Ancient India Important Previous

Write a short essay on: “Position of women in the Rig Vedic
society”
Ans:
Views of Golden age of women in Rig Vedic society:

Nineteenth-century socio-religious reformers and nationalist historians of the
early 20th century often presented the Vedic age as a golden age for women.
They pointed out that
the Vedic people worshipped goddesses;
the Rig Veda contains hymns composed by women;
there are references to women sages;
women participated in rituals along with their husbands;
they took part in chariot races and attended the sabha and various social
gatherings.
Such a presentation of the ‘high’ position of women in Vedic society can be seen
as a response to the humiliation of colonial rule. The idea was to show that in
ancient times, Indians were better than the Westerners, at least in the way they
treated women.
This could also be used as an argument to improve the prevailing condition of
women in Indian society.
Changing nature of study of status of women:

Connection between public and private domain:
Recent scholarship has shifted the focus from discussing women in isolation
to an analysis of gender relations. Gender refers to the culturally defined
roles associated with men and women.
Earlier, historians tended to focus on the public, political domain, relegating
the family, household, and gender relations to the private, domestic domain.
Today, the distinction between the private and political domains is
recognized as an artificial one.
Ideologies and hierarchies of power and authority exist within the family
and household, in the form of norms of appropriate conduct based on
gender, age, and kinship relations.
Further, there is a close connection between relations within the
household, marriage and kinship systems, the control of women’s
sexuality and reproduction, class and caste relations, and larger political
structures.
For these reasons, gender relations form an important part of social
history.
The experience of women belonging to different groups in society varied, and it

is therefore necessary to break down the category of ‘women’ into more specific
subcategories based on rank, class, occupation, and age.
For all periods, the vague issue of the ‘status of women’ therefore has to be
dissolved into more meaningful questions, such as:
What were the relations between men and women in the domestic sphere?
How was a person’s descent recognized?
What were the norms of property and inheritance?
What was the role of women in production-related activities?
Did they have control over these activities or the fruits of their labour?
How was the sexuality and reproductive potential of women controlled and
regulated?
What was the role of women in the religious and ritual spheres?
Did they have access to education and knowledge systems?
Did they have direct or indirect access to political power?
In spite of their subordination, women occupied a variety of social spaces,

performed different roles, and were participants and active agents in history. A very
small part of their history has, however, been written so far. In the older writings, a
great part of the discussion about women of the Vedic age focused on elite women,
ignoring the less privileged members of this sex.
Position of women in Rig Vedic Society:
Although the Rig Veda mentions goddesses, none of them are as important
as the major gods.
While worship of female deities does at least mark the ability of a
community to visualize the divine in feminine form, it does not automatically
mean that real women enjoyed power or privilege.
The proportion of hymns attributed to women in the Rig Veda is miniscule
(just 12–15 out of over 1,000), as is the number of women sages. This
suggests that women had limited access to sacred learning.
There are no women priests in the Rig Veda.
While women participated as wives in sacrifices performed on behalf of their
husbands, they did not perform sacrifices in their own right; nor do they
appear as givers or receivers of dana or dakshina.
The Vedic household was clearly patriarchal and patrilineal, and women

enjoyed relatively little control over material resources. Their sexuality and
reproductive resources were controlled through the ingraining of norms of what
was considered appropriate behaviour.
Early Vedic literature has several words for household units—durona, kshiti,
dam/ dama, pastya, gaya, and griha—which may have corresponded to different
kinds of households.
Rig Vedic prayers are for sons, not daughters, and that the absence of sons is
deplored.
Marriage:
The Rig Veda attaches importance to the institution of marriage and refers to
various types of marriage—monogamy, polygyny, and polyandry.
The rituals indicate post-puberty marriages.
There are references to women choosing their husbands.
A woman could remarry if her husband died or disappeared.
There are also references to unmarried women, such as the Rig Vedic seer
Ghosha.
Hymn tells of elopement, the man praying that his beloved’s entire household—
her brothers and other relatives—as well as the dogs, should be lulled into a
deep sleep, so that the lovers could creep out stealthily.
Male dominance and the subordination of women is a feature of all known historical
societies. The issue is one of the degree of dominance and subordination, and the
structures in which these were embedded.
Compared to later Vedic literature, the family books of the Rig Veda Samhita
reflect a situation in which social status was not as rigidly defined or polarized as
it came to be in later times
Give a brief account of the social and economic conditions
of the Later Vedic Aryans. [1998, 60m]
Ans:
Compared to the Rig Veda Samhita, later Vedic literature reveals greater complexity in
social life and economic activities.
Agriculture:
Agriculture increases in importance. Cereals such as barley (yava), wheat
(godhuma), and rice (vrihi) are mentioned, and there are several references to
agricultural operations such as sowing, ploughing, reaping, and threshing.
The Atharva Veda has charms to ward off pests and to avert drought, reflecting
the anxieties that farmers must have had.
Rights over Land:

Land was occupied by extended families, and the clan seems to have exercised
general rights over land.
The institution of private property in land had not yet emerged.
Labour:
The household was the basic unit of labour.
Slaves were not used for productive purposes to any significant degree, and
there are no words for hired labour.
Gifts:
Hymns in praise of gifts (dana-stutis) in the later books of the Rig Veda refer to
generous presents of cows, horses, chariots, gold, clothes, and female slaves
made by kings to priests.
This indicates the items valued in society, the concentration of wealth in the
hands of rulers, and the relationship and exchanges between kings and priests.
Gift of land:
The earliest references to the gift of land occur in later Vedic texts, but the
attitude towards this practice was still ambivalent.
The Aitareya Brahmana suggests that the king should gift 1,000 pieces of
gold, a field, and cattle to the Brahmana who anoints him. Yet the same text
tells us that when king Vishvakarman Bhauvana wanted to make a gift of
land as dakshina to his Brahmana priest Kashyapa, the earth goddess herself
appeared before him and said that no mortal should give her away. A similar
story occurs in the Shatapatha Brahmana in the context of the performance
of the sarvamedha sacrifice.
Use of Iron:
The earliest literary references to iron in the Indian subcontinent are found in
later Vedic literature.
The terms krishna-ayas, shyama, and shyama-ayas (the black or dark metal) in
the Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda clearly refer to this metal.
Use of iron in agriculture:
The Taittiriya Samhita of the Black Yajur Veda mentions ploughs driven by 6
or even 12 oxen.
The Atharva Veda mentions an amulet born of a ploughshare, smitten away
with a knife by a skilful smith.
The reference to the smith and the fact that iron is definitely known in the
Atharva Veda suggest that the ploughshare in question was made of iron.
In the context of implements used in the ashvamedha sacrifice, the
Shatapatha Brahmana connects iron with the peasantry.
The term ayovikara kushi in Panini’s Ashtadhyayi has been translated as
‘iron ploughshare’.
Early Buddhist texts belonging to c. 600–200 BCE contain several
references to iron.
The Suttanipata refers to many objects made of ayas.
Especially important is a simile that mentions a ploughshare that has got
hot during the day, and which was thrown into water. This seems to be
a reference to the process of quenching iron objects.
All these references suggest that between c. 1000 BCE and 500 BCE, the
use of iron in agriculture had become prevalent in the Indo-Gangetic divide
and the upper and middle Ganga valley.
Crafts and occupations:

Later Vedic texts mention various kinds of artisans, such as carpenters, chariot
makers, bow-and arrow makers, metal workers, leather workers, tanners, and
potters.
There is a long list of crafts and occupations in the list of victims in the
purushamedha sacrifice, described in the Vajasaneyi Samhita and the Taittiriya
Brahmana. These include the following: doorkeeper, charioteer, attendant,
drummer, mat maker, smith, ploughman, astrologer, herdsman, maker of
bowstrings, carpenter, wood-gatherer, basket maker, jeweller, vintner, elephant
keeper, and goldsmith.
Vocations mentioned in other later Vedic texts include those of the physician,
washerman, hunter, fowler, ferryman, servant, barber, cook, boatman, and
messenger.
Mode of transportation:
Wagons drawn by oxen were probably the most frequent mode of transport.
Chariots (rathas) were used for war and sport, and people rode on horses and
elephants.
Boats are mentioned, but it is not clear whether they were for riverine or sea
travel.
Trade, coinage and urbanisation:

The extent of trade is not certain.
Exchange was still via barter, as there is no clear reference to coinage.
The general milieu as can be gathered from the texts is a rural one, although
towards the end of the period, there are traces of the beginnings of urbanism—
the Taittiriya Aranyaka uses the word nagara in the sense of a town.
Education and Learning:

Although only philosophical and religious texts of the time have survived, these
allude to other branches of learning.
The Chandogya Upanishad gives a list of subjects of study including the Veda,
itihasa, purana, spiritual knowledge (brahma-vidya), grammar, mathematics
(rashi), chronology (nidhi), dialectics (vakovakya), ethics (ekayana), astronomy,
military science, the science of snakes, and knowledge of portents (daiva).
Later Vedic texts only indicate how sacred knowledge was imparted.
importance was attached to the relationship between teacher and pupil and to
oral instruction.
The Shatapatha Brahmana refers to the upanayana ceremony, which initiated
the young boy into brahmacharya—the stage of celibate studenthood.
Education—of whatever kind—seems to have been largely restricted to elite
males.
Leisure:
The leisure pastimes mentioned in later Vedic texts are similar to those referred
to in the family books of the Rig Veda.
Chariot racing and dicing were popular, as were music and dancing.
Lute players, flute players, conch blowers, and drummers are mentioned. So are
musical instruments such as the cymbals (aghati), drums, flutes, lutes, and a
harp or lyre with 100 strings (vana).
The term shailusha, mentioned among the victims in the purushamedha in the
Vajasaneyi Samhita, may mean an actor or dancer.
The Yajur Veda mentions a vansha-nartin (pole-dancer or acrobat).
Food:
Apupa was a cake mixed with ghee, or made out of rice or barley.
Odana was made by mixing grain variously with milk, water, curds, or ghee;
beans, sesame or meat were sometimes added.
Karambha was a porridge made of grain, barley or sesame.
Rice was sometimes fried, or else cooked with milk and beans.
Yavagu was a gruel made out of barley.
Milk products such as curds, sour milk, and butter were consumed.
Meat was eaten on special occasions, such as when honouring guests.
There are references to an intoxicating beverage called sura. The soma plant
had become difficult to obtain, so substitutes were allowed.
Clothes:
People wore woven cotton clothes.
Clothes made of woollen thread (urna-sutra) are also mentioned often, and were
probably made of sheep’s wool or goat’s hair.
There is mention of turbans and leather sandals.
Ornaments:
Ornaments such as nishka were worn around the neck, and jewels or conch
shells were worn as amulets to ward off evil.
The Brahmana texts frequently mention the prakasha —either an ornament of
metal or a metal mirror.
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“ Ancient Indians had no taste for historiography; their

scholars cared more for religious, spiritual and
philosophical studies. Indian historiography is
essentially an Islamic heritage.” Comment upon this
statement with special reference to the contemporary
writers and their works which help us in the
reconstruction of history of the early medieval period
of Indian history. [60m]
Ans:
Though there may not have been a conventional form of
historical writing, there are nevertheless many texts that
reflect the historical consciousness of Ancient Indians.
Many scholars described the Indian past as a static society
that registered no historical change, and therefore it had no
use for recording the past and used only cyclic time. But
early Indian history was far from static, and in fact it followed
both cyclic and linear systems of time. There were three
distinct historiographies ( ways of explaining the past) : the
Bardic tradition, the tradition of the Puranas and Shramanic
traditions, which were parallel but quite different from each
other. The historiography of the bards or sutas lay in their
narrating events of heroes in the form of ballads and epic
fragments. It is treated as a kind of substratum source of
history. In both the Puranic and Shramanic traditions, there
was a gradual change in form, information and comment,
moving towards creating a historic tradition.
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But still the taste of historiography in Ancient Indians was

very much limited and most of the scholars more for
religious, spiritual and philosophical studies. After the
advent of Islam to India, it was the Muslim Ulemas and
chroniclers who showed a keen sense of history and wrote
detailed accounts of the day -to-day happenings and
political upheavals. Their primary object in doing so was, of
course, the glory of Islam. They took pride in the military
exploits of an amir -ul-momnin who attempted to transform
darul haram into darul Islam by the conversion of infidels to
the faith.
The Muslim monarchs employed chroniclers, diarists and
court historians who maintained profuse records of their
activities, very often in systematic and chronological order,
though usually exaggerated. The scholars produced books
and poets composed masnavis on the dynastic , regional or
general histories of the Islamic world; the writers penned
biographical sketches of high and low and recorded
historical anecdotes and chronological accounts of events;
they wrote not only for literary fame, reward or edification of
their patrons but also to satiate their intellectual hunger and
inner urge for writing their observations and experiences.
The educated among the rulers and nobility wrote memoirs
or maintained personal diaries. Historiography, therefore,
flourished in all of its forms during the Sultanute period; the
age produced a number of professional historians and
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chroniclers who bequeathed to posterity a rich treasure of

historical literature.
The earlier literary records of the Muslim chroniclers are
found in Arabic, the language of the Quran and the Arab
elite. With the establishment of Islam in Persia, there took
place a revival of Persian nationalism within the Muslim
world; it resulted in the adoption of Persian language and
culture by the Turkish dynasties, founded mostly by the
slave officers of the Persian monarchs. Consequently,
along with the establishment of the Turkish rule was planted
the Persian tradition of historiography in India.
The chroniclers of early medieval India were mostly Turks
or Afghans of foreign pedigree who were interested
primarily in recording the military and political exploits of
their martial leaders, and the affairs at the courts of the
sultans of Delhi or other regional states. They dealt mostly
with matters which did not concern the general public;
seldom did they pay attention to the socio-economic
conditions of the country. The medieval system of
education being 'theologically oriented’, most of the writers
traced the origin of every branch of knowledge to the Quran
and the Prophet Muhammad. In order to use their material,
therefore , it is essential to have 'a clear understanding of
the mentality of the men’ who wrote it . They were not
scientific historians ; therefore, their works need to be
handled with discretion and care. Their accounts have to be
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checked up and verified on the touchstone of modern

research methodology before accepting them as historical
facts.
Contemporary Writers and Their Works
An introductory account of the contemporary writers and

their works, which help us in the reconstruction of history of
the early medieval period, may be given.
Chachnama
Chachnama, written in Arabic by an anonymous author , is
the most authentic primary source, hitherto discovered on
the history of the indigenous ruling dynasty of Sind on the
eve of the Arab invasion in 711 -12. The book was written in
Arabic by an anonymous author. It gives a brief account of
the sudra dynasty of Sind, on the death of whose last ruler
RaiSahasi II, the throne was usurped by his brahman
minister named Chach, in the seventh century. His son and
successor Dahir ascended the throne in c. 708 AD; it was
he who faced the Arab onslaught on Sind and perished in
the struggle with the whole of his family.
Alberuni
Alberuni (c. 972-1048), the first prominent Muslim Indologist
was one of the greatest intellectuals of the eleventh century.
He was a man of ‘encyclopedic learning’. He was a
theologian, philosopher, logician, mathematician,

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astronomer, astrologer, geographer and physician - all

rolled into one.
Alberuni accompanied the invading hordes of Mahmud to
the Indo -Gangetic valley as a freelance observer in 11th
century. He travelled extensively in various parts of the
country , studied the language, religion and philosophy of
the Hindus and wrote the classic account of the country and
its people in Arabic, entitled Tarikh -ul Hind; it was translated
later into Persian. It is an authentic primary source of
information about the socio-religious condition of India of
Mahmud of Ghazni’s times. It gives a scholarly analysis of
the social and religious institutions of the Hindus and throws
light on their rich cultural heritage, including science and
literature. The book presents ‘a deep sociological study,
characterized by a rare spirit of enquiry , modern scientific
attitude and sympathetic insight ’. It also gives a
dispassionate account of the weaknesses of the Indian
character and the shortcomings of their socio -political order
which led to their defeat and humiliation at the hands of the
invaders. Alberuni made extensive use of the Sanskrit
literature from which he quotes chapter and verse in
support of his contentions.
Utbi
Utbi, the celebrated author of Tarikh-i- Yamini or
KitabulYamini (in Arabic ) , was attached to the personal staff
of Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni. Utbi was fully acquainted with
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the background story of Mahmud's Indian campaigns, albeit

he seems to have never accompanied Mahmud's convoy to
India. His book describes the character and military exploits
of Mahmud upto 1020 AD. Utbi was ignorant of the Indian
languages and his knowledge of Indian topography was
also very poor ; as a result , his description of Mahmud’s
expeditions is full of mistakes. He was neither a court
chronicler nor a professional historian; therefore, his book
is deficient in dates and lacks chronological sequence. Utbi
applauds the achievements of Mahmud as
nasramirulmomnin who carried the banner of Islam to the
land of the ‘idol-worshippers’ by the ‘order of
Allah‘andcommitted slaughter of the ‘infidels’ wherever they
went. It was popular with the historiographers of the Mughal
period who freely quoted from it.
Hasan Nizami
Hasan Nizami’sTajul Maasir— The Crown of Exploits’,
deals primarily with the history of Qutbuddin Aibak. He
joined service under QutbuddinAibak. The narrative of his
book commences from the year 1191 - 92 when Muhammad
Ghori invaded India, to avenge his defeat suffered
previously at the hands of Prithvi Raj III, the Chauhan ruler
of Delhi and Ajmer, and fought the second battle of Tarain.
The author gives in detail the military exploits of Aibak. The
author does not mention Aram Shah but describes the
events of lltutmish’s reign upto 1217.
TajulMa’asir is the first historical narrative which deals with

the beginning of the Muslim rule in India; it thus untags the
history of the Delhi Sultanate from that of Ghazni, Central
Asia or Islam, the usual starting points of many other
contemporary chronicles. Its medium of expression is a
unique mixture of Arabic and Persian languages, in poetry
as well as prose.
It is partly history and partly fiction; in the midst of the
historical narrative, the author starts giving fantastic
accounts of certain other subjects or characters in an
eloquent style. Not only this; Hasan Nizami introduces, in
the style of Panchtantra literature of ancient India, a
subordinate series of descriptions within one leading
subject, which include qualities of mirrors, rules of chess,
natural elements , seasons, fruits, flowers etc.
Minhai us Sirai
Minhaj us Siraj accompanied lltutmish to Delhi and
waspatronized by him. Minhaj served as a chief Qazi under
Sultan lltutmish and Sultan Nasiruddin Mahmud ( 1246 - 66).
MinhajusSiraj was an historian par excellence. He
produced an elaborate history of the Islamic world in his
book TabaqatiNasiri.
Book gives the history of Aibak and his son Aram Shah,
Nasiruddin Qabacha, Bahauddin Tughril, the first four rulers
of Lakhnauti, lltutmish and early history of Balban.
Book contains the biographical sketches of the eminent

courtiers, military generals, provincial governors and other
men of repute of the sultanate period, ending with the early
history of Balban.
Tabaqat-i-Nasiri preserves a valuable record of the Mongol
menace in central Asia, including India; it makes references
to Chengiz Khan and his descendants.
Tabaqat-i-Nasiri is written in a simple , straight forward and
accurate language. By its very nature, the work is brief ; the
author does not resort to useless discussions or side -
tracking of the main issues. It can be said to his credit that
his judicial profession and true historian’ s spirit carries a
deep imprint on the methodology and contents of the book.
Tabaqat-i-Nasiri was well-known to the later medieval
historians though the Mughal emperors did not encourage
its wide circulation because, in the twenty -third volume, the
author had done some plain speaking about the Mongol
marauders and the destruction wrought by them in Central
Asia; the atrocities committed by them on the Muslims were
exposed, particularly, by Minhaj.
Amir Khusrau
Amir Khusrau (c. 1252- 1325) was not a professional
historian nor did he claim to be one, albeit he has to his
credit about half a dozen historical works, including prose
chronicles and masnavis (poetic compositions) like Qiranus
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Sa ’adain, Miftah-ul-Futuh, Khazain-ul-Futuh, Nuh Sipihr

and Tughluq Nama. Fie adorned the courts of all the sultans
from Balban to Ghiasuddin Tughluq as the poet laureate;
he was popularly known as Tuti e Hind. ‘the parrot of —
India’.
Fie is said to have composed several couplets in Persian
and Hindavi or Delhvi ( later Urdu) language and wrote many
works on literature which included the above-mentioned
historical works , five divans (collections of poetic
compositions) , about a dozen novels, four collections of
ShaikhNizamuddin’ssufi philosophy and sayings, besides
numerous treatises, in prose as well as poetry, on theology,
philosophy and art.
Qiran us Sa ’adain of Amir Khusrau is an historical masnavi
which gives an eye- witness account of the meeting that
took place in Oudh between Sultan Kaiqubad and his father
Bughra Khan, the governor of Bengal. It throws light on the
political condition, the court atmosphere and the socio -
cultural life of the period.
Miftah-ul-Futuh contains an account of the military
campaigns of Jalaluddin Khalji in poetry. KhazainulFutuhi
or Tarikh-illahi is a historiographical composition in prose
which describes the conquests and other achievements of
AlauddinKhalji. His military campaigns in Deccan have
been given in detail. The description of Mongol invasions
on India and the strong policy adopted by Alauddin to
combat them, being based on first -hand knowledge, is of

great historical value.
The poetic composition of Nuh Sipilir deals with the reign of
Mubarak Shah Khalji, the unworthy and incompetent
successor of AlauddinKhalji.
Tughluq Nama, also an historical masnavi, was composed
by Amir Khusrau to commemorate the victory of
GhiasuddinTughluq over Khusrau Khan (1320 A.D.),
leading to the establishment of a new ruling dynasty. It is a
valuable primary source of history for the reign of
Ghiasuddin Tughluq.
These works were prepared by Amir Khusrau either under
the direction of the reigning monarchs or for presentation to
them. His ‘primary concerns' in their composition, was ‘to
demonstrate his literary ability and gain a lasting reputation
and also to get reward for his literary performances. The
writer applauds the achievements of his patrons and
glosses over their shortcomings and failures. The works
suffer generally from factual and topographical errors and
show lack of chronological sequence. The author gives
fanciful accounts of some very insignificant happenings by
implying verbose style, poetic imageries and literary art
forms. Amir Khusrau cannot be called ‘a deliberate liar’
albeit he ‘omitted what he did not want to express; he does
not distort the facts as was done by Barani in the case of
Muhammad bin Tughluq.
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In addition to the above, one of Amir Khusrau’s

compilations, entitled, Ijaz -i-Khusraivi, is a massive
collection of diverse types of documents, personal letters
and treatises written by him to his friends or masters or just
to satisfy his literary and intellectual hunger. Some of these
are the official documents, like the Fathunama of Lakhnauti,
drafted by him on the orders of the sultans, which are of
immense historical importance. The contents of Ijaz -i-
Khusravi constitute an invaluable source of study for the
socio-cultural history of the times.
Ziauddin Barani
Ziauddin Barani (b. 1285 ) , the celebrated author of Tarikh-
i- Firoze Shahi, has been rated the greatest of all the
contemporary historians of the early medieval India. Barani
joined the imperial court under Muhammad bin Tughluq.
Barani started his work just where Minhaj-usSiraj had left it;
his narrative is thus a continuation of the Tabaqat -i-Nasiri;
it gives the history of nine rulers from Balban to Firoze Shah
Tughluq, upto the sixth year of his reign. Barani’ s write -up,
excluding the narrative of Firoze Tughluq, constitutes a
standard work of history which establishes his reputation as
premier historian of his age.
But Barani’ s description of Muhammad bin Tughluq' s reign
is unfair; he distorted the facts deliberately and wrote with a
biased mind. Similarly, his narrative of Firoze Tughluq’ s

reign was prepared under duress; having been disgraced

by the royal court, Barani set aside his duties as a historian
and, instead, resorted to the flattery of the Sultan in order
to pacify his wrath. The title of the work, Tarikh-i-Firoze
Shahi, is, in fact , a misnomer; Barani’s true worth as
scientific historian is known not by what he writes about
Muhammad bin Tughluq or Firoze Tughluq but the
preceding Sultans.
Of course, Barani is deficient in dates ; at certain places, he
gives an analysis of the events and political developments
out of chronological order but it might have been because
of the fact that he wrote the book just from his memory
during the last year of his wretched living when he had no
benefit of notes or other references to verify and correct
himself .
Barani’s account is not descriptive but analytical and
critical; he does not bother about the details ; instead, he
takes up the political and administrative issues as a
‘compact whole’ and, through a manner of scientific
presentation, reveals the characteristics of the period to
which they belong. His references to the events throw a
flood of light on the working of the minds of the rulers, and
prides and prejudices of the age. In spite of his subjective
approach, which involved his religious outlook, class
consciousness, aristocratic complexion and his subsequent
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personal discomfiture, Barani reveals the true historian in

him.
Barani’s Fatawa-i-Jahandari is a complementary volume to
the Tarikh-i-Firoze Shahi. In this book, the author
recapitulates and further elaborates the political philosophy
of the Sultanate on the basis of his earlier narrative. The
book deals with subjects like powers and functions of the
crown, privileges of the nobility, the doctrine of safety of the
state, law and order problems, crime and punishment,
religion and politics, the role of the army and the intelligence
services of the sultans.
Shams i Sirai Afif
Shams i Siraj Afif (b. 1354 AD.) adorned the court of Firoze
Tughluq as a scholar though he never accepted an official
employment. Fie is said to have written three books on the
life-history, military expeditions and administrative
achievements of each of the three Tughluq rulers —
Ghiasuddin, Muhammad bin Tughluq and Firoze Tughluq,
of which only the one, entitled , Tarikh-i-Firoze Shahi', has
survived. It is devoted exclusively to the reign of Fiioze
Tughluq and constitutes the most accurate and authentic
contemporary account of his times. Fie wrote, in the true
spirit of a historian and biographer, the reminiscences of the
glorious past, for the edification and benefit of posterity,
without any self -interest, prejudice. In the book, the author
gives not only the political and military activities of Firoze
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Tughluq but also his administrative policy with special

reference to the public welfare activities. The book is unique
in the sense that it also describes the life and condition of
the people at large, the one aspect which has usually been
ignored by contemporary writers.
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Discuss the changing approaches to the study of early

Indian history. [60m]
Ans:
The historiography of early India reveals significant
changes over time. The various ‘schools' of history writing
are often presented and understood in terms of one school
making way for the other in a neat, forward progression.
The reality is more complex. There was considerable
variety within the schools; some of them co-existed in
dialogue or conflict with one another, and there are
examples of writings that go against the grain and do not fit
into the dominant historiographical trends of their time.
Orientalists’ historiography
The 18th and 19th centuries were dominated by the writings
of European scholars, referred to as Orientalists or
Indologists, although they often described themselves as
‘antiquarians’. Many of them worked for the East India
Company or the British Government of India. The founding
of the Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1784 provided an
institutional focus for scholars working in fields such as
textual study, epigraphy, numismatics, and history. A major
contribution of the Indologists lay in their efforts to collect,
edit, and translate ancient texts. In this, they depended
heavily on information provided by ‘native informants.’

Indology soon spread beyond the British empire and

became a subject of study in European universities.
Apart from the study of ancient texts, the 19th century
witnessed developments in epigraphy, numismatics,
archaeology, and the study of art and architecture. The
decipherment of Ashokan Brahmi and Kharoshthi scripts
were breakthroughs. The analysis of coins contributed to
the construction of a framework of political history. Officers
of the Geological Survey discovered prehistoric stone tools
and laid the basis of Indian prehistory. The Archaeological
Survey of India, established in 1871 , has over the decades
made important contributions to unearthing and analyzing
the material remains of India ' s past . The contributions and
breakthroughs of the 18th and 19th centuries were rooted
in a colonial context, and this is evident in certain features
of Indological writing:
1. The Brahmanical perspective of ancient Sanskrit texts
was often uncritically taken as reflecting the Indian
past .
2. Social and religious institutions and traditions were
critiqued from a Western viewpoint . Indian society was
presented as static, and its political systems despotic,
over the centuries.
3. Race, religion, and ethnicity were confused with one
another, and there was a tendency to exaggerate the
impact of foreign influence on ancient India.

4. This is when the classification of the Indian past into

Hindu, Muslim, and British periods took root.
Nationalist historiography
Indian scholars of the late 19th century and the first half of
the 20th century made major contributions to constructing a
connected narrative of ancient India. These historians, who
wrote against the background of an emergent, and later
increasingly strong, national movement, are generally
referred to as Nationalist historians. They wove together
data from texts, inscriptions, coins, and other material
remains to show the contours of the ancient Indian past.
1. The nationalist tinge in these scholars’ writings can be
seen in their insistence on the indigenous roots of
cultural developments. It is reflected in their search for
golden ages, which led to their exalting the age of the
Vedas and the Gupta Empire.
2. Contributions were made in the field of political history.
South India was brought into the narrative and the
study of regional polities progressed.
3. Non- monarchical polities were discovered and
celebrated to counter the idea that India had never
known anything but despotic rule.
4. The periodisation of the Indian past into Hindu, Muslim,
and British periods was, however, retained. It
coalesced with a communal tendency to valorise the

‘Hindu period’ and to project the advent of the Turks

and Islam as a calamity and tragedy.
Marxist historiography
The 1950s saw the emergence of Marxist historiography,
which went on to play an influential role in the construction
of the history of early India.
1. In the long run, the Marxist historians shifted the focus
from an event-centred history dominated by political
narrative to the delineation of social and economic
structures and processes, especially those related to
class stratification and agrarian relations.
2. Marxist historiography contributed to uncovering the
history of non-elite groups, some of which had suffered
subordination and marginalisation.
3. While making these valuable interventions and
contributions, Marxist writings often tended to work
with unilinear historical models derived from Western
historical and anthropological writings.
4. Texts were sometimes read uncritically, with
insufficient attention paid to their problematic
chronology and peculiarities of genre. Archaeological
data were included, but the basic framework of the
historical narrative remained text -centric.
5. Initially , the focus on class meant less attention to other
bases of social stratification such as caste and gender.

Religion and culture were sidelined, or mechanically

presented as reflections of socio-economic structures.
Despite important differences, the major historiographical
schools shared similarities. Certain tenets of these schools
continue to thrive. Some of the fundamental premises and
methods of Orientalist historiography still hold their ground,
and histories of Third World countries such as India remain
Eurocentric. Appeals to the ancient and early medieval past
are often dictated by nationalist or communalist agendas.
Marxist historiography continues to be an influential force in
early Indian historiography.
Future Progress
A critical understanding of historiography , one that
recognizes the contributions and limitations of past and
present ideological and theoretical frameworks, is essential
to understanding where the history of early India stands.
However , the advances of the future are likely to be the
result of questioning and thinking beyond the boundaries of
existing historiographical positions and methodologies.
Currently, there are two parallel images of ancient India —
one based on literary sources, the other on archaeology.
Texts and archaeology generate different sorts of historical
narratives. Historians generally use archaeological
evidence selectively as a corroborative source when it
matches hypotheses based on their interpretation of texts.

Archaeologists have not adequately explored the historical

implications of archaeological data.
In view of the information offered by rapidly growing
archaeological data, historical narratives can no longer
remain text-centric. A more sophisticated approach towards
textual study has to be accompanied by an incorporation of
archaeological evidence. This will lead to a more nuanced
image of ancient India.
Histories of early India should ideally represent the various
regions and communities of the subcontinent in their
diversity. However, while the heartlands of great empires
and kingdoms are well represented, many regions are not.
These have to be brought in. Bringing more people into
history requires initiatives to uncover groups that have been
subordinated and marginalized. This is not easy, given that
a great proportion of the source material available to
historians has been created by elite groups and reflects
their ideas and interests. Nevertheless, the past of people
who have been hidden from history has to be uncovered
and written, and these histories must become an integral
part of the narrative of the ancient Indian past.
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On the basis of contemporary sources assess the

nature of banking and usury in ancient India .
Ans:
Originally, usury meant interest of any kind. It is also
considered as excessive or abusive interest rates. The
nature of banking and usury in ancient India:
• Banking and usury in ancient India may be traced from

the Vedic period (between 1500 B.C. and 1000 B.C.)
in which the kusidin ( usurer) is mentioned several
times and interpreted as any lender at interest. But
whether banking was followed as a profession, is not
evident.
• In ancient India, loan deed forms called rnapatra or
rnalekhya were in use. These contained details such
as the name of the debtor and the creditor, the amount
of loan, the rate of interest, the condition of repayment
and the time of repayment . The deed was witnessed
by a person of respectable means and endorsed by the
loan-deed writer. Execution of loan deeds continued
during the Buddhist period, when they were called
inapanna.
• In the Mauryan period, an instrument called adesha
was in use, which was an order on a banker desiring
him to pay the money of the note to a third person,
which corresponds to the definition of a bill of exchange

as we understand it today. During the Buddhist period,

there was considerable use of these instruments.
Merchants in large towns gave letters of credit to one
another. There are also numerous references to
promissory notes.
• From 5th century B.C. the Buddhists’ works and the
recent archaeological discoveries reveal the existence
of associations or guilds carrying on various
commercial and industrial activities. The Shrenis or
bankers occupied prominent positions in these guilds.
In many places the Shreshthis had great influence. The
main function was to finance the traders, merchant
adventurers, who went out of their countries or
explorers, who traversed seas and forests in search of
valuable materials and the kings in the times of wars
and other financial stress.
• Frequent and detailed references to interest payment
are to be found in the later Sutra texts ( 700- 100 BC ),
as well as the Buddhist Jatakas (600 - 400 BC). It is
during this latter period that the first sentiments of
contempt for usury are expressed. For example,
Vasishtha, a well known lawmaker of that time, forbade
the higher castes of Brahmanas (priests ) and
Kshatriyas (warriors) from being usurers or lenders at
interest. Also, in the Jatakas, usury is referred to in a
demeaning manner: “ hypocritical ascetics are accused
of practicing it . ”
• Buddhists' texts abound in references to the practice of

lending money on or without interest. The more
common practice of lending money on interest, the
loans being secured by mortgage, by pledge or
movable or by surety.
• Kautilya' s Arthashastra prescribes maximum legal rate
of interest on secured loan as 15% and on unsecured
upto 60%, without any discrimination to caste, though
the rate might go up to 120% to 240% per annum
according to the risk involved in special circumstances.
• The Dharmashashtras are in general agreement with
the Arthashastra except that they introduce caste as an
important factor in money lending. They lay down that
a particular caste ( the Vaishya) can take the profession
of money lending and they prescribe a variation from
15% to 60% interest on unsecured loans according to
caste of borrowers.
• In Dharmashashtra like Manusmriti, money lending
was an approved line of business. Among the seven
modes of acquiring wealth money lending finds a
place: - (i) Inheritance (ii) Gift from a friend and
depositor (iii) Purchasing (iv) Conquering ( v) Money
lending (vi) Labour ( vii) Presents from the good. Manu
Smriti defines usury as money lending above a
stipulated rate which was 2% per month if the borrower
was a Brahmin, 3% per month for a member of the
warrior caste, 4% per month for a merchant and 5%
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- CONTACT NO: 7011446954
per month for a Sudra. According to Manu Smriti, usury

( lending money above the stipulated rate of interest ) is
a sin on a par with defiling a damsel, breaking a vow,
selling a tank , a garden, one's wife, or child; loss of
caste is the punishment. In the Laws of Manu of that
time: "Stipulated interest beyond the legal rate being
against the law, cannot be recovered."
Evaluate the ownership of land in ancient India on the

basis of literary and epigraphic sources.
Ans:
The debate regarding the ownership of land in ancient India
has focused on assessing the evidence for
communal/corporate ownership (i. e. ownership in the
hands of the village community), royal ownership, and
private ownership.
Communal / Corporate ownership
Although the Dharmashastra texts have a great deal to say
about property, their opinions on land rights vary
considerably, and contradictory statements are sometimes
made within the same text. Certain texts suggest that the
village community had an important say in land-related
matters, even if this did not amount to full -fledged
ownership. For instance, the village community was
assigned an important role in settling boundary disputes
and the sale of land, and the king was supposed to inform
it when he made a gift of land. According to Vishnu Smriti
and earlier Manu Smriti, pasture land was community
property and could not be partitioned. The village
community seems to have exercised rights over water
resources as well.
A few earlier sources assert the individuality of landed
property, i.e., it could not be divided. The Gautama Smriti

states that what is considered yoga-kshema (livelihood)

cannot be divided. Similarly, the 4 h/3rd century BCE
,
Mimansa Sutra of Jamini states that the earth is common to
all and even an emperor cannot give away all his land. This
opinion was confirmed several centuries later by
Shabarasvamin ( 4th Century CE) in his commentary on the
Mimansa Sutra.
A few inscriptions can also be cited to support the idea that
in acient India, land was considered the property of the
village community.
Royal ownership
Much more evidence can be cited to support royal

ownership.
For the earlier period , there are the references in Greek
texts that quote Megasthenes as saying that all land in India
owned by the King.
While the intimate connection between the king and the
earth is frequenctly invoked in ancient Indian texts, there
was several more specific statements in the Dharmasastras
that can be used to argue that the king owned the land and
this was considered the justification for taxation. For
instance, according to Many Smriti, the king is entitled to
half a share of the ore dug out of mines because he is the
land of the earth and gives protection.

The law books of Gupta period reflect the growth of royal

power and authority, and make a stronger assertion of the
king’s ownership of the soil, but also reveals some
ambivalence. The Katyayana Smriti states that the king is
the owner of the soil (bhu-swamin) and hence can claim
1 /4th of the farmers’ produce. However , the very next verse
states that because they dwell on the land, human beings
are declared to be its owners. The Narada Smriti gives the
king the right to divest the peasant of his field and house,
but at the same time, advises him not to resort to such a
drastic measure as these are the householders' means of
subsistence.
An unequivocal assetion of the royal ownership of land is
found in certain later sources such as a commentary on the
Narsimha Puranam, which states that land belong to the
king and not to the cultivators, and in Bhattaswamin’s 12th
century commentary on the Arthasastra, which seems to
justify taxation on the ground of the roal ownership of the
land.
On the other hand, from early times there was school of
thoughts that rejected the idea of king’s ownership of land
and declared taxation to be king’s wages for the protection
he provided to his subjects. Jamini and Shabara were the
strongest proponents of this view.
Inscriptions, specially land grants, have also been cited as
proof of the royal ownership of land. However, although

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land grants indicate that the state or the king owned some
land, they do not necessarily indicate that this applied to all
land. That the king was not the absolute owner of all land is
also indicated by inscriptions recording the purchage of
land by kings for thre purpose of pious donation.
Private property
In north India the institution of private property in land
emerged in about the 6th century BCE. This institution was
well entrenched by 300 to 600 CE. The lawbooks of this
period discuss and distinguish between the issues of
possession, ownership and legal title to property in general
and land in particular. Laws regarding the partition, sell and
mortgage of land are laid down.
Literary references to various types of private land
transactions are matched by those from inscriptions.
Numerous inscriptions record the purchase of land by
individuals for the purpose of donation to Brahmanas or
religious insitutions.
How can all this evidence reconciled ?
Epigraphic references suggesting corporate or communal
ownership are very few and belong to an early period. And
although the village community- or at least its dominant
section- may have had a say in land-related matters, this
did not amount to corporate or communal ownership.

On the other hand, from c. 300 CE onward, literary and

epigraphic evidence can be marshalled to argue for both
royal and private land ownership. While variations in texual
statement cannot be made with regard to the epigraphic
evidence. The answer seems to be that from c. 300 CE
onward, the king was considered the lord of all the land, but
not the owner in the legal sense. Private property in land
existed under tha umbrella of a somewhat vague or largely
theoretical notion opf ultimate royal control, and the king’s
claims did not preclude the rights of private individuals.
Some tracts of land were under direct royal control. Private
ownership prevailed outside these tracts.
It should also be remembered that notions of ownership in
ancient India were not necessarily identical to modern
Western ones, and the sources sometimes suggest a
hierarchy of land rights rather than exclusive or absolute
ownership rights. For instance , one of the Ashrafpur plates
( 7th/8th Century CE) from Bangladesh speaks of a plot of
land that was enjoyed by a person named Shravantara,
cultivates by SHikhara and others, and donated by the king
to a Buddhist monk named Sanghamitra.
The Dharmashashtra views on property-related issues:
• The Gautama Dharmasastra and Manu Smriti describe

ownership rights as consisting of the right to do
whatever the owner wanted to do with the property and
specifically mention the right to sell, gift, and mortage.
• Among the various ways of acquiring property, the

Gautama Dharmasastra mentions inheritance,
purchase, partition, acceptance, and finding.
• The Manu Smriti gives a list of the seven lawful ways
of acquiring wealth- inheritance, finding or donation,
purchase, conquest, lending at interest, doing sone
work for others, and accepting a gift .
• The Brihaspati Smriti mentions seven ways of
acquiring immovable property- through learning,
purchase, mortgage, valor, marriage, inheritance, and
succession to the property of an heirless kinsman.
• The Narada Smriti lists inheritance, gifts made through
love, and gifts brought into the home by the wife as the
three sorts of wealth for all, but goes on to distinguish
between ways in which members of the four varnas
acquire wealth through their pursuit of their specific
vocation.
• On the subject of possession and legal title, the Manu
Smriti states that the field belongs to him who first
removes the weed and the deer to him who first
wounds it. Both the Narada and Brihaspati Smritis state
that long and unterrupted possession is a ground for
claiming ownership of property. The Narad Smriti
states that if the owner of a piece of land is unavailable,
dead, or unable to cultivate his land, a stranger who
tills the land without being opposed by the owner
should be allowed to keep the produce. According to
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the Brihaspati Smriti, if a person has enjoyed

unopposed and uninterrupted possession of land for 30
years, it cannot be taken away from him and the
ownership rights of the original owner stand null and
void. However, this does not apply if the person who is
enjoying the property is a friend or relative of the
original owner. Nor does a king, minister, or learned
Brahmana become legal owner of property simply due
tolong-term possession. According to both the Narada
Smriti and Brihaspati Smriti, if property has been
enjoyed by three generations and has passed into the
fourth, legal title becomes unnecessary and it cannot
be taken away.
• However, these texts conbtain statements to the effect
that long-term possession does not give a person legal
rights over property. The Yajnavalkya and Brihaspati
Smritis distinguish between mere possession of land
and legal title. According to the Brihaspati Smritis and
Narada Smriti, mere possession does not create
proprietory rights; legal title is necessary to validate
possession. The latter test ( Narada Smriti) lays down
rules about illegal possession, and states that a person
who cannot produce evidence of legal title to property
has to be considered as theif , even if he enjoyed
possession for a hundred years.
How far can the ancient Indian Sruti literature be used

as historical sources?
Ans:
“ Sruti” literally means ‘that which has been heard’. In the
hindu tradition, the Vedas have the status of sruti.
Problems in using the Vedas as historical sources:
(1) Vedic texts comprise a religious literature, and
references to possible historical events are a few. The
Vedic corpus was not a popular literature and therefore,
does not necessarily represent popular ideas or practices.
The Vedic literature forms an important part of the
Brahmanical tradition. It reflects their religious beliefs,
practices and points of view.
( 2) A major problem in using the Vedas as a source of
history is the problem of dating the Rig veda. The dates that
have been suggested for the composition of this text ranfe
from 6000 BCE to 1000BCE.
( 3) There are several problems in correlating the evidence
from the Vedas with archaeology.
Upto what extent can it be used as historical sources:
(1) The Vedic texts can be used as sources of history for

the areas in which they were composed. For example: The
family books of the Rig Veda samhita were composed in the

land of sapta- sindhu or the seven rivers that is the Indus, its
five tributaries, and the saraswati ( Ghaggar -Hakra). The
later Vedic texts were composed in the Indo-Gangetic plain
and the upper Ganga Valley.
( 2) The ‘battle of ten kings ’ may be based on an actual
historical incident. The great battle took place on the bank
of the river Parushni( Ravi). There are also references which
show that the political alliances between the tribes were
fluid and shifting.
( 3) There are references of the assemblies like the sabha
( smaller, elite gathering) and samiti ( a larger assembly)
presided over by the the Rajan, the chieftain.
( 4) There are also references of cattle rearing, agricultural
activity, various craft works, slavery etc which shades
important light on the socio-economic life of the
contemporary society.
So for constructing the history of the sub-continent it is
important to carefully juxtapose the
archaeological evidences and the text based evidences
and caution should be made while using the ancient sruti
literature as the source of history.
Write a short essay on: “ The Religion of the Indus

Civilization.”
Ans:
Features of the religion of the Indus Valiev people
1 ) The worship of female goddesses associated with fertility
has long been held as one of the major features of
Harappan religion. For instance , a seal showing a nude
women, head downwards, with her legs apart and a plant
issuing from her vagina is often interpreted as a prototype
of Shakambari, the Earth Mother.
2) The worship of mother goddess- A slim female figure with
a distinctive fan-shaped headdress, wearing a short skirt
and heavily ornamented with necklaces, armlets, bangles,
anklets, and earrings.
3) Harappans also worshipped a male god represented on
a steatite seal discovered at Mohenjodaro, usually referred
to as the Pashupati seal.
• A male figure with a buffalo horn head-dress seated on

a dais with his legs bent double under him, heels
together, toes pointed down.
• He is flanked by four animals- an elephant, rhinoceros,
water buffalo, and a tiger. Beneath the dais are two
antelopes or ibexes.

• There exists a striking resemblance between this deity

and the Shiva of later Hindu mythology.
4) Worship of male and female creative energy in the form
of stone icons of lingas and yonis.
5) The Harappan seals, sealings, amulets, and copper
tablets depict a number of trees, plants, and animals, some
of which may have had cultic significance.
• The Pipal tree appears often and may have been

venerated.
• Some of the animals depicted on the seals and
sealings like the humped and humpless bull, snake,
elephant, rhinoceros, antelope, gharial, and tiger - may
have had cultic significance.
• The composite animals ( tiger -human, bull-elephant,
ram-bull-elephant, etc) and the "unicorn” depicted on
seals and sealings may also have had some sort of
religious or mythological significance.
6) The Great bath was probably the scene of an elite ritual
activity involving ceremonial bathing.
7) The most striking evidence suggesting ritualistic
practices comes from the 'fire altars' found on the citadel
mound at Kalibangan.

"The continuity of the Indus Civilization into later ages

was not confined to the religious and spiritual fields
alone." Analyse the statement.
Ans:
The culture and traditions of the Indus valley Civilisation
have been preserved without a breakdown to the present
day and it includes all walks of life not just the religious and
spiritual fields.
How continuity in the religious and spiritual fields
1 ) The Pashupati of the Harappans shows a remarkable
resemblance to the Shiva of the later Hinduism traditions.
2) Worship of Pipal tree and humped bull still prevalent in
the Indian society.
3) Worship of Shakambari, the Earth mother still continues
in the countryside.
4) Worship of male and female creative energy in the form
of stone icons of lingas and yonis continues to the present
day.
5) Discovery of fire altars in Lothal and Kalibangan gives
indication towards fire cult. Later fire came to occupy a very
important position in Hindu way of worship.
How continuity in other fields
1 ) Pottery - Some of the forms and features of the pots used

by the Harappans can be seen in traditional kitchens even
today.
2) House Plans - People lived in houses of different sizes,
mostly consisting of rooms arranged around a central
courtyard, which can be seen in Indian villages even today.
3) Lost- wax method - It was used in the making of the
famous “ dancing girl” of the Mohenjodaro. This technique is
still used in certain parts of India.
4) Cotton - Mesopotamian texts mention cotton as one of
the imports from Meluhha and traces of cotton cloth were
also found at Mohenjodaro. India still continues to produce
and export cotton.
5) The beginning of the system of binary and decimal and
other measurements and weights which were used by the
Harappans have continued into later India. For example - 1
rupee = 16 annas.
6) Garments-
• Use of dhoti like lower garment which still continues in

the countryside, and
• An upper garment consisting of a shawl or cloak worn
over one shoulder and under the other was in vogue
during the historical periods, for ex - this style is visible
in the images of Buddha also.

7) Use of talisman and amulets still continues in the Indian

society.
8) Some of the symbols like “ Swastik” , ‘‘Circle” etc found on
the Harappan seals remain important till this day.
9) Continuance of dice games, kajal for the eyes kept in jars
with sticks, ivory combs, nose rings, bangles, rosary etc
continues.
10) Cultivation of crops like wheat, barley, rice, etc continue
even today.
11) Separate bathing areas and toilets have been found in
many houses of the Harappan civilization. This can be seen
in the countryside till now.
12) The Harappans made elaborate arrangements for water
for drinking and bathing . The emphasis on providing water
for bathing suggests that they were very particular about
personal hygiene. This consciousness for personal hygiene
can still be witnessed in the Indian society.
13) The practice of building ritual bathing tanks and taking
holy bath and ablution can be traced back directly to the
Harappan period.
Thus it would be appropriate to say that the continuity of the
Indus Civilization into later ages covers all the walks of life
not just the religious and spiritual fields.

Write a short essay on: “ The burial customs in the

Indus Civilization.”
Ans:
Harappan cemeteries have been located at sites such as
Harappa, Kalibangan, Lothal, Rakhigarhi, Surkotada etc.
The most common method of burial was to place the body
of the deceased in an extended position, with the head
towards the north, in a simple pit or brick chamber.
Grave goods include food, pottery, tools, and ornaments
but they were never too many or lavish. Clearly, the
Harappans preferred to use wealth in life rather than bury it
with their dead.
Normally, no coffin, structurally or orherwise was used but
at Harappa , archaeologists found a woman’ s body in a
wooden coffin lined with reed mats.
At Kalibangan, symbolic burials with grave goods but no
skeletons were found.
Fractional burials ( where the body was exposed to the
elements and the bones then gathered and buried) were
found at Mohenjodaro and Harappa.
Mohenjodaro and Harappa also gave evidence of urn
burials which point towards the existence of practice of
cremation.
Multiple burials of men and women were discovered at

Lothal. A unique funerary rite involving the simultaneous
burial of two persons in the same grave-pit was observed
at Lothal.
At Ropar cemetery, the body was laid in the grave with head
to the north- west normally but in one case, the orientation
was north- south.
Interestingly Harappan burials show little evidence of social
hierarchies, unlike Mesopotamian or Egyptian where some
interments may indicate considerable wealth.
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Analyze the elements of urban civilization in the

Harappan Culture. What factors were responsible for
its decline?
OR
How do you account for the decline of the
major cities of the Indus Valley Civilization ?
Ans:
A sophisticated and technologically advanced urban culture
is evident in the Indus Valley Civilization.
Elements of urban civilization in the Harappan culture
1 ) Town Planning - The settlements were planned. The
streets and houses of Harappan cities were laid on a grid-
pattern oriented north- south and east - west. Roads were
straight and cross each- other at right angles thus dividing
the city into several rectangular blocks.
2) Great Bath- The Great bath at Mohenjodaro is a unique
example . The floor and walls of the tank were made water
tight by finely fitted fitted bricks laid edge to edge with
gypsum mortar. A thick layer of bitumen was laid along the
sides of the tank making this one of the earliest examples
of waterproofing in the world.
3) Naval Dockyard - Dockyard of Lothal is the most
distinctive feature of the site. It is roughly trapezoidal basin,

enclosed by walls of burnt bricks. The dockyard had

provisions for maintaining a regular level of water by means
of a sluice gate and a spill channel.
4) Drainage systems- An efficient and well-planned
drainage system is the notable feature of the Harappan
settlements. The main drains were covered by corbelled
arches made of brick or stone slabs. The drains for
collecting rainwater were separate from the sewage chutes
and pipes.
5) Granary
The largest building in Mohenjodaro is a granary measuring
150 feet length and 50 feet breadth. But in the citadel of
Harappa we find as many as six granaries.
6) Art and architecture
( a) The advanced architecture of the Harappans is shown
by their impressive dockyards, granaries, great bath,
warehouses, brick platforms, and protective walls. The
massive walls of Indus cities most likely protected the
Harappans from floods.
(b) The Harappan sculpture revealed a high degree of
workmanship. Figures of men and women, animals and
birds made of terracotta and the carvings on the seals show
the degree of proficiency attained by the sculptor.

( c) The figure of a dancing girl from Mohenjodaro made of

bronze is remarkable for its workmanship. Its right hand
rests on the hip, while the left arm, covered with bangles,
hangs loosely in a relaxed posture.
( d) Two stone statues from Harappa, one representing the
back view of a man and the other of a dancer are also
specimens of their sculpture.
( e) The pottery from Harappa is another specimen of the
fine arts of the Indus people. The pots and jars were painted
with various designs and colours. Painted pottery is of
better quality.
7) Trade and Commerce
Most city dwellers appear to have been traders or artisans,
who lived with others pursuing the same occupation in well-
defined neighbourhoods. Materials from distant regions
were used in the cities for constructing seals, beads and
other objects. Both external and internal trade flourished.
8) Citadel
Harappa, Mohenjodaro and Kalibangan each had its own
citadel built on a high podium of mud brick . Below the
citadel in each city lay a lower town containing brick houses,
which were inhabited by the common people.
9) Factories and workshops

Factories and workshops related to bead making, seal

making, shell working, making of stone weights etc have
been found at several places.
10) Standardization
Standardization of crafts as well as weights and measures
is displayed. A shell scale, an ivory scale and a shell object
to measure angles have been found.
11) Harappan script and writing
The Harappan script has not been deciphered. The number
of signs is between 400 and 600 of which 40 or 60 are basic
and the rest are their variants. The script was mostly written
from right to left. The Dholavira signboard may indicate a
high level of urban literacy and a civic use of writing.
Examining the causes of its decline-
1 ) Aryan invasion theory- put forward by Ramprasad
Chanda and Mortimer Wheeler. They put forward the idea
that the civilization was destroyed by Aryan invaders.
However, the archaeological evidences show the absence
of any such invasion and hence this theory, though most
popular, is not accepted.
2) Shereen Ratnaaar - Ratnagar has argued that the
decline in the lapis lazuli trade with Mesopotamia was a
factor in the decline of the Harappan civilization. But this
trade was not much important for the Harappans and

consequently, this could not have been a factor responsible

for the decline.
3) Natural disasters like Floods, Tectonic Movements,
Shifting of the Indus as the cause of decline
a) M.R. Sahni, Robert L. Raikes and George F. Dales

- They argued that the repeated episodes of Indus
floods were responsible for the decline of the cities.
They argued that the floods were result of the tectonic
movements. The tectonic movements led to the
creation of a gigantic dam, turning the whole area
Mohenjodaro into a huge lake. However , this theory of
flooding induced by tectonic movements is not
convincing.
b) H.T. Lambrick - His hypothesis is that the Indus
changed its course, moving some 30 miles eastwards,
starving Mohenjodaro and its inhabitants of water.
However , Lambrick himself describes it as purely
circumstantial evidence.
4) Ecological Imbalance Theory by Fairservis - Making
estimates of the population, land, food, and fodder
requirements on the basis of modern data, Fairservis
suggests that the civilization declined because the growing
population of people and cattle could not be supported from
the resources within the Harappan culture zone. Of all the

theories discussed so far, Fairservis's theory seems to be

the most plausible.
5) Monsoon Link Theory of 2012- It is presented by Ronojoy
Adhikari, Liviu Giosan and others. This theory holds the
climate change responsible for the decline of the Harappan
civilization.
According to this theory, around 4000 BCE there existed
extreme monsoon climate which was not favourable for the
rise of civilization but with the weakening of the monsoon,
the climate became favourable for the rise of the mighty
harappan civilization and with the further weakening of the
monsoon, the climate became again unfavourable which
led to the decline of the civilization. The example of this
further weakening is the disappearance of the Saraswati
river which was rainfed not Glacier -fed.
This theory is based on the latest archaeological evidence
and research and tries to explain the decline of the
Harappan civilization on the basis of the ecological
degradation.
Evaluate the significance of seals and sealings in the

reconstruction of socio-economic and religious life of
the Harappan people.
Ans:
Seal making was an important Harappan craft. Most of the
seals are square or rectangular. A few cylindrical and round
seals have also been found. Most of the seals are made of
steatite, but there are a few silver, faience, and calcite ones
as well. Most of the seals have a short inscription.
Significance in the reconstruction of religious life of the

Harappan people :
1 ) The sealings with the narrative scenes may have had

religious or ritualistic function.
2) A seal showing a nude woman, head downwards, with
her legs apart and a plant issuing from her vagina is often
intrepreted as a prototype of Shakambari, the Earth Mother.
3) Harappans also worshipped a male god represented on
a steatite seal discovered at Mohenjodaro, usually referred
to as the Pashupati seal.
a) A male figure with a buffalo horn head-dress seated on a
dais with his legs bent double under him, heels together,
toes pointed down.
b) He is flanked by four animals - an elephant, rhinoceros,
water buffalo, and a tiger. Beneath the dais are two
antelopes or ibexes.
c) There exists a striking resemblance between this deity
and the Shiva of later Hindu mythology.

4) The Harappan seals and sealings depict a number of

trees, plants, and animals, some of which may have cultic
significance.
a) The Pipal tree appears often and may have been
venerated.
b) Some of the animals depicted on the seals and sealings
like the humped and humpless bull, snake, elephant,
rhinoceros, antelope, gharial, and tiger - may have had cultic
significance.
c) The composite animals (tiger -human, bull-elephant, ram-
bull-elephant, etc) and the ’’unicorn” depicted on seals and
sealings may also have had some sort of religious or
mythological significance.
Significance in the reconstruction of socio- economic

life of the Harappan people:
1 ) A Kalibangan cylinder seal shows a woman flanked by

two men who hold her with one hand and raise swords over
her head with the other , this may represent the prevalence
of human sacrifice.
2) Most of the writings appear on the seals and sealings.
The writings on the seals was probably the language of the
ruling elite. Most of the inscriptions are very short, with an
average of five signs.
3) Seals provide information about the dresses, ornaments,
hair-styles of people.
4) Seals also exhibit skill of artists and sculptors.
5) Both river boats and seafaring boats are depicted on the
seals. They may have been used for both internal and
external trade.
6) A number of Harappan seals have been found in Central

Asia, Persian Gulf, Mesopotamian sites which help in
reconstruction of the external trade networks of the
Harappans-
a) A silver seal, a rectangular harappan seal bearing the
Harappan script at the south Turkeminstan.
b) The sites in Iran have yielded seals.
c) A round seal with a short -horned bull motif and Harappan
writing found in the Persian Gulf . A flat, round seal with the
Harappan script also found in the Persian Gulf.
d) Seals with Harappan motifs and writings on the island of
Bahrain.
e) Harappan or harappan-related seals at Mesopotamian
sites.
f ) Certain motifs such as the bull on the Mesopotamian
seals have been cited as reflecting Harappan influence.
Cylinder seals with Harappan-motifs suggest interaction
between merchants of these two areas.
7) Some of the writings were impressed onto small moist
clay tablets known as sealings, probably by merchants to
authenticate their bales of merchandise. The evidence of
textile impressions on some sealings support this
interpretation.
8) Some of the seals may have been tokens used in the
buying and selling of goods.
9) They may also have been worn as amulets or used as
identification markers by the well-to-do people like
landowners, merchants, priests, artisans and rulers.
10) Some of the seals may bear names, titles, and symbols
of the ruling elites and could throw important light on the
Harappan rulers, if the writing could be read.

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11) Kenoyer suggests that the animals on the square stamp

seals represent totemic symbols standing for a specific
clan, perhaps along with some additional information. At
least 10 clans or communities are represented by these
animals- the unicorn, humped bull, elephant, water buffalo,
rhinoceros, humped bull with short horns, goat, antelope,
crocodile, and hare.
12) According to Ratnagar, the large number of unicorn
seals at major cities suggest that the unicorn was the
symbol of the Harappan ruling elite.
13) Kenoyer , on the other hand, argues that the “ unicorn
clan” probably represented the aristocracy or merchants
who had an important executive role in the government. It
is in fact the less frequent motifs such as the bull, elephant,
rhinoceros, and tiger that may have been symbols of the
most powerful rulers at the apex of the Harappan power
structure.
The seals and sealings can be extremely significant in the
reconstruction of socio-economic and religious life of the
Harappan people if they are used along with the other
literary and archaeological evidences.
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Discuss the water management and its conservation

planning in the Harappan ( Indus- Saraswati) cities.
Ans:
Water management and its conservation planning in the
Harappan cities:
(1) An efficient and well-planned drainage system is a

notable feature of Harappan settlements. The main drains
were covered by corbelled arches made of brick or stone
slabs.
( 2) The drains for collecting rainwater were separate from
the sewage chutes and pipes.
( 3) They made elaborate arrangements for water for
drinking and bathing. The sources of water were rivers,
wells, and reservoirs or cisterns.
( 4) The Great bath at Mohenjodaro is a unique example.
The floor and walls of the tank were made water tight by
finely fitted bricks laid edge to edge with gypsum mortar. A
thick layer of bitumen was laid along the sides of the tank
making this one of the earliest examples of waterproofing in
the world.
( 5) In the city of Mohenjodaro, there may have been more
than 700 wells. Most houses or house blocks had at least
one private well. Many neighbourhoods had public wells
along the main street.
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( 6) In Allahdino ( Near Karachi), the wells had very small

diameter to enable the ground water to rise higher due to
hydraulic pressure. It may have been used to irrigate the
nearby fields.
( 7) Dockyard of Lothal is the most distinctive feature of the
site. It is roughly trapezoidal basin, enclosed by walls of
burnt bricks. The dockyard had provisions for maintaining a
regular level of water by means of a sluice gate and a spill
channel.
( 8) The city of Dholavira had an impressive and unique
water harvesting and management system. Dams were
built across two streams- Manhar and Mandsar to
channelize their water into reservoirs. Several large, deep
water cisterns and reservoirs have been found which
preserved precious stores of rain water.
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Do you think the Harappan civilization had a diversity

of subsistence base?
Ans:
The Harappan civilisation covered an enormous area and
the diversity of the subsistence base was an important
sustaining factor - if one food resource failed, people could
turn to others.
Diversity of the subsistence base
( 1) Agriculture
It was the mainstay of the subsistence base. Given the area

covered by the civilization, there were regional variations in
the plants grown by the farmers. The crop remains identified
include rice, wheat, barley, sesame, watermelon seeds,
peas, dates, millets, horse gram, green gram, etc. In
addition to these, there were also evidences of grapes,
cotton and henna.
( 2) Animal husbandry
Harappan sites have yielded remains of domesticated

animals such as humped and humpless cattle, buffalo,
sheep, and goat. Cattle and buffaloes were the most
domesticated animals. They were used for meat, milk and
draught animals. Goats and sheep were used for meat,
wool, milk and as pack animals. Dog figurines suggest the
domestication of this animal.
( 3) Hunting
Bones of wild animals have been found at the Harappan

sites. These include many varieties of deer, pig, boar,
sheep, goat, ass and pig. Rhinoceros bones occur only at
Amri and elephant and camel bones occur only in small
quantities.
The animals like rhinoceros, elephant, tiger, rabbits,
peacocks, pigeons, ducks, monkeys etc appear on seals,
represented in figurines and paintings on pottery.
( 4) Fishing and exploitation of riverine and marine

resources
Bones of tortoise and fish have also been found. The

discovery of marine catfish bones at Harappa suggests that
coastal communities traded in dried fish in inland cities. At
coastal sites in Gujarat, molluscs provided an important
protein-rich element in people’s diet .
Therefore, it can be concluded that the agriculture , animal

husbandry, hunting and
fisheries constituted the diverse subsistence base of the
Harappan civilization.
The decline of Harappan civilization was caused by

ecological degradation rather than external invasion.
Discuss.
Ans:
Aryan Invasion Theory
The idea that the civilization was destroyed by the Aryan
invaders was put forward by Ramprasad Chanda in 1926.lt
was later elaborated by Mortimer Wheeler in 1947.
This idea was supported by the references in the Rig veda
to various kind of forts, attacks on walled cities, and the
epithet Purandara ( destroyer of forts) given to the god
Indra. He also identified a place called Hariyupiya in the Rig
Veda with Harappa, where Aryan fought the battle.
It has been pointed out that in the late phases of occupation
at Mohenjodaro there are evidences of a massacre. Human
skeletons have been found lying on the streets.
Problems with Aryan invasion theory
(1) The evidence from the Rig Veda is far from conclusive.
There are no archaeological records to support this theory.
There is, in fact, no evidence of any kind of military assault
or conflict at any Harappan site.

The human bodies lying exposed in the street could have

been caused by raids of bandits from surrounding hilly
tracks.
( 2) The provisional date for the decline of the Harappan
civilization is believed to be 1800 B.C. The Aryans on the
other hand are believed to have arrived here not earlier than
a period around 1500 B.C. So, the Harappans and the
Aryans are unlikely to have met each other.
The later research has shown that the dates as well as the
pace of decline varied from site to site. The decline in
Mohenjodaro had set in by 2200 BCE but the civilization
continued at many places till 1800 BCE. While
Mohenjodaro and Dholavira give a picture of gradual
decline, at Kalibangan and Banawali, the city life ended all
of sudden.
Ecological degradation theory
( 1) Scholars like Fairservis tried to explian the decay of the

Harappan civilization in terms of the problems of ecology.
According to him, the delicaye ecological balance of the
semi-arid areas was being disturbed because the human
and caytle population was fast depleting the scanty forests,
food and fuel resources. The combined needs of the
Harappan townsmen, peasants and pastoralists exceeded
the limited production capacities of these areas. Thus, a

COWACT No. 7011446954 EMML IDS SaFSTlJOyH1STORT8GMAILCOM
growing population of men and animals comfronted by

scanty resources wore out the landscape.
With forests and grass cover gradually disappearing, there
were more floods and droughts. This depletion of the
subsistence base caused strain on the entire economy pf
the civilization. There seems to have been a gradual
movement away to areas which offered better sussistence
possibilities. That is why the Harappan communities moved
towards Gujarat and the eastern areas, away from the
Indus.
Though there are some concerns in this theory (for
example: the enduring fertility of soils of the Indian sub-
continent over the subsequent millennia disaproves the
hypothesis of soil exhaustion), but still it explains the
decline in the best way.
( 2) The Rise and fall of the harappan civilization is also
explained by the Monsoon Link Theory of 2012.lt is
presented by Ronojoy Adhikari, Liviu Giosan and others.
According to this theory it is the climate change which is
responsible for the decline of the harappan civilization.
According to this theory, around 4000 BCE there existed
extreme monsoon climate which was not favourable for the
rise of civilization but with the weakening of the monsoon,
the climate became favourable for the rise of the mighty
harappan civilization and with the further weakening of the
monsoon, the climate became again unfavourable which
led to the decline of the civilization. The example of this

further weakening is the disappearance of the Saraswati
river was rainfed not Glacier fed.
This theory is based on the latest archaeological evidence
and research and best explains the decline of the Harappan
civilization on the basis of the ecological degradation rather
than the Aryan Invasion.
Discuss the extent, settlement patterns and

subsistence economy of the megalithic cultures.
Ans:
The word “ megalith” comes from two Greek words, megas
meaning great or big and lithos meaning stone. Megaliths
include different kinds of monuments that have one thing in
common- they are made of large, roughly dressed slabs of
stone.
Extent of the megalithic cultures
In the Indian subcontinent, they occur in the far south, the
Deccan Plateau, the Vindhyan and Aravalli ranges, and the
north-west. However, their main concentration lies in
Deccan and far South.
Some of the important sites in Maharashtra and South India
are Takalghat-khapa, Naikund, Borgaon, Junapani,
Adichanallur, Korkai, Brahmagiri, Maski, T. Narsipur, Hallur,
Nagarjunakonda etc.
Settlement patterns of the megalithic cultures
(1) The megalithic people lived in villages consisting of a
sizeable population. Though they had a bias for the urban
life, they were slow in building huge cities like their
contemporaries in the Gangetic Valley.

( 2) The houses in which the megalithic people lived

probably consisted of huts with thatched or reed roofs,
supported on wooden posts as indicated by the presence
of postholes in the excavated sites. At Brahmagiri and
Maski were found postholes indicating the presence of
timber construction for ordinary buildings.
( 3) Recent study of the megaliths of Tamil Nadu suggests
that the location of megalithic sites close to irrigation tanks
( mostly rain fed, some fed by streams) was more than a
coincidence.
Megalithic sites are mostly found in areas where intensive
agriculture was possible. The large concentration of
megalithic sites in river valleys and basins and preference
shown towards occupying black soil, red sandy-loamy soil
zones also supports this contention. The distribution pattern
of these sites in rainfall zones where the average annual
precipitation is 600-1500 mm, also hints to the same
conclusion.
( 4) Megalithic sites were initially understood as settlements
of nomadic pastoralists but the evidences clearly suggest
sedentary living.
Subsistence economy of the megalithic cultures
(1 ) Agriculture
The basis of their economy was agriculture. The megalith
builders were responsible for the introduction of the
advance methods of agriculture on a large scale, based

onirrigation. The megalithic builders introduced the ‘tank -
irrigation’ in South India.
The crop remains identified include rice, lentil, barley,
pulses, ragi, millets, horse gram, green gram, etc. In
addition to these, location of sites near water sources and
agricultural implements also suggest the existence of
agriculture.
( 2) Animal husbandry
Scores of megalithic sites have yielded evidence of the
remains of the domesticated animals like cattle,sheep,
goat, dog, pig, horse, buffalo, fowl, ass, etc.
Cattle (including buffalo) predominates over other
domesticated species.
The occurrence of the remains of domesticated pig and fowl
suggests pig rearing and poultry farming on a small scale
at many of the sites.
(3) Hunting
Frequent occurrence of bones of wild animals and
equipment for hunting, like arrowheads, spears point
towards this.
There are rock paintings of hunting scenes, showing
peahens, peacocks, stags and antelopes.
(4 ) Fishing
The evidence in the form of terracotta net sinkers from

Takalghat and fish-hooks from Khapa besides the actual
skeletal remains of fish from Yelleshwaram reflect that
fishing was also practised.
In what ways can the Megalithic culture be considered

a foundational phase of the history of peninsular India ?
Ans:
The word “ megalith” comes from two Greek words, megas
meaning great or big and lithos meaning stone. Megaliths
include different kinds of monuments that have one thing in
common- they are made of large, roughly dressed slabs of
stone.
Megalithic culture can be considered a foundational phase
of the history of peninsular India in the following ways:
(1 ) Beginning of the sedentary life
Megalithic communities lived on a combination of
agriculture, hunting, fishing, and animal husbandry. There
is also evidence of craft traditions. These features, along
with the megalithic monuments themselves, suggest
sedentary living.
( 2) Widespread use of iron
Iron objects generally outnumber objects made of other
metals. The large volume and variety of iron artefacts
include utensils, weapons (arrowheads, spearheads,
swords, knives, etc.), carpentry tools (axes, chisels, adzes,
etc.), and agricultural implements (sickles, hoes, coulters).
(3) Well- developed traditions of specialized crafts

• Different kinds of pottery have been found, including

BRW.
• There is also evidence of bead making. Grave goods
include etched carnelian beads and beads of other
materials as well.
• There are copper and bronze artefacts such as
utensils, bowls, and bangles; a few silver and gold
ornaments also occur .
(4 ) Development of metallurgy
Different sorts of metallurgical techniques were used in the
manufacture of metal artefacts. Some of the copper and
bronze objects were evidently cast in moulds, others were
hammered into shape. Some communities knew how to
alloy metals. There is also evidence of local smelting of iron
at Paiyampalli (karnataka) .
(5) Beginning of trade
Some megalithic sites were centres of craft production
linked to networks of exchange. This is suggested by the
location of several large megalithic settlements on the trade
routes of the early historical period. Inter -regional trade is
also suggested by the distribution of non-local items of
precious metals and semi-precious metals.
(6) Rock paintings

Paintings found at the megalithic sites show fighting

scenes, cattle raids, hunting scenes, scenes of people
dancing in groups, horse raiders , flora, birds, sunmotifs etc.
(7) Community work
The construction of the megaliths must have involved
community endeavour. These monuments must have been
sites of rituals that formed an important part of the social
and cultural lives of people. The practice of making
megaliths continues among certain tribal communities of
India.
Write a short essay on: “ Vedic rituals”

Ans:
Rig Veda reflects the beliefs and practices of a religious
aristocracy and its patrons. The Rig Veda indicates a
diversity of religious practices. The Vedic hymns divide the
universe into the sky ( dyu), earth (prthivi) and the middle
realm (antariksha).
Deities were worshipped through prayer and sacrificial
rituals (yajnas) . The sacrifice marked a movement from the
every day, mundane sphere of activity and experience to
the sacred sphere. The gods are presented as powerful,
mostly benevolent beings, who could be made to intervene
in the world of men via the performance of sacrifices.
Sacrifices took place in the house of the yajmana or on a
specially prepared plot of land nearby. They consisted
mostly of oblations of milk, ghee and grain poured into the
fire accompanied by the recitation of appropriate sacrificial
formulae. Some yajnas involved the sacrifice of animals.
The gods were supposed to partake of the offerings as they
were consumed by the fire. A part of the offerings were
eaten by the officiating priests. The goals of the sacrifices
included wealth, good health, sons and long life for the
yajmanas.
Some sacrifices were simple, domestic affairs, performed
by the house holders. Others required the participations of

rituals specialists. Seven types of sacrificial priests are

mentioned in the Rig Veda - each with his particular tasks
clearly laid down. The priests were given dakshina (fee) in
return for the important duties they performed.
In later Vedic times, sacrifices had become longer, more
elaborate and expensive. The sacrifice was presented as
the act that created the world and the current performance
of the sacrifice was seen as necessary to regulate life and
the word. The god Prajapati, who is closely identified with
sacrifice, is the most important deities in the Brahmana
texts.
The agnihotra was a simple domestic sacrifice to be
performed daily by a head of a dvija household, morning
and evening. It involved the pouring of oblations of milk into
the fire to the god Agni. There were also the periodic new
moon and full moon sacrifices and those performed at the
beginning of the three seasons.
The dakshina given to priests became larger and larger as
the sacrifices became longer and more complicated.
A number of complex sacrificial rituals were associated with
kingship:
i. The Vajapeya sacrifice was connected with the
attainment of power and prosperity and also
contained a number of fertility rites. It included a
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ritual chariot in which the rajan raced against his

kinsmen and defeated them.
ii. The Ashvamedha was a sacrifice associated with
claims to political paramountcy and incorporated
horse sacrifice and several fertility rites.
iii. The Raiasuva was the royal consecration
ceremony. Apart from a number of agrarian fertility
rites, it included a ritual cattle raid in which the rajan
raided the cattle of his kinsmen and also a game of
dice which the king won. At a larger, symbolic level,
in the Rajasuya, the king was presented as a
standing in the centre of the cyclical processes of
regeneration of the universe.
Other important Vedic rituals
i. Garbhadhana: A ceremony to promote conception in
women.
ii. Pumsavam : A ceremony to procure a male child.
iii. Semontonnavam: A ceremony to ensure the safety
of the child in the womb.
iv. Jatkarma: A birth ceremony performed before the
cutting of the umbilical cord.
v. Culakarma: A ceremony, also known as tonsure,
performed for boys in their third year.
vi. Upanavana: An initiation ceremony to status to boys
of the higher varnas in their eighth year.

Give a brief account of the social and economic

conditions of the Later Vedic Aryans.
OR
Describe the social life of the later Vedic people. How
was it different from the Rig Vedic life?
Ans:
Economic life
Agriculture - Agriculture continued to be the chief
occupation of the people. The furrow ( Sita) was known. The
Satapatha Brahmana classified agricultural operations as
‘ploughing, sowing, reaping and threshing’. The use of
manure was well understood for increasing production.
Many kinds of grains were grown - such as barley, rice
wheat, beans, sesamum and masura (lentils ) . There were
two harvests in a year.
Service groups- The expansion of the Aryans coupled with
the increase in the material prosperity gave rise to
numerous occupations to meet the growing needs of the
people. Thus, there were fishermen, fire -rangers,
ploughers, weavers, dyers, washermen, barbers, butchers,
footmen, messengers, makers of jewels, baskets, ropes,
chariots, and bows, smiths, potters, professional acrobats,
and musicians.

Industry related occupations -The development of

industries brought in its train numerous new professions like
boatmen, helmsmen, oarsmen, money -lender ( Kusidi),
merchants or Sreshthis who organized themselves into
guilds. The astrologer formed an important part of the life of
a village. Women were employed as dyers, embroiderers or
basket-makers.
Trade - A certain amount of sea-borne trade was carried on.
Coinage- There was no regular system of currency of
coinage. But some improvised coinage like Krishnala,
Satamana and nishka made their appearance. Krishnala
berry was a unit of weight which usually weighed one ratti,
that is, 1.8 grains. Satamana, a piece of gold equivalent to
weight of 100 Krishnalas, was used by the merchants as
currency. The nishka replaced the cow as a unit of value.
Use of metals - The advance of civilization was marked by
the extended use of metals - gold (hiranya), silver (rajata),
bronze (ayas), iron (krishnayas ) , copper (red ayas), lead
( sisa) . Gold and silver were used to make ornaments.
Social life
Sedentary society - The later Vedic period witnessed a
transformation of the pastoral society to a sedentary
agrarian society.

Varna system - The doctrine of Varnasrama Dharma and

Chathurvarna were introduced during this period. The later
Vedic society was divided into four varnas namely
Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. The hymn
in the later Vedic text portion for the first time describes the
origin of the four varnas. The Brahmins formed the priestly
class. The Kshatriyas were trained in war fare, the vaishyas
in trade and agriculture. And the shudras took to menial
jobs.
Varnashrama Dharma - It prescribed the Ashramas or the
four stages of life, that of the Brahmachari or student, the
Grihastha or householder, the vanaprastha or hermit and
the Sanyasi or ascetic. The later Vedic texts in general
describe only three Ashrams. And the fourth stage has not
been well established at that time. But the Upanishads
mentioned the fourth stage also.
Jati system - The Jati occurs in a later Vedic text and is used
in the sense of an extended family. The stress on kinship
ties was further emphasized by the use of the word Jati.
While Varna decided the ritual status of a person. ‘Jati’
decided the actual status. Jati slowly became the gauge of
a more precise assessment of the socio economic status of
a group. Later, it was used in the sense of caste , implying
an endogamous kinship group with specialised occupations
and service relationship reflecting an increase in social

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stratification. In course of time each Jati came to have its

own religious observances.
Condition of women - There was a marked deterioration in
the status of women during this period. Daughters were
regarded as a source of misery. Women were deprived of
their right to attend the Samiti. They had no right to inherit
property. Thus they became mere dependents of their
fathers, husbands or sons.
Habitations- The people continued to live in wooden or
thatched houses with walls, plastered with clay. The better
houses had a store -room , ladies room , men’ s general living
room and a hall for fire worships.
Food habits - Food and drink remained the same as early
Vedic times. Rice, porridge made of grain, barley, milk ,
curds , ghi, sesame , meat were the common food.
Generally, meat was taken on festive occasions. Drinking
of Sura was condemned which goaded men to vicious path.
Dressing sense - Dress usually consisted of three garments
- an undergarment (nivi), a garment proper ( vasas), and an
over -garment ( adhi- vasas) . The turban was worn both by
men and women.
Diseases and its cure - Knowledge of medicine was
anything but elementary. The use of medicinal herbs in
combination with magical spells betrayed the primitive
system of curing diseases. The use of sandbands to stop

bleeding is interesting. An accurate observation in the

Samkhayana Brahmana that sickness was particularly
prevalent at the time of change of a season. It showed the
unmistakable influence of nature on man’s physical
constitution.
Changes in Social life of Later Vedic society
1 ) Sedentary life -
In the later Vedic period, agriculture had
become an important activity of the people. So there
occurred a transformation of the pastoral society to a
sedentary agrarian society.
2) Changes in importance of deities - Changes in the
material life naturally resulted in a change in their attitude
towards gods and goddesses too . Continuous interactions
with the local non- Aryan population also contributed to
these changes. Thus, Vishnu and Rudra which were
smaller deities in the Rigveda became extremely important.
3) Increase in importance of sacrifices and ritual- Another
important feature was the increase in the frequency and
number of the yajnas which generally ended with the
sacrifices of a large number of animals. This was probably
the result of the growing importance of a class of
brahmanas and their efforts to maintain their supremacy in
the changing society. Some of the important yajnas were -
ashvamedha, vajapeya, rajasuya etc.

4) Deterioration of condition of women - There was a

marked deterioration in the status of women during this
period. Daughters were regarded as a source of misery.
Women were deprived of their right to attend the Samiti.
They had no right to inherit property. Thus they became
mere dependents of their fathers, husbands or sons.
5) Varna system - The hymn in the later Vedic text for the
first time describes the origin of the four varnas. The
doctrine of Varnasrama - Dharma and Chathurvarna were
introduced during this period. The later Vedic society was
divided into four varnas namely Brahmanas, Kshatriyas,
Vaishyas and Shudras. The Brahmins formed the priestly
class. The Kshatriyas were trained in war fare, the vaishyas
in trade and agriculture. And the shudras took to menial
jobs.
Evaluate the various approaches to the understanding

of Vedic religion.
Ans:
The Rig Veda reflects a naturalistic polytheism
It is a belief in many gods who personified natural
phenomena. The connection is clear in some cases from
the very name of the deities, as in the case of Agni ( Fire ),
Surya ( the Sun), and Ushas (Dawn).
The gods were conceived of as anthropomorphic, i.e., as
having a physical form similar to that of humans. The level
of detail varies, but mention is often made of their head,
face, mouth, hair, hands , feet, clothes, and weapons.
Henotheism or Kathenotheism
Though some gods are mentioned more than others in the
Rig Veda, but there is no fixed order of importance nor a
fixed pantheon. Whichever deity is invoked in a particular
hymn is spoken of as a supreme god. Max Muller described
this phenomenon as Henotheism or Kathenotheism. In
other words, in reference to the Vedas, Muller explained
that each deity is treated as supreme in turn.
Kathenotheism means the worship of one god at a time. It
is closely related to henotheism, the worship of one god
while not rejecting the existence of other gods.

Monism and Monotheism

The Vedas and the Upanishads preach and propagate
neither pantheism nor polytheism but monotheism and
monism. There are many Gods, but they represent different
aspect of the same Reality. Monism and monotheism are
found intertwined.
In many passages of Vedas, ultimate Reality is represented
as immanent, while in other passages ultimate Reality is
represented as transcendent . Monism sees Brahman as
the ultimate Reality, while monotheism represents the
personal form of Brahman. Taittriya Upanishad states that
Brahman is that form, from which all beings are born, that
by which they are sustained and that into which they enter
into death. Brahman is the eternal and imperishable reality
in the universe.
Other view is that the Vedas contain sparse monism and
has some degree of pantheism also.
Vedic Religion as a sacrificial cult
Purusha- Sukta describes creation as a result of a primordial
sacrifice. A hymn to the god Vishwakarman imagines the
creator god as the first sacrificer and the sacrificial offering.
The Brahmana texts reflect a situation where sacrifices has
become longer, more elaborate and expensive. A sacrifice
is presented as the act that created the world and the

correct performance of sacrifice was seen as necessary to

regulate life and the world.
The god Prajapati, who is most closely identified with
sacrifice, is the most important deities in the Brahmanas.
The Vajapeya, Ashwamegha and Rajasuya were the
complex sacrificial rituals associated with kingship whereas
Agnihotra was a simple domestic sacrifice.
Agnosticism and atheism
Belief in the gods is questioned in the Rigveda as well as
the belief in the alleged greatness of certain gods, for
example: Indra. Rig Vedic hymns asks: “ Whoever has seen
Indra. If he has not been seen, why should one believe in
his existence?”
A hymn in the Rig Veda Samhita is the following: “ Who has
seen the primeval being at the time of his being born, what
is that in endowed with substance which the unsubstantial
sustains..from earth are the breadth and blood, but where
is the soul. ”
The views expressed in the Swasanvad Upanishad have
been summarized by the writer of Samkhya Sutra : “ There
is no incarnation, no god, no heaven, no hell; all traditional
religious literature is the work of conceited fools ; nature, the
originator and time, the destroyer, are the rulers of things

and take no account of virtue or vice in awarding happiness

or misery to men.”
Examine the view that sacrifice was a ritual and a form

of social exchange in Vedic India.
Ans:
Deities were worshipped through prayer and sacrificial
rituals ( yajnas). The sacrifice marked a movement from
every day, mundane sphere of activity and experience to
the sacred sphere. The gods are presented as powerful,
mostly benevolent beings, who could be made to intervene
in the world of men via the performance of sacrifices.
The goals of the sacrifices included wealth, herd, good
crops , success in skirmishes & raids, good health, sons and
long life for the yajmanas. The ritual of sacrifice was
believed to sustain the well-being of the clan and the
system.
Examining sacrifice as a ritual in Vedic India
Sacrifices took place in the house of the yajmana or on a
specially prepared plot of land nearby. They consisted
mostly of oblations of milk, ghee and grain poured into the
fire accompanied by the recitation of appropriate sacrificial
formulae. Some yajnas involved the sacrifice of animals.
The gods were supposed to partake of the offerings as they
were consumed by the fire. A part of the offerings was eaten
by the officiating priests.

Some sacrifices were simple, domestic affairs, performed

by the house holders. Others required the participations of
rituals specialists. Seven types of sacrificial priests are
mentioned in the Rig Veda - each with his particular tasks
clearly laid down.
The agnihotra was a simple domestic sacrifice to be
performed daily by a head of a dvijahousehold, morning
and evening. It involved the pouring of oblations of milk into
the fire to the god Agni. There were also the periodic new
moon and full moon sacrifices and those performed at the
beginning of the three seasons.
Soma was a ritual drink mentioned in Rig Veda which was
used during sacrificial ritual.
In later Vedic times, sacrifices had become longer , more
elaborate and expensive. The sacrifice was presented as
the act that created the world and the current performance
of the sacrifice was seen as necessary to regulate life and
the word.
A number of complex sacrificial rituals were associated with
kingship:
1. The Vajapeya sacrifice was connected with the
attainment of power and prosperity and also contained
a number of fertility rites. It included a ritual chariot in
which the rajan raced against his kinsmen and
defeated them.

2. The Ashvamedha was a sacrifice associated with

claims to political paramountcy and incorporated horse
sacrifice and several fertility rites.
3. The Rajasuya was the royal consecration ceremony.
Apart from a number of agrarian fertility rites, it included
a ritual cattle raid in which the rajan raided the cattle of
his kinsmen and also a game of dice which the king
won. At a larger, symbolic level, in the Rajasuya, the
king was presented as a standing in the centre of the
cyclical processes of regeneration of the universe.
Examining sacrifice as a form of social exchange in
Vedic India
The priests were given dakshina ( fee ) in return for the
important duties they performed. The dakshina given to
priests the role of the priest became larger and larger as the
sacrifices became longer and more complicated.
Small oblations were restricted to the domestic sacrifice,
but from time to time larger sacrifices were organized for
which the clan brought substantial prestations. The public
sacrifice was a solemn occasion, but it also released
energies through the general conviviality that followed at its
conclusion. The wealth collected by the raja through
voluntary tribute and prestations from the vish was
consumed in the ritual and in the distribution of gifts at the
end to other rajas and to the priests.

The giving of gifts was believed to ensure a return of gifts in

even greater amount. Sacrificial rites tended to increase
power of the priest, without who the sacrifice could not take
place, and of the raja who possessed the wealth it required.
Collecting this wealth meant pressurizing the vish to part
with their produce. The sacrifice assisted the kshatriyato
assert greater power over the vish and the shudra.
The public sacrifices were occasions when the wealth of a
raja was collected and displayed via the rituals. This wealth
was consumed, and whatever remained was gifted, with
some being deliberately destroyed through forms of ritual
which were part of the display. The patron of the sacrifice,
the yajamana, generally a raja, and each competed with his
peers in the magnificence of the occasion and the
generosity of the gifts. Such competitions in the display of
wealth established the status and power of
the yajamana,encouraging his belief that even more wealth
would come his way.
The raja ’s gifts to the priests enriched and empowered the
Brahmans. The sacrifice prevented the raja from
accumulating wealth to the point where his status would be
based on economic power rather than ritual sanction. Yet
the former was necessary to create the type of kingship
associated with the notion of a state in which the king
controlled the accumulation and distribution of wealth,
among other things.
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In order to accumulate the required wealth for these

sacrifices, the raja would have made bigger demands on
the vish, in the form of offerings and prestations, and would
have needed to create a rudimentary administration for
support . The point at which wealth could be accumulated
and spent on a variety of adjuncts to authority marked the
point at which kingship was beginning to draw on political
authority, rather that ritual authority alone. However, the
ritual of sacrifice as a necessary precondition to kingship
could not become a permanent feature. Once kingdoms
were established there were other demands on the wealth
that went to support the kingdoms. At one level, the
questioning of the centrality of the ritual was encouraged by
new perceptions of the relationship between the human and
the divine. At another level, greater production of wealth in
the middle Ganges Plain on the eve of urbanization , not all
of which could be consumed in rituals, allow for rajas
accumulating wealth and this contributed towards a change
in the requirements of society and polity.
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Evaluate the conceptual basis of the Vedic deities.

Ans:
The Rig Veda reflects a naturalistic polytheism - a belief in
many gods who personified natural phenomena. The
connection is clear in some cases from the very name of
the deities, as in the case of Agni ( Fire), Surya (the Sun),
and Ushas (Dawn).
The gods were conceived of as anthropomorphic, i.e., as
having a physical form similar to that of humans. The level
of detail varies, but mention is often made of their head,
face, mouth, hair, hands, feet, clothes, and weapons.
Conceptual basis of Vedic deities
Indra and Maruts - He is the most frequently mentioned god
in the Rigveda. He is vigorous and strong, a great warrior,
his weapon is thunderbolt, and he leads the Aryas to victory
in battle. Since the Aryas were engaged in wars with
indigenous tribes so they worshipped Indra as a god. He
was also invoked as a weather god who brought rains.
Maruts was the companion of Indra and aided him in the
wars.
Agni - He is another important god and represents many
aspects of fire - the fire of the cremation pyre, the fire that
engulfs forest, the fire that burns enemies, the heat
generated by tapas ( austerity), and the heat of sexual

desire. Most important of all, as the sacrificial fire, he is the

intermediary between gods and humans. In this role, he
functions as a divine priest.
Soma - the personification of soma plant . He is described
as a wise god, one who inspires poets to compose hymns,
a great god who rules over the earth and all humans. In later
hymns, Soma is identified with the moon.
Varuna- He is associated with kshatra (secular power ),
sovereignty, and kingship. He was the keeper of the cosmic
order known as rita. He restricts and punishes evil-doers
with the fetters or bonds that he has in command.
Surya, Ashvins, vavu, Rudra - Other deities of the Rig Veda
include the sun god Surya, son of Dyaus. Surya drives away
the darkness by riding in his chariot across the sky, and is
sometimes visualized as a white horse or an eagle. Vayu is
the wind god. The Ashvins are twin gods associated with
war and fertility. Rudra is a deity associated great
destructive potential. He inspires fear.
Usha- Usha, goddess of the dawn, is mentioned 300 times
in the Rig Veda, and 20 hymns are addressed to her. She
represents the victory of light over darkness and is invoked
by those desiring wealth.
Aditi - ’Aditi’ which means freedom , is invoked to bestow
freedom from sickness, harm, and evil.

Evaluate various views regarding human settlements

as gleaned from the Vedic sources.
Ans:
It is well known that the Vedic seers used to live in
hermitages outside the village. Needless to say that the
Vedic seers neither traded nor farmed. They lived on the
herds of cattle, tended by their disciples and produce of the
forest. The epic clearly mention that the seers lived in
hermitages. The sutras confirm that the Vedas should be
studied only outside the village. There are ample references
in the Vedic literature to the effect that the disciples
attached to the seers tended their cattle and lived on
uncultivated produce of the forest.
It is also to be noted that there are some references to
human settlement in the Rig Veda Samihita. The human
settlements referred to in this text are termed as grama and
pur. Grama occurs nine times and pur occurs eighty -five
times in this text. In the view of the above facts it is wrong
to assume that the Vedic culture was of a wholly rural
background. It is further argued that while grama means
village, pur does not mean a city. Pur may be a temporary
place of refuse or natural stronghold or mountain fastness.
It is definitely known that in later times, pur meant a city. It
is difficult to imagine as to why a different meaning for pur
may be given for the earlier period. G.S. Ghurye has also
argued in favor of the existence of towns in the Vedic
literature. His main argument is that the Rig Vedic society

was aware of the use of two or more horse drawn chariots
in pur which indicates the existence of big roads and towns.
However, it is to be remembered that there was no
qualitative difference in village and town. In Rig Veda, we
find the Aryans as conquerors and settlers on the banks of
the Indus and its five branches; and India beyond the Sutlaj
was almost unknown to them.
Evaluate the contribution of the Puranas in

disseminating secular knowledge among the masses in
ancient India.
Ans:
There are 18 Mahapuranas (great puranas) and many more
Upapuranas (secondary puranas). The origins of the
puranas may be overlapped to some extent with the vedas,
but their composition stretched forward into the 4th -5th
centuries CE and in some case even later.
The Puranas are supposed to have five characteristics
(panch-lakshanas) i.e. they are supposed to discuss five
topics:
( a) the creation of the world ( sarga);
(b) re-creation (pratisarga);
( c) the periods of the various manus (manvantaras);
( d) the genealogies of gods and rishis ( vamsha) ; and
( d) an account of royal dynasties ( vamshanucharita)
including the suryavamshi and chandravamshi kings.
The secular knowledge contained in the puranas:
(1) The conception of time- The conception of time in the
puranas is mind-boggling. There are four ages or yugas -
krita, treta, dvapara and kali. One yuga follows the other
.
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and the periodic destruction of the world is followed by its

re-creation.
( 2) Political History- The puranas especially the Vayu,
Brahmanda, Brahma, Harivamsha, Matsya and Vishnu
provide useful information on ancient political history. They
refer to historical dynasties such as the Haryankas,
Shaishunagas, Nandas, Mauryas, Shungas, Kanvas and
Andhras (Satavahanas). The dynastic lists end with the
Guptas.
( 3) Historical geography- The puranas have accounts of
mountains, rivers, and places, which are useful for the study
of historical geography.
( 4) Intermingling of culture- The puranas also reflect the
interactions between the people belonging to different
cultural traditions. For ex- the interaction between
Brahmanical and non- Brahmanical cultural traditions.
( 5) The secular knowledge in some specific puranas:
( a) Agni Purana - It has an encyclopaedic character - it
deals with subjects like astronomy, geography, grammar,
law, medicine, politics etc.
(b) Garuda Purana- It has also assumed an encyclopaedic
form. There are sections on cosmography, astronomy and
astrology, omens and portents, medicine, metrics,

grammar , knowledge of precious stones ( ratnapariksha)

and politics (niti).
( c) Vishnudharmottara Purana: It is a supplement to the
vishnu purana is also encyclopaedic in nature. It also talks
about the art of painting. It also gives an account of the
various branches, methods and ideals of Indian painting.
“ The Varna concept may always have been largely a

theoretical model and never an actual description of
society.” Comment in the context of Ancient India.
Ans:
The earliest reference to the division of society into four
strata occurs in the Purushasukta a hymn in the book 10 of
Rig veda samhita. Since it is a later book fourfold varna
order is seen as a feature of later vedic text.
The theoretical model of Varna System
Our information on the varna concept comes largely from
the ancient Indian Brahmanical law book ( Dharmasutras).
The concept of varna assumes the characteristics of: status
by birth, a hierarchical ordering of social units and rules of
endogamy and ritual purity.
Theoretically the vocations prescribed for the fourfold varna
are:
1. Brahmana: - studying and teaching the vedas,
performing sacrifices for himself and others.
2. Kshatriya: - studying, performing sacrifices for himself
and protecting people.
3. Viashyas: - agriculture, cattle rearing, trade and
money lending.
4. Sudra: - serving higher varnas
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However, the varna concept in the available sources is not

always corroborated, in fact it is occasionally even
contradicted, by many sources.
How theoretical model of Varna system was not an
actual description of society
Vedic Period
In early Vedic texts, the words 'brahmana' and 'kshatriya'
occur frequently but the term varna is never associated with
them. Though they seem to have been a group who enjoyed
respect , there are no indication that the membership of this
group was based on birth. The words vaishya and sudra are
absent. A Rig Vedic hymn suggest that a man could aspire
different sorts of vocations and goals in life. This indicates
the absence of a strict social hierarchy and the existence of
the element of social mobility.
Later vedic texts divides society into four social groups with
different degree of assess to productive resources. While
the later Vedic texts suggest that the society was becoming
increasingly stratified there was still a certain amount of
fluidity in occupations. This is suggested in Rig Vedic hymn
in which the poet says: "I am a reciter of hymns, by father
is s physician, and my mother grinds corn with stones, we
desire to obtain wealth in various actions."
Post Vedic

The fourfold order of varna was the central to the social
discourse of the brahmanical tradition. The varnas were
theoretically supposed to be endogamous but the
Dharmashastra accepted certain types of inter - varna
marriages i.e. Anuloma marriages and they disapproved
Pratiloma marriages. The fact that the texts discuss and
grade inter -varna marriages suggests that such marriages
did take place and that varnas were not strictly
endogamous.
Dharmashastra texts also reveal the gap between theory
and practice in their relationship between varna and
occupation in their theory of apad-dharma (dharma in times
of distress). According to this theory, in times of emergency,
adversity, or distress, a person could be forced to pursue
vocations that would normally be considered inappropriate
for members of his varna.
On the basis of Buddhist texts, a twofold division of society
into upper and lower categories ( ukkatthajati and hinajati)
constituting the varna has been more commonly in use.
The Bhaddasala Jataka tells us the story of a prince who
became a potter, basket maker, florist, and cook. Other
stories tell of a prince becoming trader, a young man from
a noble family becoming a archer ; brahmanas as taking to
trade, living as hunters and trappers, farming, hiring
themselves as cow herd etc.

Theoretically, the office of kingship was prerogative of

kshatriyas, but in practice the office was held by several
non-kashatriyas. For example: The Mauryas, the Guptas,
the foreign ruling groups like Sakas, Kushanas etc ( vrata-
kshatriyas or lower kshatriyas).
Thus the varna was more a theoretical construct tied to the
upper categories and a person's identity in the society was
based more on occupation, kula ( lineage) and jati ( caste).
“ The Upanishadic principles embody the epitome of

the Vedic thought.” Discuss.
Ans:
The Vedas taught worship of the god of nature, such as the
sun, wind, sky , fire, Usha. The Upanishads emphasized
that behind the fagade of these many gods, there is but one
supreme god. In fact, the concept of one universal god was
also originally expressed in the Rig Veda itself :
“ Ekam sad vipra bahudah vadanti” (One alone exits; sages
call it by various names)
But in the Upanishads this ancient philosophical thought
came to the forefront, overshadowing the idea of multiple
gods who were considered simply as the manifestation of
the transcendental supreme divine.
In each of the Vedas, there are two main divisions:
i. The Karma Kanda, deals with the rituals and
ii. the Jnana Kanda, deals with knowledge and
wisdom.
The samhitas and the brahmanas represent mainly the
Karma Kand and the ritual portion while the Upanishads
chiefly represent the Jnana Kand or the knowledge portion.
Mundaka Upanishad states that the knowledge is of two
types:

i. Lower knowledge (Apparavidya) which deals with

the secular knowledge of Grammar, sciences,
rituals, astrology etc.
ii. Higher knowledge ( Parvidya) which deals with divine
and spiritual knowledge. It is more concerned with
the inner spiritual transformation of man than with
only the book knowledge which is considered to be
the lower knowledge.
The early Upanishads ( Brihadaranyaka and Chandogya)
relied strongly on the rituals used to interpret the spiritual
knowledge. The later Upanishads became more and more
liberated from the rituals, however, moving towards internal
processes of meditation and personal religious
experiences. External rituals were subordinated to internal
spiritual practices called sadhanas.
“ Archaeology knows of no Aryans; only literature

knows of Aryans.” Examine critically .
Ans:
The composers of the Rig Veda described themselves as
Arya. The Vedic literature talks about the political life, the
social life, the economic life and the religious life of the
Aryans. The texts also deal in details about the gods and
goddesses of the Aryans and the assemblies like sabha
and samiti. It also mentions cattle rearing, agricultural
activity, crafts like cart making, carpentry , metal working etc
as their main occupations.
There are also references in the Rig veda to various kind of
forts, attacks on walled cities, and the epithet Purandara
( destroyer of forts) given to the god Indra but the
archaeological records do not point towards any such wars
and destruction.
But there do exist archaeological evidences which point
towards settlement of the people in the north- west and
north India during the vedic age:
(1) The family books of the Rig Veda samhita refers to the
land of sapta- sindhu or the seven rivers that is the Indus, its
five tributaries, and the saraswati(Ghaggar -Hakra) which
still exist except the saraswati which disappeared.

( 2) The Painted grey ware has a very extensive distribution,

stretching from Himalayan foothills to the Malwa plateau in
central India, and from the Bahawalpur region of Pakistan
to Kaushambi near Allahabad in Uttar Pradesh. However,
the main distribution of the sites is in the Indo-Gangetic
divide, Sutlej basin and upper Ganga plains.
( 3) The important evidence for the PGW material culture is
available from excavated sites such as Hastinapur,
Alamgirpur, Ahichchtra, Allahpur, Mathura, Kampil etc. The
structural remains at the sites consist of wattle and daub
and mud huts, baked and unbaked bricks, artefacts of
stone , bone and terracotta. A fire altar has also been found
at Jakhera.
( 4) The iron objects have also been found and evidence of
cultivation of rice, wheat and barley is also available. Bones
of cattle, sheep and pigs have been discovered. Horse
bones have been found at Hastinapur.
Based on the above mentioned archaeological evidences it
would be incorrect to say that “ Archaeology knows of no
Aryans”
Write a short essay on: “ Similarities and differences

between the Maurya columns and Achaemenian
pillars.”
Ans:
Similarities between the Maurya columns and
Achaemenian pillars
(1) Both were built of stones.
(2) Both used polished stones.
(3) Both have certain common sculpture motifs such as the
lotus.
( 4) Ashokan pillar edicts are somewhat similar to pillar
edicts of Darius (king of the Persian Achaemenid Empire).
(5) Carved animals can be found in both the cases.
(6) It has been suggested that Ashoka got the idea of
inscribing proclamations on pillars from the achaemenids.
Differences between the Maurya columns and
Achaemenian pillars
There are differences between the two in their respective
functions, conceptions, style, design and form.
(1) The stone columns of the Mauryan Pillared Hall were
without capitals whereas the columns of the pillared halls of
Perspolis have elaborate capitals.

(2) Achaemenian ( Persian) columns stand on bases, either

shaped like a bell ( that is, inverted lotus), or on a plain
rectangular or circular block. While the independent
Mauryan columns have no base at all.
(3) The bell form that is used as supporting base in Persian
columns serves as capital on top of the shaft in Mauryan
ones and makes altogether a different aesthetic effect.
( 4) The shape and ornamentation of the Maurya lotus is
different from the Persian ones, the bulge typical of the
former is absent in the latter.
(5) The Achaemenian shaft is fluted in all cases except one.
But Mauryan columns are smooth.
(6) The Achaemenian shaft are built of separate segments
of stone aggregated one above the other which is the work
of mason. The shaft of the Mauryan pillar is monolithic
which pertains to the character of the work of a skilled
wood-carver or carpenter.
Hence in technique, the Mauryan pillars partakes the
character of wood-carver ’s or carpenter’s work, the
Achaemenian, that of a mason.
(7) The Achaemenid pillars were generally part of some
larger architectural scheme, composed of much too many
component parts looking complex and complicated. While
the Ashokan columns were intended to produce the effect
of an independent freestanding monument with simpler
specimen, more harmonious in conception and execution

and gives the feeling of greater stability, dignity and

strength.
(8) The capitals of the Persian columns are crowned with a
cluster of stylized palm leaves and have two semi -bulls,
lions, or unicorns seated back to back, or an upright or
inverted cup, with double volute on the top.
The Mauryan type of abacus (platform above the bell) and
the placing of independently carved animal motifs on the
top of abacus is absent in the Achaemenian context.
(9) While Darius pillars propagated military victories and
military might of the Achaemenid monarch, Ashoka’s pillar
edict shows his quasi-benevolent message of a caring
emperor.
Write a short essay on: “ Mauryan municipal

administration.”
Ans:
Meqasthenes’ account of municipal administration
Megasthenes has given a vivid description of the

administration of Pataliputra where he mentions six
committees of five members each, in charge of the following
aspects
( a) Industrial arts;
(b) the entertainment and surveillance of foreigners;
( c) maintaining records of birth and death;
( d ) trade and commerce ( inspecting weights and measures,
etc);
( e) supervising the public sales of goods;
( f ) the collection of taxes on merchandise sold in the market.
Ashokan inscriptions
It mentions the nagalaviyohalaka- mahamatas who were
associated with municipal administration.
The Arthashastra
( a) It gives information about an officer called the nagaraka
who had sthanikas and gopas under him.

(b) It mentions high officials like Samaharta (Chief collector

of revenue and who maintained the accounts) and
Sannidhata (treasurer and also in charge of royal stores).
(c) It also mentions about officers like dauvarika (chief of
palace attendants ), the antaravamshika (chief of palace
guards), and adhyakshas (departmental heads) .
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Write a short essay on: “ The architectural and artistic

features of the great stupa at Sanchi”
Ans:
The Stupa, an architectural structure usually housing the
cremated remains or possessions of important saintly
figures, is considered to be the structural emblem and the
most important type of monument of Buddhism.
- ..
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The Great Stupa at Sanchi in different periods
3 6a " 1
i
1. Ashokan Period- It was Emperor Ashoka who erected
the Great Stupa (Stupa 1 ) at Sanchi after redistribution
of mortal remains of Lord Buddha for erecting several
stupas all over the country. The Stupa was about 60
feet in diameter ( half the diameter of the present
edifice) at the base and was a low dome (less than a
full hemisphere) mounted on a low cylindrical drum.
This stupa was originally a low structure of brick. It was
enclosed by a wooden railing with entrance at the four
cardinal points and a stone umbrella at the top. This

Great Stupa served as a nucleus to the large Buddhist
establishment during the later period.
2. Sunqa Period - During Sunga times, several edifices
was raised at Sanchi and its surrounding hills. The
Ashokan stupa was enlarged and faced with dark
purple -grey sandstones ( which was locally available)
and decorated with balustrades, staircases and a
harmika on the top.
3. Satavahana Period- In the first century BC the
Satavahanas caused the elaborately carved gateways
to the Great Stupa. The Great Stupa displays an
austere grandeur and the exquisite carvings of the
doorway depict in detail the significant episodes and
miracles from Lord Buddha’s life and events depicted
in the Buddhist Jataka stories.
The architectural and artistic features of the Great
Stupa at Sanchi ;
1. The Great Stupa at Sanchi has upper as well as lower

pradakshinapatha or circumambulatory path.
2. It has four beautifully decorated toranas depicting
various events from the life of the Buddha and the
Jatakas.
3. The Stupa has two flights of stairs ( sopanas ) at the
base, stone railings ( vedikas ) at the ground, berm and

summit level and stone umbrella ( Chatras) on the

summit .
4. The surface of the Stupa was not embellished with
sculptures. Sculptural decoration was reserved for the
railings and gateways. The shape of the gateways
suggests that they were stone renditions of wooden
proto-types.
5. Figure compositions are in high relief , filling up the
entire space. Depiction of posture gets naturalistic and
there is no stiffness in the body. Heads have
considerable projection in the picture space. Rigidity in
the contours gets reduced and images are given
movement . Carving techniques appear more advanced
than Bharhut.
6. Though narratives get more elaborated, the depiction
of the dream episode remains very simple showing the
reclining image of the queen and the elephant at the
top. The historical narratives such as the siege of
Kushinara, Buddha’s visit to Kapilavastu, visit of
Ashoka to the Ramgrama Stupa are carved with
considerable details.
7. Symbols continue to be used representing the Buddha
and the Manushi Buddhas or the past Buddhas
( according to the textual tradition, there are twenty- four
Buddhas but only the first one, Dipankar, and the last
six are pictorially represented) .

Examine sources of information for Mauryan dynasty.

Throw light on historical significance of Ashoka' s
inscriptions.
Ans:
Examining the sources of information for Mauryan
dynasty
The important sources for the study of the Mauryan period

are the Arthasastra, Indica, Asoka ' s inscription,
Archaeological and numismatic evidence.
Arthasastra
The Arthasastra is an important treatise on the polity and
administration of the Mauryan times written by Kautilya who
was also known as Chanakya. However for many other
scholars, the work is of a much later period. Probably it was
written in the early centuries of Christian era and that the
author was a different person and not the Prime Minister of
Chandragupta Maurya. The generally accepted opinion
amidst the controversies regarding the authorship and its
date is that the kernel of the Arthasastra belongs to the
Mauryan age and was written by Kautilya but it contains
some later day additions and interpolations.
Arthasastra consists of 15 books. The first five deals with
internal administration ( tantra), the next eight with inter -
.
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state relations ( avapa) and the last two with miscellaneous

topics.
The Arthasastra is a treatise on statecraft for a king and
discusses a potential, not an actual state.
i. Arthasastra presents a state that controls the people,
produce and resources of its domain with all
encompassing and robotic precision. However, in
reality, the empire had only some elements of
centralized control along with a significant amount of
delegation of authority to functionaries at provincial
district and village level.
ii. The ideal of paternalistic rule is reflected in
Arthasastra which states that the king should be like
a father towards his needy subjects. Ashoka’s ideals
of kingship partially match those of the Arthasastra
but bear the impress of his own ideas. They include
ensuring the welfare of all beings and of his subjects
in this world and the next.
iii. Arthasastra recommends that the king must be
accessible to the officials at all times. Ashoka’s rock
edict VI also emphasizes the king’s accessibility to
the officials.
iv. Arthasastra emphasizes the importance of the
purohita. He advises the king to follow the purohita.
Given the eclectic religious beliefs and practices of

the Mauryan kings, it is quite possible that the

purohita was not the major presence in their courts.
v. The Arthasastra mentions officials like samahartari
(chief collector of revenue), samnidhatri (treasurer),
dauvarika (chief of palace attendant),
antaravamshika (chief of the palace guards) and a
large number of Addhyakshas (departmental heads).
There must have existed many of these officials but
not all of them.
vi. Kautilya talks of extensive state participation,
regulation and control over the economy. It talks of
strict control over market, trade, and artisan guilds
etc. This indicates heights of power and control a
state could aspire rather than the actual situation in
the state.
vii. Although both the Arthasastra and Ashokan edicts
speak of Dhamma Vijaya, they understand this term
very differently. In Arthasastra, military conquest was
an important activity of the state and righteous
conquest was its most noble form. For Ashoka on the
other hand Dhamma Vijaya was based on a
renunciation of military conquest.
The Arthasastra can be used as a source for certain
aspects of the period. At the same time, we have to be
careful not to read the book as a description of Mauryan
State and society.

Indica
Indica is the accounts on India prepared by Megasthenes,
who was sent to the court of Chandragupta Maurya by his
contemporary Greek ruler of the neighboring area,
Seleucus Niketor.
i. Megasthenes stayed at the Mauryan court and noted
down his reflections on the then Indian society but
his exposure to Indian society must have been
socially and geographically restricted.
ii. Megasthenes has stated that the then Indian society
was divided into seven classes namely artisans,
farmers, philosophers, soldiers, secret inspectors,
traders and councilors. This collection of
occupational groups and administrative ranks
corresponds neither to the varnas nor the jatis. It
seems to have been Megasthenes’ own invention.
iii. According to Megasthenes, no one in India could
marry outside their genos nor could they follow
other ’s occupation. So he identified two important
aspects of caste system: hereditary occupation and
endogamy. However in general there is little that
Megasthenes tells us about Indian society that we do
not already know from other sources.
iv. Indika idealized India when it stated that farmers
were never touched in war , there was no slavery,
theft was rare and Indians did not borrow and lent

money on interest. A Greek writer , Strabo , while

taking reference from Indika states that Indians were
ignorant of the arts of writing and fusing metals and
never drank wine except at sacrifices.
v. Megasthenes observes that the king was always
available for consultation which is also supported by
Arthasastra and Ashoka ’s Rock Edict VI.
vi. Megasthenes’s account of city administration
mentions six committees of five members each, in
charge of the following aspects: Industrial art,
Entertainment and surveillance of foreigners,
maintaining records of births and deaths, Trade and
commerce, Supervising the public sell of goods, the
collection of taxes on merchandise sold in the
market. However, Megasthenes’ account probably
applied especially to Pataliputra ’s administration.
vii. Megasthenes’ account regarding army
administration mentions six committees of five
members each. These were in charge of the navy,
supervision of equipment and transport, the infantry,
cavalry, chariots and elephants. However, navy is
neither mentioned in Arthasastra nor in Ashokan
inscription.
viii. A comparison of the Arthasastra and Megasthenes
Indika reveals several differences for instance in
their discussion of fortifications , city administration,
army administration and taxation.
Though there are several exaggerations and Indika has not

survived but fragments are preserved in later Greek and
Latin works, it still provides us the valuable information
about Mauryan administration and social conditions.
Ashoka’s inscription
By far the most reliable source of information about the
Mauryan history are the large number of Asoka ’s
Inscriptions in the form of Rock Edicts and Pillar Edicts put
up by him in different parts of his vast empire. Their number
and variety coupled with their value as contemporary
records composed under the orders of the emperor himself
is a valuable source of our knowledge. They help us to know
about his noble ideals and outlook, besides throwing light
on the religion, society and administration of the Mauryas.
The language of the Edicts is Prakrit and the Script used is
Brahmi. He used another script called Kharosthi in certain
parts of North- Western India like Mansehra and
Shahbazgarhi. Some inscriptions are Bilingual-in Greek
and Arabic like those found near Kandahar.
The three major sources for Mauryan dynasty may actually
mask the ground realities. All of them were in one way or
other connected with the Mauryan court. They project the
point of view of the political-intellectual elites at the centre
and perhaps exaggerate the level of central control.
Archaeological and numismatic evidence

Archaeological investigations are rather inadequate and

reliable dates are few and far between. Archaeological
remains display a greater diversity of artifacts and
heightening of urban features.
The coins as a source became significant during the
Mauryan period. The coins of this period not bear the
names of the kings. They are called Punch -marked coins
as different symbols are punched on them separately.
Certain symbols such as the crescent -on-arches, tree-in-
railing and peacock-on- arches have been associated with
the Mauryan kings.
The punch marked coins of the Mauryan period were issued
probably by a central authority as it indicated by the
uniformity of the symbols used.
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Determine the extent of the Mauryan empire.

Ans:
The extant major rock edicts are mostly located along the
borders of the empire and are extremely useful in
determining the extent of the Mauryan empire. In addition
to that, the pillar edicts, the minor rock edicts and various
inscriptions can also help in this regard.
In the north- west
( a) Major rock edict and portions of pillar edict in Kandahar
district, south Afghanistan;
(b) A bilingual Greek- Aramaic inscription at Shar-i-kuna
near Kandahar in south-east Afghanistan;
( c) Two Aramaic inscriptions at Laghman in east
Afghanistan and a bilingual Prakrit - Aramaic inscription at
kandahar.
These evidences show that the Mauryan empire extended
up to Kandahar in Afghanistan with the kingdom of
Antiochus II of Syria lying to the west.
In the north
( a) The major rock edicts at Shahbazgarhi ( Peshwar
district), Mansehra ( Hazara district), Kalsi ( Dehradun
district);

(b) Inscriptions at Shahbazgarhi and Mansehra in Prakrit

language and Kharoshthi script ;
( c) An Aramaic inscription at taxila.
These evidences help in determining the northern boundary
of the Mauryan empire.
In the west
( a) The major rock edicts at Bombay -Sopara and Girnar
( Junagadh district,Gujarat);
(b) Junagarh inscription of Rudradaman, which attributes
the beginning of the construction of a water reservoir known
as the Sudarshana lake to Chandragupta ’ s reign.
These evidences help in establishing the fact that the
Mauryan empire extended upto saurashtra in south
Gujarat .
In the east
The major rock edicts at Dhauli ( Puri district) and Jaugada
( Ganjam district) shows that the eastern frontier of the
empire extended upto Orissa.
In the South
a) The major rock edicts at Erragudi ( Kurnool district) and
Sannati ( Gulbarga district) ;

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(b) The noticeable clustering of minor rock edicts in the
Andhra-Karnataka area, for example-at Maski, Gavimath,
Palkigundu, Nittur, Brahmagiri, etc.
It shows that the empire included almost the entire
subcontinent, except the southermost parts, which were
inhabited by the Keralaputras and Satiyaputras according
to rock edict II.
SmTnjcrrwuTORv ®CMAn coM COtfTACT No: 7011446954
Examine the role of adhyaksha in the Mauryan

administration.
Ans:
The second book of Arthashastra i.e. Adyakshaprachara
contemplates a ubiquitous bureaucracy which keeps in
touch with all sections of the society. These
superintendents were called Adhyakshas.
Adhyakshas composed a highly skilled secretariat, divided
into several departments. Some of the Adhyakshas
mentioned in the Arthashastra are: -
( 1) Sitadhyaksha - In-charge of agriculture in state -owned
lands;
( 2) Panyadhyaksha - In-charge of trade, including the price
fixation and sale of goods produced by state -run
manufacturing units ;
( 3) Sansthadhyaksha - Superintendent of markets;
( 4) Pautavadhyaksha - In-charge of ensuring the use of
standardized weights and measures;
( 5) Sutradhyaksha - In-charge of state run textile
workshops ;
( 6) Four divisions of army, each under a superintendent:
( a) Infantry under
Patyadhyaksha;
(b) Cavalry under Ashvadhyaksha;

(c) Chariots under Rathadhyaksha;
(d) Elephants under Hastyadhyaksha;
( 7) Akaradhyaksha- In-charge of mines;
( 8) Suvarnaadhyaksha- Gold superintendent;
( 9) Akahalapadhyaksha- Accountant general;
( 10) Kupyadhyaksha - In-charge of forests;
( 11) Lavanadhyaksha - In-charge of salt department;
( 12) Suradhyaksha - In-charge of excise collections ;
( 13) Navadhyaksha- In-charge of shipping and maritime;
( 14) Pattanadhyaksha - In-charge of ports ;
( 15) Lakshanaadhyaksha - In-charge of mints.
One of the remarkable aspects of the Arthashastra is its
ability to visualize extensive state participation, regulation,
and control over every walk of life but it is impossible to think
of an ancient state exercising such overarching and
complete control over the economy and society.
Though some of the adhyakshas like Sitadhyaksha,
Patyadhyaksha, Ashvadhyaksha, Rathadhyaksha,
Hastyadhyaksha, Akaradhyaksha etc may have played
important roles in the functioning of the Mauryan

administration but the adhyaksha like Sutradhyaksha who

is In-charge of state run textile workshops where the state
is an entrepreneur may represent a feature of a would
be state imagined by the Arthashatra.
Discuss different interpretations of historians about

the nature of Asoka’s ‘Dhamma’. Did his principle of
‘Dhamma- vijaya’ render the Mauryan Empire
militaristically weak ?
OR
Discuss the nature of Ashoka’s Dhamma. Was it
responsible for the downfall of his empire?
Ans:
“ Dhamma” corresponds to the Sanskrit word “ Dharma”
which literally means “ which is to be held fast to” or
“ adhering strictly” .
Historians differ in their interpretations of the nature of
Ashoka ' s “ Dhamma”
(1 ) Equating it with Buddhism
( Representative historians - R.C.Majumdar, Harprasad
Shastri and others.)
It is argued that after the Kalinga war, Ashoka became so

disgusted with the massacre of people in the war that he
gave up war and converted to Buddhism. Now the
Buddhism was made state religion and Asoka through his
rock edicts and pillar inscriptions propagated the Buddhism
among the masses.

However the recent writings of scholars like Romila Thapar,

B.N. Mukherji, Upinder Singh, Ranabir Chakravarti and
others have provided different interpretations and come out
with a more nuanced explanation of Ashoka ’s policy of
Dhamma. According to them, dhamma was not a religious
concept and influence of Buddhism should be conceived in
the light of Buddhism not just being a religion but a social
movement which influenced all facet of life.
( 2) The Moral and ethical principles common to all
religions
( Representative historian- H. C. Raychaudhuri and others)
Dhamma was a short of universal religion, containing
certain common elements in many religious traditions. It is
intepreted as a form of raja-dharma (dharma of a king),
consisting moral and ethical principles borrowed from both
Buddhism and Brahmanism.
Dhamma was humanistic concept which focussed on
human values and ideals and antithesis to violence.
(3) An ethical code of conduct
( Representative historian- Nilakantha Shastri and others)
Dhamma was an ethical code of conduct formed by Ashoka
for his subjects, who were expected to follow it . It was
guiding principles of social behaviour.
Dhamma was a social concept which had definite social
.
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objective of societal integration. Its larger aim was to bring

about social harmony and integration among different
religious sects.
Ashoka taught the virtue of toleration and non- violence
through dhamma at an age when religious tension was high
and violence though war was prevalent.
( 4 ) An invention of Ashoka to consolidate the empire
( Representative historian- Romila Thapar)
Dhamma was an invention of Ashoka based on the moral
ethical principles based on both Buddhism and
Brahmanism.
Romila Thapar underlines the political rationale behind the
propagation of Dhamma. She minimizes the Buddhist
elements in Ashoka’s Dhamma. She presents the view that
the Dhamma was an ideological tool used by Ashoka to
weld and consolidate his far - flung empire. He saw practical
advantages in adopting and propogating dhamma, which
was basically an ethical concept that focused on the
relationship between the individual and the society.
Hence, according to Thapar, dhamma was a political
concept which had political objective. It aimed at political
integration through social harmony and integration among
different sects.

In conclusion, it can said that dhamma was a secular

concept, non- sectarian concept, humanistic concept , social
concept and political concept. It was guiding principles of
social behaviour and a way of life.
Principle of Dhamma- Vijava and its impact/
Respinsibilitv of dhamma in the downfall of Empire
13th major rock edict gives Asoka ’s account of the war
against Kalinga, and his consequent feeling of profound
remorse. This is followed by a reasoned critique of war,
pointing out that it led, directly or indirectly, to suffering for
all. After this, Asoka embarked on a policy of Dhamma-
Vijaya. It is described as the conquest through
righteousness, not through violence or force. Under this, the
rival kings do not resist, and happily accept his sovereignty,
which is not about territorial conquest but spreading
dhamma. Dhamma missionaries replacing king and his
army, and spreading the message of dhamma far and wide.
H.C.Raychaudhari presented the idea that the pacifist
policy of Asoka led to the decline in the military strength
which was the reason for the decline of the Mauryan
empire.
But nowhere it is mentioned that Asoka disbanded his army
and in following years he took control of the tribal areas and
warned them of any kind of revolt. He also continued capital
punishment and advised his successors to take recourse to
violence in extreme situations.
Since in his long reign, he undertook only one military

campaign, it may have adversely affected the preparedness
of the army but it would be incorrect to say that his principle
of ' Dhamma-vijaya’ render the Mauryan Empire
militaristically weak and downfall of his empire.
Examine the significance of the deities depicted on

coins of the Kushanas.
Ans:
Important deities depicted on the Kushana coins are:
1 . Greek- Herakles ( Hercules ) , Zero ( Zeus), Helios ( Sun
god);
2. Iranian- Mithra ( Sun), Mao (Moon), Oado ( wind), Nana
( Nature goddess ) etc;
3. Hindu- Oheso ( Shiva), Ommo (consort of shiva - Uma),
Vasudeva ( Vishnu) etc;
4. Buddhist- Boddo ( Buddha) .
Examining the significance of the deities depicted on
the coins:
1 . Significance for trade
It shows that the coins were minted for the foreign trade,
especially the Roman trade , and thus the coins reflected the
beliefs of these trade zones.
However , this proposition can be challenged on the
grounds like the Kushana empire enjoyed a favourable
balance of trade and the copper coins which were not
minted for the foreign trade also exhibit this feature.

2. Kushana ’ s broad cultural horizon and religious

syncretism
( a) The variety of religious motifs is usually taken as

reflecting the king’s personal religious eclecticism or his
attitude of religious tolerance.
(b) It can be seen as an acknowledgement of the religious
diversity within the empire and the attempts of these kings
to connect themselves with the deities worshipped in and
around their realm. The coins reflected the beliefs of various
ethnic or ideological communities within the polyglot
Kushana empire.
However, it is difficult to explain the rarity of Buddhist
emblems as all sources provide patent evidence of the
affluence of Buddhism in the Kushana Empire. And more
surprisingly Jaina deities and symbols are conspicuous by
their absolute absence on the Kushana coins.
3. Nature of society
The dieties also give idea about the nature of society. For
example: the depiction of Buddha indicates the prevalance
of the non-Brahmanical society which was characterised by
new social environment i.e. trade, urbanisation, economic
growth etc. The Buddhist society was mainly dominated by
traders, artisans and it did not consider varna hierarchy and
povided easy access to society to the foreign ruling groups.

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4, Effort to gain liqitimacv

The depiction of Indian gods on Kushana coins is significant
as it indicates the efforts of Kushanas who were basically
central Asian to adopt Brahmanism and gain legitimacy.
This led to the emergence of Vrat -Kshatriyas.
5. John M. Rosenfield. the author of “ Dynastic arts of
Kushans”
He presents the explanation that these deities were the
divine companions and supporters of the Kushana
monarchy. He observes that the Kushana coinage,
functioned as a vehicle of propaganda, directly expressing
the ideology of the ruling house, and cumulatively, these
coins express the “ concern with material abundance and
prosperity, with military triumph, with legitimacy of rule, and
with the divine sanction and support of the ruling house” .
Whatsoever would have been the motivation for
introduction of such an innovation, the deities on coins
reveal one of the most extraordinary facets of the Kushana
dynasty.
Explain as to how the early Buddhist Stupa art, while

using folk motifs and narratives and common cultural
symbols, succeeded in transforming these themes for
expounding the Buddhist ideals.
Ans:
From pre-historical times, burial mounds containing the
remains of the dead were a common funerary practice in
some Indian societies: in these mounds, the living paid
homage to their dead, just like Buddhists would do for their
saints, centuries later . The Mahaparinirvana Sutra also
suggests that the practice of erecting funerary mounds over
the bodily remains of kings predated Buddhism.
The Mahaparinirvana Sutra claims that after the Buddha
passed away, his followers divided his cremated remains
into eight portions. Each of the eight kingdoms in which the
Buddha had lived received one portion of the relics, and a
stupa was erected in each kingdom in order to house the
remains.
Initially, relics of the Buddha were embedded in the core of
Stupas. In the next stage, relics of Buddha’s disciples and
companions were similarly enshrined. Worship was soon
transferred from the relics to the Stupa itself. During 200
BCE to 300 CE, Stupas- with or without relics - became
important part of Buddhist monasteries.

The Stupa represented many things in the Buddhist

tradition:
i. It stood for the axis mundi (the centre of the
universe);
ii. it symbolized the Parinirvana of the Buddha;
iii. it was repository of relics of the Buddha and other
monks;
iv. it was a place of veneration , worship and pilgrimage
for monks and laity;
v. it was not merely considered a commemorative
symbol but also believed to be the living presence of
the Buddha, a depository of his protective powers
and living energy.
The Stupa art expounding Buddhist ideals by using folk
motifs and narratives and common cultural symbols:
i. Many of the relief carvings at the early Buddhist sites
drew from a large pool of common cultural symbol
and ornamentations that had nothing especially
Buddhist about them. For instance, sculptures at
Sanchi Stupa depicted yakshas, yakshis, nagas and
nagis. They were appropriated as attendant deities
of Buddha.
ii. The narrative art of Bharhut Stupa, depicting Jatakas
of Buddha's previous birth in sculptures and the
decorative art of Sanchi Stupa belong to the folk
tradition.
iii. The scene of the birth of Buddha in some Stupas

shows maya flanked by two elephants holding round
pitchers in their trunks. This is a Buddhist
apppropriatioon and adaptation of the Gaja- Lakshmi
motif giving it a new meaning.
iv. The intricate and elaborate surface decoration and
the shallowness of the relief carving at sites such as
Sanchi, Bharhut and Amaravati suggest that these
represented a translation of the wood carver’s art
into stone.
v. Few Stupas have Swastika inset into their base
which is certainly a common cultural symbol of
ancient times.
The Stupa architecture expounding Buddhist ideals by
using folk motifs and narratives and common cultural
symbols:
i. Anda : The main structure of the Stupa consisted of
a flattened hemispherical cupola or dome, called an
anda, placed atop a cylindrical base. Anda was a
symbol of latent creative power and was also
intended as an architectural replica of the infinite
dome of heaven, representing the cycle of death and
rebirth. Anda relates to the universe in ancient Hindu
mythology and was also sometimes called the
Garbha or ' womb'.
ii. Harmika : The harmika, located at the summit of the

anda, symbolized the zenith beyond life and death
(nirvana) and its resemblance to a sacrificial altar
was of particular significance, for the attainment of
nirvana required the sacrifice of the self and the
world.
iii. Yasti: Rising from the harmika was the yasti or pole
(that was imagined to run through the anda into the
ground) which represented the axis -mundi ( world
axis) that connected heaven and earth.
iv. Chattras: Above the anda, the yasti serves as a
support for tiers of chattras ( umbrellas) that signify
the supremacy of the whole structure. The three
elements of the chattra at Sanchi represented the
Three Jewels of Buddhism: the Buddha, the Law,
and the community of monks.
v. Vedika : Keeping with the ancient tradition of
enclosing a sacred tree with a fence , the chattra was
enclosed by a railing or vedika. They served to
demarcate the boundary of the sacred precinct with
the secular world. The lowest vedika had four
entrance gateways or toranas. The orientation of the
toranas ( east, south, west and north) corresponded
with the direction of the sun' s course: to sunrise,
zenith, sunset and nadir.
Sn7TRJOrHBTORrgGMAIl COM COtfTACT No: 7011446954
Hence, the early Buddhist Stupa art and architecture,

though religious in character and sui genere, assimilated
the secular, religious folk motifs and narratives and
common cultural symbols of the past, succeeded in
transforming these themes for expounding the Buddhist
ideals.
Justify Pliny’s statement the Rome was being drained

out of its gold by India during the first century of the
Christian era. [ 2012, 30m]
Ans:
In the closing centuries of the era before Christ, South
Indian trade in spices like ginger, turmeric and pepper
assumed great prominence. The Greeks and the Romans
of those days carried on extensive trade with South India.
During the 1 st three centuries of the Christian era the trade
between the Roman Empire and the East became quite
extensive both by land and water because of the following
reasons:
1. With the Roman conquest of Egypt in the middle of the
1 st century B.C. the Romans actively entered the field
of spice trade, and the Arab monopoly broke up.
2. In 45 A .D. the discovery by Hippalus of the existing
monsoon winds regularly blowing across the Indian
Ocean gave an impetus to trade between South India
and the West, for voyage along the coast line thereafter
gave place to oceanic voyage directly to Muziris and
other ports of South India.
3. South Indian trade in spices like ginger, turmeric &
pepper and luxury goods assumed great prominence
as these were in high demand in Western World
including Rome. Pliny says that there was a
widespread use of eastern aromatics in Roman

society.
4. Roman particularly women were passionate about
Indian pearls and muslin. The Chinese silk, for which
India was an intermediary, was in high demand in
Roman world.
5. Cardamom, ginger, turmeric and pepper are among
the spices mentioned by Diosorides ( 40- 90 A .D.), the
Greek physician and contemporary of Pliny, in his
Materia Medico, as possessing medicinal virtue. Hence
Indian spices were in demand for medicinal purpose
also.
On the other hand, Roman products were not very attractive
in the East. Roman merchants exported glass and wine, but
the bulk of the exchange was paid for in precious metal like
gold and silver. Ancient authors like Pliny the Elder believed
that this unequal balance of trade caused a drain of gold
from Rome to India. Pliny the Elder laments the drain of
Roman gold into India in return for unproductive luxuries
and spices. He in his book Natural history supplies some
figures:
• In one passage he refers, like the Periplus of the

Erythrean Sea, to the sea trade between Egypt and
India. Each year, Pliny says, no less than 50 million
sesterces (an ancient Roman coin) was drained off by

India, which sent back goods sold at 100 times their

original value.
• another passage Pliny says: the women and the
In
luxury trade with India, China, and the Arabian
Peninsula cost not less than 100 million sesterces per
year. This figure is probably included in the estimate for
India ( 50 million sesterces).
There is simply no way of knowing whether the figures are
dubious or not . Both passages are indeed alarmist and
might be exaggerated by Pliny. Also neither of the
statements in fact mentions anything about gold or silver,
each giving the alleged values in terms of sesterces ( an
ancient Roman coin).
Justifications in the favor of Pliny’ s claim
1. We can’t brush Pliny’ s claims aside. However curious

its concerns may seem , Pliny ’ s Natural History is the
most intense exploration of man’s relation to his
physical environment in the widest sense, known to
use from antiquity. If he expresses concern about the
cost of luxury trade with East, then the existence of this
luxury trade was known in Rome and it was felt to be
an been an issue of some importance.
2. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea also suggests that
Roman ships sailing to southern India carried ‘mainly a
great amount of money ’ and the discovery of dozens of

imperial coin hoards in this region provides support for

this statement.
3. Pepper (black and white) was imported in large
quantities is proved by the fact that it was valued by the
Romans as highly as gold and silver and hence the
name yavana Priya (dear to the Romans) was given to
it by Indian Sanskrit writers. In Rome there were
special storehouses, which could contain thousands of
pounds of pepper.
4. At the Roman Customs House Alexandria imported
spices were scrutinized and taxed. When
Constantinople became the capital of the Roman
Empire in 30 A .D. that city developed into a centre of
trade in oriental spices.
5. Eastern trade had drained bullion resources from the
Roman Empire are proved by the stress on the Roman
currency system due to the scarcity of bullion. At one
time, Rome had to ban trade in silk, cutlery and other
goods which were imported by it from the East.
6. Inscriptions from western India mention foreign
perfume merchants ( yavanagandhika), and it is
probable that they had their own quarters in the port
towns in western India. This proves prevalence of large
scale trade in spices.
7. The excavations have also revealed the remains of a
Roman trading station and a large number of mini-fresh
Roman coins issued in the early centuries of the

Christian era. Roman coins were buried in the earth in

different places along the breadth of Tamil India from
the Malabar to the East Coast. The mention of a
Temple of Augustus at Muziris proves presence of
Roan traders in South India.
8. The ancient texts of India emphasized that the basis of
foreign trade with West was earning profits. Though we
have no reliable evidence on the price of silk in the
Roman Empire, one ancient source says it was worth
its weight in gold.
9. The introduction of gold coinage on a significant scale
by Vima Kadphises ( Kushana ruler) in the 1 st century
AD also makes it clear that India had a favorable
balance of trade with the Roman world ( through land
also).
“ Not only does ancient Tamil literature furnish an

accurate picture of widely disparate classes; it also
describes the social condition of Tamil country as it
was. ” Discuss.
Ans:
An accurate picture of widely disparate classes
Tholkappiyam refers to 5- fold division of lands in the Tamil
country:
(1) Kurinji (Hilly tracts) - Chief deity was Murugan and
Occupation was hunting and honey collection.
( 2) Mullai ( Pastoral lands) - Chief deity was Mayon( Vishnu)
and Occupation was Cattle rearing and dairy works.
( 3 ) Marudam ( Agricultural lands) - Chief deity was Indira and
Occupation was agriculture.
( 4) Neydal (Coastal tracts) - Chief deity was Varuna and
Occupation Was fishing and Salt manufacturing.
( 5) Palai ( Desert ) - Chief deity was Korravai and Occupation
was robbery.
Tholkappiyam also refers to 4 classes:
( 1) Arasar - Ruling class
( 2) Anthanar - A significant role in polity and religion
( 3) Vanigar - practiced trade and commerce
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( 4) Vellalars- agriculturists
Social Condition of Tamil Country
( 1) Primary deity was Murugan who is hailed as Tamil god
and other gods were Mayon, Indira, Varuna and Korravai.
( 2) The Hero stone was erected in the memory of the
bravery shown by the warrior in the battle. The Hero stone
( Nadu kal) worship was prevalent.
( 3) Women poets contributed to the tamil literature.
Courage of women is appreciated in many poems.
( 4) Karpu or chaste life was the highest virtue of the women.
( 5) Love marriage was a common practice and women were
allowed to chose their life partner.
( 6) Life of widows was miserable. The practice of sati was
prevalent in the higher strata of the society.
( 7) The class of dancers were patronised by the kings and
the nobles.
( 8) Poetry, music , dancing were popular among the people.
Royal courts were crowded with singing bards. Koothu was
the popular entertainment of the people.
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Write a short essay on: “ Skandagupta’s war with the

Hunas”
Ans:
Skandagupta was a king of Gupta Dynasty. He came upon
the throne after the death of his father, Kumaragupta. At the
close of the reign of Kumargupta, Pushyamitra, probably a
tribe associated with the Hunas, had invaded Gupta Empire
and defeated it. But, Skandagupta, the crown prince,
restored the fortunes of Gupta Empire by defeating
Pushyamitra. Bhitari Pillar inscription mentions
Skandagupta defeating Pushyamitras.
Invasion of the Hunas
When Skandagupta came to the throne in 455 AD, he
encountered several wars. The Pushyamitra danger had
been averted, but one more formidable closely followed it:
an invasion of the Hunas.
Hunas were ferocious barbarian hordes who belonged to
the Central Asia. One branch of them, known as Epithalites
or White Hunas invaded India through the north- western
passes and threaten Gupta Empire. Threats were even
more fearful due to the tale of the terrible atrocities and
destruction which marked the advance of the Hunas.
Defeat of the Hunas

Once again, Skandagupta rose to the occassion and

inflicted upon the barbarians a defeat so decisive that India
was saved and for half a century, Hunas dared not to disturb
Gupta Empire.
In the light of the Hunas raids and conquests in other
countries like Persia, the victory of Skadagupta can be
considered as one of the greatest achievements of the age.
This heroic feat fully entitled Skandagupta to the title of
Vikramaditya, which Samudragupta and Chandraguta2 did
before him.
Evidences of Skandaqupta ’ s war with Hunas
(1) Bhitari pillar inscription mentions Huna invasion and
defeat by Skandagupta.
( 2) Junagarh inscription also mentions the defeat of
mlechhas ( most probably Hunas) at the hand of
Skandagupta.
( 3) In the year 465, a Brahman, when endowing a temple to
the Sun in Gupta Empire , described the rule of his king in
the central parts of the empire as “ augmenting and
victorious” probably indicating Skandagupta victory over
Hunas.
Impact of Huna invasion
Huna war and other battles must have proved a great strain
on the financial resources of the empire. Probably that is

the reason, gold coins issued by Skandagupta were not

only comparatively small in numbers but also show
depreciation in the purity of gold.
Huna’s invasions also occured probably at the close of
Sakandagupta’ s reign and also after his death. Huna
invasions were one of the main reasons of the decline of
Gupta Empire.
What are the salient features of the administrative

system of the Guptas?
Ans:
The Gupta empire was essentially a monarchical state
system as all the decision-making powers were in the hands
of the Gupta monarchs.
Salient Features of the administrative system of the
Guptas -
1 ) The Central Administration

King : - The King was the embodiment of all powers.
a) The Gupta kings assumed imperial titles such as
maharajadhiraja, parama-bhattaraka and
parameshvara.
b) They also claimed divine status as the Allahabad
prashasti describes Samudragupta as a god dwelling
on the earth.
c) The King was assisted by a council of ministers. The
ministers were known by various designations like
mantrin,amtya,sachiva and were most probably
hereditary.
Some of the high ranking functionaries
i) Sandhivigrahika (minister for peace and war) - In-
charge of the conduct of relations with the other
states, including initiating war and concluding

alliances and treaties.
ii) Kumaramatya- pre- eminent among the amatyas
and equivalent in status to princes of royal blood.
Kumaramatyas were variously attached to the king,
crown prince , revenue department or a province.
iii) Dandanayakas - They were high-ranking judicial or
miliatry officers.
iv) Baladhikrita- Commander -in-chief of the army and
Mahashvapati- Commander of cavalry.
v) Mahapratihara- Chief of the palace guards and
Khadyatapakita- Supreintendent of the royal kitchen.
2 ) The Provincial Administration
The Gupta empire was divided into provinces known as
deshas or bhuktis.
i) Uparikas- They were the governors appointed by the king
. They assumed the epithets like maharaja, bhattaraka, and
rajaputra.
a) They carried on the administartion of the bhuktis.
b) They also had military functions.
c) They appointed head of the district administartion and the
district town board.

ii) Goptri- Skandagupta's Junagarh inscription talks about

Parnadatta as Goptri of Saurashtra. Perhaps it was another
term for the governor.
The provincial government also played important role in the
repair of waterworks. For ex - repair of sudarshana lake after
it burst its embankments.
3 ) District Administration
The provinces of the Gupta empire were divided into
districts known as vishyas.
Vishyapati- They were head of the vishyas and were
appointed by the provincial governor. They were assisted in
their administrative duties by prominent members of the
town like-
a) Nagara- sreshthin- Chief merchant/banker
b) sarthavaha- Chief caravan trader
c) Prathama-kulika - Chief artisan
d) Prathama- Kyastha- Chief scribe or an officer in-charge
of revenue collection.
4) Below District administration
I) Vithis
a) They were the clusters of settlements.

b) They were administered by ayuktakas and vithi-

mahattaras.
II) Grama
a) Gramika and gramadhyaksha played important
functions.
b) Mahattaras- Village elder, village headmen or head of a
family or community.
c) Ashtakula-adhikarana (a board of eight members)
headed by the mahattaras.
d) Pancha-mandali- may have a corporate village body.
5 ) Revenue Administration
• Land revenue was the most important source of

revenue during the Guptas. Narada- smiriti states that
the one- sixth of the agricultural produce should be
taken as land revenue. This was called bhaga.
• There were also taxes like uparikara, kara, bhoga, bali,
hiranya, and udranga. Sulka was the commercial tax,
the organization of traders had to pay.
Describe the expansion of the Gupta Empire under

Samudragupta.
Ans:
The most important epigraph of Samudragupta ’s reign is
the prashasti on the unique Allahabad pillar which was
composed by his court poet, Harisena. The inscription
contains 33 lines. The Allahabad inscription, in prose and
verse, eulogizes the achievements, conquests and
personality of the Samudragupta. Samudragupta emerges
from the Allahabad prashasti as a restless conqueror.
Conquests of Samudragupta and the consequent
the Gupta empire
expansion of
Samudragupta must have inherited an empire that included

the Magadha area of Bihar and adjoining areas of Uttar
Pradesh and Bengal, stretching to the Himalayan foothills
in the north. His initial military campaigns were directed
towards extending his control over territories lying
immediately beyond this area.
(1 ) Campaigns in Aryavarta and forest regions
( a) Line 14 of the inscription refers to his capturing a king of
the Kota family who may be a ruler of upper Ganga valley.
(b) Line 21 refers to Samudragupta violently exterminating
a number of kings of Aryavarta namely Rudradeva, Matila,
Nagadatta, Chandravarman, Ganapatinaga, Nagasena,

Achyuta, Nandin, and Balavarman and making all the kings

of the forest his subordinates.
This annexation of the territories of the kings led to an
extension of the Gupta empire over the Ganga- Yamuna
valley up to Mathura and Padmavati in the west.
( 2) Campaigns in Frontier areas and subordination of
sanghas
Line 22 of the prashasti refers to rulers offering tribute,
obeying the orders of the Gupta kings, and coming to
perform obeisance before him.
a) They include the frontier kings of Samata, Davaka,
Kamarupa, Nepala, and Kartripura.
b) The ganas subordinated in this manner include Malavas,
Arjunayanas, Yaudheyas, Madrakas, Abhiras, Prarjunas,
Sanakanithan, kakas and Kharaparikas.
The relationship between the Gupta emperor and all these
groups had certain elements of a feudatory relationship.
(3) Campaign in South
Lines 19 and 20 of the inscription refer to Samudragupta
having captured and then released several rulers from
Dakshinapath. These include rulers of Kosala,
Mahakantara, Kairala, Pishtapura, Kusthalapura,

Erandapalla, Kanchi, Avamukta, Vengi, Palakka,

Devarashtra, and all other kings of Dakshinapath.
( 4 ) Others
Line 23 of the inscription mentions some rulers rendering all
kinds of service to Samudragupta, seeking the use of the
Gupta garuda seal and entering into matrimonial alliances
with the Guptas of their own accord.
At the end of his reign, Samudragupta ’s empire seems to
have comprised much northern India, with the exception of
Kashmir, Western Punjab, Rajasthan, Sindh, and Gujarat.
In north- west, Samudragupta claims to have impress his
might over the Shakas and The Kushanas. In the south, the
kings of the Dakshinapath were humbled but suffered
neither annexation nor a reduction to feudatory status.
It can be concluded that the Guptas did not create an all -
India empire under their direct control but through their
successful military campaigns, they did establish a network
of political relationships of paramountcy and subordination
that extended over a large part of the subcontinent.
Discuss the provincial and district administrative units

of the Gupta Empire with the designations and
functions of the officers.
Ans:
The King was the embodiment of all powers
( a) The Gupta kings assumed imperial titles such as
maharajadhiraja, parama-bhattaraka and parameshvara.
(b) They also claimed divine status as the Allahabad
prashasti describes Samudragupta as a god dwelling on the
earth.
( c) The King was assisted by a council of ministers. The
ministers were known by various designations like mantrin,
amtya, sachiva and were most probably hereditary.
Some of the high ranking functionaries
( 1) Sandhiviqrahika ( minister for peace and war ): In-charge
of the conduct of relations with the other states, including
initiating war and concluding alliances and treaties.
( 2) Kumaramatva: Pre-eminent among the amatyas and
equivalent in status to princes of royal
blood. Kumaramatyas were variously attached to the king,
crown prince, revenue department or a province.
( 3) Dandanavakas : They were high-ranking judicial or
miliatry officers.
( 4) Baladhikrita: Commander -in-chief of the army.

( 5) Mahashvapati: Commander of cavalry.
( 6) Mahapratihara: Chief of the palace guards.
( 7) Khadvatapakita: Supreintendent of the royal kitchen.
Provincial Administration
The Gupta empire was divided into provinces known as
deshas or bhuktis.
( 1) Uparikas:
They were the governors appointed by the king.They
assumed the epithets like maharaja, bhattaraka, and
rajaputra.
( a) They carried on the administartion of the bhuktis.
(b) They also had military functions.
( c) They appointed head of the district administartion and
the district town board.
( 2) Goptri:
Skandagupta ’s Junagarh inscription talks about Parnadatta
as Goptri of Saurashtra. Perhaps it was another term for the
governor.

The provincial government also played important role in the

repair of waterworks. For ex - repair of sudarshana lake after
it burst its embankments.
District Administration
The provinces of the Gupta empire were divided into
districts known as vishyas.
Vishyapati: They were head of the vishyas and were
appointed by the provincialgovernor .They were assisted in
their administrative duties by prominent members of the
town like:
( a) Nagara-sreshthin- Chief merchant/banker
(b) Sarthavaha- Chief caravan trader
( c) Prathama-kulika - Chief artisan
( d) Prathama- Kyastha- Chief scribe or an officer in-charge
of revenue collection.
Below District administration
( 1) Vithis
( a) They were the clusters of settlements.
(b) They were administered by ayuktakas and vithi -
mahattaras.
( 2) Grama

( a) Gramika and gramadhyaksha played important

functions.
(b) Mahattaras- Village elder, village headmen or head of a
family or community.
( c) Ashtakula-adhikarana (a board of eight members)
headed by the mahattaras.
( d) Pancha-mandali- may have a corporate village body.
Write a short essay on: “ Nalanda Mahavihara”

Ans:
Nalanda was an ancient center of higher learning in Bihar,
India from 5th century to 12th century. Nalanda Mahavihara
( university ) was established in the 5th century AD. Its
history begins under the Gupta Empire and a seal identifies
a monarch named Shakraditya as its founder. Both Hieun
Tsang (a Chinese pilgrim) and Prajnyavarman ( a Korean
pilgrim ) attribute its foundation to him. Shakraditya is
identified with the 5th-century CE Gupta emperor,
Kumaragupta I.
It was devoted to Buddhist studies, but it also trained
students in fine arts , medicine , mathematics, astronomy,
politics and the art of war .
The center had eight separate compounds, 10 temples,
meditation halls, classrooms, lakes and parks. It had a nine
story library where monks meticulously copied books and
documents so that individual scholars could have their own
collections. It had dormitories for students, perhaps a first
for an educational institution, housing 10,000 students in
the university ’s heyday and providing accommodations for
2,000 professors. Nalanda University attracted pupils and
scholars from Korea, Japan, China, Tibet, Indonesia, Persia
and Turkey.

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The site has a number of small monasteries where the

monks lived and studied and many of them were rebuilt over
the centuries. We were told that one of the cells belonged
to Naropa, who was instrumental in bringing Buddism to
Tibet, along with such Nalanda luminaries as Shantirakshita
and Padmasambhava.
Hsuan Tsang, the famous pilgrim from China came here
and studied and taught for 5 years in the 7 th Century A .D.
Nalanda University at that time had over 10,000 students
and 3,000 teachers.
Another Chinese pilgrim, l-tsing arrived in India in 673 CE.
He stayed ten years at the Nalanda Mahavihara. l -tsing
notes that revenues from 200 villages ( as opposed to 100
in Hsuan Tsang's time ) had been assigned toward the
maintenance of Nalanda Mahavihara.
For some 700 years, between the 5 th and 12th Centuries,
Nalanda was the center of scholarship and Buddhist studies
in the ancient world. A great fire wiped out the library of over
9 million manuscripts and at the beginning of the 12th
Century, the Muslim invader Bakhtiyar Khalji sacked the
university. It was in the 1860's that the archeologist
Alexander Cunningham identified the site as the Nalanda
University.
Highlight the achievements of the Gupta period in the

field of literature , science and technology.
Ans:
The Gupta age has been generally marked as the ‘classical
age ’ for its art, architecture, and literature. It was a period
of great developments in the fields of literature , science and
technology.
Achievements in the field of literature
Sanskrit language and literature had reached its peak
during this period which had been taking into shape since
long time. The lavish royal patronage had encouraged the
intellectuals to put in their best and thus achieve an artistic
excellence.
( 1) Various Puranas like Vishnu Purana, Vayu Purana,
Bhagvata Purana, Harivamsha Purana, etc. had been
compiled during this time. These were important not only for
studying Brahmanical religion but also for the knowledge of
genealogy and historical traditions.
( 2) This was the period when probably the
epics Ramayana and Mahabharata were finally compiled
into their present form.
( 3) Several law books like those of Manu, Vishnu,
Yajnavalkya, Narada Brihaspati, and Katyayana were
written during this period.
( 4) Kalidasa, one of the navratnas in the court of

Chandragupta II, was undoubtedly the most renowned poet
and dramatist of the period.
a) He wrote lyrical poems like Meghaduta,
Raghuvamsa, Kumarasambhava and short poem like
Ritusamhara.
b) His plays Abhijanashakuntalam,
Malavikagnimitra and Vikramorvashiya are classics in
the field of Sanskrit literature.
( 5) The famous Natya- shastra of Bharata was a treatise on
dance, drama and poetry. It provided foundation to literary
development.
( 6) Kamasutra of Vatsyayana, the first systematic
illustration of the art of love making shows the beginning of
a strong presence of the erotic tradition in literature.
( 7) Sudraka ' s Mrichchhakatika,
Mudrarakshasa and Devichandraguptam of
Vishakhadatta, Bharavi’s
Kiratarjuniya, Magha’s Shishupalavadha and Bhattikavya,
Bhatti’s Ravanavadha ,Panchatantra fables written by a
sage Vishnusharman are some of the other achievements
of the period.

( 8) In the field of grammar, Bhartihari in the 5th century CE

wrote a commentary on Patanjali’s Mahavashya and
Amarasimha compiled Amarakosha.
( 9) This was the time when Prakrit literature too got some
patronage outside the court . Several of the Jaina texts were
written in Prakrit during this period. The most didactic work
of the Jains written in prakrit was the Paumacariyam by
Vimalasuri.
Achievements in the field of Science and Technology
It was during the Gupta age that many scientific
breakthroughs occurred.
( 1) In the field of astronomy, the most important Indian
name is of Aryabhata who flourished in the 5th century CE.
a) His work Aryabhatiyam, deals with astronomy and
mathematics, b) He suggested that the earth revolved
around the Sun and rotated on its axis.
c) He also explained the eclipse and argued that it was
the shadow of the earth on the moon which caused
eclipse.
d) he was the first person to use the decimal- value
system.
e) he is the author of Aryabhata-siddhanta.

( 2) The close contemporary of Aryabhata

was Varahamihira who included the study of horoscope
and astrology in astronomy.
a) His Panchasiddhantika ( Five schools) discusses
about the five astronomical systems ( siddhanta) of
which two- Romakasiddhanta and Paulishasiddhanta
shows a close knowledge of Greek astronomy.
b) His another work, Brihatsamhita is encyclopaedic. It
covers wide ranging subjects of human interest,
including astrology, planetary movements, eclipses,
rainfall, clouds, architecture, growth of crops,
manufacture of perfume, matrimony, domestic
relations, gems, pearls, and rituals.
c) The Laghu and Brihat - jataka are his works on
horoscopy and became popular during the Gupta age.
( 3) The roots of Indian mathematics are generally traced to
the shulvasutras which are appendices to the
shrautasutras. It made suggestions for the construction of
Vedic sacrificial altars which could be made only with the
help of ruler and compass.
( 4) The branch of medical science was represented by two
important scholars of this time Charaka and Shushruta.

a) Charak-samhita is divided into 8 sections, each one

of it dealt with different diseases, their diagnosis, cure,
medicines, and other related philosophical issues.
b) Shushruta- samhita deals with the cure of diseases
of various body parts through different kinds of surgery.
Shushruta lays down all the principles of plastic
surgery, i.e., accuracy, precision, economy, and
haemostasis in his work. For example- Reconstruction
of a nose (rhinoplasty) which has been cut -off has been
described.
( 5) Veterinary medical science also progressed
( a) Hastyayurveda is a work to cure elephant’
diseases.
(b) Asvasastra by Salihotra is a work on horse science.
( 6) In chemical and metallurgy:
( a) Nagarjuna was a chemist and metallurgist. He
invented rasa therapy.
(b) Use of mercury and iron in the treatment of
diseases is mentioned by Varahmihira.
(b) Mehrauli iron pillar is a strong evidence to indicate
highly developed metallurgy
Write a short essay on: “ The Maukharis paving the way

for the glory of Harshavardhana.”
Ans:
The Maukharis flourished in the Gangetic valley during post
Gupta age and they ruled over an extensive area with their
capital at Kannauj.
The first important Maukharis king was Isanavarman who
claimed victory over the Andhras, the Sulikas of Orissa, the
Gaudas and assumed the title of Maharajadhiraja.
The Maukharis had paved the wav for the glory of
Harshavardhana because of the following reasons:
(1) The Maukhari king Ishanvarmana had defeated Hunas
invaders. This had weakened Hunas and when the Hunas
attacked the Kingdom of Prabhakarvardhana ( father of
Harshavardhana), they were easily defeated.
In this way, Harshavardhana of the Pushyabhuti dynasty of
Thanesar was free from Huna danger. This helped him to
spread and strengthen his Empire.
(2) Bana ' s Harshacharitta mentions that there was a
matrimonial alliance between the Pushyabhuti dynasty and
the Maukharis, as the Maukhari king Grihavarman was
married with Rajyasri, the sister of Harshavardhana. This
led to increase in the power and prestige of the Pushyabhuti
dynasty.

(3) There was a long duel between the Maukharis and the
‘Later Guptas’. Devagupta, a Gupta king of Malwa, who was
an ally of King Sasanka of Gauda, defeated and killed the
Maukhari king Grahvarmana who was married with
Harshvardhana ’s sister Rajyasri. This led to the control of
Maukharis kingdom coming under Harshavardhana. In this
way he became the ruler of a vast empire without any
conquest through war. He also acquired the capital of
Maukharis, Kannauj, which had strategic position.
This increased the strength and glory of Harshavardhana.
(4) The Later Guptas and the Gauda Kingdom weakened
due to continuous war with the Maukharis. This helped
Harshavardhana to expand his Empire.
Give an account of the Society in Northern and Central

India since the death of Harsha to the Muslim conquest
of North India.
Ans:
An account of the society in Northern and Central India
in the early medieval period

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1. Division of the Society into Caste System
Since ancient times the Indian society was divided into four
hierarchical castes with prescribed privileges and
disabilities. The four major castes were: the Brahmins,
Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and the Sudras.
The division of the society into castes and sub-castes had
created sharp differences between different sections of the
society. This in turn had weakened the society. The
Brahmins and Kshatriyas commanded the highest respect
in the society while the position of the Sudras and the
Chandalas had become worse than before. The Smriti
writers of the period exaggerated the privileges to the
Brahmins. On the other hand the Sudras were condemned
to rigorous social and religious disabilities.
Besides the traditional four castes, there was a large
section of the people called antayaja. The hunters, the
weavers, the fishermen, the shoemakers and other people
who engaged in such professions belonged to this section.
They occupied a position lower than the Sudras.
Still lower in social status were the Hadis, Dorns, Chandalas
etc. who performed duties such as lifting the dead cattle,
cremating the dead people, scavenging etc. They were
forced to live outside the cities and villages. They were
treated as outcastes and untouchables.
With the passage of time the caste system had become
very rigid. Marriages between different castes were
forbidden. According to a writer Parasara , eating a Sudra’s
food, association with a Sudra, sitting alongside a Sudra,
.
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and taking lessons from a Sudra are acts which drag down
even a noblest person. The position of the lower castes in
the society can be imagined by the fact that even the
Vaishyas were not allowed to study the religious texts.
One of the important features of the Hindu society on the
eve of the Turkish invasion was the emergence of new
castes such as the Kayastha caste. Originally, people from
different castes, including Brahmins and Sudras, who
worked in the royal establishments, came to be known as
Kayastha. With the passage of time, they crystallized into a
distinct caste.
As Hinduism was spreading it absorbed not only the
Buddhists and Jains but also many indigenous tribes and
foreigners who embraced Hinduism during this period.
These groups came to be organized in new castes and sub-
castes. In most of the cases they continued their own social
customs and traditions in relation to marriage etc. The caste
system and the proliferation of additional sub -castes with
their distinct social customs and position in the caste
hierarchy made the Hindu society more complex and
divided on the eve of the Turkish invasion.
2. Deterioration of the Position of Women
The position of women in the Indian society had been
gradually deteriorating over the years since ancient times.
The women were regarded as objects of enjoyment by men
and a means to procure children. The women were denied
education. They had no right to study the Vedas. Child
marriage was a common practice.
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The Smriti writers laid down that girls were to be given away
in marriage by their parents between the ages of six and
eight or between their eighth year and attaining puberty. In
general remarriage of the widows was not permitted. As
women were distrusted they were kept in seclusion and
their life was regulated by the male relations such as father,
brother, husband and son.
However , within the family, the women occupied an
honourable position. Polygamy was practiced in the society.
The practice of Sati among women of higher castes was
becoming quite widespread. An Arab writer , Sulaiman
mentions about the practice of Sati. According to him, wives
of kings sometimes burnt themselves on the funeral pyre of
their husbands. However , the choice was left to the wives.
3. Emergence of Feudalism
Emergence of the Feudalism was one of the most
noteworthy socio- economic and political phenomena in the
Indian sub-continent on the eve of the Turkish invasion. The
common feature of a feudal society is that those who drew
their sustenance from land without working on it held the
dominant position in society.
The feudalization of the society was due to the growing
power of a class of people who were called samanta, rautta
etc. Some of them were government officials who were
assigned revenue -bearing villages in lieu of cash salary.
Some others were defeated chiefs and their supporters who
continued to enjoy the revenue of limited areas. Military
adventurers, local hereditary chiefs, and tribal or clan
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leaders were also the components of the feudal society that

prevailed during this period. The feudal chiefs were
included within the kingdoms. Their assignments were
passed on to the succeeding generations and assumed the
nature of hereditary fiefs. The hereditary chiefs gradually
began to assume many of the functions of the government.
They maintained law and order, assessed and collected
revenue and administered justice.
The growth of a feudal society had disastrous effects on the
Indian socio -political system. Socially, the feudal class
represented parasitical exploiters of their tenants.
Politically, feudalism weakened the position of the ruler.
The ruler became increasingly dependent on the feudal
chiefs who maintained their own military forces. Feudalism
discouraged trade and commerce and promoted economic
self -sufficiency within a village or region. The feudal system
also weakened village self -government .
4. Religious and Moral Decline
Buddhism and Jainism continued to decline during the
period. Meanwhile there was a revival and expansion of
Hinduism. There was a growing popularity of Siva and
Vishnu. The worship of the Sun and Brahma gradually
declined. The worship of Shakti, the female creative energy
became popular in eastern India. Buddhism was gradually
confined to eastern India. The Pala rulers patronized
Buddhism . Jainism continued to be popular in western and
south India especially among the trading classes.
Deterioration of religion and morality was increasingly
damaging the social fabric on the eve of the Turkish
.
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invasion. Shankaracharya had tried to safeguard Hinduism

from the influence of both Buddhism and Jainism by
developing a common philosophy known as Advaita.
However , he could not get rid of the evils that had crept into
Hinduism.
Different religious sects made their appearance in different
regions of India. A new sect known as Vamamarga Dharma
had become popular especially in Kashmir and Bengal. The
adherents of this sect indulged in wine, flesh, fish and
women. The great mathas, which had been centers of
learning and piety gradually, degenerated into centres of
luxury and idleness.
The other evil that can be traced to this period was the
devadasi system. Most of the important temples employed
a number of unmarried girls dedicated to the service of the
deity. They were required to please the deity of the temple
by their dance. This custom gradually degenerated into
temple prostitution.
The literature and art during this period assumed obscene
character. The cult of the erotic had entered not only the
literature but also the temple sculpture and the Tantric
rituals. The craze for sensuality had also dominated Indian
art of this period. The erotic sculptures of the Khajuraho
temples built by the Chandelas are a testimony of the
sensuality of the contemporary rulers, artists and the people
in general.
5. Insular Character of the Indian Society

The insular character of the Indian society made it ignorant

of the various developments that were taking place beyond
the natural frontiers of the Indian sub-continent . Indians
were ignorant of the political, military, social, cultural,
religious and scientific progress of their neighbouring
countries. The upper castes of the Indian society developed
a false sense of pride in their superiority.
Al Beruni, who accompanied Mahmud Ghazni to India in the
course of the invasions made the following observations
about the Indian society: “ The Hindus believed that there is
no country like theirs, no nation like theirs, no king like
theirs , no religion like theirs , no science like theirs . .. ” This
account of Al Beruni indicates that the Indians did not desire
to learn anything from others. Further Al Beruni writes: “ The
Hindus did not desire that a thing which has once been
polluted should be purified and thus recovered.” This
complacency naturally prevented the Indians from rising
above their fossilized, narrow-minded existence, which
ultimately led to their weak resistance against the foreign
invaders.
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Give an account of the struggle for supremacy in South

India between the Chalukyas of Badami and the
Pallavas.
Ans:
The political history of the South India from the period of 6th
century to 8th century is marked by the struggle for
supremacy between the Pallavas of Kanchi and Chalukyas
of Badami. The struggle was for the occupation of the fertile
land lying between Krishna and Tungabhadra.
Mahendravarman I and Pulakeshin II: Beginning of
conflict
The reign of Mahendravarman I (590 -630) saw the
beginning of the conflict between the Pallavas and Western
Chalukyas. The army of the Pulakeshin II (610 -643)
reached perilously close to the Pallava capital Kanchipuram
and annexed the northern part of that kingdom. He was
defeated by the Chalukya ruler Pulakeshin II and gave the
territory of Vengi.
Narasimhavarman I and Pulakeshin II: Climax of
conflict
Narasimhavarman I Mahamalla ( 630- 668), the son of the
Mahendravarman managed to settle scores by winning
several victories over the Chalukyas with the aid of their ally
Manavarma, a Sri Lankan prince, who later became the

ruler of the island kingdom. The climax of these victories

was Narsimhavarman’s invasion of the Chalukyan kingdom
and his capturing Vatapi. Pulakeshin II was killed and
Narasimhavarman I took the title Vatapikondan which is
recorded in an inscription engraved on a rock behind the
temple of Mallikarjunadeva in Badami.
The Pallava- Chalukya conflict continued during the
subsequent decades interspersed with some peaceful
interludes.
Mahendravarman II and Vikramaditva I
Narasimhavarman died about 668 A.D, and was succeeded
by his son Mahendravarman II (668-670) . During his reign,
the Chalukya-Pallava conflict reopened in which
Mahendravarman II sustained defeat and perhaps death at
the hand of Chalukya ruler Vikramaditya I ( 654 -681)
somewhere in the Mysore region.
Parameshvaravarman I and Vikramaditva
Mahendaravaman II was followed by his son
Parameshvaravarman I (670- 695) who had to struggle hard
with his Chalukya adversary, Vikramaditya. Aided by his
Ganga ally, Vikramaditya advanced to the neighborhood of
Kanchipuram whereupon, Parameshvaravarman I made
his escape. From his exile the Pallava king organized his
resources and made a bold diversion by launching a
counter-invasion into the Chalukya country. Vikramaditya in

his turn pursued Parameshvaravarman I to the south and

encamped at Uraiyur near Trichinopoly where he effected a
junction with his Pandya ally. Before proceeding against the
allies, Parameshvaravarman I fought with Bhuvikarma, the
Ganga ally of Vikramaditya. The battle however went
against him and Pallava ruler lost a valued Crown Jewel.
But the battle served its purpose in the long run as it
rendered the Ganga king innocuous in the main
engagement which occurred at Peruvalanallur, 2 miles
north- west of Uraiyur. The Pallava king won a decisive
victory which forced the Chalukyas to retire.
Last Phase of the conflict
There was a lull in the conflict between the Chalukyas and
Pallavas which helped to promote peace and prosperity in
the kingdom during the reign of Vikramaditya’s successor
Vinayaditya ( 681 -696 A.D) and Pallava ruler
Narsimhavarmana ( 695-722). Vinayaditya was succeeded
by Vijayaditya ( 696-733) whose reign is perhaps the most
peaceful and prosperous.
Vijayaditya was followed by his son Vikramaditya II ( 733 -
44). The conflict between the two kingdoms was resumed
under his reign. The Chalukya king Vikramaditya II is said
to have overrun Kanchi, the capital of Pallava.
About 750 AD, Dantidurga, who was feudatory of the
Chalukya, reached Kanchi, the Capital of the Pallava. After

a display of show of force, he struck up an alliance with

Nandivarman Pallavamalla to whom he gave his daughter
in marriage. He then attacked and overthrew his suzerain
Kirtivarman II, the Chalukya King and proclaimed himself
the paramount ruler of the Deccan and laid the foundation
of the Rashtrakuta Empire.
Give an account of the rise of the Chalukyas of Vatapi

and their struggle with other rulers. Write a note on
their patronage of arts.
Ans:
The Chalukyas were the most important dynasty which
brought about the political unification of the Deccan in the
6th century. The original dynastic name of the chalukya was
chalkya or chalikya. The chalukyas were an indigenous clan
which attained prominence in the service of later
satavahanas and their successors.
Rise of the Chalukyas of Vatapi
The Western Chalukyas claimed Brahmana origin as
Haritiputras of the Manavya gotra. The Chalukyas had a
modest beginning under Jayasimha and his son Ranaraga.
They succeeded in carving a small principality somewhere
in southern Maharashtra or northern Karnataka.
The real founder of the dynasty was Pulakeshin I (533 -66)
who established his capital at the hill- fort of Vatapi
(Badami) . The choice of capital was dictated by the
strategic considerations as the place was fortified by hills
and rivers. He is described as having performed a number
of shrauta sacrifices including the ashvamedha. The
kingdom was further enlarged by his son Kirtivarman I ( 566 -
98). Pulakeshin II was the most powerful king of the line and
achieved many military successes, as described in his

Aihole inscription. Under his reign, the Chalukyan Empire

reached its apogee.
Struggle of Chalukyan rulers with Pallavas
The political history of the South India from the period of 6th
century to 8th century is marked by the struggle for
supremacy between the Pallavas of Kanchi and Chalukyas
of Badami. The struggle was for the occupation of the fertile
land lying between Krishna and Tungabhadra. The Pallavas
had conquered the neighbouring kingdom and marched up
to the boundary of the Chalukyas. The first important event
in this conflict took place in the reign of Mahendravarman I
in the beginning of the 7th century. He was defeated by the
Chalukya ruler Pulakesin II and was given the territory of
Vengi; Narasimhavarman the next Pallava ruler defeated
Pulakesi II and captured Vatapi in capital of the Chalukyas.
Pulakesin II was killed and Narasimhavarman took the title
Vatapikondan. The conflict between the two kingdoms was
resumed in the first half of the 8th century AD. The Chalukya
king Vikramadithya II said to have over run Kanchi, the
capital of Pallava. The Pallavas were completely defeated
by the Chalukyas.
Struggle of Chalukyan rulers with Harshavardhana
While Pulakesin II had established his supremacy in the

Deccan, Harshavardhana was busy consolidating his
empire in the north. A conflict between the two was

inevitable which took place sometime between A .D. 631 -34

on the bank of Narmada river. According to Hiuen Tsang,
Harsha lost heavily and sustained the only rebuff in
otherwise victorious career.
Struggle of Chalukvan rulers with other rulers
Kirtivarman I ( 566-98) fought successful wars against the
Kadambas of Banavasi, Mauryas of the Konkan, and Nalas
of the Bastar area. The most of Maharashtra and a greater
part of the old Hyderabad State came within the Chalukya
sphere of influence.
Continuing with the policy of expansion, Kirtivarman’s
successor Mangalesa invaded the territory of Kalachuri
Buddharaja. He effected the reconquest of Revatidvipa.
Pulakesin II inaugurated the brightest chapter in the annals
of Chalukyas by re -establishing supremacy over the rulers
who had revolted and making extensive conquests in the
north and south. A detailed account of these victories is
found in Aihole inscription ( 634-35 AD ). The court poet
Ravikirti composed a prasasti or eulogy of his patron
Pulakesin II.
Pulakesin II defeated the rebel chief Appayika and won over
the allegiance of another chief Govinda. He captured
Banavasi, the capital of the Kadambas and brought the
Gangas and Alupas ruling in part of Mysore and Kanara
respectively under the overlordship of the Chalukyas.
Pulakesin then turned his attention against Konkan where

he reduced the Mauryas and made himself master of their
island capital Puri located in Elephanta island. The fame of
Pulakesin ’s arms induced the Latas, Malavas and Gurjaras
to acknowledge the supremacy of the Chalukyas. The
northern frontier of the Chalukyan empire was thus
extended up to the river Mahi.
Pulakesin II began an extensive compaign in the eastern
Deccan. The ruler of Kosala submitted and Pishtapura
( modern Pitampura) on the coast in the Godavari district
was reduced.
Vinayaditya ( A.D. 681-696) is credited with victories over
the Pallavas, Cholas, Pandyas, Keralas in the south and
Haihayas ( Kalachuris) and Malavas in the north.
Patronage of arts
The Chalukyas were great patrons of art . They developed
the vesara style in the building of structural temples.
However , the vesara style reached its culmination only
under the Rashtrakutas and the Hoysalas. The structural
temples of the Chalukyas exist at Aihole, Badami and
Pattadakal. Cave temple architecture was also famous
under the Chalukyas. Their cave temples are found in
Ajanta, Ellora and Nasik .
The best specimens of Chalukya paintings can be seen in
the Badami cave temple and in the Ajanta caves. The
reception given to a Persian embassy by Pulakesin II is

depicted in a painting at Ajanta.
The Chalukya temples may be divided into two stages.
The first stage is represented by the temples at Aihole and
Badami. Among the seventy temples found at Aihole, four
are important.
1 . Ladh Khan temple is a low, flat -roofed structure
consisting of a pillared hall.
2. Durga temple resembles a Buddha Chaitya
3. Huchimalligudi temple.
4. The Jain temple at Meguti.
Among the temples at Badami, the Muktheeswara temple
and the Melagutti Sivalaya are notable for their architectural
beauty.
A group of four rock-cut temples at Badami are marked by
high workmanship. The walls and pillared halls are adorned
by beautiful images of gods and human beings.
The second stage is represented by the temples at
Pattadakal. There are ten temples here, four in the northern
style and the remaining six in the Dravidian style.
The Papanatha temple is the most notable in the northern
style.

The Sangamesvara temple and the Virupaksha temple are

famous for their Dravidian style. The Virupaksha temple is
built on the model of the Kailasanatha temple at
Kanchipuram. It was built by one of the queens of
Vikramaditya II. Sculptors brought from Kanchi were
employed in its construction.
How could the local self -government under the Cholas

adjust with their centralized administration structure?
Ans:
The system of village autonomy with assemblies ( Sabhas
and Urs) and their committees ( Variyams) developed
through the ages and reached its culmination during the
Chola rule. Uttaramerur inscriptions provide details of the
formation and functions of village councils. Several works
like maintenance of temples, agriculture, irrigation,
collection of taxes, road construction etc was looked after
by the local assembly through their committees.
The Chola polity was absolute monarchy and had
centralized military, revenue and provincial administrative
structure.
Adjustment of Chola ’ s centralized administrative structure
with local self -government
(1) Generally, the Chola Emperors respected the decisions
of these assemblies. Each assembly functioned
autonomously in accordance with its own constitution
based on custom and usage, and took care of the problems
of its members at the local level. In matters affecting people
of more than one assembly, decision was taken by mutual
deliberation.

(2) The central government through its officers exercised

general supervision and had right to intervene in the matter
of village under emergency situations. The village
assemblies had to take into account the policies of central
government.
(3) There were close links between some of the Brahmana
Sabhas and Chola court. Uttaramerur inscriptions state that
the resolution of the Sabha was made in the presence of an
official especially deputed by the King.
(4) Tanjavur inscriptions indicate that Raja Raja I issued
orders to the Sabha of Cholamandalam to perform various
types of services in the Brihadeshwara temple.
(5) Important brahmadeyas were granted taniyur status.
Taniyur means ‘separate village’. They were considered
independent entities and granted considerable functional
autonomy.
(6) Those villages which were in the central region of Kaveri
river basin were put under direct Royal control, while those
regions which were far away and located in drier region
were autonomous and contained the self governing
institution.
(7) Local assemblies like Nagaram (assemblies of traders)
acted as an agent of monarchy in regulating trade and
markets.

(8) The assessment and collection of revenue were

undertaken by local assemblies like Ur, Sabha and
Nagaram, who passed the revenue onto the centre.
(9) Local administration through the assembly units greatly
lightened the burden of the central government. It not only
gave a chance to population to air its grievances and
solving the problems. This strengthened the basis of the
state by minimizing opposition to it as the people could not
hold the government responsible for the matters.
Assess the achievements of the Pallavas in

administration and art.
Ans:
From the middle of the 6 th to middle of the 8th centuries, the
Pallavas were the dominant power in the Far South.
Achievements of the Pallavas in Administration
Central Government
The Pallavas had a well organized administrative system.
The king was at the centre of administration in which he was
assisted by able ministers ( Rahasyadikadas). He was the
fountain of justice. He provided land -grants to the temples
known as Devadana also to the Brahmans known as
Brahmadeya.
It was the responsibility of the central government to provide
irrigation facilities to the lands. A number of irrigation tanks
were dug by the Pallava kings. The irrigation tanks at
Mahendravadi and Mamandoor were dug during the reign
of Mahendravarman I.
There was a regular hierarchy of officials, civil and military.
Military Administration
Pallavas maintained a well-trained army. The army
consisted in the main of foot-soldiers and cavalry with a
small body of elephants. Chariots were by now almost out

of fashion and in any case were ineffective in the hilly terrain

where much of the fighting took place.
Army officers could also be used in civil administration, but
generally there was a clear distinction between civil and
military administration.
Provincial Administration
The Pallava state was divided into provinces (Rastras or
Mandalas ), which were governed by princes of the Royal
blood or by scions of noble families. Other smaller divisions
were Kottams and nadus which were administered by
officers appointed by the king.
Local Administration
The Pallava inscriptions throw much light on the village
assemblies called sabhas and their committees. They
maintained records of all village lands, looked after local
affairs and managed temples, gardens, public baths, tanks
etc.
Sabha also excercised judicial functions and acted as the
trustee of public endowments. There was an efficient
system of irrigation and land survey. The village boundaries
were properly marked, and full details of arable and fallow
lands were collected for revenue purposes as well as for
making grants to learned Brahmanas.
Revenue Administration
Detailed information on the tax system could also be traced

from the Pallava inscriptions. Land tax was the primary
source of the government revenue. Taxation was elaborate
and there is a reference that the king laid claim to 18 th kinds
of dues from the village people.
The Brahmadeya and Devadhana lands were exempted
from tax. Traders and artisans such as carpenters,
goldsmiths, washer -men, oil-pressers and weavers paid
taxes to the government. Various other kinds of taxes were
imposed like: fee on marriages, fee on stalls and shops,
brokerage fee etc. Thus the resources of the people were
fully tapped and harnessed in the interests of
administration, which was well organized.
Achievements of the Pallavas in Art
Temples:
Pallavas were great patrons of art and architecture. It was
a great age of temple building. The Pallavas introduced the
art of excavating temples from the rock . In fact, the
Dravidian style of temple architecture began with the
Pallava rule. It was a gradual evolution starting from the
cave temples to monolithic rathas and culminated in
structural temples.
The development of temple architecture under the Pallavas
can be seen in four stages.

(1) Mahendravarman I introduced the rock -cut temples.

This style of Pallava temples are seen at places like
Mandagappattu, Mahendravadi, Mamandur, Dalavanur,
Tiruchirappalli, Vallam, Tirukalukkunram .
( 2) The second stage of Pallava architecture is represented
by the monolithic rathas and Mandapas found at
Mamallapuram. Narasimhavarman I took the credit for
these wonderful architectural monuments.
The five rathas, popularly called as the Panchapanadava
rathas, signifies five different styles of temple architecture.
The mandapas contain beautiful sculptures on its walls. The
most popular of these mandapas are Mahishasuramardhini
Mandapa, Tirumurthi Mandapam and Varaha Madapam.
( 3) In the next stage, Rajasimha introduced the structural
temples. These temples were built by using the soft sand
rocks. The Kailasanatha temple at Kanchi and the Shore
temple at Mamallapuram remain the finest examples of the
early structural temples of the Pallavas. The Kailasanatha
temple at Kanchi is the greatest architectural master piece
of the Pallava art.
( 4) The last stage of the Pallava art is also represented by
structural temples built by the later Pallavas. The
Vaikundaperumal temple, Muktheeswara temple and
Matagenswara temples at Kanchipuram belong to this
stage of architecture.
^
Sculptures:
The Pallavas had also contributed to the development of
sculpture. Apart from the sculptures found in the temples,
the ‘Open Art Gallery’ at Mamallapuram remains an
important monument bearing the sculptural beauty of this
period. The Descent of the Ganges or the Penance of
Arjuna is called a fresco painting in stone. The minute
details as well as the theme of these sculptures such as the
figures of lice-picking monkey, elephants of huge size and
the figure of the ‘ascetic cat ’ standing erect remain the proof
for the talent of the sculptor.
Fine Arts:
Music, dance and painting had also developed under the
patronage of the Pallavas. The Mamandur inscription
contains a note on the notation of vocal music. The
Kudumianmalai inscription referred to musical notes and
instruments. The Alwars and Nayanmars composed their
hymns in various musical notes. Dance and drama also
developed during this period. The sculptures of this period
depict many dancing postures. The Sittannavasal paintings
belonged to this period. The commentary called
Dakshinchitra was compiled during the reign of
Mahendravarman I, who had the title Chittirakkarapuli.
Copyright © SoHSwdyh SnTTRJOrHBTOmgGMAILCOM COffTAcr No: 7011446954

Bring out the regional variations in the early South

Indian Temple’s architectural styles.
Ans:
Early South Indian temple architecture styles had regional
variations which can be seen in the Pallava, Chola and
Pallava temple architectures.
Pallava temple architecture
Pallava kings specially Mahendravarman I,
Narsimhavarman I and Rajasimha were great patrons of the
arts. The remains of the architecture of the Pallava period
are mostly found at Mamallapuram and Kanchipuram. They
comprise:
1. cave temples,
2. monolithic temples and
3. structural temples.
Simple cave temples
1. Pallava Cave shrines are smaller and less complex in
plans. The relatively plain caves are represented by the
Lakshitayatana temple at Mandgappattu, Lalitankura
Cave at Tiruchirapalli and some of those at
Mamallapuram or Mahabalipuram. Mostly they were
built during Mahendravarman I.
2. The massive pillars in these Caves are square at the
bottom and top and chamfered into an octagonal shape

COWACT No. 7011446954 EMAIL IDS sareTUoyHiSTOHT@GMAJLCOM
in between. Pillars are thin and lion like capital of pillar

was used.
3. The cave facade is generally plain, dwarapalas
generally marking the two ends.
4. The sanctum contains a linga or images of Shiva,
Vishnu or Brahma.
5. Some of the relief carving, for instance the scene of
Shiva receiving Ganga on his head in the Tiruchirapalli
caves is exceptionally fine.
Cave temples of Mamallapuram
1. The more elaborate caves are located at
Mamallapuram mostly during Narsimhavarman I. The
columns in these Caves are comparatively slender,
their shaft is multifaceted sometimes fluted or round
with cushion shaped capitals and seated lions at the
base.
2. The rock cut caves at Mamallapuram contain many
striking mythological scenes carved in relief . These
include Vishnu rescuing the earth, Vishnu taking three
strides, Gaja Lakshmi and Durga (In the Adi Varaha
Cave), Mahisasurmardini in the Durga Cave, and
Krishna lifting Govardhana mountain in the
Panchapandava cave. The main figures are slender,
delicate and elegant. Their headdresses and crowns
are quite plain they wear little and no jewelry.
Monolithic temples
SmYnjorH TO>tv@CMAn coM CONTACT NO: 7011446954
1. This group of architecture remains at Mamallapuram

are nine rock cut monolithic temple of which five are
clustered together. The five rathas are known as
Dharmaraja, Bhima, Draupadi, Arjuna and Sahdeva
Rathas. These shrines display very different
architectural features. The Arjuna and Sahdeva rathas
are incomplete.
2. The Dharmaraja Ratha is square in plan. It has open
porches and a terraced pyramidal tower. Its pillar
shafts are supported by seated lions.
3. The Bhima ratha is longitudinal in shape with a barrel
vaulted roof .
4. The Draupadi ratha is a very small square structure
with a curvilinear roof shaped like a thatched roof of a
hut.
5. The outer walls of the Mamallapuram temples are
decorated with scenes from Hindu mythology.
Structural temples
During the reign of Rajasimha, the rock cut technique of
temple building was replaced by structural temples built of
stones. This represents the first phase in the development
of temple architecture and the beginning of free standing
temples. Garbhagriha, pyramidal shikhara and Assembly
hall are important parts. Main temples are: Shore temple,
Kailashnath temple and Vaikuntha Perumal temple.

Temples were small structures and prototype of previous

ones. They show no novelty value. Temples show greater
development of capitals.
The Shore at Mamallapuram has two shikharas which are
terraced and slender.
Kailasanath temple at Kanchi is a rectangular complex
consisting of a main shrine and over fifty subsidiary shrines.
The shikhara is in the typical southern style and the
enclosure walls of the complex have gopuras. This temple
is more heavily ornamented with sculptures than any other
structure of the Pallava period. This temple marks an
important stage in the evolution of the south Indian temples.
Chola temple architecture
While the Pallava temples were mostly located in and
around Kanchipuram . Chola temples are concentrated
further south, around Tanjore. They do not show a simple
or straight forward evolution from the earlier Pallava
temples and in fact reflect certain new features.
The earliest phase is represented by Shiva temple at
Narttamalai:
1. It consists of a vimana, joined to an ardhamandapa,
which has two rows of three pillars.
2. The main shrine is surrounded by six subsidiary
shrines known as parivaralayas.
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3. The outer walls have relatively little sculptural

ornamentation but two dwarapalas flanked the
western entrance.
The second phase is represented by temples built during
the reigns of Aditya I and Parantaka I. In this phase:
1. An antarala was added between the vimana and
ardha-mandapa.
2. Representations of deities and mythological scenes
including those of Ramayana appeal on the outer
walls.
3. The frieze along the outer base of the temple consists
of rose of inverted lotuses , lions and elephants.
In the next phase, the culmination of Chola temple
architecture is represented by the Brihadishvara temple at
Tanjavur. It contains following features:
1. With an approximately 60m tall vimana and a towering,
pyramidal shikhara, this Shiva temple was one of the
largest and most grand structures of its age, displaying
certain new architectural features.
2. The main shrine consists of a pillared porch, a pillared
mukhmandapa & ardhamandapa, an antarala and the
sanctum.
3. Ornamentation of the outer walls is much more profuse
than in earlier shrines.

4. In front of the temple is an almost 6 m long Nandi bull

carved out of a single stone, later enclosed in a
pavilion. The temple stands within a huge rectangular
enclosure. On the east are two imposing temple
gateways (gopuras) , the lower part of which is made of
stone , the upper storey of brick. The figures carved on
the gopuras are more heavy and ornamented than in
earlier temples.
The last phase of Chola temple architecture belongs to the
12th-13th centuries. During this period:
1. The gopuras became more dominant than the vimana.
This is evident in the Shiva temple at Chidambaram.
2. Wheels and horses were added to the outer walls of
the temple, to give it the appearance of a chariot.
Pandva temple architecture
Pandya architecture includes both rock -cut and structural
temples. The early rock-cut temples have monolithic
vimanas. The structural ones are small stone temples and
have all the features of bigger temples i.e. vimana,
mandapa and sikhara. Groups of small temples are to be
seen at Tiruchirapalli district of Tamil Nadu. The Shiva
temples have a Nandi in front of the maha mandapa.
The period of the latter Pandya rulers saw the development
of elegant vimanas with finely sculptured idols and the
gopuramsof the temples. The rectangular entrance or
^
portals of the temple are called the gopurams. The portions
above the entrance is pyramidal in shape.
Gradually the gopurams were given more importance than
the sikharas. While the former were higher and more
imposing, the latter declined in height. Lofty gopurams of
great proportions with lavish decoration were constructed
by succeeding dynasties.
SmTnjcrrwuTORv ®CMAn coM COtfTACT No: 7011446954
Assess Ellora as a unique art centre of the different

cultural streams.
Ans:
Ellora Caves are 34 monasteries and temples, dug side by
side in the wall of a high basalt cliff, with its uninterrupted
sequence of monuments dating from A.D. 600 to 1000,
brings the civilization of ancient India to life. Not only is the
Ellora complex a unique artistic creation and a
technological exploit but, with its sanctuaries devoted to
Buddhism , Brahminism and Jainism, it illustrates the spirit
of tolerance that was characteristic of ancient lndia.lt
contains 17 Hindu caves, 12 Buddhist caves and 5 Jain
caves, built in proximity. Even within the Hindu,, Buddhist
and Jaina Caves, there are different sects represented in it.
All these shows Ellora as a unique art Centre of the different
cultural streams.
Brahmanical Caves
Ellora is known for the spectacular Kailashanath temple
excavated under the patronage of Rashtrakutas. The
Kailashanatha temple marks the highest point of rock cut
temple architecture in the sub-continent. It has following
characteristics:
I. The temple is actually a complex, comprising a main
shrine consisting of lower and upper stories, a Nandi

pavilion, subsidiary shrines, wall, gateway and

cloisters.
2. The super structure of the temple corresponds to the
dravida style practically all the surfaces of the temple
complex are richly ornamented with bold, dramatic and
exceptionally fine sculptures. Most of them are Shaiva
but there are also representations of Vishnu. In fact,
the sculptures to the left of the entrance are mostly
Shaiva while those to the right are mostly Vaishnava.
3. The sculptures on the wall include representations of
Shiva, Shiva-Parvati, Ravan shaking mount Kailasa,
Durga, Sapta-matrikas, Ganesha and the goddess
Ganga, Yamuna and Saraswati.
Buddhist Caves
The caves at Ellora represent the last phase of Buddhist
cave architecture in western India. Their architecture and
sculpture shows some continuities with earlier centuries
( example: Ajanta, Bagh and Kanheri) but there are also
some changes . These include an increase in the size of the
side shrines and a double row of stone benches. Other
distinctive features are the larger scale and richness of
sculpture.
The sculptural program of the Buddhist caves at Ellora
includes arrays of Budhhas and Boddhisatvas. A group of
eight Boddhisatvas are sometimes arranged together in a
Mandala formation.
Jaina Caves
In the final group of five Ellora caves ( jaina group), the most
interesting are the IndraSabha ( Assembly hall of Indra, king
of the gods ) and JagannathSabha ( Assembly hall of the lord
of the universe).
1. IndraSabha is a two storied shrine cut into the rock to
a depth of over 200 feet and is approached through
rock-hewn doorway leading into a square courtyard.
To the right is an imposing statue of an elephant.
2. The JagannathSabha is similar in plan to the
IndraSabha but smaller. The shrine is small,
antechamber with a well proportion torana( arches) and
within it is a seated Mahavira. The walls are recessed
for figured sculptures and the pillars are richly carved
in the best Jaina traditions which include the images of
24 Jainatirthankas. At each end of the hall, ia a large
shrine containing a statue of Mahavira. This temple is
possibly earliest of the Jaina group. On the top of the
hill, in which the Jaina caves are excavated is a rock-
hewn statue of Parshwanath.
Assess the educational system in early India and

identify important educational institutions of the
period.
Ans:
Aims of education
In ancient India, education was a matter of individual
concern. The aim of education was the development of
pupil’s overall personality. With this view of education as a
process of one ’s inner growth and self -fulfillment,
techniques, rules and methods were evolved. It was
believed that the development of a person meant, primarily,
the training of his/her mind as the instrument of acquiring
knowledge. This knowledge would enhance his/her creative
capacity. The thinking principle ‘manana shakti’ was
reckoned higher than the subject of thinking. Thus, the
primary subject of education was the mind itself.
Subjects of education
Knowledge of applied sciences like metallurgy, baked
bricks, glazing, measurement of areas and volumes were
known to people in ancient India.
The scientific system of medicine was developed in the
post - Vedic period. Medicine became a subject at centres of
learning like Taxila and Varanasi. The ‘Charak Samhita ’ on

medicine and ‘Sushruta Samhita’ on surgery were two

important works in this field.
Mathematics or ‘ganita’ included Arithmetic, Geometry,
Algebra, Astronomy and Astrology. Interest in Arithmetic
was due to its use in trade and commerce. ‘Aryabhattiya’,
by Aryabhatta was a major contribution in the field of
mathematics. ‘Surya Siddhanta ’, a work on astronomy
consisted of the description of the instruments and the
methods of observation which were neither accurate nor
impressive.
Languages of education
Sanskrit enjoyed a position of privilege in ancient India. It

served as a medium of Brahmanical education. Sanskrit
was the lingua franca of the educated upper castes as well
as the Hindu rulers and courtiers.
‘Prakrit ’ as a language developed with the rise of Buddhism .
It became the language of the masses. Ashoka, the
Mauryan king used ‘Prakrit ’ in his edicts. Pali was one of the
early variants of Prakrit. Most of the Buddhist canonical
writings are in Prakrit and Pali, though some Sanskrit
literature was also in circulation.
Another language ‘Apabhramsha’ was used by Jain writers
in Gujarat and Rajasthan for the composition of poetry. The
Dravidian languages Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and

Malayalam were in use in the southern parts of India. They

found expression in the literature of this period as well.
Education in the ancient period

Gurukul and Guru- Shisva Parampara
Vedic Period Learning in ancient India was imparted by the
teachers called Gurus to the pupils who gathered around
them and came to live with them in their house as members
of the family. Such a place was called Gurukul. The Gurukul
functioned as a domestic school, an ashrama, where the
children’s learning was developed by the Guru who gave
personal instruction as well as attention to the students.
Education was primarily the privilege of the upper castes.
Learning was an intimate relationship between the teacher
and the pupil called the Guru-Shishya Parampara. The
process of learning generally began with a religious
ceremony, ‘Upanayana ’ ( sacred thread ceremony).
Education was normally imparted orally. It included
memorization of texts like Vedas and Dharmashastras , fully
or partially. Later subjects like Grammar, Logic, and
Metaphysics came to be taught and studied. The Maitrayani
Upanishad teaches us that the supreme knowledge (gyan)
is the result of learning ( vidya), reflection (chintan) and
austerity ( tapas). Through introspection (atma vishleshana)
one was to attain goodness (Satva) , purity of mind and
satisfaction of the soul in stages. During this time self

education was regarded as the proper method of attaining
the highest knowledge.
Post - Vedic, Maurvan and Post- Maurvan Period
During the Post- Vedic, Mauryan and the post -Mauryan
periods, the Indian society went through a phase of
intensive change. With the growth of urban centres and
trade, the mercantile community came to acquire an
important position.
As a result, the guilds of the merchants began to play an
active role in providing education. They became centres of
technical education and fostered the knowledge of mining,
metallurgy, carpentry, weaving and dyeing. There were new
formulations in building and architecture. With the
emergence of city life, new architectural forms evolved. The
guilds also gave patronage to astronomy, the study of the
position of stars, to help them in ocean navigation.
Medical knowledge began to be systemized as Ayurveda.
The elements formed the basis for the Indian medical
system . Knowledge of the medicinal properties of herbs and
their usage reached a very advanced stage. ' Charaka'
became famous for medicine and ‘Sushruta’ for surgery.
‘Charak Samhita ’ written by Charaka was an authentic and
exhaustive work on medicines. Sushruta considered

surgery as “ the highest division of the healing arts and least

liable to fallacy” .
Chanakya, was a renowned philosopher , scholar and
teacher. His most famous work is ‘Arthashastra’. The
curricula of studies mentioned in the Arthashastra refers
primarily to the education of princes. After Upanayana the
prince learnt the four Vedas and the Vedic study included a
study of sciences. They also learnt logic, economics and
politics.
Education of those times was primarily life - skills based. The
curricula in the Ramayana for the princes was Dhanurveda,
Nitishastra, Siksha (lore) of elephants and chariots, Alekhya
and Lekhya ( Painting and writing) , Langhana ( jumping) and
Tairana (swimming ).
Gupta Period
In the Gupta period, the Jain and Buddhist systems of
education assumed a different dimension. Buddhist
monasteries admitted students for ten years. Learning
began with the oral method. Later they shifted to the reading
of literary texts. The monasteries had libraries. Important
manuscripts were copied and stored. Students from other
countries like China and South -East Asia came to the
Buddhist monasteries for education. The monasteries were
normally maintained by grants from kings and the rich
mercantile class. They attracted scholars from far and near.
Fa-Hien also spent several years in the monastery at

Pataliputra, studying Buddhist religious books. Besides
Pataliputra, there were other centres of learning like
Vanarasi, Mathura, Ujjain and Nasik.
The Jains used Sanskrit literature like ' Adipurana ' and
‘Yashatilaka’ for educational purposes in the earlier phase.
But to make education more popular, the medium was
changed to Prakrit and other regional languages like Tamil,
Kannada and so on. Books in the Jain and Buddhist
libraries were written on palm leaves that were tied together
and were known as “ granthas” . Slowly, Jainism and
Buddhism lost royal patronage and their monasteries
started declining as centres of education and learning. The
‘mathas’ supported by Brahmins were institutions parallel to
Jain and Buddhist monasteries. The ‘mathas’ functioned
like ashramas for educational purposes.
Post -Gupta Period
In post Gupta Period, education made great strides in the
reign of Harsha. He encouraged education at all levels;
education was given in temples and monasteries and
higher education in universities of Taxila, Ujjain, Gaya and
Nalanda. In Nalanda, Hiuen Tsang spent several years
studying Buddhists sculptures.
In the seventh and eighth centuries, ‘ghatikas’, or colleges
attached to the temples emerged as new centres of

learning. The ‘ghatikas’, provided Brahmanical education.

The medium of instruction was Sanskrit. Entry to these
temple colleges was open only to the upper castes or
‘dvijas’ ( twice bom ). Use of Sanskrit as the medium of
instruction distanced the common people from education.
Education became the privilege of only the uppermost
sections of society.
Important Educational Institutions of the period
. Taxila :- This was a chief center of learning in
6th century B.C. Here sixteen branches of learning
were taught in different schools; each presided by a
special professor. There were schools of painting,
sculpture, image making and handicrafts. But this
university was reputed for its medical school.
. Nalanda:- Renowned for its cosmopolitan and catholic
character, the University of Nalanda was famous for its
faculty of Logic. Hiuen Tsang, a famous Chinese
traveler, records Nalanda University as a post graduate
university for advanced study and research. Nalanda
University was known all over Asia for its high
standards of scholarship. The subjects taught included
Vedanta, philosophy, study of the Puranas, epics,
grammar , logic, astronomy , philosophy, medicine etc.
Sanskrit, the court language was the medium of
instruction.
COWACT No 7011446954 EMAIL IDS SELPSTUOYHiSTORr cMAiLCOM
^
. Vallabhi: While Nalanda was the famous seat of
learning in eastern India, Vallabhi was the renowned
seat of learning in the western India. Vallabhi was the
center for the advanced learning in Hinayana
Buddhism. Secular subjects like Arthasastra
( economics), Niti Shastra (law) and Chikitsa Sastra
( medicine) were also taught here.
. Vikramasila: The University of Vikramasila was
renowned for Tantric Buddhism .
. Salotgi in Karnataka was an important Centre of
learning. It had 27 hostels for its students who hailed
from different provinces. This college was richly
endowed in 945 A.D. by Narayana the minister of
Krishna III with the revenues of houses, land and levies
on marriages and other ceremonies.
. Ennayiram in Tamilnadu provided free boarding and
tuition to 340 students. Other important centers of
learning in South India were Sringeri and Kanchi.
SmTnjcrrwaTORv ®CMAn coM COtfTACT No: 7011446954
Write a short essay on: “ Historical significance of the

advent of the Arabs in India.”
Ans:
The Arab invaded India by conquering Sindh in 712-14. The
compaign was led by Muhammad bin Qasim. He landed at
Debal near the mouth of the Indus river and advanced upto
Multan. After overthrowing local ruler Dahir, Arab rule was
established.
Historical significance of the advent of the Arabs in
India
Political significance
Politically the advent was of little significance because the
Arab rule was limited to a small area and continued only for
a brief period. So it did not affect the general political
conditions in northern India.
Some of the administrative policies of the Arab rulers in
Sindh influenced the policies of later rules of Medieval India,
for example: imposition of Jizya on non-muslims.
Economic significance
Economically , Arabs enriched the region. They primoted
methods of desert cultivation, camel breeding, leather
tanning and manufacturing.
Arabs developed international trade, introduced new
currency, promoted urban life and institutions related to it.

COWACT No. 7011446954 EMAIL lO: SnJTRJOTHISTOHrgGMAILCOM
Social significance
Arab rule in Sindh led to the spread of Islam in that area
which brough demographic changes.
Cultural significance
Arabs enriched the Sindhi language and developed its
script . They also assimilated Indian influence in astronomy,
mathematics, philosophy , medicine and literature. Several
Indian texts on these subjects were translated from Sanskrit
into Arabic. For example: Surya Siddhanta, Charaka
Samhita, Sushruta Samhita, Panchatantra etc were
translated in Arabic.
Cultural contacts proved more enduring than political
control. Even after Arab lost Sindh, cultural links wete
maintained by the Abbasid Caliphs and later rulers of India
like Pratihara of Western India. Such contacts paved the
way for a more fruitful interaction in the succeeding period,
for example the work of Alberuni, who wrote Kitab al -Hind
which can be considered as the outcome of continued
cultural interactions.
It can be concluded that the real significance of Arab advent
was in cultural sphere which laid the foundation for Indo -
Islamic culture.
Sn7TRJOrHtJTORrgGMAIl COM COtfTACT No: 7011446954
Q. How far is it true to say that the strength and vigour of
Indian history during c. A.D. 500-750 lay in the south of the
Vindhyas?
Ans:
History is not a perpetual possession of any one. It speaks about those who provides strength and vigour to the existing
institutions at any time. It has been rare instances in the Indian history when south occupies the centre stage while north
receded to the background. But era between A.D. 500-750 was somewhat an evidence of such a position. The south not
only emerged strong and pulsating with activities but in some field it even influenced the North.
Political scenario
While North was witnessing a slow down after the fall of the Gutas, the South saw the emergence and strengthening of
powerful empires of the Pallavas and the Chalukyas. The later Guptas specially after Skandgupta were a house in
disorder. Faced with invasion like Pushyabhutis, Vakatakas, Maukharies etc. But none can provide a strong powerful rule
for long. Though one can boast of Harsha Vardhan of Pushyabhuti dynasty who conquered a large part of North India
under his empire and also provided efficient administration but when he tried to extend his prestige beyond Vindhyas he
was defeated by the Chalukyan King Pulakesin II on the banks of river Narmada. This provided the evidence of the power
which lay beyond Vindhyas and that it was an uphill task for North to control South. Pulakesin II himself was defeated by
another king Narsimhavarman of Pallava dynasty which showed that the Chalukyas were not the lone power in the South
and other powers were also emerging and though these often fought among themselves mainly for Tugabhadra doab, but
they never made themselves so weak that a rule from north of Vindhyas can come and subdue them neither was there
any powerful ruler or dynasty in north to be able to do so.
Administrative scenario
While in north of Vindhyas, the efficient administration set up of Guptas was largely in a state of confusion and Harsha coming
only as a ray of light in otherwise dark scenario, the southern kingdom had organized a vigorous administration with due
attention to army, civil administration and more importantly local administration. It was here that the foundation of a
responsible and efficient local government in form of Sabha, Nagaram, Urr were laid. The administrative division like
Mandalas, Kottams, Nadus were given decentralization of power. The king was powerful hereditary and assumed titles like
Maharajadhiraja, Dharmaraja etc. He ruled with ministers, spies, custom officers, local perfect and village headmen
(Grama Bhojaka) etc. They maintained powerful army with stress on cavalry and used it for even peaceful purposes like
maritime trade. They were first to pay attention to a powerful Navy. While at this time north was under grip of
maladministration, mutual rivalry and frequent invasions.
Socio-economic scenario
The vigorous trade and commerce through sea route to countries of South East Asia specially had made South rich. The
much in demand spices were largely grown in South and many prosperous ports like Tamralipti, Arikamedu,
Masulipatanam, Muziris etc. had developed while north India was facing decline of trade since the late Gupta period. Also
with the emergence of proto-feudal economy in north during this period, the land set up was distributed and peasantry
was also declining. The prosperity of South is evident by large number of temples built and the description of travelers
who visited South India. Socially also, though the South had borrowed elements of the Aryan customs but it had
changed much to suit its requirements. Thus instead of four major varnas of north, the South had two broad categories
of Brahmanas and Non-Brahmanas. The Brahmins enjoyed respectable position. The position of women was sound and
greatly honored the education especially higher education was on rise and mathas, viharas, ghatikas played major role.
Another important role was of temples which emerged as great religious, social, cultural, educational, economic and even
political centre and gave employment to many and even acted as banker. This vitality in social life was somewhat
lacking in North at the time when condition of women declined, Sati emerged, caste proliferation getting deep rooted
distrust among people increased. Hiuen Tsang says that he was robbed thrice during his stay in Harsha’s empire. Due to
decline of Buddhism, the monasteries were waning and this affected education.
Religious scenario
This is another area where South influenced the North. As the Buddhism and Jainism were on decline in North despite
Harsha’s efforts, they were some from religion to fill in the void. This was provided by the South by an improved version
of the old Bhagvatism turning it into worship of Vishnu (Vaishnavism) and Siva (Saivism) by the Alvars and Nayanars
saints. This movement which began in South encouraged by Pallavas, Chalukyas and other dynasties, slowly developed
into full-fledged Bhakti Movement. The number of temples built in the period in South and the importance they had in day to day
life of everyone, testifies a vigorous religious life.
Art, Architecture and Literature

As already mentioned, the number of temples like the Shore temple, Mahabalipuram temple, Kailashnath temple, Seven
Pagodas, Vaikunth Perumal temple, all under Pallavas and Vishnu temples at Badami and Aihole (under Chalukyas) show
the level of architecture attained. The foundation of Dravida and Vesara style of architecture was laid. The art of
sculpture also reached a towering height. Kanchi and Badami emerged as great art and literary centres. In literature,
South as the work of scholars like Bhavavi, Dandi, Matridatta, Ravikriti, Dignega etc. The Pallava king Mahendra Varman,
himself great scholar Mattavilasa Prahasana. Some of Ajanta cave painting are of this time. Hiuen Tsang even found
many established Viharas and monarchies in this period. In contrast, the north saw a period of void in architecture and
literature. No major work except some of little significance. Though all these aspects, it is quite clear that in the period
(500-750 A.D.), the strength and vigor of Indian history lay south of the Vindhyas.
Q. Write a short essay on: “The Maurya policy of regulating and controlling economic activities.”
Ans:
The Mauryan Empire has been presented as a new form of government marked by centralized control and planning over people,
produce and resources.
Centralized control over produce and resources:
Control of state over trade and industry:
The Mauryan state exercised a rigid control through a number of superintendents over trade and industry which
yielded profit. The superintendent of commerce (Panyadhyaksha as mentioned in Arthasastra) whose existence is
also proved by the account left of Megasthenes, not only fixed prices of commodities but also intervened
whenever there was a glut of any commodity.
The office of the Samsthadhyaksha (superintendent of market) was designed to be a safeguard against the
fraudulent practices of the trading class.
The superintendent of weights and measures (pautavadhyaksha) was entrusted with the enforcement of standard
weights and measures.
All state boats were placed under the charge of the superintendent of ships (navadhyaksha) who regulated river
traffic and collected ferry charges.
The superintendent of tolls (sulkadhyaksha) collected customs dues ranging from 1/5th to 1/25th from the traders.
Superintendents were also appointed to look after the weaving industry, breweries and state liquor shops.
Participation of state in economic activities
The state participated in agricultural and industrial production. The government kept a record of trades and crafts
and related transactions and conventions of the guilds, indicating state intervention in guild affairs. The state
allotted guilds separate areas in a town for running their trade and crafts.
In the areas brought under the plough, a sizable portion may have been constituted of king’s domain (sita). In
the early Pali literature, assignable to the pre-Maurya period, there are only a few references to big farms. But
the Maurya seem to have owned numerous such farms which were worked under the supervision of the
superintendent of agriculture (sitadhyaksha) with the help of numerous slaves and hired laborers.
On the one hand royal officers controlled and regulated private trade, on the other hand the Maurya state itself
engaged in trade and commodity production. State good (rajapanya) were to be normally sold by state servants,
but the assistance of private traders was also sought.
State monopoly
An important aspect of the Mauryan economy, which increased royal power and assisted in the maintenance of
the vast empire was the state monopoly of mining and metallurgy.
Arthasastra mentions the superintendent of Mining (Akaradhyaksha) whose duty was to prospect for new mines and
reopen old and disused ones. The state enjoyed unrestricted monopoly of trade of salt and a superintendent of
salt looked after the salt mines. That silver mines were worked becomes clear from the large number of silver
punch-marked coins assignable to the Mauryan period. There was a superintendent of iron and metal’s
(Lohadhyaksha) and he looked after the manufacturing of things from iron.
The state enjoyed a monopoly of all mines in the empire, though a great deal of metal must have been sold to
traders, artisans guilds, gold smith and individual manufacturers. From the monopoly rights of the state over the
mineral resources derived its exclusive control over the manufacture of the metal weaponry for the army and the
supply of tools and implements needed for agriculture and industry. This strengthened the power of the Mauryan
imperial government, particularly in view of the almost complete disarming of the rural population.
Opposite views
The idea of a highly centralized Maurya Empire was based partly on assumption that empire and centralization go
together. It was also based on uncritical reading of the Arthasatra, which presents a state that controls the people, produce
and resources on its domain with all-encompassing and robotic precision. But given the extent of the empire and the
communication network of the time, the Mauryan Empire could not have been centralized. Mauryan rule was
superimposed over a number of existing political units, which must have been allowed to continue to exercise varying
degrees of autonomy. Ashoka’s personal supervision applied only to the propagation of Dhamma, not to details of routine
administration initiatives at the provincial and local administrative level are evident in the script, language, content, and
location of the inscriptions. For instance, the fact that the Greek and Aramaic inscriptions in the North West are not literal
translations of the standard edicts suggests that considerable initiative was left in the hands of local officials.
Conclusion
Mauryan Empire was not a homogeneous whole, and that it subsumed different sorts of economies, polities, and life-
ways. It is not actually necessary to label the Mauryan empire as ‘centralized’ or ‘decentralized’. The empire must have
had some element of centralized control, but given its extent, there must have also have been a significant amount of
delegation of authority to functionaries at provincial, district, and village levels.
Q. How justified are we in characterizing the post- Mauryan five centuries as the ‘Dark Period ' of
Indian History? Give reasons in support of your answer.
Ans:
In around 187 BC. the Mauryan Empire met its end. These five centuries that passed between the fall of the
Mauryas and rise of the Guptas witnessed a lot of political instability and upheaval in the North of India .
However. South however remained fairly stable. In north India also, we see the rise of multiple political
powers in different parts of the subcontinent. It is mainly this political instability due to which this
period is characterized as ‘Dark Period ' of Indian history.
But in this period, itself we also saw many developments in the field of other aspect of civilization like art.
.
architecture, literature, trade, astronomy Science and technology and religion. Even in Polity there were
few important kingdoms came into power and made their name bright in the Indian history.
Below are some light on different aspects of history of that period:
Polity:
1. North India: We witness invasions by various groups of people based in Central Asia and western
China. These were Indo-Greeks. the Scythians or the Shakas, the Parthians or the Pahlavas and the
Kushanas. It was through such political processes that India came in closer contact with the
culture. The Shungas , the Bactrians or the Indo-Greeks, The Shakas ,
central Asian politics and
The Parthians and The Kushanas are few known dynasties ruled during this period in different
parts of country.
2. South India : The Sangam Period starts (circa 300BC - 300AD). We see the emergence for 3 main
kingdoms. Cholas - Kaveri Delta , Cheras - Kaveri Karoor and Pandya - Vagai, Madhurai. In the
the fall of the Mauryan Empire
Deccan, the Satvahanas declare themselves as independent after
and emerge as a powerful force. The Satavahanas ruler Gautamiputra Satakarni carried out
expeditions against the Saka rulers and drove them out of Maharashtra. His achievements are
recorded in Nasik inscription.
Literature:
1. Important works of literature happened in this era :

1. Literature from north India:
1. Junagarh Rock inscription by Rudradaman I:
1. It mentions the repairs he undertook to improve the Sudershana Lake.
2. Junagarh Rock also contains inscriptions from Ashoka and Skandgupta .
2. Milindapanho by Nagasena:
1. Menander asked Nagasena many questions related to philosophy and
Buddhism, which together with Nagasena’s answers are recorded in
Milindapanho or the Questions of Milinda .
3. Saundarananda , Buddhacharita , Vajrasuchi by Ashvaghosh: Buddhacharita is a
complete life story of Buddha written in the form of Mahakavya. It is the first
Buddhist book written in Sanskrit.
4. Charaka -Samhita by Charaka : Extends Ayurveda and lays down the concept of
balance of 3 doshas called Vata. Pitta and Kapha.
5. Sushruta -Samhita by Sushruta ( Father of Surgery): He mentions more than 120
instruments.
2. Literature from South India:
1. Sangam Literature: Below are few important samgam works.
1. Thirukkural by Thiruvalluvar
2 . Agattiyamby Agathiyar
3. Tolkappiyam by Tolkappiyar
2. Outside the Sangam Literature there are 5 great epics: Silappatikaram,
Manimekalai .CTvaka Cintamani .Valayapathi and Kundalakeci .
Religion:
1. North India:
1. Hinduism:
1. Vaishnavism: By 200BC 3 main streams centered around worship of Vishu or
bhagvat merged into one and led to the creation of Bhagvatism.
2. Buddhism: A major development in Buddhism was its splitting up in to two sects -
The Hinayana and the Mahayana . Kanishka organized the 4th Buddhist council
where this split happened. This phase also witnessed the spreading of Mahayana
Buddhism to south and south east Asia.
3. There was also introduction of Christianity in India.
2. South India : We see no specific adherence to religion. The Sangam texts were secular in nature .
Architecture:
1. North India:
1. Stupas: The Sungas were great patrons of art and architecture. They contributed to the
expansion of Bharut and Sanchi Stupas.
2. Pillars:
1. Heliodorus Pillar: Stone column erected by Heliodorus. Greek ambassador to the
court of the Shunga king Bhagabhadra. around 150 BC. It was in honor of Vasudeva
2. South India :
1. Stupa: The Amaravati Stupa and Nagarjunakonda Stupa are examples.
2 . Rock-cut caves: Karle caves &. Bhaja caves and Ajanta caves.
Independent Art:
1. North India:
1 . Sunga Art: Standing sculptures of Yakshas and Yakshis. discovered from Gwalior and
Mathura.
2. The Gandhara School and the Mathura School of Art.
2. South India :
1 . The Amaravati School of Art
science and technology:
1. Astronomy made significant progress largely owing to Greek contact

2. The Greek coins , which were properly shaped and stamped, were a great improvement on punch -
marked coins.
3. Development in medical ‘
science’.
Society:
1. The kings appear as upholders and restorers of the Varna system.

2. Varna boundaries relating to marriage and other types of social intercourse was broken and
various castes came into existence.
Economic development:
1. Huge trade between India and the eastern Roman Empire.

2. Also with South East Asian counties.
3. Rise of monetized economy.
4. All these promoted the prosperity of numerous towns during this period. Important towns in north
India such as Vaishali. Patliputra, Varanasi. Kausambi. Sharavasti. Hastinapur. Mathura.
Indraprastha. are all mentioned in literary texts, and some of them are also described by the
Chinese pilgrims.
Thus, by looking at the developments happened during that period we can easily conclude that it was far
from a complete dark period in Indian history. To some extent we can say that it was ‘Politically a dark
period ' but in other aspect of history It was not the case.
Q. “ Reconstruction of Early Indian history is hardly possible without the help of inscriptions and
coins.” Discuss.
Ans :
An ancient text does not necessarily offer a simple or direct reflection of the society of its time.
Information has to be teased out with care along with other archaeological evidences like inscriptions
and coins to make historical inferences.
Inscriptions as a source of history
• Compared with manuscript of texts, inscriptions have the advantage of durability.

• They are usually contemporaneous to the events they speak of and their information can be
connected to a time and place.
• Changes and additions made to them can usually be detected without great difficulty.
• Compared to literary sources, which tend to give a theoretical perspective, inscriptions often
reflect what people were actually doing.
• Inscription are a valuable source of information on political history. The geographical spread of a
king's inscriptions is often taken as indicating the area under his political control. But discovery
of inscriptions depends on chance and not all the inscriptions inscribed during a king' s reign
need necessarily be found. Furthermore, movable inscriptions are not always found in situ. i.e.. in
their original place.
• The earliest royal inscriptions do not contain much geographical material, but later ones generally
do. Their prashastis give details about the history of dynasties and the reigns of kings. Of course,
there are problems:
Royal inscriptions naturally tend to exaggerate the achievements of the ruling king.
Sometimes, confusion is created when a genealogy mentions kings with the same
name, or when different inscriptions contradict each other on particular details.
Sometimes genealogies skip names, for instance, in the case of Skandagupta and
Ramagupta, who are ignored in Gupta genealogies because they did not come within
the direct line of succession of the later ruler.
There are cases where inscriptions of different dynasties make conflicting claims.
-
For instance, a Gurjara Pratihara inscription states that king Vatsaraja conquered
all of Karnataka . However , the contemporary Rastrakuta king claims in his
inscriptions to have defeated Vatsaraja and to have ruled over the Karnataka area .
Wherever possible, details of political events given in inscriptions have to be cross -
checked.
• Inscriptions also been used as a major source of information on political structures and
have
administrative and revenue systems. Inscriptions shed light on the history of settlement patterns ,
agrarian relations and class and caste structures.
• Inscriptions provide dateable information on the history of religious sects, institutions, and
practices. Donative records help identify the sources of patronage enjoyed by ancient religious
establishments. They also give glimpses into sects and cults that were once important but did not
leave any literature of their own e.g., the Ajivika sect and the yaksha and naga cults.
• Inscriptions can help identify and date sculptures and structures, and thus throw light on the
.
history of iconography, art and architecture. They are also a rich source of information on
historical geography. In fact, the location of several ancient Buddhist monastic sites such as
Kapilvastu has been fixed on the basis of inscribed monastic seals.
• Inscriptions reflect the history of languages and literature and a few refer to the performing arts.
For example, the 7th century Kudumiyamalai inscription gives the musical notes used in seven
classical ragas . Inscriptions from Tamil Nadu refer to the performing of various kinds of dances.
The pillars of the eastern and western gateways of the Nataraja temple at Chidambaram have
label inscriptions describing the dance poses of 108 sculpted figures carved on them, quoting
verses from the Natyashastra of Bharata .
Inscriptions has to be read and analysed carefully and its content can then be compared with those of
other inscriptions and with information from other kind of sources.
Coins as a source of history
• In the course ofcirculation, coins are subjected to wear and tear and their weight gradually
decreases. This fact enables numismatists to arrange them in a chronological sequence.
• Coins provides clue to several important historical processes. They are linked to monetary history ,
which includes an analysis of the production and circulation of coinage, the monetary value
attached to coins, and the frequency and volume of issues. Monetary history is in turn an
important aspect of the history of exchange and trade.
• The legends on coins give information on the history of languages and scripts.
• The wide distribution of Kushana coins indicates the flourishing trade. The ship on certain
Satavahana coins reflects the importance of maritime trade in the Deccan during this period.
Roman coins provide information on Indo- Roman trade. The few coin series issued by guilds
indicate the importance of these institutions.
• Coins are often to indicate levels of economic prosperity (or the lack of it) or the financial
condition of ancient states. Historians interpret the debasement of coins as an indication of a
financial crisis for example in the time of the later Guptas . However, in a situation where the
supply of precious metals is restricted or reduced , alloying or debasement can be a response to an
increase in the demand for coins created by an increase in the volume of economic transactions .
• Dates appear rarely on early Indian coins. Exceptions are western Kshatrapa coins which give
dates in the Shaka era and some Gupta silver coins which give the regnal years of kings . Whether
dated or undated, coins discovered in archaeological excavation often help date the layers. An
example is the site of Sonkh near Mathura, where the excavated levels were divided into eight
periods on the basis of coin finds.
• -
As important royal message bearing media, coins form a vital source of political history. The area
of circulation of dynastic issues is often used to estimate the extent and frontiers of empires.
However, coins often circulated beyond the borders. They also sometimes continued to circulate
for some time after a dynasty faded from power.
• Coins are important source for the political history of India between c. 200 BCE and 300 CE. Most
-
of the Indo Greek kings are known almost entirely from their coins. Coins also offer information on
the Parthians. Shakas. Kshatrapas. Kushanas, and Satavahanas. Coins found in various parts of
north and central India mention kings whose names end in the suffix ‘ naga’. about whom little is
known from other sources.
• Coins also offer information on ancient political systems. The term gana on coins of the
-
Yaudheyas and Malavas points to their non monarchical polity. City coins are suggestive of the
importance and possible autonomy of certain city administrations.
• Sometimes, numismatic evidence offers more than just the names of kings and provides
biographical details . For instance, the only specific detail we know about the life of the Gupta king
Chandragupta I is that he married a Lichchhavi princess, and this detail comes from coins
commemorating the marriage. Coins have helped prove that a Gupta king named Ramagupta
ruled between Samudragupta and Chandragupta II. The performance of the Ashvamedha sacrifice
by Samudragupta and Kumargupta I is recorded on coins. The archer and battleaxe coin types of
Samudragupta tell us about his physical prowess, while the lyrist type, which shows him playing
the vina. represents a completely different aspect of his personality.
• The depiction of deities on coins provides personal religious preferences of kings, royal religious
policy, and the history of religious cults. For instance , representations of Balarama and Krishna
appear on 2nd century BCE coins in Afghanistan, indicating importance of the cults of these gods
-
in this region. The depiction of a great variety of figures from Indian. Iranian, and Graeco Roman
religious traditions on the coins of the Kushana kings is generally interpreted as a reflection of
their eclectic religious views. But it can equally be read as evidence of the many religious cults
prevailing in their empire and the wide range of religious symbols through which the Kushanas
chose to legitimize their political power.
A meticulous and skillful analysis of the sources is the foundation of history. The various literary and
archaeological sources like inscriptions and coins have their own specific potentials and limitations.
Interpretation is integral to analysing the evidence from ancient texts, archaeological sites, inscriptions,
and coins. Whether several sources are available, their evidence has to be correlated for a more
comprehensive and inclusive history of ancient India. However, given the inherent differences in the
nature of literary and archaeological data, it is not always easy to integrate them into a smooth and
seamless narrative.
Write a short essay on: “ Mauryan court art as an alien grafting”
Ans:
Mauryan art is said to be having foreign influence especially Persian (Achaemenian) influence:
1. Ashoka ' s idea of inscribing proclamations on pillars is said to be inspired from the achaemenids.
2. The foreign influence has been identified in the polished surface of the Ashokan pillars and the
animal motifs. Carved animals can be found in both the cases .
3 . Maurya columns and Achaemenian pillars , both used polished stones. Both have certain common
sculpture motifs such as the lotus.
4. Ashokan pillar edicts are somewhat similar to pillar edicts of Darius ( king of the Persian
Achaemenid Empire).
5. A large pillared hall in Kumbrar Patna with its 30 pillars has been compared to similar halls found
in Achaemenid Persia called Hall of a Hundred Columns at Persepolis.
In spite of being influenced by alien art. Mauryan court art was unique in itself as well as influenced by
folk tradition also. For example, we can see several influences by folk tradition on Mauryan court art and
several differences between the Maurya columns and Achaemenian pillars in their respective functions,
conceptions , style , design and form.
1. The stone columns of the Mauryan BO Pillared Hall were without capitals whereas the columns of
the pillared halls of Perspolis have elaborate capitals.
2. Achaemenian (Persian) columns stand on bases, either shaped like a bell ( that is, inverted lotus),
or on a plain rectangular or circular block. While the independent Mauryan columns have no base
at all.
3 . The shape and ornamentation of the Maurya lotus is different from the Persian ones, the bulge
typicaJ of the former is absent in the latter.
4. The Achaemenian shaft are built of separate segments of stone aggregated one above the other
which is the work of mason. The shaft of the Mauryan pillar is monolithic which pertains to the
character of the work of a skilled wood -carver or carpenter. Hence in technique , the Mauryan
pillars partakes the character of wood-carver' s or carpenter ' s work , the Achaemenian, that of a
mason.
5. The Achaemenid pillars were generally part of some larger architectural scheme, conrtposed of
much too many component parts looking complex and complicated. While the Ashokan columns
were intended to produce the effect of an independent freestanding monument with simpler
specimen, more harmonious in conception and execution and gives the feeling of greater stability,
dignity and strength.
e . The Achaemenian shaft is fluted in all cases except one. But Mauryan columns are smooth.
7. The capitals of the Persian columns are crowned with a cluster of stylized palm Eeaves and have
two semi - bulls, lions, or unicorns seated back to back , or an upright or inverted cup, with double
volute on the top. The Mauryan type of abacus (platform above the bell) and tha placing of
independently carved animal motifs on the top of abacus is absent in the Achaemenian context.
8. While Darius pillars propagated military victories and military might of the Achaemenid monarch.
Ashoka ' s pillar edict shows his quasi - benevolent message of a caring emperor.
Influence of Folk tradition on Mauryan court art
1. Several large stone sculptures have been found at various represent Yaksha, Yakshis , nagas and
nagis, deities whose worship was part of popular ancient folk tradition. They were appropriated as
attendant deities of Buddha .
2. The intricate and elaborate surface decoration and the shallowness of the relief carving at Stupas
and Rock Caves of Mauryan period suggest that these represented a translation of the wood
carver' s art into stone. Few Stupas have Swastika inset into their base which is certainly a
common cultural symbol of pre - Mauryan times. The tradition of making stupas was inspired by
funerary mounds is pre- Buddhist.
Examine the role of guilds in the economic
life of ancient India. OR Write a short essay
on
Examine the role of guilds in the economic life of ancient India.
OR
Write a short essay on: “The role of guilds in the economic life of India from c. 200 B.C. to
c. A.D. 300.”
Ans:
People in ancient India following the same occupations and crafts, residing at one place,
cooperated with each other and formed guilds.
During the Mauryan empire (c. 320 to c. 200 BC), the state participated in agricultural and
industrial production. The government kept a record of trades and crafts and related transactions
and conventions of the guilds, indicating state intervention in guild affairs. The state allotted
guilds separate areas in a town for running their trade and crafts. Kautilya, considers the
possibility of guilds as agencies capable of becoming centres of power.
The next phase of guilds may be bracketed between c. 200 BC and c. AD 300. The decline of the
Mauryan empire (c. 200 BC) led to political disintegration and laxity in state control over guilds,
allowing them better chances to grow. There was a significant increase in the number of guilds.
The Jatakas refer to 18 guilds. Epigraphs from Sanchi, Bharhut, Bodhgaya, Mathura and sites of
western Deccan refer to donations made by different craftsmen and traders. Guilds of flour-
makers, weavers, oil-millers, potters, manufacturers of hydraulic engines, corn-dealers, bamboo-
workers, etc. find mention in epigraphs. The period witnessed the elucidation of the seasonality
and seasonal changes in wind direction of the south-west monsoon (c. AD 46), leading to closer
commercial intercourse with the Roman empire in which Indian merchants earned huge profits.
The find of a large number of coins of the period indicates progress in money-economy, so vital
for the development of trade and industry. The evidence of the Manusmriti and the Yajnavalkya
Smriti shows an increase in the authority of guilds in comparison to earlier periods. Epigraphic
evidence of the period refers to acts of charity and piety of the guilds as also their bank-like
functions. There is evidence to show that large merchant guilds had some control over small craft
guilds.
Role of guilds in the economic life of ancient India
(a) General Economic Functions of guilds
The guilds trained workers and provided a congenial atmosphere for work. They procured raw
materials for manufacturing, controlled quality of manufactured goods and their price, and
located markets for their sale. They provided a modicum of safety to the members and
merchandise and accorded social status to the former.
The importance of guilds is evident from coins and seals issued by them. Some coins found at
Taxila have the legend nigama on the reverse in Brahmi letters. The legends pamchanekame and
hiranasame also appear on certain coins. The term pamchanekame may refer to a corporation of
five guilds. Hiranasame may mean an issuer of coined money. \
Seals and sealings with the terms nigama, or variants of these words have been found at sites
such as Rajghat, Bhita and Ahichchhatra.
Dharmashastra texts refer to partnerships in craft production and trade. They mention the
apprenticeship of novices with master craftsmen.
(b) Bank-like Functions of guilds
The reference in the Arthasastra to the king’s spies borrowing from guilds, gold, bar-gold, and
coin-gold on the pretext of procuring various types of merchandize, shows that guilds loaned
money to artisans and merchants. It does not contain any reference to guilds loaning money to
the general public. Guilds established their efficiency and integrity, and epigraphic evidence
shows that not only the general public but even royalty deposited money with them as trust funds
on the terms that the principal sum would remain intact on a permanent basis and the interest
alone would be used for performing some pious act of donor’s choice.
The Gadhwa inscription mentions the investment of 20 dinaras in a guild for the benefit of
Brahmanas.
The Brihaspati Smriti refers to philanthropic activities of guilds, for instance, providing shelter
for travelers.
No deposit was made solely for safety purpose or for earning simple or compound interest in
cash. Thus the guilds had limited scope in banking in comparison to modern banks. A few
epigraphs may be referred to here:
 A Mathura Inscription (2nd century AD) refers to the two permanent endowments of 550
silver coins each with two guilds to feed Brahmanas and poor from out of the interest
money.
 Of the two Nasik Inscriptions (2nd century AD), one records the endowment of 2000
karshapanas at the rate of one percent (per month) with a weavers’ guild for providing
cloth to bhikshus and 1000 karshapanas at the rate of 0.75 percent (per month) with
another weavers’ guild for serving light meals to them.
 Another inscription from Nasik of the time of the Abhira King Isvarasena refers to
depositing variously 1000, 2000, an unknown amount (the portion recording the figure is
mutilated) and 500 karshapanas with the guild of potters, workers fabricating hydraulic
engines, oil-millers, and another guild (name mutilated) respectively. The deposits with
four different guilds, instead of a single guild, were perhaps made with a view to
distributing the risk, as a guild could suffer a setback or even go bankrupt.
The providing of cloth by a weavers’ guild and oil by an oil-men’s guild were a simple affair,
being related to the occupation of the guild. But the providing of light meals by the weavers’
guild, or medicine by an oil-millers’ guild, involved extraprofessional work, and in such cases
guilds might have entered into contract with parties dealing with those items, paying them a
major part of the interest accruing from the deposits.
Bring out the significance of the reign of Sher Shah in the history of India?
Ans:
Sher Shah ruled over a large part of northern India between 15-40-1545 CE. He came into power by successfully
exploitng the opportunity and defeating Humayun at Chausa in 1539 and at Qannauj in 1540. Though he ruled
only for 5 years, in this short period of time he brought many changes in existing system which was well above
the standards of that time.
Tarikh-i-Sher Shahi (History of Sher Shah), written by Abbas Khan Sarwani, a waqia-navis under later Mughal
Emperor, Akbar around 1580, provides a detailed documentation about Sher Shah’s administration.
Nature of Kingship:
1. The earlier Afghan monarchy was of tribal in nature. But Sher shah had learned the lesson from the
negative aspects of that system. So, he never attempted to establish tribal monarchy. Instead he succeeded
in establishing a highly centralized autocratic monarchy.
2. His was more like a personal government that derived its strength and glory from their personal vigour.
General Administration:
1. He Seems to have been inspired by the history of Sultan Alauddin Khalji’s reign.
2. He adopted most of the rules and regulationsintroduced by the Khalji Sultan. However, unlike Khalji he
was not harsh in their implementation.
1. In the dab region, the sarkar (the successor of shiqq under the Khaljis) was the administrative-cum-
fiscal unit; while wilayat, comprising a number of sarkars in the outlying regions, such as Bengal,
Malwa, Rajputana and Sind and Multan were retained for the convenience of defence.
2. The sarkar comprised a number of parganas, each pargana consisting of a number of villages. The
village was the primary fiscal unit.
3. The noble posted as incharge of sarkar or wilayat was not given unlimited powers. He was regularly
directed through royal farman to implement new rules and regulations. The spies informed the kingabout
the conduct of the officers. Anyone who was found failing in his work was punished. e.g.: Khizr Turk, the
governor of Bengal, was dismissed and ‘thrown into prison because he married the daughter of the ex-
Sultan of Bengal without Sher Shah’s permission and acted independently.
4. Sher shah was an absolute monarch for all practical purposes. It was demonstrated in the Sher Shah’s policy
with regard to the planting of Afghan colonies in the territories known for recalcitrant inhabitants
(Gwaliar).
5. Sher Shah gave great emphasis on impartial justice. He used to say, “Justice is the most excellent of
religious rites, and is approved alike by the king of infidels and of the faithful.” Also, that “None of the
devotions and prayers can be equated with justice and here all the sections of infidels and Islam are one on
the point.” Justice implied making no distinction between men of his own tribe and near relations and
others in awarding punishment, and to prevent oppression by those in power.
6. Organizing nobility in order to safeguard the interest of dynasty:
1. No group was strong enough to assume the shape of a pressure group.
2. Even non-Afghan nobles, Khawwas Khan, Haji Khan and Habib Khan Sultani holding the charge
of important provinces with large iqtas. This shows that the establishment of a pure Afghan nobility
was never a consideration with Sher Shah.
Iqta under sher shah:
1. Sher shah learned lesson from the non-transferable nature of Iqta which was the main reason of decline of
Lodis. So, he made iqta transferable.
2. Any iqta could be transferred from one to the other noble. For example, Shujaat Khan Sur, one of the
senior nobles was transferred four times from Bihar to Malwa to Hardiya sarkar and then to Malwa again.
Revenue administration:
1. The most striking contribution of Sher Shah was his reform of the revenue system.
2. He appointed new revenue officials at the pargana and sarkar level and curtailed the powers and
privileges of the land assignees (i.e. wajahdars and muqtas). The unruly zamindars were forced into
submission. They were also made accountable for every crime committed within the boundaries of their
zamindari.
3. The extra taxes called jaribana and muhassilana(fee for measuring the land and revenue collection) were
also abolished. The offenders among the officials were punished.
4. Sher Shah wanted that the assessment of land-revenue should not be based on crop sharing or estimation.
Nor should the village head-men and zamindars be allowed to pass their burden on to the shoulders of the
weaker sections.
5. The methods of crop-sharing and revenue farming were abolished. He insisted upon the system of
measurement (zabt). Although a system of measurement of the sown area was very old in India, and had
been instituted or revived by Alauddin Khalji, the system of measurement introduced by Sher Shah was
different from the traditional system.
6. In the traditional system, the crop-yield was estimated on the basis of sample cuttings in the sown
area. Abul Fazl tells us that Sher Shah on the basis of fertility of soil divided the lands into three
categories, the good, middling and bad. An average produce of these three types of soil was taken as
standard yield per bigha. One third of this standard yield was fixed as state share. A rai(schedule of crop-
rates) was prepared for the convenience and guidance of the revenue collectors. The state share now could
be easily converted into cash rates, according to the market prices.
1. According to Abul Fazl, “The revenue demand levied by Sher Khan (Sher Shah), which at the present
day is represented in all provinces as the lowest rate of measurement generally obtained, and for the
convenience of the cultivators and the soldiery, the value taken in cash money.”
7. Thus, it is clear that the state’s share was fixed in kind per bigha but collected mostly in cash after it had
been commuted according to the prevailing prices in the area.
8. A specific document known as kabuliyat (deeds of agreement) and the patta (title deed) were exchanged
between the peasant and the revenue officer. The peasant had the right to question the basis on which the
measurement was carried out and the land thus classified.; but once agreed, had to meet the state’s revenue
demand without question.
9. Sher Shah ordered the land under cultivation to be measured every year at the harvest time. The state’s
share in the produce was determined according to the royal regulation. The measurement of fields was to be
carried out every year. As a safeguard against famine which was a recurrent feature, a Cess at the rate of
two and a half seers per bigha was also levied.
10. This system was prevalent throughout the Empire except for the combined provinces of Multan and Sind.
The territory of Multan had been ruined by the oppressive Biloch rule. Therefore, Sher Shah directed its
governor to develop the region and realize from the cultivators only one-fourth of the produce in
accordance with the crop-sharing method. This system had prevailed under the early local rulers i.e. the
predecessors of the Biloch chiefs. The state revenue demand in other provinces was one-third of the
agricultural produce.
Roads:
1. Sher Shah laid great emphasis on improving roads and the system of communications, both to help military
movements and to foster trade and commerce. The roads also ensured greater control over the countryside.
Thus, he restored the old imperial road from the river Indus in the west to Sonargaon in Bengal. (Shershah
Suri Marg).
2. He also built a road from Agra to Jodhpur and Chittor, which must have linked up with the roads leading to
the sea-ports of Gujarat. He built a third road from Lahore to Multan which was the starting point for
caravans to west and central Asia. He built a fourth road from Agra to Burhanpur, again linking it with the
roads leading to the sea-ports of Gujarat.
Sarais and Dak Chauki (Postoffice):
1. For ensuring safety on the roads and for extending comforts to the travellers, he built sarais (kos minar) on
the highway at a distance of two karohs (4 miles). Separate apartments were built for the Hindus and the
Muslims where they could get beds and cooked food. Whoever came to the sarai was to be served with
food out of government money according to one’s rank and his pony was given grain and drink. A
custodian (shahna) was appointed in each sarai to safeguard the goods of the merchants, and rent-free lands
were allotted in the neighbourhood for their expenses, and for the expenses of the imam and the muezzin
for the mosque which was built in each sarai.
2. Sher Shah built 1700 such sarais. They were really fortified inns, and were built strongly because some of
them have survived even to-day. Sher Shah caused markets to be set up in every sarai. Many of the sarais
became mandis where the peasants came to sell their produce, and were the nucleus for the growth of towns
(qasbas) where trade and handicrafts developed.
3. These sarais must have been popular because later, Islam Shah ordered a sarai to be built between every
two sarais of Sher Shah.
4. The sarais were also used for dak chowkis (postal service) for which two horses were kept at every sarai.
By this means, by relays of horses news from a distance of 300 kos could reach in a day.
Trade and Commerce and Coinage:
1. Sher Shah adopted several measures to promote trade and commerce. He struck fine coins of silver and
copper of uniform standard in place of the debased coins of mixed metals of earlier times. The system of
tri-metalism which came to characterise Mughal coinage was introduced by Sher Shah. While the
term rūpya had previously been used as a generic term for any silver coin, during his rule the
term rupiya came to be used as the name for a silver coin of a standard weight of 178 grains, which was the
precursor of the modern rupee.
2. He also made some effort to standardize weights and measures.
3. In Sher Shah’s empire, goods paid customs duty only two times—at the place of entry and at the time of
sale.
4. For the safety and tranquility of the roads Sher Shah made it a rule to make the muqaddams (headmen of
villages) and zamindars responsible for apprehending the culprits if the theft took place within their charge,
or to make good the loss if they were unable to do so.
5. Sher Shah also urged the local and other officials not to injure the travelers and the merchants, and not to
lay their hands on the property of the merchants if any one of them should die by accident and without
heirs.
6. Also, officials were to purchase goods from the merchants only at their market price.
Sher Shah as a builder:
1. Sher Shah’s reputation as a builder rests largely on the magnificent mausoleum he had built for himself at
Sahsaram which was in a class by itself for strength, stability and harmony.
2. Sher Shah built monuments including Rohtas Fort many structures in the Rohtasgarh Fort in Bihar, Sher
Shah Suri Masjid, in Patna, built in 1540–1545 to commemorate his reign.
3. He built a new city Bhera of Pakistan in 1545 and inside the city built historical grand Sher shah suri
Masjid.
4. He built a city at Delhi on the bank of the Jamuna the only surviving parts of which are the Old Fort with its
massive battlements, and the magnificent mosque (Qila-i-Kuhna mosque) inside it. Qila-i-Kuhna mosque,
built by Sher Shah in 1541, at Purana Qila, (old fort) Delhi.
5. A Humayun citadel started in 1533, and later extended by him, along with the construction of Sher Mandal,
an octagonal building inside the Purana Qila complex, which later served as the library of Humayun.
Fore-runner of Akbar “The great”:
1. Many policies (but not all) of Sher Shah was later followed by Akbar e.gland policy, equal justice to all,
liberal religious policy efficient administration, engaging in himself in welfare of his subjects etc. For this
reason, sher-shah was called fore-runner of Akbar.
2. Dr. Qanungo in this regard has observed, “Sher Shah had ruled for five years and five days. In the history of
medieval India, he had proved to be a ruler second only to Akbar in greatness.” Further he has observed, “It
is doubtful whether he would have done such deeds as Akbar if he had lived for fifty years more because
Sher Shah had the drawbacks from which Aurangzeb suffered.
Protected: Write a short essay on: “Portuguese control of the Indian Ocean and its
impact.”
Right from the time Portuguese arrived at Calicut, they had demanded that other merchants, Indian as well as
foreign, should be ousted and a complete monopoly over trade be granted to them. Portuguese ships equipped
with arms and ammunition threatened other merchants and confiscated their merchandise and vessels.
Introduction of Cartaz system:
In 1502, the Portuguese demanded an exclusive right over trade at Calicut to which the Zamorin, the king
of Calicut, did not yield. The Vasco da Gama declared war on all ships plying in the Arabian Sea and
Indian Ocean. He introduced an expedient under which those ships which carried a cartaz duly signed by
the Portuguese authorities, namely the royal factor, were not to be attacked. This certificate was first issued
in 1502.
It was a sea-pass or trading license introduced by the Portuguese.
They declared trade in spices, drugs, dyes, arms & ammunition and war horses as royal monopoly and
no nation or even Portuguese private traders were allowed to trade in these commodities. Ships
engaged in the trade of other commodities had to take a permit or cartaz from Portuguese officials.
Its aim was to control and enforce the Portuguese trade monopoly over a wide area in the Indian
Ocean and to ensure that merchants paid the tax in Portuguese trading posts.
Indian merchants, rulers and all those engaged in maritime trade, had to take cartaz from the
Portuguese. While issuing such passes, it was specifically mentioned that monopoly items were not
tobe loaded on their ships. Routes and destinations of such ships were also sought to be controlled.
The Portuguese attempted to force all ships going to the east or to Africa to pass by Goa and to pay
custom duty there.
To enforce these rules, the Portuguese searched any ships suspected of engaging in trade without
Cartaz or trade in monopolised commodities. Ships which refused to be searched were treated as prize
of war and men and women abroad as slaves.
Rulers like Akbar, and his successors, Nilam Shah of Ahmednagar, Adil Shah of Bijapur, kings of
Cochin, the Zamorins of Calicut and the rulers of Cannanore purchased passes from the Portuguese to
send their ships to various places.
Monopoly Trade:
When Portuguese arrived, merchants from various quarters of the world were found on the coastal regions
of India engaged in trade and commerce. As Vasco da Gama reported in 1498, there were merchants from
Mecca, Tenasseri, Pegu, Ceylon, Turkey, Egypt, Persia, Ethiopia, Tunis and various parts of India at the
port of Calicut. It is well-known that Chinese merchants as well as merchants from the Red Sea areas used
to frequent the Indian ports.
There is no record of any group of merchants demanding exclusive right of trade in general, nor of any
attempt made to declare a few or all commodities set apart for anybody.
But, with the arrival of the Portuguese, this state of affairs underwent considerable change. Kings were
pressurised to forbid other merchants from trading with their ports. Similarly, certain commodities were
declared forbidden to be traded by others. In other words, the Portuguese demanded monopoly of trade. The
treaties concluded with the Indian rulers specifically mentioned this.
The setting up of Portuguese fortresses at strategic places, surveillance by their patrolling vessels, and
the insistence on passes for other ships were the attempts made to establish monopoly of trade in Asian
waters.
Trade of the Indian Rulers and Merchants:
The Portuguese attempts at establishing total monopoly did not bring about a situation in which trade
conducted by the Indian rulers and merchants was totally uprooted. The king of Cannanore, for instance,
used to collect passes from the Portuguese to send his vessels laden with commodities to Cambay and
Hormuz.
He imported horses from the above-mentioned places though this was identified by the Portuguese a
monopoly item.
Sometimes such vessels ran the risk of being confiscated by the Portuguese. The same was the case
with the kings of Tanur, Challe and Calicut on the Malabar coast. The nobles of Gujarat continued
their trade despite the Portuguese monopoly.
Malik Gopi, Malik Ayaz, Khwaja Sofar and others interested in trade plied their ships with or without
passes from the Portuguese.
Monopoly was not very effective:

Besides, the local and foreign merchants settled in India carried on their trade with or without cartaz.
Traders who lost on sea put pressure on their governments to retaliate against Portuguese trade in their
areas.
It was impossible to police trade along huge coasts of Asia.
Sea pirates preying on Portuguese ships were encouraged by traders and small rulers.
It was estimated that out of the 60,000 quintals of pepper produced annually in the area between
Calicut and Cape Comorin, only 15,000 quintals were delivered to the Portuguese factories and the
remaining three-fourths were taken to other ports. This was termed illegal by the Portuguese.
The Portuguese were not willing to enhance the price of pepper agreed upon in 1503 even after several
decades. Hence, the producers of pepper did not have any alternative other than supplying it to the
merchants who might buy it and send it to other centres of trade without the knowledge of the
Portuguese.
The Arabs and Gujarati traders found ways to get around the Portuguese trade embargo and regulation.
Even Portuguese private traders were unhappy due to royal monopoly and Cartaz and royal officials
who received small salary often bribed by private traders (Portuguese, Arabs, Gujarati etc).
Several Portuguese officials conducted their own private trade in various commodities without the
knowledge of their government.
The Portuguese control over Indian ocean remained incomplete because of their failure to capture
Aden.
Portuguese monopoly was never effective in the Red Sea zone.
Critically examine the views of Balban, Ala-ud-din Khalji and the Tughluq on the nature
of Kingship under the Delhi Sultanate.
Ans:
1. Balban:
1. The assumption of the throne by Balban at Delhi (1266) marks the beginning of an era of strong,
centralized government. Balban sought to increase the prestige and power of the monarchy, and to
centralise all authority in the hands of the sultan because he was convinced that this was the only way
to face the internal and external dangers facing him.
2. Divine kinship theory: He underlined the theory that the sultan was the “shadow of God’ (zil-i-allah),
and emphasised it by insisting that in his court anyone presented to him had to perform
the sijda and pabos, or prostration before the sovereign, a practice which, according to the
theologians, was reserved for God alone.
3. He hankered back to the Iranian theory of kingship. According to the Iranian theory, the king was
divine or semi -divine in character, and answerable only to God, not to any set of intermediaries, i.e.
religious figures. As such, there was a fundamental difference between the ruler and the nobles, the
latter being dependent on the sultan’s favour, and in no way equal to him.
4. He maintained a splendid court in which all the nobles had to stand in serried ranks, strict order being
maintained by the Mir Hajib who was always an important noble. Balban himself maintained the
utmost dignity in the Court. He would neither laugh out aloud himself nor allow anyone else to do so.
5. Balban was not prepared to share power with anyone. At the same time, he tried to stand forth as the
defender of the entire Turkish nobility. For the purpose he declared that he would not give any post in
the government or an iqta, or a post of authority in the local administration to any person belonging to
a low or ignoble family. He was critical towards low-borns. He said “When I look at a low born, every
artery in my body begins to irritate with fury and my hand goes to the sword.”
6. He focused lineage and race and he claim his lineage from Khaqan Afrasiyap, who was a mythical
hero described in the book-Shahnama by Firdausi.
7. Highly autocratic characterized by cold, calculated despotism.
8. Focused on Justice and follow the dictum – ‘Kingship knows no kinship’.
9. The influence of the turkan-i chihilgani was minimised.
10. Overall approach was to make crown a magnificent institution and to establish its prestige and power.
11. Maintained a formal link with caliph and caliph name was still in use on coin and in khutba.
2. Ala-ud-din Khalji:
1. Khalji’s idea of kingship is that Kingship is not a monopoly of any priviledge class but within the
reach of those who have the power and ability to hold it.
2. Saw a broadening in the composition of nobles. He did not admit of monopolisation of the state by
any one single group of nobles. State office were open to talent and loyalty, to the exclusion of race
and creed. Besides, he controlled them through various measures.
3. He didn’t claim sovereignty on the strength of racial superiority.
4. Kingship was mainly based on force and military power.
5. He tried to separate state from religion. He was the first sultan to make such declaration.
1. He negated role of Ulemmas, He said “I don’t know what is right and what is wrong, I give
orders which are in the interest of state.”
6. He adhered more to Balban’s theory of fear being the basis of good government, a theory which he
applied to the nobles as well as to the ordinary people. Thus, after the outbreak of a couple of
rebellions early in his reign, he decided to take harsh measures to keep the nobles under control. He
revived Balban’s system of spies who kept him informed of all developments, even those in the
privacy of the houses of the nobles. The nobles were forbidden to associate with each other, or hold
convivial parties. In fact, even for forming marriage alliances they had to seek the permission of the
Sultan.
7. He hearkened back to Balban’s belief—one which the historian Barani shared, that the people should
not be left enough means to harbour thoughts of rebellion. As a part of this policy he ordered that all
charitable lands, i.e. lands assigned in waqf or inam, should be confiscated. Almost all the nobles of
Jalaluddin’s time, whom Alauddin had won over to his side by the lure of gold and positions, were
uprooted, and their accumulated wealth confiscated.
8. He was the Sultan who began sultanate imperialism. He adopted title- Sikandar-i-sani – on his coin.
9. He maintained formal relation with the caliph and adopted a title- lieutenant of caliph.
10. Amir khusro and Zaiuddin Barani describe him as – Shadow of God on earth which is indicative of
divine kingship.
3. Muhammad Bin Tughluq:

1. Highly autocratic and despotic.
2. Separation of state and religion. Focused on political consideration and state interest.
1. Muhammad bin Tughlaq went so far as to substitute the name of the Abbasid caliph in his coins.
Later, he also received a formal rescript (nianshur) from the Caliph. But all this could hardly
change the attitude of the orthodox elements towards him.
3. Negation of Ulemmas.
4. Higher imperial ambition than Alauddin. It was under him that territory of sultanate reached it’s peak.
5. Catholic approach to religions. He was first Sultan who participated in the festival of Holi, first who
employed Hindus in even high offices. He was also the first who include Sufi into nobility and who
entered into matrimonial alliance the Sufi.
6. Created composite nobility and included person of very low status on the basis of talent like – The
cook, The gardener etc.
7. He had highly innovative approach and taken such steps like: Second capital to Daulatabad, Token
currency, agricultural experiment and foreign campaign.
4. Firuz Shah Tughluq:

1. Linked state and religion. He proclaimed to rule on the basis of Islam. He appeased Ulemmas, he
abolished many taxes which were unislamic. He imposed Jaziya on Brahmans.
2. Benevolent and welfare approach: Irrigation, marriage bureau, employment bureau, promoted public
work, Education- establishment of Madrasa and Hospital etc.
3. He followed appeasement approach toward Nobles, Muqtis and made Iqta hereditary.
4. He maintained link with caliph by using caliph name of coins and in khutba.
Do you agree with the view that Muhammad Tughluq was ‘transcendent failure’?
Why did he fail to achieve the ideals he had set for himself?
OR
Write a short essay on: “Experiments of Muhammad Tughluq”.
Ans:
Muhammad bin Tughlaq was keen to tone up the administration, and bring about uniformity in its functioning.
Towards this end, according to Ibn Battutah, he issued large numbers of orders (manshurs). However, only a few
of these appear to have been taken up seriously, or to have made an impact.
Those have been listed by Barani, and may be divided into two:
Administrative and political measures
Economic and agrarian reforms
Administrative and political measures:
Exodus to Deogiri:
1. One of the most controversial step taken by Muhammad bin Tughluq early in his reign was his so-called
transfer of capital to Deogiri which was renamed Daultabad, and the alleged orders of the sultan ordering a
mass transfer of the people from Delhi to the new capital.
2. He wanted to have a second capital in the south so that he could control it more easily.
3. The Sultan purchased the houses and dwelling of those at Delhi who had migrated and wanted the
government to do so. Liberal grants were made to people, both at the time of their departure at Delhi and at
their arrival at Daultabad where free boarding and lodging was provided to them.
4. Nevertheless, most of the migrants were not happy. They had got used to Delhi where many of them had
lived for more than a hundred years, and which they regarded as their home.
5. Outbreak of bubonic plague while ongoing serious rebellion had many of his soldiers perished.
6. Overall, the exodus to Daultabad proved to be a costly failure, and brought misery to many people.
However, its effects were felt largely by the upper classes, not by the people of Delhi.
Expeditions to North-West and North:
Since Alauddin’s expedition to Multan, no attention was given to Multan and focus was mostly on South and
Gujrat. After Muhammad Tughluq (earlier known as Ulugh Khan) acceded to the throne that attention was paid
to the north-west frontier.
1. Led campaigns to Kalanaur and Peshawar:

1. Probably it was a sequel to the invasion of the Mongols under Tarmashirin Khan in 1326-27 and was
aimed at securing north-western frontier of the Sultanate against future Mongol attacks.
2. Sultan stayed at Lahore, while army conquered Kalanaur and Peshawar. administrative arrangement
settled there.
2. Qarachil region (modern Kulu in Kangra district of Himachal Pradesh) in 1332:

1. It formed part of the plan to fortify north and north-west frontier.
2. He enlisted a large army under the command of Khusrau Malik.
3. The army occupied Jidya (an important place in Qarachil region), and was then instructed to return.
But in his enthusiasm, Khusrau Malik exceeded the instruction and marched ahead towards Tibet.
Soon the rains set in and the army was overtaken by disease and panic. only few soldiers returned to
tell the tale of the catastrophe.
4. So, Qarachil expedition led to tremendous waste of resources and an erosion in the authority of
Muhammad Tughluq.
3. An ambitious project for Khurasan:

1. A little before Qarachil expedition, Muhammad Tughluq had launched an ambitious project of
bringing Khurasan under submission.
2. A large army of soldiers numbering about 370,000 was recruited for this purpose and the soldiers were
paid a year’s salary in advance.
3. Large sum was also invested in the purchase of costly equipments for the army.
4. Ultimately when the project was abandoned as an unrealistic scheme and the army disbanded, it led to
a tremendous financial loss.
5. The authority of the Sultan also suffered a serious setback and a series of rebellions followed that
hollowed the most extensive of the empire of Delhi Sultanate.
Economic and Agrarian Reforms:
Agrarian Measures of Muhammad Tughluq:
1. first extended Alauddin Khalji’s system of revenue collection based on measurement to Gujarat. Malwa,
Deccan, South India and Bengal.
2. At a later stage, the scale of agrarian taxation was enhanced considerably.
1. Barani’s statement that the increase amounted to 20 or 10 times is undoubtedly a rhetoric but it
certainly gives the impression of an enormous increase. He also suggests that additional new imposts
(abwab) were levied. Of the other taxes. kharaj, charai and ghari were more rigorously collected.
2. According to Yahya, cattle were branded and cottages counted to avoid any concealment.
3. But more important than these measures was the fact that for assessment of kharaj:
1. wafa-i-farmani (officially decreed yields) and
2. nirkh-i-farmani (officially decreed prices) were used.
3. These decreed yields and prices used for calculating revenue were not actual and were generally
inflated.
4. Use of inflated yields instead of actual and prices much-higher than what were prevailing, had the obvious
result of overstating the value of produce and thus the share of the state.
5. This tremendous increase in revenue demand resulted in contraction of area under plough, flight of
peasantry. And there followed peasant revolt in the Doab and around Delhi. This caused failure of grain
supplies to Delhi and a famine that lasted for about seven years, from 1334-5 to 1342.
6. Agricultural policy for promoting agriculture: Faced with these problems, Muhammad Tughluq became
the first Sultan to attempt to formulate an agricultural policy for promoting agriculture:
1. Agricultural loans named sondhar for increasing the area under plough and for digging wells for
irrigation.
1. Barani says that 70 lakhs tenkas (according to Afif 2 krors tanka) were given till 1346-7 in
sondhar but perhaps hardly any amount reached the peasantry.
2. The Sultan was so determined to introduce his project of agricultural improvement that when a
theologian said that giving loan in cash and receiving the interest in grain was sin, he executed
him.
2. A new ministry designated diwan-i amir-i kohiwas established to promote agriculture. Its two main
functions
1. To extend the area under cultivation and to reclaim the land that went out of cultivation and
2. Improving the cropping pattern.
1. It was recommended that wheat should be replaced by sugarcane and sugarcane by grapes
and dates.
7. Barani: says that all these measures were almost a complete failure.
Token Currency of Muhammad Tughluq:
1. The only major innovation in the currency system established by Iltutmish was made by Muhammad
Tughluq.
2. Token currency of copper and brass alloy (with value of silver): The Sultan introduced a coin of copper
and brass alloy and reckoned it at the value of a silver tanka. This coin for the first time carried an
inscription in Persian.
3. The introduction of token currency was already attempted in sister Asian empires.
1. In China, Qublai Khan (1260-94) had introduced a token currency of paper and the experiment was
successful.
2. In Persia, Kaikhatu Khan (1293), too, tried to introduce a token currency but the attempt failed.
4. This experiment met a total failure perhaps owing to the fact that the new currency could easily be forged.
1. Barani: every ‘Hindu’ household became a mint.
5. However, the Sultan accepted the failure with grace and exchanged all the token currency brought to the
treasury with pure currency.
On the whole, his experiments not merely were visionary projects, they had a logic behind them and had been
inspired by cogent reasons and calculated thoroughly to promote the efficiency of the government and the
welfare of the masses in the long run. But unfortunately, they failed. They did not suffer from any inherent
defects, but because of some extraneous circumstances such as Famine, conservative nature of people and the
hasty and hot temperament of the Sultan.
Lanepoole says: with the best intentions, excellent ideas, but no balance or patience, no sense of proportion,
Muhammad Tughluq was a transcendent failure”.
Trace the technological and stylistic development in the architecture of the Sultanate
period.
Ans:
The advent of the Turkish rule in India marked the beginning of a new expression in art. The style of
architecture that evolved during this time is called Indo-Islamic.
1. The most important source ‘for the study of architecture is the surviving remains of buildings themselves.
1. These enable us to grasp architectural techniques and styles peculiar to our period but doesn’t help in
understanding other related aspects of architecture such as the role of the architects and the drawings
and estimates and accounts of the buildings.
2. New Structural Forms:

1. Arch and Dome:
1. New technique: Use of lime-mortar as the basic cementing material.
1. It helped building of true arch which required stones or bricks to be laid as voussoirs in the
shape of a curve and bound together firmly by a good binding material.
2. So, pre-Turkish forms; lintel and beamand corbelling, were replaced by true arches and
vaults and the spired roofs(shikhad) by domes.
2. Arches are made in a variety of shapes, but in India the pointed form of the Islamic world was
directly inherited. In second quarter of the 14th century, another variant of the pointed form,
the four-centered arch, was introduced by the Tughluqs in their buildings. It remained in vogue
till the end of the Sultanate.
1. The pointed arch was adopted in the Islamic world quite early due to its durability and ease
of construction.
2. The usual method of raising a pointed arch was to erect a light centering and place one layer
of bricks over it. This layer supported another thin layer of flat bricks over which radiating
voussoirs of the arch were fixed in mortar. These two bottom layers of brick-work would, if
needed, act as permanent shuttering for the arch.
3. Employment of bricks instead of an all-wood centering was a feature typical of regions
deficient in reserves of wood such as West Asia and even India.
3. But the construction of dome demanded especial techniques. The problem was to find a
suitable method for converting the square or rectangular top of the walls of the room into a
circular base for raising a spherical dome. Two solutions:
1. Convert the square plan into a polygon by the use of squinchesacross the corners.
2. Later, in the fifteenth century, stalactite pendentives came to be used for the same purpose.
2. Building Material:
1. In early Turkish buildings in India newly quarried material was rarely employed by the
architects.
1. The fashion was to use richly carved capitals, columns, shafts and lintels from pre-Turkish
buildings. (may be due to less resources).
2. Towards the beginning of the 14th century when the supply of such material had exhausted,
buildings were raised by using originally manufactured material.
2. Stone has been used abundantly. The foundations are mostly of rough and small rubble or,
wherever it is available, of river boulders, while the superstructure is of dressed
stone or roughly shaped coarse stonework. → in either case, the buildings were plastered all
over.
1. In Khalji period, a new method of stone masonry was used. This consisted of laying
stones in two different courses, that is headers and stretchers. This system was retained in
subsequent buildings and became a characteristic of the building technique of the
Mughals.
3. Gypsum: Used for plastering.

1. lime-plaster was reserved for places that needed to be secured against the leakage of water,
such as roofs, indigo-vats, canals, drains, etc.
2. In the later period (15th century) when highly finished stucco work became
common, gypsum mortar was preferred for plaster work on the walls and the ceiling
3. Decoration:
1. Decorative art of Islamic building served the purpose of concealing the structure behind motif
rather than revealing it.
2. The depiction of living beings was not allowed (as per Quran), Mostly the elements of decoration
were
1. Calligraphy: Quranic sayings are inscribed on buildings in an angular, sober
andmonumental script, known as kufi. They may be found in any part of the building-frames
of the doors, ceilings, wall panels, niches etc., and in variety of materials- stone, stucco and
painting.
2. Geometry: Geometric shapesin abstract form are used in these buildings in a bewildering
variety of combinations. The motifs indicate incorporation of visual principles: repetition,
symmetry, and generation of continuous patterns. The generating source of these
geometric designs is the circle, which could be developed into a square, a triangle or a
polygon.
3. Foliation: the dominant form of decoration employed in Sultanate buildings, is
the arabesque. It is characterised by a continuous stem which splits regularly, producing a
series of leafy secondary stems which can in turn split again or reintegrate into the main
stem. The repetition of this pattern produces a beautifully balanced design with a three-
dimensional effect.
4. These pan-Islamic decorative principles were used for all kinds of buildings in the Delhi
Sultanate.
3. Stylistic Evolution:
1. The Early Form:
1. Jami Masjid (Quwwatul Islam mosque): Qila Rai Pithora, was captured by Qutbuddin Aibak and
he constructed mosque here, it was completed in 1198. was built from the wreckage of twenty-
seven Hindu and Jain temples. Again in 1199 an expansive screen with lofty arches was raised
across the entire front of the sanctuary of the mosque.
1. In both these constructions local architect was used. → the obamentation of the screen, is
emphatically Hindu in conception.
2. The lintels, carved-columns and slabs, have been used liberally by only turning their carved
sides inwards or using them upside down. The arches of the screen have been built by
employing the method of corbelling.
3. The borrowed elements of Hindu architecture were soon discarded and relatively little
was retained by the maturing Indo-Islamic style.
2. Qutab Minar (built 1199-1235), Arhai Din Ka Jhoupra (built c.1200) and Iltutmish’s
tomb (completed 1233-4), though corbelling could not be replaced as the principal structural
technique, decoration became almost fully Islamic in detail. The dome was raised with the help
of corbelled ourses supported on squinches built at the corners of the square chamber.
3. Mausoleum of Balban (1287-88): The culmination of the architectural style of early form.
2. The Khaljis:
1. Alai Darwaza (built 1305) at the Qutub complex, and the Jamat Khana Masjid(built 1325) at
Nizamuddin:
1. A marked change in style appears.
2. Has influence of the Seljuq architectural traditions
2. The characteristic features of this phase:

1. Employment of true arch, pointed horse-shoe in shape.
2. Emergence of true dome with recessed arches under the squinch.
3. Use of red sandstone and decorative marble reliefs as new building materials
4. Appearance of ‘lotus-bud’ fringe on the underside of the arch – a Seljuq feature.
5. Emergence of new masonry-facing, consisting of a narrow course of headers -alternating
with a much wider course of stretchers – again a Seljuq feature.
3. The decorative features characterised by calligraphy, geometry and arabesque now became
much bolder and profuse.
3. The Tughluqs: the architecture of this period can be divided into two main groups. To the first group
belong the construction of Ghiyasuddin and Muhammad Tughluq, and the other to those of Feroz
Taghluq. The general features of the Tughluq style of architecture:
1. Stone rubble is the principal building material and the walls are in most cases plastered.
2. The walls and bastens are invariably battered, the effect being most marked at the corners.
3. Experimental use of a new shape of arch– the four-centered arch-necessitating its
reinforcement with a supporting beam.
1. This arch-beam combination is a hall-mark of the Tughluq style.
2. The pointed horse-shoe arch of the preceding style was abandoned because of its narrow
compass and therefore the inability to span wider spaces.
3. Emergence of a pointed dome with clearly visible neck in contrast with rather stifled dome
of the preceding style.
4. Introduction of encaustic tiles as an element of decoration in the panels of the buildings.
5. in the tombs of this period, emerges an octagonal plan which came to be copied and
perfected by the Mughals in the 16th-17th century.
4. An additional feature was the element of reduced ornament, confined mostly to inscribed borders
and medallions in spandrels executed in plaster or stucco.
4. The Final phase: By the last days of sultanate a large number of tombs were built in and around Delhi
so much so that over a period of time the area around Delhi looked like a sprawling qabristan
(graveyard).
1. These tomb-buildings took two separate forms, the distinguishing features of which:
1. Mausoleums designed on an octagonal plan incorporating the following elements:
1. main tomb-chamber surrounded by an arched verandah.
2. one storey high.
3. verandah with projecting eaves supported on brackets.
2. The other type was built on square plan:

1. absence of verandah around the main tomb-chamber.
2. exterior comprised of two, and sometimes three storeys.
3. absence of eaves and supporting brackets
3. There is an original treatment of colored tile decoration in these buildings. It is set sparingly
in friezes. In addition, there are intricately incised surfaces of plaster.
What motivated Akbar to enunciate Din-i-Ilahi? How far did he succeed in spreading it?
Ans:
Din-i-Ilahi:
A syncretic creed derived from different religions like Islam, Hinduism, Zoroastrianism, and Christianity. A
simple, monotheistic cult, tolerant in outlook, it centred on Akbar as a prophet.
Abul Fazl does not use the word Din-i-Ilahi but Tauhid-i-Uahi or Divine monotheism, while Badayuni uses
both the terms.
Characteristics of Din-i-Ilahi:
The sect had no sacred book or scripture, no priestly hierarchy, no sacred place of worship and no
rituals or ceremonies except that of initiation.
It was not a religion and Akbar never intended to establish a church, neither force nor money was
employed to enlist disciples and it was entirely a personal matter.
It was more of an ethical system and Din-i-Ilahi prohibits lust, sensuality, slander and pride,
considering them sins.
A member had to give a written promise of having accepted the four grades of entire devotion, viz.,
sacrifice of property, life, honour and religion.
It was not between the Emperor and the subjects, but between Akbar and those who chose to regard
him as their pir or guru.”
Motivation to enunciate:
Disillusionment at Ibadat Khana: Akbar built a hall called the Ibadat Khana (“House of Worship”) at
Fatehpur Sikri, to which he invited theologians, mystics and selected courtiers renowned for their
intellectual achievements and discussed matters of spirituality with them. These discussions, initially
restricted to Muslims, were acrimonious and resulted in the participants shouting at and abusing each other.
Disillusioned by this, Akbar opened the Ibadat Khana to people of all religions, resulting in the scope of the
discussions broadening and extending even into areas such as the validity of the Quran and the nature of
God. The discussions at Ibadat Khana proved to be a turning point as they convinced Akbar that the essence
of faith lay in “internal conviction” based on ‘reason’.
His interactions had also convinced him that no single religion could claim the monopoly of truth and
despite their differences, all religions had several good practices, which he sought to combine into a new
religious movement known as Din-i-Ilahi.
According to the contemporary events in the Mughal court Akbar was also angered by the acts of
embezzlement of wealth by many high level Muslim clerics.
Akbar must have felt that it was neither possible to melt all religions down into one, nor to launch a new
religion which would have added one more to others. But he felt himself called upon to propagate this ideas
among those who cared to listen to them.
Building up devoted band of people: As it is was entirely personal matter between Akbar and those who
choose to regard him as their pir, it seems that Akbar wanted to build up a devoted band of people around
him, acting as their spiritual guide. Discipleship was an extremely effective means to assimilate a
heterogeneous body of nobles and bind them to the throne. Princes and high dignitaries considered
themselves to be murids (disciples) of their Emperors even under the successors of Akbar.
He intended to merge the best elements of the religions of his empire, and thereby reconcile the differences
that divided his subjects.
It can be said that it was a political system to bring unity in plurality rather than a religion.
Din-i-Ilahi can be called an unwise policy

By using religio-spiritual forms and devices to fulfill his political purposes, Akbar not only created confusion,
but set a precedent which harmed the secular polity later on. It was, therefore, wise on the part of Jahangir to
have given up the practice of giving shast or enrolling disciplines.
In this effort to extract as much loyalty from the subjects as possible, Akbar also drew upon the credulity of the
people. Thus, Abul Fazl says that Akbar breadthened upon the cups of water which people brought before him
every day. By this means, “many sick people of broken hopes, whose diseases the not eminent physicians
pronounced incurable, have been restored to health.” Thus, although Akbar was opposed to miracles, calling
them “the product of mental enthusiasm”, he was prepared to exploit the credulity of the people when it suited
him.
Success in spreading
It appears to have survived Akbar according to the Dabestan-e Mazaheb of Mubad Shah (Mohsin Fani).
However, the movement only numbered 19 adherents.
The main reason for its limited spread was that there was no compulsion in its acceptance, no reward, no
punishment and no establishment of religious institutions.
How far do the coins of the Gupta’s provide clues regarding trends in economy,
polity, religion and arts? Discuss them in the light of corroborating evidence from
archaeology and literature?
Ans:
Few important feature of Coins during Gupta period:
1. Gupta period in the Indian history saw a considerable increase in the coinage. Trade relation with
Roman empire had resulted in heavy inflow of gold.
2. Early gold coin of Gupta closely resembles the coins of later Kushanas. Later these coins were
completely Indianised.
3. The Gupta monarchs were famous for their gold coins. They also issued silver coins. However, coins
made of copper, bronze or any other alloy metals are scarce. The abundance of gold coins from
the Gupta era has led some scholars to regard this phenomenon as the ‘rain of gold’.
4. The artists depicted the ruler in various poses. There were many types of such coins. e.g.: (i)Tiger
tiger coin (ii) Lyrist type of coin (iii) Asvamedha type of coin (iv) Archer type of coin (v) Couch
type of coin (vi) Chhattra type of coin (vii) Lion Slayer type coin (j) Horsemen type coin.
5. Almost every Gupta coin carried the figure of a goddess and an inscription in the reverse.
Sanskrit was the language of the inscription.
All these features of the Gupta coins gives valuable information about various aspects of that
period:
1. Economy:
The flourishing state of economy can be ascertained from the large number of gold coins
circulated by different Gupta rulers.
It reflects that economy was monetized.
Material content and purity of these coins implied the prosperity at different times of Gupta period.
it decreases from 90% pure gold under Chandragupta I (319-335) to a mere 75-80% under
Skandagupta (467). It showed financial crisis towards the end of Gupta dynasty.
Reason why the Gupta rulers did not issue copper coins: Guilds enjoyed sufficient autonomy to
manage their own affairs, and had their own property and trusts, worked as bankers and issued hundis
and even coins
2. Polity:
The coins of Samudragupta give us a lot of information on the start of the mighty empire of
Guptas. Samudragupta issued, as many as 8 different types of coins for himself. Inscription
engraved on a Pillar at Allahabad also testify such information.
They are indicative of the conquests of rulers and his attainment of paramount power. Of these Standard,
Archer and Ashvamedha are known to be from Bengal. The Archer type, found from 24-Parganas
(North), depicts the king standing, holding a bow and arrow with Samudra written under his left
arm. The reverse is the same as on the standard type except the legend, which reads Apratirathah
i.e. ‘matchless warrior’.
Chandragupta II is referred to as Chandra on his coins. His coins and inscriptions indicate that his
rule extended into Malwa and western India. 1. A Sanskrit inscription on an iron pillar in the
Mehrauli area of Delhi refers to a king named Chandra.
Decline in coinage is one of the feudal features mentioned by R S Sharma. It also evident from
large scale land grants charters donating land to brahmans and officers.
Names mentioned on the coins helps extracting information about genealogy.
Legends on Samudraguptas coins include epithets such as parakramah (brave), ashvamedha-
parakramah and vyaghra-parakramah (brave as a tiger).
3. Religion:
Almost every Gupta coin carried the figure of a goddess and an inscription in the reverse.
Sanskrit was the language of the inscription. The goddess posed in either sitting or a standing
position. he most common was the image of Laxmi, the Hindu goddess of wealth. Other
goddesses who featured in the Gupta coins included Durga, the Hindu goddess of valor; Ganga,
the goddess of the river Ganges; etc. Various religious literature written during that period also
testify such gods and goddess e.g.: Vishnu purana, Mahabharatam Ramayana etc.
Some of the Gupta coins, mainly the silver ones, carried the images of Garuda, a mythical bird of
Hindu tradition. These coins are found in large numbers in western India.
It also reflects some rituals performed during Gupta period. e.g. the ‘Asvamedha’ or horse-sacrifice
coins were issued by both Samudragupta and Kumaragupta I. Horse sacrifice is an ancient Hindu
ritual.
4. Arts:
Coin casting was a specialized craft. 1. Samudragupta’s coins represent him in various poses. The
‘ashvamedha type’ shows a sacrificial horse standing before a decorated yupa. In the ‘standard
type’, which is the most frequent, he holds a long staff) in his left hand and offers oblations into
a fire altar with his right.
Coin during Samundragupta period showed he was a good musician also. e.g. One of
Samudragupta’s coin types shows him playing the vina (lyre).
The Gupta gold coin is known as dinaras. The gold coins of the Gupta rulers are the
extraordinary examples of artistic excellence. The coins depicted the ruling monarch on the obverse
and carried legends with the figure of a goddess on the reverse.
Evaluate the ownership of land in ancient India on the basis of the literary and epigraphic
source. (2014)
Model Answer
There has been a debate over the issue of ownership of land in ancient India and this debate regarding the ownership of land in
ancient India has focused on assessing the evidence for communal/corporate ownership, royal ownership, and private ownership.
Although the Dharmashastra texts have a great deal to say about land, their opinions on land rights vary considerably, and
contradictory statements are sometimes made within the same text.
Communal/Corporate Ownership (Ownership in the hands of the village community )
Certain texts suggest that the village community had an important say in land-related matters, even if this did not amount to
full-fledged ownership. For instance, the village community was assigned an important role in settling boundary disputes and
the sale of land, and the king was supposed to inform it when he made a gift of land.
According to the Vishnu Smriti and Manu Smriti, pasture land was community property and could not be partitioned. The
village community seems to have exercised rights over water resources as well.
A few earlier sources assert the indivisibility of landed property, i.e., that it could not be divided. The Gautama Smriti states
that land cannot be divided.
Similarly, the 4th/3rd century BCE Mimamsa Sutra of Jaimini states that the earth is common to all and even an emperor
cannot give away all his land. This opinion was confirmed several centuries later by Shabarasvamin (4th century CE) in his
commentary on the Mimamsa Sutra.
Royal Ownership of Land
There are the references in Greek texts that quote Megasthenes as saying that all land in India was owned by the king and
Kautilya’s reference to some land (sita land) owned by the king.
The Dharmashastra texts also argue that the king owned the land and that this was considered the justification for taxation.
For instance, according to the Manu Smriti, the king is entitled to half a share of the ore dug out of mines because he is the
lord of the earth and gives protection.
The law books of the Gupta period reflect the growth of royal power and authority and make a stronger assertion of the king’s
ownership of the soil. The Katyayana Smriti states that the king is the owner of the soil and hence can claim 1/4th of the
farmers’ produce.
The Narada Smriti gives the king the right to divest the peasant of his field and house.
An unequivocal assertion of the royal ownership of land is found in certain later sources such as a commentary on the
Narasimha Purana, which states that land belonged to the king and not to the cultivators, and in Bhattasvamin’s 12th century
commentary on the Arthashastra, which seems to justify taxation on the grounds of royal ownership of land.
Inscriptions, especially land grants, have also been cited as proof of the royal ownership of land.
Private Ownership of Land
On the other hand, from early times, there was a school of thought that rejected the idea of the king’s ownership of land and
declared taxation to be the king’s wages for the protection he provided to his subjects. Jaimini and Shabara were the strongest
proponents of this view.
Although land grants indicate that the state or the king owned some land, they do not necessarily indicate that this applied to
all land.
The king was not the absolute owner of all land is also indicated by inscriptions recording the purchase of land by kings for
the purpose of pious donation.
In north India, the institution of private property in land emerged in about the 6th century BCE. This institution was well
entrenched by 300–600 CE. The law books of this period discuss and distinguish between the issues of possession, ownership,
and legal title to land. Laws regarding the partition, sale, and mortgage of land are laid down.
Numerous inscriptions record the purchase of land by individuals for the purpose of donations to Brahmanas or religious
institutions.
Conclusion
Corporate or communal ownership are very few and belong to an early period and although the village community may have had
a say in land-related matters, this did not amount to corporate or communal ownership.
On the other hand, from 300 CE onwards, literary and epigraphic evidence can be collaborated to argue for both royal and
private land ownership.
From 300 CE onwards, the king was considered the lord of all the land, but not the owner in the legal sense. Private property in
land existed under the theoretical notion of ultimate royal control, and the king’s claims did not preclude the rights of private
individuals.
Some tracts of land were under direct royal control. Private ownership prevailed outside these tracts.
In addition, the sources sometimes suggest a hierarchy of land rights rather than exclusive or absolute ownership rights. For
instance, one of the Ashrafpur plates (7th/8th century CE) speaks of a plot of land that was enjoyed by a person named
Sharvantara, cultivated by Shikhara and others, and donated by the king to a Buddhist monk named Sanghamitra.
Q. Examine the information of Fa Hien about the political, religious, social and
economic conditions of India. Make a comparative study of his account with
that of Yuan Chawang (Hiuen Tsang). 2003, 60m
Ans:
Fa Hien, a Chinese Buddhist, was one of the pilgrims who visited India in search of original Buddhist texts,
during the reign of Gupta emperor Chandragupta II. He stayed in India up to 411 CE. He went on a pilgrimage
to Mathura, Kanauj, Kapilvastu, Lumbini, Kushinagar, Vaishali, Pataliputra, Kashi and Rajgriha and made
careful observations about the empire’s conditions.
His travelogues give a fine impression about Chandra Gupta’s empire. The various aspects of his empire. i.e.
political, religious, social and economic, were clearly reflected in his writings.
Social condition:
Fahien noted the peacefulness of India, the rarity of serious crime, and the mildness of the administration.
He stated that it was possible to travel from one end to another in the country without molestation, and
without passports.
Hiuen Tsang had said he had been robbed twice which implies there were law and order problem
during Harsha period.
In his remarks on social custom he stated that all respectable persons were vegetarians, meat eating being
confined to low castes and untouchables. Most citizens did not consume onions, garlic, meat, and wine.
Hiuen Tsang was also aware of the four classes and had mentioned many mixed classes, but he shows
no clear knowledge of the existence of caste in its modern form. Yuan Chwang had mentioned both
about vegetarian and non vegetarian.
According to Fahien, the Shudras were kept outside the town and entered the town by making a noise with
a stick. They were butchers, hunters, and fishermen.
Hiuen Tsang had also described this.
Religious condition:
He found Buddhism still flourishing, but theistic Hinduism was very widespread. His record shows that in
place of the old sacrificial Brahminism, Hinduism has appeared. But in the best days of the Gupta Empire
Indian culture reached a perfection which it was never to attain again. Humanitarian ideas, probably
encouraged by Buddhism, were effective in Gupta period in moderating the fierce punishments of earlier
days.
Fahien stated that the death penalty was not imposed in north India, but most crime was punished by fines
and only serious revolt by the amputation of one hand. Executions were rare.
Hiuen Tsang, 200 years later. reported that prisoners were not executed under Harsha. but were left to
rot in dungeons. Punishments were rather mild as compared to the later times.
He had given a detailed description of the Buddhist pilgrimages. According to him, the Buddhist religion
was divided into Mahayana and Hinayana. He saw twenty Buddha vihars in Mathura. But in Kapilavastu.
Gaya and Kushinagar the condition was deteriorating which indicated the weakening of Buddhism. In the
description of Fahien, it is not clear whether Brahmin religion was prevalent in the country or not. He
visited two vihars near the stupa of an Ashoka in Patliputra- in one of them the Mahayana monks resided
and in the other the Hinyana monks. The ruler of Madhya Pradesh was a worshipper of Vishnu; according
to him mutual relation was cordial and peaceful among the Hindus and the Buddhists. This indicates the
religious tolerance of the society.
Hiuen Tsang had also described the religious conditions of India at that time. The Buddhist religion
was clearly declining. Despite of this, hundreds of monks resided in the country.
Fahien had mentioned about the Jainism, Shaiv and Vaishnav also. But there is no mention of the Jain
religion in Hiuen Tsang’s texts.
Economic condition:
Fahien states that the income of the government was mainly based on the revenue taxes which were one-
sixth of the total production. There was absence of poll-tax and land tax.
Faxian wrote. “The people were rich and prosperous and seemed to emulate each other in the practice of
virtue. Charitable institutions were numerous and rest houses for travelers were provided on the highway.
The capital possessed an excellent hospital.”
Government officials were given fixed income and there was no contribution from the people. Donation
was prevalent in those times. Fahien had made special note of free hospitals maintained by the donations of
pious citizens.
Hiuen Tsang had also reported that Nalanda was supported by the revenues of an enormous estate of
one hundred villages, and by the alms of many patrons, including the great Harsha himself; it provided
free training for no less than 10,000 students, who had a large staff to wait on them.
Fahien was enamored by Patliputra and the huge palace of Ashoka.

According to Hiuen Tsang, Patliputra was not a main city of north India and its place was taken by
Kannauj. Hiuen Tsang had mentioned about the social and economic conditions. He reported about
varna system and marriage. Fahien had not described all this. But both of them had stated that the
economy was based on agriculture.
Political condition:
As his main interest was religion, Fa-hien did not record anything specifically about the political condition
of India. He did not mention even the name of Chandra Gupta II in whose dominion he must have lived for
more than five years. But his account for other aspects of society does implies that the administration of the
Guptas was benevolent and successful and the rulers not only maintained peace and security within the
empire but also looked after the welfare of their subjects.
Hiuen Tsang had glorified Harsha, he said Harsha was a great King and he had a great army.
Fahien, in comparison to Hiuen Tsang, had not been so observant and informative with regard to social,
economic and political conditions of the society. Hiuen Tsang had completely described the period of king
Harshavardhana but Fa Hien did not mention name of Chandragupta Vikramaditya.
From his accounts, the Gupta Empire was a prosperous period, until the Rome-China trade axis was broken with
the fall of the Han dynasty, the Guptas’ did indeed prosper. His writings form one of the most important sources
for the history of this period.
Q. Discuss the military activities of Kharavela of Kalinga. Do you think that his
reign is significant for military expeditions alone? 1993, 60m
Ans:
Kharavela (193 BCE–170 BCE) was the greatest king of the Mahameghavahana dynasty of Kaḷinga. King
Kharvela of Kalinga was a contemporary of the Sungas and information about him is enshrined in the
Hathigumpha inscription. Hathigumpha Inscription consists of seventeen lines incised in deep cut Brahmi letters,
on a natural cavern called Hathigumpha in the southern side of the Udayagiri hill, near Bhubaneswar.
The Hathigumpha inscription starts with an invocation of the Arthatas and the Riddhas in the Jain style. It has
following information about the military activities of Kharvela:
In the second year of his coronation, without caring for Satakarni, King Kharvela sent a large army to the
west consisting of horse, elephant, infantry and chariot. He also destroyed the capital of the Mushikas to
help the Kaspa (Kasyapa) Kshatriyas.
In the fourth year, he also conquered the Rathika and Bhojaka. Rathika and Bhojaka chiefs with their crown
cast off, their umbrella and royal insignia thrown aside, and their Jewelry and wealth confiscated, were,
made to pay obeisance at the feet of Kharvela.
In the 8th year, He invaded Magadha and reached as far as the Barabar Hills (Gorathagiri) and forced rival
king (described as “Yavana-raja”) to retreat to Mathura.
In the 12th year of his reign, he attacked the king of Uttarapatha. He also caused fear amongst the people of
Magadha and made their king do homage at his feet. He brought back the holy idols of Kalinga’s Jain Gods
(The Blessed Tirthankars) which earlier Magadha rulers had carried away with them after Kalinga War in
Past. Tirthankar’s idol was brought back with its crown and endowment and the jewels plundered by king
Nanda from the Kalinga royal palace, along with the treasures of Anga and Magadha were regained.
But the reign of Kharvela was not significant for military expeditions alone as the Hathigumpha Inscription
mentions the followings:
In the very first year of his coronation, King Kharvela caused to be repaired the gate, rampart and structures
of the fort of Kalinga Nagari, which had been damaged by storm. He also built flight of steps for the cool
tanks and laid all gardens at the cost of thirty-five hundred thousand (coins) and thus pleased all his
subjects.
In the third year of his reign, Kharvela, who was well versed in the Gandhavara-Veda or the science of
music held theatrical performances, dances and other shows whereby he entertains the capital.
In the fourth year, he repaired some sacred buildings called the adobe of the Vidyadharas.
In the fifth year, He extended the old canal which had been excavated by King Nanda 300 years before, into
the capital Kalinga Nagri through Tanasuli.
In the sixth year, Kharvela granted privileged to the Paura and the Janapada corporations.
In the 9th years, Kharvela gave costly gifts to Brahamans who accepted them by lavish feasts. He gave a
Kalpa tree (a tree of gold leaves) along with gifts of elephants, horses, and chariots with their drivers.
Kharvela built on both banks of the Prachi river a great palace called The Place of Victory at the cost of 36
lakhs of silver coins.
In the 12th year, he built towers at home, the interior of which were carved and placed a number of trophies
and presents there.
In the 13th year, having satisfied himself with the extension of his Empire, he devoted his energies to the
religious acts. At the Kumari Hill (Udayagiri), he did something for the Arhat Temple. Ninety hundred
bulls maintained by the king are mentioned in the inscription. He built near the Arhat temple some edifice
probably of stone. A pavilion on four pillars was also erected. The cave which has this inscription was also
made. Kharvela is called the king of peace and prosperity, the Bhukshu king and the King of Dharma who
has been devoting his life to seeing to hearing and experiencing Kalyanas.
The inscription states that the Emperor Kharavela had a liberal religious spirit. Kharavela describes himself
as: The worshiper of all religious orders, the restorer of shrines of all gods.
“Harsha owes his greatness largely not to any real achievements but
to formulate descriptions by two famous men.” Discuss. [1987, 60m]
OR
“Harshvardhan was himself great, but he has been made greater by

Ban and Yuan Chiang.” Critically examine the statement. [1999, 60m]
Ans:
Harshavardhana ascended the throne in AD 606. He was only sixteen years of age at that time. Still
he proved himself to be a great warrior and an able administrator. He brought Punjab, Uttara Pradesh,
Bengal, Bihar and Orissa under his control. He shifted his capital from Thanesar to Kanauj and is
described as the lord of the north (sakalauttarapathanatha).
We have two valuable sources that throw important light on the life and times of Harshavardhana
(606–647). These are Harshacarita written by his court poet Banabhatta and Si-Yu-Ki, the travel
account of the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Yuan Chiang, who visited India during AD 629–644.
1. Below are the achievements of Harsha Which made him a great ruler:
1. Political:
1. After decline of Gupta empire there was vacuum created which was filled by Harsha but
putting all the regional power under one central control.
2. His elder brother was Rajyavardhana wad treacherously killed by Shashanka, the king of
Bengal and Bihar. After ascending on throne Harsha attacked Sasanka though it is not
clear if he could avenge the murder of his brother.
3. In about 6 years he brought the five indies under his allegiance and became the Lord
paramount of the north i.e sakalauttarapathanatha.
4. Opinions differ about Harsha conquest of Nepal. An era mentioned in the Nepalese
inscription can be taken as era of Harsha. So, we may say that He probably subdued
Nepal.
5. He not only extended his empire by conquest or force but by alliance and friendship
also. e.g.: King of Kamrupa offered him allegiance. according to Bana another king of
Punjab, King Udito of Jalandhara (who became a convert to Buddhism).
6. Nature of Polity was a confederate type of monarchy. Direct administration was less
extensive than the sphere of influence.
7. He maintained relation with china also and their exchange of envoy between the two
countries.
2. Religious:
1. Earlier he was probably a Saiva by faith. Later he converted to Buddhism after
completion of his conquests.
2. He was always tolerant to other religion. He built charitable institutions did charity with
generosity.
3. He organized the grand assembly at Kanauj to give publicity to the masterly treatise of
Hieun Tsang on Mahayana and became a great patron of Buddhism.
3. Patron to learning:
1. He is said to have written a number of books but three of them the Dramas Ratanavali,
Priyadarshika, and Nagarnanda, all in Sanskrit, occupy a high place in the world of
Sanskrit literature.
2. He also wrote a work on grammar as well.
3. He was also a skilled Calligraphist.
4. He had interest in poetry as well. The inscription of inscription of Banskhera and
Madhuban plates of which former is attested by his own composition are evidently his
own composition.
5. His court was always filled with brilliant philosophers, poets, dramatists and artists. He
allotted one fourth of the revenue from the crown lands for rewarding the learned. He
gave liberally to the great seat of education, namely, the University of Nalanda.
6. Harsha had a large number of Scholars in his court, Bana was the chief among them
and he wrote Harshacharita and Kadambari. Haridatta was also patronised by Harsha.
Jayasena was famous for his learning in various subjects and Harsha offered him the
revenues of eight villages in Orissa. However, the offer was declined by Jayasena.
2. For below reasons it can be said that Harsha was made even more greater by Ban and Yuan
Chiang:
Harsha could become great because of availability of sources in the form of accounts of Banbhatta
and Yuan Chiang which was not for other rulers of the time. Apart from mere availability of account,
Harsha also became great because both of them have also exaggerated the account about Harsha.
1. Banabhatta: Being court poet of Harsha and a childhood friend, so he was mainly focused to
emphasis achievements of Harsha and was silent about his failure. For example, he didn’t
mention about the check that Harsha met with while his campaign towards Deccan by Chalukya
ruler Pulakesin II, the Chalukya ruler, on the banks of river Narmada.
1. His Harshacharita is only source in matter related to Shanshanka, While Harsha attacked
Gauda but it is not clear that whether he could avenge murder of his brother.
2. Though it mentioned that police system was very efficient and There was fine system of
spies who turned throughout the state and secretly detected the crimes. There was serious
problem law and order. Even Yuan Chiang himself was robbed more than once.
3. Many scholars accused him that he is biased in his writing and portray a dubious account of
life of his patron in Harshacharita.
4. Bana has exaggerated many the facts and displayed lavished Harsha’s Political skills and
praised him too generously.
5. Bana’s focus on his poetic skill also led to exaggeration.
6. However, a careful reading combined with other evidences do give us many valuable
information.
2. Yuan Chiang: a Chinese traveler and had spent a considerable time in India.
1. His writing gives us information about social, political, economic, religious and administrative
aspect of life of India.
2. Though his writing is more trustworthy as it was written after he went back to china and thus
was too secure to be affected by the reactions his account might produce in India, still, it is
affected at some places
1. by author’s preconceived ideas on the government and administration,
2. his early scholastic training,
3. the code of behavior of his country and
4. His favour for Buddhism.
3. Given that Harsha turned out to be a great patron of Buddhism it was normal that Yuan
Chiang mainly highlight positive aspects Harsha period.
4. Many of his account looks exaggerated: like he says that people are not subjected to forced
labour, taxes are light, there is no infliction of corporal punishment. He also exaggerates by
saying that Harsha was indefatigable in the discharge of his administrative routine, forgot
sleep and food in his devotion to good work and spent most of the years in making tours of
inspection throughout his dominions.
5. He tells us that Harsha maintained a huge army. The number of foot soldiers was 50,000.
The cavalry consisted of one lakh of horsemen. The elephant was roughly 60,000. This was
clearly an exaggerated account which is clearer from the fact that Harsha was defeated by
Pulakesin II.
6. But still his account is a very important and trustworthy source of information because it was
written by a person who stayed India for long period, knew the language, wrote what he saw
with his eyes and lastly was more secured from the affects that can be produced by his
writing.
No doubt, Harsha was great and a competent ruler. in fact, after Harsha’s rule whole north India was
disintegrated into regional kingdoms and a power vacuum was created which was to be filled only
after invasion of Turks in India. It was Harsha who could maintain a central authority in almost entire
north India. Banabhatta’s and Yuan Chiang’s account though filled with praises and even
exaggeration, are most valuable sources of that period.
Q. Give an account of the republics in the pre-Maurya period. Discuss
the factors which contributed to their decline. [1992, 60m]
Ans:
The existence of the republics (Ganas / Sanghas)
Indian literature comprising Brahmanical, Buddhist and Jain texts mention different types of
non-monarchical states called Ganas or Sanghas, and this account is corroborated by the
statements of the Greek historians of the Alexander’s campaigns in India. The most of the ganas
were located in or near the Himalayan foothills in eastern India, while the major kingdoms
occupied the fertile alluvial tracts of the Ganga valley.
More details on ganas are provided by Buddhist and Jaina texts than Brahmanical ones. This is
because kingship was central to the Brahmanical social and political ideology, and kinglessness
was equated with anarchy. Brahmanas and purohitas may not have enjoyed the prestige they did
in the rajyas. There are hardly any references to purohitas or gifts of land to Brahmanas in the
ganas.
Sixteen powerful states or solasa-mahajanapada are known to have flourished in the early
6th century BC and their names are listed by contemporary Buddhist and Jaina texts. Two
kinds of states are included in this list of mahajanapadas – monarchies or rajyas and non-
monarchical states or ganas/ sanghas.
Two of the mahajanapadas, the Vajji and Malia, were sanghas. Buddhist texts mention
others as well- the Sakyas of Kapilvastu, Koliyas of Dvadaha and Ramagrama, Bulis of
Alakappa, Kalamas of Kesaputta, Moriyas of Pipphalivaha, Bhaggas (Bhargas) with their
capital on Sumsumara hill.
There were two types of ganas – those that comprised all or a section of one clan (the
Sakyas and Koliyas, for instance), and those that comprised a confederation of several clans
(the Vajjis and Yadavas).
The terms gana and sangha are used as synonymous political terms in some literary sources
like Panini’s Ashtadhyayi and the Majjhima Nikaya. The Jaina Ayaranga-Sutta also refers to
regions ruled by ganas.
Arthasastra mentions several corporations such as the Lichchavikas, Vrijjikas, Madras etc.
They had an assembly whose members were called Rajas.
Coins also offer information on republics. The term gana on coins of the Yaudheyas and
Malavas points to their non-monarchical polity.
The existence of republics is also proved by testimony of Greek writers. Megasthenes says that
most of the India cities of his time had a democratic form of government and also mentions
several tribes who were free and had no kings. His statement is corroborated by Arrian who
asserts that the superintendents report everything to the king where people have a king and to the
magistrates where the people were self-governed. He also refers to the small state of Nysa as
having an oligarchical form of government.
Were Ganas or Sanghas democratic in nature?
Early studies on the ganas by Nationalist historians tended to glorify them by exaggerating
their democratic features. It was mainly to disapprove the assertions of Western scholars that
Indians had never known anything other than despotic rule.
The ancient Indian ganas were not, however, democracies. The translation of gana and
sangha as ‘republic’ is misleading. Power was vested in the hands of an aristocracy
comprising the heads of leading Kshatriya families. There was no single hereditary
monarch. Instead, there was a chief and an aristocratic council which met in a hall called the
santhagara.
Effective executive power and day-to-day political management must have been in the
hands of a smaller group. The political system of the ganas seems to have been a
compromise between government by assembly and by an oligarchy within this assembly.
The Lichchhavis of Vaishali had, according to the Ekapana Jataka, 7707 rajas to govern the
realm, and a similar number of uparajas (subordinate kings), senapatis (military
commanders) and bhandagarikas (treasurers). The Mahavastu, however, puts the number at
168,000 rajas in Vaishali. These figures should not be taken literally but they definitely
suggest that the Lichchhavis had a large assembly, comprising the heads of Kshatriya
families who called themselves rajas. They usually met once a year to transact public
business and elect their leader, who had a fixed tenure. The Lichchhavi assembly had
sovereign power and could pronounce death or exile punishments. Daily administrative
matters were dealt with by a smaller council of nine men in the name of larger assembly.
Women, significantly, were not included in the assembly.
The ganas were closely associated with the Kshatriyas and were named after the ruling
Kshatriya clan; members were linked to each other through real or claimed kinship ties.
However, apart from this hereditary elite, various other groups- Brahmanas, farmers,
artisans, wage labourers, slaves, etc. – lived in these principalities and had a subordinate
status, politically, and probably also economically and socially. They were not entitled to
use the clan name and did not have rights of political participation. For instance, Upali, the
barber who lived in Sakya territory, and Chunda, the metal smith who lived in Malla
territory, were not part of the ruling elite and did not attend the assembly.
Factors responsible for decline of Republics:

The history of the ganas of ancient India spanned a thousand years or so. They were
eventually defeated by the monarchical states. Their greatest asset – governance through
discussion – proved to be their greatest weakness as well because it paved the way for
internal dissension, particularly when threatened by the aggressive monarchies.
Kautilya‘s Arthashastra, a treatise on statecraft, outlines the special strategies that a would
be conqueror could use to vanquish the ganas and these were directed towards creating
dissension among their ranks. Empire building and universal rule, the ambitions of
monarchical states, spurred their military victories over the ganas, whose system of
governance and military organization were unable to meet these challenges.
Unlike the monarchies, standing armies might not have existed in the ganas. The Lichchhavis
had a strong army but, when not engaged in battle, the soldiers probably retired to their lands.
Q. Determine the veracity of Megasthenes’ descriptions of Indian

society and economy with the help of other contemporary evidences.
[1994, 60m]
Ans:
Magasthenes was an ancient Greek historian, diplomat and Indian ethnographer and explorer. In
around 302 BC he came India in Mauryan court as an ambassador of Seleucus I Nicator of the
Seleucid dynasty. He described India in his book Indica, which is now lost, but has been
partially reconstructed from the writings of the later authors.
Later writers such as Arrian, Strabo, Diodorus, and Pliny refer to Indika in their works. Of
these writers, Arrian speaks most highly of Megasthenes, while Strabo and Pliny treat him
with lessrespect.
According to such reconstruction Megasthenes’ Indicadescribes India as follows:
Society:
1. India is inhabited by many diverse races, all of which are indigenous. India has no foreign
colony, and Indians have not established any colonies outside India.
2. The Indians are of above average stature, because of abundant food, fine water and pure air.
They are well-skilled in art.
3. Theft is a thing of very rare occurrence. They never drink wine except at sacrifices. Their
houses and property generally left unguarded.
4. He says that Indians seldom go to law: They have no suits about pledge and deposits, nor
they require either seals or witnesses. But make their deposit and trust each other.
5. He divides Indian population into seven castes:
1. Philosophers:
1. Not numerous compared to other castes, but most prominent: Comprising Brahmins and
Buddhist Sramanas.
2. Exempted from all public duties.
3. Neither masters, nor servants.
4. At the beginning of the year, they make prophecies about droughts, rain storms,
propitious winds, diseases and other topics.
2. Farmers:
1. Regarded as public benefactors, and protected from damage during wars, even by
enemy warriors.
2. Most numerous of all castes.
3. Live in villages, and avoid visiting towns.
4. Exempted from fighting and other public duties.
5. Pay a land tribute to the ruler, the official land owner.
6. In addition, they remit 1/4th of their produce to the state treasury.
3. Herders:
1. Live in tents, outside villages and towns.
2. Hunt and trap crop-destroying birds and animals.
4. Artisans:
1. Create weapons as well as tools for farmers and others.
2. Exempted from paying taxes, and receive a maintenance from the state exchequer.
5. Military:
1. Well-organized and equipped for war.
2. Indulge in amusements and idleness during peaceful times.
3. Maintained at state expense, along with war horses and elephants.
6. Overseers:
1. Carry out administrative tasks.
2. Report to the king or (in states not ruled by kings) magistrates.
7. Councilors and Assessors:

1. Composed of wise people with good character
2. Deliberate on public affairs; included the royal advisers, state treasurers, dispute
arbitrators; the army generals and chief magistrates also usually belonged to this class.
3. Least numerous, but most respected
1. No slavery was found in Maurya India. He said all Indian are free.
Economy:
1. Gold, silver, copper and iron are abundant on Indian soil. Besides tin and other metals are
used for making a number of tools, weapons, ornaments, and other articles.
2. India has very fertile plains, and irrigation is practiced widely. The main crops include rice,
millet, a crop called bosporum, other cereals, pulses and other food plants.
3. There are two crop cycles per year, since rain falls in both summer and winter.
4. No famines have ever occurred in India because of the following reasons:
1. The Indians are always assured of at least one of the two seasonal crops.
2. There are a number of spontaneously growing fruits and edible roots available.
3. The Indian warriors regard those engaged in agriculture and animal husbandry as
sacred. Unlike the warriors in other countries, they do not ravage farms during war
conquests. Moreover, the warring sides never destroy the enemy land with fire or cut
down its trees.
Polity:
1. City of Pataliputra:
1. Built at the confluence of two rivers, the Son and the Ganga.
2. City was surrounded by a moat 60 feet and 600 feet wide. and protected by a massive
timber palisade. It had 64 gates and 570 towers. Wood was the principal material used
in the construction.
3. It was exposed to flood and brick was not suitable material.
4. palace of Chandragupta was magnificent.
5. A royal road about 1150 miles in length, connected the capital city with the north-west
frontier. Every mile of this road was marked by a stone indicating distances and by-
roads.
1. Royal Court: Magasthenes has recorded a time -table of the king’s daily duties.
1. He remained in the court throughout the day without attending to his personal comforts.
2. He didn’t sleep in the day time.
3. The palace is open to all comers.
4. He gives audiences to ambassadors and administers justice to his subjects.
5. King’s sports: hunting, Races and animal-fights.
2. Civil Administration:
1. King played an active part in administration. He was assisted by Councilors and
Assessors.
2. Superior civil officials were divided into two categories:
1. Agronomoi or district officials:
1. Some superintend the rivers,
2. measures land
3. Inspect the sluices.
4. superintend Huntsmen and were also entrusted to rewarding or punishing them.
5. collected tax and superintended the occupations collected.
6. They construct road and set up the pillars to show the by-road and distances.
7. Looked after matter affecting the general interest e.g : keeping of public
building in proper repair, regulation of prices, The care of markets, harbors and
temples.
2. Astynomoi or town officials:
1. Divided into 6 bodies of 5 each.
1. 1st body looked after everything relating to the industrial art.
2. 2nd body attend to the entertainment of foreigners and assign lodging to
them.
3. 3rd body consists of those who inquire when and how births and death
occur. It is to levy a tax and to make sure the births and deaths among both
high and low may not escape the cognizance of government.
4. 4th body superintends trade and commerce. It’s members have charge of
weights and measures.
5. 5th body supervises manufactured articles which they sell by public notice.
6. 6th body collect the tenths of the prices of the articles sold. Fraud in the
payment of these taxes is punished with death.
3. King employed a large body of spies whom Magasthenes calls Overseers. Their duty
was to transmit secret and confidential reports to the king. The overseers in turn
employed courtesans and their collaborator.
3. Law and Justice:
1. King administers justice to his subjects.
2. Criminal law was severe. One of the recognized punishment was mutilation.
3. There was no written law.
4. Military administration:
1. Army was controlled by 6 bodies of 5 each. Each group of five was in charge of one of
the following department :(i)The infantry. (ii) The cavalry (iii) The war chariots. (iv)
The war elephants (v)transport and commissariat. (vi) The admiral of the fleet.
2. state provided then regular salary and arms and equipment.
Veracity of Megasthenes’ account:
1. Social description of India shows following issues with his writing:

1. His description of character of Indian society presented too idealistic picture (e,g theft
was rare and no interest on lending and borrowing, People never drank wine). Readers
of ‘Arthasastra’ would easily know that he is presenting idea picture.
2. His classification of class system in India show he was confused between caste and
occupation. It is inconsistent with the basic feature of traditional four-caste system.
3. His view about absence of slavery in India is contradicted by literary as well as
epigraphic testimony. Probably he was misled by by his experience in his own country.
Slavery in Greece was far more widespread and cruel than that in India.
4. Indian ignorant of art writing and fusing of metals.
2. In Economic description his statement about absent of famine is not true. Even in the reign
of Chandragupta the Jain saint Bhadrabahu is stated to have led a Jain migration to south
India to escape famine in Magadha.
3. In political description Magasthenes statement about absence of written law is not correct.
4. Strange imaginations and fantastical stories:
1. He also depicts contemporary India as an unconquerable territory, in order to justify
Seleucus’s retreat from India. Megasthenes argue that Dionysus was able to conquer
India, because before his invasion, India was a primitive rural society. Dionysus‘
urbanization of India makes India a powerful, impregnable nation.
2. He also presented Indian Herakles as a native of India despite similarity with Greek
Heracles.
3. One horn horse with head of deer, river on which nothing floats, huge snake etc.
4. people with backwards feet, ears large enough to sleep in, no mouths, or other strange
features.
5. Gold digging ant on the north-west mountains.
5. Other issue with his available accounts:

1. He lacked critical judgement.
2. Being ignorant of Indian language, he failed to grasp the true meaning of certain
Sanskritic world and fell into confusion.
6. The first century Greek writer Strabo called Megasthenes liar and “no faith whatever”
could be placed in their writings.
Though there are many inconsistencies in the work of Magasthenes with literature and other
evidences of that period We cannot put the blame on Magasthenes entirely:
1. Given that his account is not surviving and what we have is only certain extracts quoted by
later writers. These incomplete extract is isolated from the context. Judging such incomplete
work is appropriate.
2. Even in its incomplete version, it gives wide range of information about that period.
3. Being a foreigner and having language problem, it is possible to unknowingly
misunderstand about some local things. Leveling him liar is not appropriate.
On the whole, no historian can dismiss Magasthenes as a worthless story -teller.

Write a short essay on: “External trade of the Harappans.”
Ans:
Harappan trade:
The elaborate social structure, standard of living, granaries, numerous seals, uniform
script, and regulated weights and measures in a wide area indicate the existence of
a highly developed system of trade in the Harappan civilisation.
A number of stone weights were discovered from the excavations. The Harappans
used sets of cubical stone weights and the basic unit was 16 (equal to modern 14
grams). The larger weights were multiple of 16 like 32, 48. 64 and so on, the smaller
one was fractions of 16.
There are evidences that the Harappan traded with parts of India as well as other
parts of world e.g. Egypt, Babylon and Afghanistan.
External trade :
1. Besides internal trade, the Harappans also had commercial contacts with
their western neighbours. Lothal Surkotada and Balakot were some of the
important trading coastal towns which connected to Mesopotamia and other west
Asian sites.
2. Trade routes:
1. Two main overland routes connected the Harappan civilization with West Asia.
1. The northern one passed through northern Afghanistan, north Iran,
Turkmenistan, and Mesopotamia.
2. A southern route passed through Tepe Yahya, Jalalabad and Ur. Dholavira
and the sites along the coast of Kutch no doubt played an important role in
maritime trade
2. Sea route in Persian Gulf: From indus region to Mesopotamia

via Dilmun (Bahrain) and Makan (Oman).
1. The Mesopotamian records from 2350 BC onward refer to trade relations
with Meluha the ancient name given to the Indus region. Mesopotamian
texts refer to Meluha as a land of seafarers which shows trade between
Mesopotamia and Indus region was carried by sea. The depiction of ships
and boats on seals also indicate this.
3. Important sites and traded commodities:

1. A number of Harappan and Harappan-related objects found in
south Turkmenistan at sites such as Altyn Depe and Khapuz. The most definite
evidence comes from Altyn Depe, in the form of a rectangular Harappan seal
bearing the Harappan script.
2. Harappan and Harappan-related artifacts have been found at Ras-al-Qala on
the island of Bahrain. Jar fragments with Harappan writing have been found at
many sites in the Persian Gulf.
3. The Harappans were also trading with the Oman peninsula. Carnelian bead of
the Harappan type was found at Umm-an-Nar. The major imports from Oman
may have included chloride vessels, shell.
4. The sites in Iran are Hissar, Shah Tepe, Jalalabad etc.
5. The archaeological evidence for Harappan-Mesopotamian trade consists
Harappan-related seals and carnelian beads at Mesopotamian sites such as Kish,
Nippur, and Ur.
6. Carnelian beads were clearly an important Harappan export to West Asia.
Textiles and conch shell objects were other possible exports. Mesopotamian
texts mention the following items as imports from Meluhha: lapis lazuli, carnelian,
gold, silver, copper, dog, cat, and monkey. Mesopotamia’s general exports
included fish, grain, raw wool, woolen garments.
7. Among the Harappan imports were lapis lazuli was probably an import from
Afghanistan, Jade must have come from Turkmenistan. Tin may have been
obtained from Ferghana. Carved chlorite and green schist vessels from Persian
Gulf.
8. The Harappans had also set up a trading colony in northern Afghanistan which
facilitated trade with central Asia.
Ratnagar argues that its decline in trade was a reason for the decline of the Harappan
civilization.
Chakrabarti and Shaffer argue that Harappan trade with Mesopotamia was not direct,
extensive or intensive. Such argument is persuasive. Unlike the resource-poor area of
Mesopotamia, the Harappan culture zone was rich in a variety of natural resources
Discuss the cultural impact of India of the South-East Asia
during the ancient period.
Discuss the cultural impact of India of the South-East Asia during the ancient period.
©selfstudyhistory.com
Ans:
From the beginning of the Christian era India maintained commercial contacts with China, South-East Asia,
West Asia and the Roman empire.
The propagation of Buddhism promoted India’s contacts with Sri Lanka, Burma, China and Central Asia.
Indian culture spread to South-East Asia, but not through the medium of Buddhism like other Asian
countries except to Myanmar.
In the early centuries of the Christian era, Buddhism spread from India to Myanmar. The Myanmarese
developed the Theravada form of Buddhism, and erected many temples and statues in honour of the
Buddha. The Myanmarese and Sri Lanka Buddhists produced a rich corpus of Buddhist literature, not to
be found in India. Although Buddhism disappeared from India it continued to command a large
following in Myanmar, which is the case even now.
The name Suvarnabhumi was given to Pegu and Moulmeiri in Burma, and merchants from Broach,
Banaras and Bhagalpur traded with Myanmar. Considerable Buddhist remains of Gupta times have been
found in Myanmar.
Except in the case of Myanmar Indian culture was mostly diffused through the brahmanical cults.
From the first century A.D. India established close relations with Java in Indonesia, which was called
Suvarnadvipa or the island of gold by the ancient Indians. The earliest Indian settlements in Java were
established in A D. 56. In the second century of the Christian era several small Indian principalities
were set up. When the Chinese pilgrim Fa Hien visited Java in the fifth century A.D, he found the
brahmanical religion prevalent there.
In the early centuries of the Christian era the Pallavas founded their colonies in Sumatra. Eventually
these flowered into the kingdom of Sri Vijaya, which continued to be an important power and a centre
of Indian culture from the fifth to the tenth century A.D. The Hindu settlements in Java and Sumatra
became channels for the radiation of Indian culture. The process of founding settlements continued
afterwards.
In Indo-China (Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos), the Indians set up two powerful kingdoms in Kamboja
and Champa The powerful kingdom of Kamboja, identical with modern Cambodia, was founded in the
sixth century A D. Its rulers were devotees of Shiva. They developed Kamboja as a centre of Sanskrit
learning and numerous inscriptions were composed in this language.
In the neighbourhood of Kamboja at Champa, embracing southern Vietnam and the fringes of northern
Vietnam, it seems that the traders set up their colonies. The king of Champa was also a Shaivite, and the
official language of Champa was Sanskrit. This country was considered to be a great centre of education
in the Vedas and Dharmasastras.
Indian settlements in the Indian Ocean continued to flourish till the thirteenth century and during this
period intermingled with the local peoples. Continuous intermingling gave rise to a new type of art,
language and literature. We find in these countries several art objects, which show a happy blending of
both Indian and indigenous elements.
Temple architecture
There were many surviving examples of the temples built around Dravidian architecture, in Vietnam,
Cambodia, Indonesia, Malaysia and Sri Lanka.
Hindu temple complex at Prambanan in Java showed Dravidian architectural influences.
Angkor Vat in Cambodia is one of the largest Hindu-Buddhist temples in the world shows Dravidian
style of architecture. The stories of the Ramayana and Mahabharata are written in relief on the walls of
the temple. Similarly Preah Vihear Shaiva Temple was built during the period of the Khmer Empire in
Cambodia.
The story of the Ramayana is so popular in Indonesia that many folk plays are performed on its basis.
The greatest Buddhist temple is found not in India but in Borobudur in Indonesia. Considered to be the
largest Buddhist temple in the whole world, it was constructed in the eighth century A D., and 436
images of Buddha were engraved on it.
Sculptures
In respect of sculptures, the head of the Buddha from Thailand, the head from Kamboja and the
magnificent bronze images from Java are regarded as the best examples of the blending of Indian art
with the local art traditions of South-East Asia.
At the northern coast of Sumatra, the old port of Dilli had great Buddha sculptures evincing a local
variation of the Southern Indian style. A magnificent status of the Hindu God Ganesha have recently
been found at the same place.
Close to the famous temple of Padang Lawas, central Sumatra, small but very impressive Chola-style
bronze sculptures of a four armed Lokanath and of Tara have been found. These sculptures have brief
inscription containing Old Malay words in addition to Sanskrit and Tamil words-proves that the figures
were not imported from India but were produced locally.
Language
Indian languages like Sanskrit, Pali and Tamil had a considerable long term impact upon the linguistic
and intellectual cultures of south East Asia.
The Indonesian language called Bahasa Indonesiacontains numerous Sanskrit words. The Indonesian
museum is housed in an Old Russian whiskey-class submarine, which was named Posopoti, one of the
names of the Hindu God Shiva. The motto of the Indonesian navy ‘Jalaseva Jayambe’ which is Sanskrit
for “on the sea we are glorious”.
The ‘ruins of Ayutthaya in Thailand were named after Ayodhaya.
A fragmentary Tamil inscription, dated 1088 AD, found in Sumatra gives the name of a famous
merchant guild in Chola Kingdom. This indicated that there was an active overseas trade.
Painting
Beautiful examples of painting comparable to those of Ajanta have been found not only in Sri Lanka but
in the Tun Huang caves on the Chinese border.
Religion alone did not contribute to the spread of Indian culture. Missionaries were backed by traders and
conquerors. Trade evidently played a vital part in establishing India’s relations with Central Asia and South-
East Asia. The very names Suvarnabhumi and Suvarnadvipa given to territories in South-East Asia suggest
Indians’ search for gold. Trade led not only to exchange of goods but also of elements of culture. The Chola
Kingdom of South had a strong navy and was active in maritime trade and conquest. Navy and maritime
trade helped in the expansion of Indian Culture to the South-East Asian Countries.
It would be inaccurate to hold that the Indians alone contributed to the culture of their neighbours. It was a
two-way traffic. The Indians learnt the art of growing betel leaves from Indonesia, and several other products
from the neighbouring countries. Similarly the method of growing cotton spread from India to China and
Central Asia.
However, Indian contribution seems to be more important in art, religion, script and language. But in no case
the culture which developed in the neighbouring countries was a replica of the Indian culture. Just as India
retained and developed its own personality in spite of foreign influences, similarly the countries in South-
East Asia evolved their own indigenous culture by assimilating the Indian elements.
In ancient India, what was the impact of western world and
India on each other?
Ans:
Contacts with the west:
1. From the earliest known civilization of ‘Indus valley’, there had been contact with western world. There
are discoveries at Mohenjodaro that there was intercourse between the Indus valley and western world.
2. According to the Jewish chronicles, there was a sea voyage to the east in the time of solomon (c. 800
B.C) and many articles were brought from there. Use of Indian name for merchandise show it was
related to India, e.g. Sindhu was probably used for Indian cotton. Habrew Karpas is derived from
Sanskrit Karpasa
3. One of Jataka stories makes a reference to a trading voyage to the kingdom of Bavaria and scholars
have interpreted it a was used for Babylon.
4. These people to people contact and well as contacts between states had led to synthesis between these
cultures and resulted into many unique forms of different aspects of civilization.
Impact on India:
1. Astronomy: Greeks had profound influence on the knowledge of astronomy in India. All the later
works on Indian astronomy freely quote the authority of Greeks astronomers (described
as Yovanesvara or Yavanacharya).
1. Gargi Samhita says: Yavanas are barbarians. Yet the science of astronomy originated with them
so them must the reverenced like gods.
2. Name of the Greek planets and certain technical terms of astronomy were frequently used by
Indian astronomers in their works.
3. Indian borrowed from the Greeks the system of making horoscopes.
2. Art and architecture and literature:

1. Method of making coin: Learnt to strike coins from double dies.
2. Town planning ideas:
1. Jairazbhoy’s view is that Greek town planning ideas may have been introduced in India.
2. Sir John Marshall the excavator of Taxila, noted that the Mauryan city laid out at random,
but the Greek city of Sirkap was planned in a methodical manner.
3. Jairazbhoy’s view:
1. Rock edicts of Ashoka were probably inspired by Persian example. There is also possibility
that Ashoka’s practice of erecting inscribed pillar may have been influenced by Greek Idea.
2. In the Indian tradition there is no antecedent for the Jaya Stambhah or pillar of victory,
although the sacrificial pillar (yupas) is known in early texts. It is true that column of Ashoka
are not pillars of victory in the material sense, but they remain as memories commemorating
the victory of morality.
4. The Sanskrit word for pen,ink, tablet, plaque and book are all derived from Greek words – Kalma
from Kalamos, Mela from Melan, Pitika from Pittakion, Phalaka from Plakos, Pustaka from
Puxion.
5. Greeks also influenced Indian Sculpture. Before the Greeks, Barhut and Sanchi was the centers of
art. The Gandhara School of Art is a clear example. Physical feature and Drapery were borrowed
from the Greeks.
6. According to Weber and Windisch and V.A. Smith, Indian borrowed the idea of dramafrom
Greek’s drama the saeens, the parasite and the clown.
3. Mathematics: It is contended by some writers that the Indians borrowed from the Greeks the decimal
system of notation in mathematics. However, it is pointed out that is has already been planned by Indian
long before Greeks came to India.
4. Religion: worship of images in Buddhists and Hindus is attributed to Greek influence.
1. Like the Greeks the Indians were not averse to borrow from peoples who had something really
good to give and after borrowing something they assimilated the foreign element in such a manner
that in some cases the proof of indebtedness is difficult to elucidate.
Impact on the West:

1. India exported huge quantity of spices, fabrics and precious gems and aromatic articles to the countries
of western world.
2. India elephants were also on demand.
3. Medical science: Greek physicians had knowledge of Indian medical science. The Sassanid
king Shapur included among the holy books the secular books on medicine, astronomy and
metaphysics found in India. Many India medical men resided in Susa to teach student in medical
science and treat patients.
4. Indian philosophy also influenced Greek philosophy.
1. Sir William Jones pointed out resemblance between Sankhya philosophy and Pythagorean
Philosophy. Many scholars opined that latter was derived from the former.
5. Religion:
1. Greeks borrowed from Indians their belief in reincarnation and the doctrine of Karma. Also,
yoga, meditation and idea of asceticism, they got from India.
2. Buddhism spread in Western countries in the time of Ashoka. Chinese writers tells us that
Buddhism had a stronghold in Parthia. A Parthian prince abdicated the throne and became a
Buddhist monk.
3. Brahmanical religion prevailed in western Asia.
6. Literature: Some Indian books like the Panchtantra were very popular in western countries and were
translated in many languages. Many Indian legends found their way to Europe.
Discuss salient features of the Indus Valley Civilization.
Mention important places from where relics of civilization
have been recovered so far. Examine causes of its decline.
Ans:
The Indus valley Civilization occupies a huge area. Sites have been found in Afghanistan; in the Punjab,
Sind, Baluchistan, and North-West Frontier province of Pakistan; in Jammu, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan,
Gujarat and western Uttar Pradesh in India.
Salient features of the Indus Valley Civilization-
1) Urban Character– The Harappan civilization was urban in nature but a majority of settlements were in fact
villages. The cities depended on villages for food and labour, and various kinds of goods produced in cities
found their way into the villages. So, there was brisk urban-rural interaction.
2) Variations in size of sites -The Harappan sites varied a great deal in size and functions, from large cities to
small pastoral camps.
1. a) Large settlements– include Mohenjodaro, Harappa, Rakhigarhi, Dholavira, etc

2. b) Moderate-sized sites– include Judeirjodaro and Kalibangan.
3. c) Smaller sites – include Amri, Lothal, Chanhudaro, and Rojdi.
3) Town Planning – The settlements were planned. The streets and houses of Harappan cities were laid on a
grid-pattern oriented north-south and east-west. Roads were straight and cross each-other at right angles.
4) Different Types of plan – The details of the plan differ. Mohenjodaro, Harappa, and Kalibangan have a
similar layout, consisting of a raised citadel complex and a lower city. At Lothal and Surkotada, the citadel
complex is not separate; and Dholavira consisted of not two but three parts- the citadel, middle town, and
lower town.
5) Bricks and brick laying style – Uniformity in the average size of the bricks- 7x 14 x 28 cm for houses and
10x 20x 40 cm for city walls. Both these brick sizes have an identical ratio of thickness, width and length i.e.
1:2:4. There were various styles of laying bricks, including ”English bond Style”.
6) Houses – People lived in houses of different sizes , mostly consisting of rooms arranged around a central
courtyard. Doorways and windows generally faced the side lanes. The doors and windows were made of
wood and mats. Small houses attached to large ones were the quarters of service groups working for wealthy
city dwellers.
7) Drainage systems – An efficient and well-planned drainage system is the notable feature of the Harappan
settlements. The main drains were covered by corbelled arches made of brick or stone slabs. The drains for
collecting rainwater were separate from the sewage chutes and pipes.
8) Great Bath– The Great bath at Mohenjodaro is a unique example. The floor and walls of the tank were
made water tight by finely fitted fitted bricks laid edge to edge with gypsum mortar. A thick layer of bitumen
was laid along the sides of the tank making this one of the earliest examples of waterproofing in the world.
9) Naval Dockyard – Dockyard of Lothal is the most distinctive feature of the site. It is roughly trapezoidal
basin, enclosed by walls of burnt bricks. The dockyard had provisions for maintaining a regular level of
water by means of a sluice gate and a spill channel.
10) Diversity of subsistence base – The Harappan civilisation covered an enormous area and the diversity of
the subsistence base was an important sustaining factor-if one food resource failed, people could turn to
others. The base consists of agriculture, animal husbandry, hunting, and fishing.
11) Granary– The largest building in Mohenjodaro is a granary measuring 150 feet length and 50 feet
breadth. But in the citadel of Harappa we find as many as six granaries.
12) Art and architecture
(a)The advanced architecture of the Harappans is shown by their impressive dockyards, granaries, great bath,
warehouses, brick platforms, and protective walls. The massive walls of Indus cities most likely protected
the Harappans from floods.
(b)The Harappan sculpture revealed a high degree of workmanship. Figures of men and women, animals and
birds made of terracotta and the carvings on the seals show the degree of proficiency attained by the sculptor.
(c) The figure of a dancing girl from Mohenjodaro made of bronze is remarkable for its workmanship. Its
right hand rests on the hip, while the left arm, covered with bangles, hangs loosely in a relaxed posture.
(d)Two stone statues from Harappa, one representing the back view of a man and the other of a dancer are
also specimens of their sculpture.
(e) The pottery from Harappa is another specimen of the fine arts of the Indus people. The pots and jars were
painted with various designs and colours. Painted pottery is of better quality.
13) Trade and Commerce
Most city dwellers appear to have been traders or artisans, who lived with others pursuing the same
occupation in well-defined neighbourhoods. Materials from distant regions were used in the cities for
constructing seals, beads and other objects. Both external and internal trade flourished.
14) Citadel
Harappa, Mohenjodaro and Kalibangan each had its own citadel built on a high podium of mud brick. Below
the citadel in each city lay a lower town containing brick houses, which were inhabited by the common
people.
15) Factories and workshops
Factories and workshops related to bead making, seal making, shell working, making of stone weights etc
have been found at several places.
16) Standardization
Standardization of crafts as well as weights and measures is displayed. A shell scale, an ivory scale and a
shell object to measure angles have been found.
17) Harappan script and writing
The Harappan script has not been deciphered. The number of signs is between 400 and 600 of which 40 or
60 are basic and the rest are their variants. The script was mostly written from right to left. The Dholavira
signboard may indicate a high level of urban literacy and a civic use of writing.
18) Religion
The worship of mother goddess, proto-pashupati god, and male and female creative energy were the
important features of the religious beliefs of the Harappan people. The fire altars found at Kalibangan
suggest the existence of ritualistic practices.
19) Burial customs
Extended burials, symbolic burials, fractional burials, urn burials, multiple burials, use of wooden coffin in a
burial at Harappa and presence of grave goods in the burials have been found.
Important places from where relics of civilization have been recovered so far-
1) Harappa- covers an extensive area of 150 ha. The Ravi flows some 10 Km away from the site.
2) Mohenjodaro- located in Sindh, covers an area of 200 ha, lies about 5 Km away from the Indus.
3) Chanhudaro- A 4.7 ha site, about 130 Km south of Mohenjodaro.
4) Kalibangan- lies on the banks of the dry bed of the Ghaggar river, in the Hanumangarh district of
Rajasthan.
5) Banawali- lies in Hissar district of Haryana, close to the dry bed of the Rangoi river.
6) Rakhigarhi- located in Hissar district of Haryana.
7) Lothal- located between the Sabarwati river and its tributary, the Bhogavo, in Saurashtra in Gujarat.
8) Dholavira- located on Kadir island in the Rann of Kutch in Gujarat.
9) Allahdino – A small unfortified village site, about 40 Km east of Karachi.
Examining the causes of its decline-
1) Aryan invasion theory– put forward by Ramprasad Chanda and Mortimer Wheeler. They put forward the
idea that the civilization was destroyed by Aryan invaders. However, the archaeological evidences show the
absence of any such invasion and hence this theory, though most popular, is not accepted.
2) Shereen Ratnagar – Ratnagar has argued that the decline in the lapis lazuli trade with Mesopotamia was a
factor in the decline of the Harappan civilization. But this trade was not much important for the Harappans
and consequently, this could not have been a factor responsible for the decline.
3) Natural disasters like Floods, Tectonic Movements, Shifting of the Indus as the cause of decline
1. a) M.R. Sahni, Robert L. Raikes and George F. Dales – They argued that the repeated episodes of Indus
floods were responsible for the decline of the cities. They argued that the floods were result of the
tectonic movements. The tectonic movements led to the creation of a gigantic dam, turning the whole
area Mohenjodaro into a huge lake. However, this theory of flooding induced by tectonic movements is
not convincing.
2. b) T. Lambrick – His hypothesis is that the Indus changed its course, moving some 30 miles eastwards,
starving Mohenjodaro and its inhabitants of water. However, Lambrick himself describes it as purely
circumstantial evidence.
4) Ecological Imbalance Theory by Fairservis– Making estimates of the population, land, food, and fodder
requirements on the basis of modern data, Fairservis suggests that the civilization declined because the
growing population of people and cattle could not be supported from the resources within the Harappan
culture zone. Of all the theories discussed so far, Fairservis’s theory seems to be the most plausible.
5) Monsoon Link Theory of 2012– It is presented by Ronojoy Adhikari, Liviu Giosan and others. This
theory holds the climate change responsible for the decline of the Harappan civilization.
According to this theory, around 4000 BCE there existed extreme monsoon climate which was not
favourable for the rise of civilization but with the weakening of the monsoon, the climate became favourable
for the rise of the mighty harappan civilization and with the further weakening of the monsoon, the climate
became again unfavourable which led to the decline of the civilization. The example of this further
weakening is the disappearance of the Saraswati river which was rainfed not Glacier-fed.
This theory is based on the latest archaeological evidence and research and tries to explain the decline of the
Harappan civilization on the basis of the ecological degradation.

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