure is
applied. The paper is removed carefully and the ink is allowed to dry. In this way
the engraving on the copper-plate is copied on to the paper. However in this
method, the impression will be in negative and hence while reading it has to be
done from the backside of the paper by holding it against the light.
3. SEALS AND SEALINGS
As the seals and sealings are made of terracotta and are brittle in nature, the usual
method of taking estampage on paper is avoided. They are documented by taking
photographs and are numbered systematically. An in-situ study also helps in proper
deciphering of the legend written on them.
PRESERVATION OF INSCRIPTION
The general attitude towards these store-houses of history and culture has been
either of utter indifference or disregard. Often inscriptions are neglected and more
often they are disfigured by the vested interests and vandals. Not long back, the
celebrated Asokan inscription on a boulder in Udegolam in Bellary district of
Karnataka was reduced to ashes by the ignorant villagers. Inscribed stone slabs, not
forming part of structures and lying loose in the villages and towns, stand the
danger of being misused as washing slabs or stepping stones and many times they
are used in place of bricks for constructing walls. Inscriptions that were copied till
recently are no longer available in their original place because they were either
displaced or they disappeared due to the white-washes which are so injudiciously
laid over them. The white-washes have to be scrapped off before a good copy of an
inscription is taken. Equally baneful and injurious is the practice of burning oil
lamps and applying Sindoor indiscriminately on the sculptured and inscribed
portions of temples. These practices not only spoil the sculptures and inscriptions
but also make it very difficult to copy the latter. Quarrying operations is yet
another reason that destroys valuable inscriptions. Especially in Tamil Nadu many
early Brahmi inscriptions are being lost because of this pernicious practice.

It is yet another unfortunate thing that copper-plates containing valuable historical

information are often melted for their sheer metal value. For effectively checking
this evil practice all metal-smiths should be made known the immense cultural
importance of these plates and the authorities. Agencies concerned should buy
these plates paying adequate price.
It is therefore, the bounded duty of every citizen to protect these engraved stone
slabs, pillars, temple walls, etc., containing valuable inscriptions. The general
public must realize that it is our common heritage, which needs to be preserved at
all costs. Apart from educating people, local governing bodies and educational
institutions should be encouraged to take steps to prevent destruction or misuse of
these epigraphs and protect them as antiquities. The temple authorities should also
be equally vigilant in preventing the public from damaging temple walls,
sculptures, paintings and inscriptions so that this rich cultural heritage could be
preserved for the posterity.

INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN INSCRIPTIONS

It is estimated nearly 1,00,000 inscription have been so far noticed and copied by
the Government Agencies both central and States, other institutions and individuals
of the field. They are all preserved and the contents and gist of these inscriptions
have been reported in the publications of Annual reports and publications of
Inscriptions.

The contents and the formats of the inscriptions are vary and variety. The
Dharmasāstras classify the records in to two - Royal or Official (rājakīyam) and
people-related (jānapadam). The second is also known as laukikam. The royal
records generally issued by the kings themselves or by their chiefs or king’s
officers. In the Tamil inscriptions, the term Tirumugappadi (royal order) denotes
the direct order of the king, or his office. The royal order are further classified in to
four sub classes namely sāsanam, jayapatram, āiñāpatram and prajañāpanam. The
word sāsanam means writ, edict or charter generally issued directly by the king. It
was issued for the purpose of land grant. The term jayapatram denotes the
procedure and listened to the expounder of law and the king issued appropriate
legal action. During disputes of property, the king issued appropriate orders to
keep social right of an individual or whole community. The third category
āiñāpatram means order of the king sent to his state officials or subordinates for
implementation. The fourth category prajañāpanam relates to religious priest or
preceptor. This kind of order is very rare. Besides from the above general
categories the inscriptions are classified in variety according to their nature and
contents.

ASOKAN INSCRIPTIONS

The earliest known inscriptions in India are Asōkan inscriptions. These inscriptions
are considered as “Dharma lipi”. The contents of the inscriptions mostly speak
about morality (Dharma). Hence they are known as Edicts. Asokan inscriptions
generally come under the broader category of religious records.

A code of morals which he believed to be the teachings of Buddha is narrated. The

administrative system of that period, various officials, state officers, political
affairs, welfare measurements to the subjects, irrigational reforms, frontier kings of
Mauryan Empire, Kingdoms in Tamil country etc. at detailed. Besides, Asōkan
edicts several kings in India issued inscriptions for religious purpose. The
sacrificial posts (Yūpastambhas) are the records of performance of sacrifices by the
kings related to religious oriented. Plenty of sacrificial posts are found in Andhra
and elsewhere in North India. This kind of pillars has not been found so far in
Tamil Nadu.

TYPES OF INSCRIPTIONS

There are more than one lakh inscriptions found in the Indian subcontinent and
these have been studied, analyzed and published by scholars in various journals,
books and corpuses. As far as grouping of these inscriptions is concerned it was
methodically done by Richard Salomon in his book “Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to
the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan
Languages”. It was Salomon who for the first time attempted a typological survey
and divided the inscriptions into ten broad categories on the basis of the similarity
in their contents.

These ten divisions are as follows:

 ∙ Royal donative and panegyric- Prasasti
 ∙ Land grants- Copper Plate charters
 ∙ Private Donations
 ∙ Memorial inscriptions
 ∙ Label inscriptions
 ∙ 6-Pilgrim’s and Travelers’ records
 ∙ Cultic inscriptions
 ∙ Literary inscriptions
 ∙ Seal inscriptions
 ∙10 Miscellaneous inscriptions

ROYAL DONATIVE AND PANEGYRIC INSCRIPTIONS (PRAŚASTI)

In this category all the inscriptions issued by the royal personages are to be
included. The inscriptions issued by the Maurya emperor Asoka are purely royal in
character. As most of his inscriptions are edicts and are non-donative with the
exception of the Barabar hill cave inscriptions where donation to the Ajivikas is
mentioned and also the Rummindei pillar edict and Nigalisagar which are also
associated with religious patronage and donation. Rests of the inscriptions issued
by this ruler are mainly in the form of edicts or royal proclamations. These are
purely exhortatory in character. Some of the royal inscriptions record donations.
Such donative proclamations and panegyrics issued by or on behalf of ruling kings,
called praśastis, are typically engraved on the stone slabs or pillars. These are
rarely purely eulogistic in content; nearly all of them record some donation or
memorial which serves as the ostensible occasion for the record.
Examples for prasastis include the Hāthīgumphā inscription of Khāravela,
TheAllahabad pillar of Samudragupta etc. Pillar inscriptions may record the
erection of the pillar itself in memory of a king’s victories (jayastambha or
kīrtistambha), for instance, the Allahabad pillar of Samudragupta or the Mandasaur
pillar of Yaśodharman. Other pillar inscriptions are primarily religious in intent,
being dedicated to deities such and Garuḍa (garuḍadhvaja). For e.g., Besnagar
pillar inscription, Viṣṇudhvaja Meharaulī pillar inscription, the Aihole stone
inscription of Pulakeśin II, the Deopāṛā stone inscription, the image of
Pradyumneśvara (Harihara), the Junāgaḍh inscription, the Tālagunda inscription
etc.

Later panegyrics composed in the early medieval period tend to be stereotypical in

format. Such prasastis begin with an auspicious sign or invocation such as svasti
followed by one or more maṅgala (invocatory) verses. Then follow the eulogy
portion which is often full of exaggerations often preceded by genealogical
information and even each ruler preceding the reigning king is adequately praised
separately in later prasatis especially those issued in the early medieval phase.
LAND GRANTS

The documents related to donation of land are usually known as land grants. These
were initially issued on palm leaves and birch barks. Later to make them more
durable they were documented on copper plates. Donative cave inscriptions of the
Western Kṣatrapa and Sātavāhana kings from Nāsik, datable to the first or second
century, are evidently copies on stone of original documents written on perishable
portable materials. Initially the copper plates were small in size and were about
two to three inches high and five to six inches long; later specimens are often large,
in the range of fifteen to twenty inches. The writing usually goes along the longer
direction of the plates, though inscriptions written across the shorter dimension are
not uncommon, especially in eastern India and in the plates of Vijayanagara kings
in southern India. These copper plates have a hole on the left flan and are strung
together with the help of a ring of copper or bronze inserted through holes in the
plates. The ends of the ring are soldered together onto a seal, usually of bronze,
which is intended to certify the authenticity of the document and to prevent
tampering by the addition or removal of plates.
The earliest specimens of copper plate characters comes from Southern India,
issued by the early Pallava and Śālaṅkāyana (4th century C.E.) although these
early examples are in Prakrit, in form and style they are essentially the same as the
more elaborate Sanskrit copper plate inscriptions. The earliest surviving specimen
of copper plate grant from northern India is the Kalāchalā grant. The tradition of
recording land grants on copper plates continued throughout the medieval era and
even into the European period, and in certain cases such documents have been
adjudged to be still legally valid in modern times.
In the early medieval period often copper plate charters were composed in a set
format. These may be broadly divided into three broad portions: preamble,
notification and concluding portion.

PRIVATE DONATIONS

Inscriptions that record private donations of individuals are included in this

category. Majority are on stone, though some, mostly image dedications, are on
metal. Private donative records are highly diverse in content, character, and style.
Here the objects or sculptural panels or friezes or railings donated by individuals or
small families or groups are mentioned clearly. Buddhist donative inscriptions
typically record the dedication of stūpa structure or reliquaries and other potable
objects whereas Jaina donative records are mainly on temple walls and images.

MEMORIAL INSCRIPTIONS

The inscriptions engraved on grave stones or on stones in memory or honor of

deceased persons, usually relatives of the sponsor of the inscription are known as
memorial inscriptions. These may include the Chaya memorials, memorials of
chiefs known as paliya, yasti or chatris, memorials of wives of deceased person
who had self- immolated themselves i.e. Sati memorials, memorials of those who
died in cattle raid etc. Besides these there are religious memorials like Buddhist
and Jain memorials of dedication. Examples include the chāyāstambha at Pawni in
Maharastra, memorial inscriptions at Nāgārjunakoṇḍa, Gaṅgaperuru inscription,
the Eraṇ inscription of the time of Bhānugupta, the Sāngsi memorial inscription,
the Bassi inscription etc.

LABEL INSCRIPTIONS

Whenever a sculpture and other works of art are labeled these are called label
inscriptions. For example the yogini temple sculptures are mentioned by their
names and these not only help in identifying the sculptures but also help in fixing
the iconography of such deities in the contemporary times. Among one of the
earliest examples of label inscriptions are the ones found in the royal portrait
galleries of the early Sātavāhana rulers at Nānāghat with label inscriptions in the
genitive case endings, Kuṣāṇa statue gallery at Māṭ having the figures of rulers
mentioned in nominative case etc.
PILGRIMS’ AND TRAVELERS’ RECORDS

Pilgrims or travelers often have the tendency of engraving their names on the
location of their final destination and often also on the way at resting spots or
sacred places of significance. These records are invaluable as they not only help in
understanding the daily life and also the travel of such people but also help in
understanding the psyche of the travelers and pilgrims. They often wanted to make
themselves immortal by etching their names on such locations. Moreover these
records also helps in understanding were they were literate, semi-literate or
illiterate. Most commonly such inscriptions consist simply of the pilgrim’s name.
Examples include the ones in the Barabar caves.

CULTIC INSCRIPTIONS

Cultic inscriptions are those records whose content or purpose is purely religious
or devotional, as opposed to donative or memorial. These are mainly stotras
engraved on the walls of the temples like the Halāyụdhastotra, Sūrya or Cittapa’s
stotra, Satyanārāyana pillar inscription, the Bijoliā rock inscription etc.

LITERARY INSCRIPTION

Literary inscriptions include the dramas engraved on stone. Moreover the dramas
had to be made small in size to enable them to be engraved on rock surfaces. Most
of the dramas are eulogies of rulers presented in the form of natakas or natikas.
Among these are the Lalitvigraharāja-nāṭaka and Harakeli-nāṭaka, the
Pārijātamañjarī-nāṭikā etc. There are the khaṇḍa and mahā-kāvyas which may also
be taken as examples of literary records for example the huge Rājapraśasti-
mahākāvya, Kūrma sakatas in praise of Siva etc.
SEAL INSCRIPTION

Inscriptions on seal and sealings, which were use to authenticate and protect
letters, legal and administrative documents often found in large numbers at a single
archaeological site fall into this category, like the seals and sealings from Basaṛh
i.e. ancient Vaiśālī. Other important sites which have yielded large numbers of seal
inscriptions include Bhita, Nalanda, Besnagar, and Rājghāt. Beside royalty and
private individuals, many seals inscriptions belongs to various government
officials, guilds and other economic organizations, or temples, monasteries, and
other religious institutions. Some seals are religious in character, recording the
name of a deity or pious formulae.

MISCELLANEOUS INSCRIPTIONS

Many more miscellaneous inscriptions have been reported in India. They are not fit
into the above categories. For instance, the Bādami inscription of Vallabhhēsvara
is commemorating the fortification of the hill of Vātapi. The Uttaramērūr
inscriptions, the Tirumukkūḍal inscription, the Ennayiram inscription come under
this category.

SLUICE STONE INSCRIPTIONS

There are quite a number of irrigational tanks having sluice stones with
inscriptions. They provide valuable information on irrigational facilities and water
distribution to the fields of the village of medieval period of Tamil nadu, Andhara
and Karnataka. In Tamil nadu it is referred to as Kumili, kar kumili or kaal in
inscriptions. Pudukkottai region in Tamil Nadu witnessed the large number of
sluice stone inscriptions ranging from early Pāṇḍya period to 13th century C.E.
SALE DEED INSCRIPTIONS

The sale deed is referred to as Kraya sāsana. Many inscriptions of this kind provide
information of the size of the land, value of the land seller and buyer details.
Besides, it has elaborately records the boundary of the land.

EDICT OF PROTECTION

Abyaya sāsana–(Edict of protection) is another variety of inscriptions. If, one who

seeks help to protect from the enemy, the protector or the whole village would
declared and issued inscriptions to protect. Many stone slab inscriptions in
Pudukkottai region in Tamil nadu made specimens of such kind of Abyaya sāsana.

EPIGRAPHY BRANCH ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA

The Epigraphy Branch of the Archaeological Survey of India came into existence
in the year 1886 at Bengaluru. The primary function of this wing was to copy
inscriptions on boulders, stone pillars, stones, temple walls, copper plates etc.
Since then this branch has not only collected thousands of inscriptions, but also
edited and published them. After some years this branch was shifted to Ooty in
1903 and functioned there till 1966 and then, it was shifted to Mysuru where it
continues to function. Dr. E. Hultzch, a renowned German Indologist who was
well-versed in Dravidian and Sanskrit epigraphy was the first Government
Epigraphist for India. V. Venkayya, Sten Know, F. W. Thomas, H. Krishna Sastri,
Hirananda Sastry etc. made great contribution for the growth and development of
epigraphical studies. To accelerate the copying and publishing of the inscriptions,
two zonal offices were established, one at Chennai and another at Jhansi in 1990.
Later in the year 1999 the North Zone office was shifted from Jhansi to Lucknow,
from where it is presently functioning. Since 1990, many inscriptions have been
copied by these newly established zones, which have further augmented the
epigraphical studies in our country. Besides this, a branch located in Nagpur for
copying and publishing Arabic and Persian Inscriptions has been in existence since
1950. So far approximately 87,000 inscriptions written in different languages like
Sanskrit and allied dialects (13,000), Tamil (48,000), Telugu (13,000) and
Kannada (13,000) are copied and their estampages are preserved in the Epigraphy
Branch at Mysuru. Apart from that, the Arabic and Persian Branch functioning
from Nagpur also copied nearly 13,000 inscriptions.
The Epigraphy Branch has been bringing out several departmental publications.
The chief among them are:
 Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy
 Epigraphia Indica
 Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum
 South Indian Inscriptions
 CALLIGRAPHY

Calligraphy is a visual art related to writing. It is the design and execution of

lettering with a broad-tipped instrument, brush, or other writing instrument. A
contemporary calligraphic practice can be defined as "the art of giving form to
signs in an expressive, harmonious, and skillful manner.

Modern calligraphy ranges from functional inscriptions and designs to fine-art

pieces where the letters may or may not be readable. Classical calligraphy differs
from typography and non-classical hand-lettering, though a calligrapher may
practice both.

Calligraphy continues to flourish in the forms of wedding invitations and event

invitations, font design and typography, original hand-
lettered logo design, religious art, announcements, graphic design and
commissioned calligraphic art, cut stone inscriptions, and memorial documents. It
is also used for props and moving images for film and television, and also
for testimonials, birth and death certificates, maps, and other written works.

The principal tools for a calligrapher are the pen and the brush. Calligraphy pens
write with nibs that may be flat, round, or pointed. For some decorative purposes,
multi-nibbed pens—steel brushes—can be used. However, works have also been
created with felt-tip and ballpoint pens, although these works do not employ angled
lines. There are some styles of calligraphy, such as Gothic script, that require a
stub nib pen.

Writing ink is usually water-based and is much less viscous than the oil-based inks
used in printing. Certain specialty paper with high ink absorption and constant
texture enables cleaner lines, although parchment or vellum is often used, as a
knife can be used to erase imperfections and a light-box is not needed to allow
lines to pass through it. Normally, light boxes and templates are used to achieve
straight lines without pencil markings detracting from the work. Ruled paper,
either for a light box or direct use, is most often ruled every quarter or half inch,
although inch spaces are occasionally used. This is the case with litterea
unciales (hence the name), and college-ruled paper often acts as a guideline
well.[12]

Common calligraphy pens and brushes are:

 Quill
 Dip pen
 Ink brush
 Qalam
 Fountain pen

REFERENCES

1. Indian Palaeography - by George Buhler (1959) - Published by Indian Studies:

Past & present, Calcutta

2. Indian Epigraphy - A guide to the study of inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit and

the other Indo-Aryan languages - by Richard Salomon (1998) - Published by
Oxford University Press

3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calligraphy