UNIT 2.

FUNDAMENTALS OF
ELECTRICAL MACHINES
Electrical Technology
Master’s Degree in Chemical Engineering

Prof. Alejandro Rolán, Ph.D.

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

Unit 2. Fundamentals of
electrical machines
1. Magnetic circuits
2. Basic components of electrical machines

3. Ring collector and commutator

4. Windings

5. Rated power and power losses

6. Ferraris’ theorem

7. Faraday’s law

8. Electrical machines classification 2

 1. Magnetic circuits
• Magnetic field: set of forces created by electrical
charges in movement.
• Lorent’z law: let’s consider an electrical charge q
which is moving inside a magnetic field B with a speed
v. This charge is subjected to a force:

F  q [ v  B]
[F ] N N
[ B]     T (Tesla)
[q][v] C  m A m
s
– Magnetic field on Earth: from 26 μT to 65 μT.
– Magnetic field on electrical machines: from 1.5 T to 2.1 T. 3

1. Magnetic circuits
• Let’s consider a conductor through which a current circulates.
This conductor is placed inside a magnetic field, so it will be
subjected to a force:

• Biot and Savart law: magnetic field created by a differential

current element in a point P:
0 I dl  r
dB 
4 r 3
– Magnetic permeability of the vacuum:
4
 0  4 10 7 N A2
 1. Magnetic circuits
• Magnetic flux through a surface:

  BS

– Units: T·m2 = N·m/A = Wb (Weber).

• Intensity of magnetic field in the matter (H):

B   H
– Units: A/m.
– μ = material’s magnetic permeability:
μr = relative permeability of the material.
  0  r
μ0 = vacuum permeability:  0  4 10 7 N A2 5

1. Magnetic circuits
• Diamagnetic materials:
– They are attracted to the regions in which the magnetic field is less
intense.
r  1 Examples: Cu, Bi, Au, Ag, Hg

• Paramagnetic materials:
– They are attracted to the regions in which the magnetic field is more
intense.

r  1 Examples: Al, Mg, Ti

• Ferromagnetic materials:
– They are attracted to the regions in which the magnetic field is much
more intense.
 r  1 Examples: Fe, Co, Ni
6
 1. Magnetic circuits
• Ampere’s law:

 H  d l  i
c

 B  d l   i
c

– The circulation of the magnetic field (H) through a closed path equals
the sum of currents that cross any surface in the path.

1. Magnetic circuits
• Magnetic circuit: path made with ferromagnetic materials in
which magnetic fluxes circulate due to the presence of
inductors or permanent magnets.

• Coil with N turns.

I
• Core with section S and longitude l.
l
• Magnetic field constant in all the core
(H = constant)

• Applying the Ampere’s law:

NI
 H  d l  i  H  l  N  I  H 
c l 8
 1. Magnetic circuits
• Flux that crosses the magnetic core:

NIS NI F
  B  S  HS     
l l 
S

F  NI = Magneto-motive force (m.m.f.). Units: Av.

1 l
 = Magnetic reluctance. Units: Av/Wb.
S
9

1. Magnetic circuits
• Analogy between magnetic circuits and electrical circuits:
Magnetic circuit Electrical circuit

F= NI

l l l
 R 
S S
F  
I
E S
 F   H  dl
 
E   E  dl
 F   Fi
R
E  Vi 10
i i
 1. Magnetic circuits
• Differences between magnetic circuits and electrical circuits:

– Resistance in an electrical circuit does not depend on the current.

However, reluctance in a magnetic circuit does depend on the flux.

– In an electrical circuit, the current circulates through the conductors, but

in a magnetic circuit the flux can be dispersed through air (leakage flux):

d c
I

11

1. Magnetic circuits
• Differences between magnetic circuits and electrical circuits:

– In the airgaps (air spaces in the magnetic circuit) the transverse surface
in the air is higher than in the core (edge effect):

Airgap

12
 1. Magnetic circuits
• Series configuration:

2
eq  1  2  3  4
I
3

l1 l2
N 1  2 
1 S1 2 S2
1 l3 l4
4 3  4 
3 S3 4 S4

    NI
B1  ; B2  ; B3  ; B4  
S1 S2 S3 S4 eq
13

1. Magnetic circuits
• Parallel configuration:

1 3
1 1 3
I
2
+
2
N F 2 3

F
1 

1  2 3
2  3
14
 1. Magnetic circuits
• Exercise 1:

Let’s consider the following ferromagnetic core,

whose average length is 60 cm, its section is I
15 cm2 and its relative permeability is 4500.
The coil has 360 turns and the airgap length is
0.5 mm. Due to the edge effect the airgap N e
section is assumed to be 5% higher than the
section in the core. Obtain the overall
reluctance and the required current to obtain a
magnetic induction of 0.75 T in the airgap.
Note:  0  4 10 7 N A2
Solution:
RT = 3.23·105 Av/Wb
I = 1.06 A

15

1. Magnetic circuits
• Exercise 2:

Let’s consider the following ferromagnetic

core, which is assumed to be ideal
(permeability = ∞). It is fed by three coils,
whose turns are related between them
according to: N1 = N3 = 2N2 = 400 turns.
The section of the magnetic core is 2000
mm2 and the airgap lengths are: e1 =
2e2 = 2e3 = 3 mm. The edge effect in the
airgap can be neglected. The three coils
are fed by DC currents, whose values are:
I1 = 0.5 A, I2 = 0.2 A and I3 = 0.6 A. Solution:
a) b)
Obtain: Φ1 = 2.01·10-4 Wb B1 = 0.1005 T
a) The magnetic flux that crosses each Φ2 = 1.34·10-4 Wb B2 = 0.067 T
coil. Φ3 = 3.35·10-4 Wb B3 = 0.167 T
b) The magnetic induction in the three 16
airgaps.
 Unit 2. Fundamentals of
electrical machines
1. Magnetic circuits

2. Basic components of electrical machines

3. Ring collector and commutator

4. Windings

5. Rated power and power losses

6. Ferraris’ theorem

7. Faraday’s law

8. Electrical machines classification 17

2. Basic components

Electromagnetic conversion. Principle of reversibility

18
 2. Basic components

Conscructive aspects
Animation 1
Inductor winding (field).
Induced winding (armature).
19

2. Basic components

Types of magnetic plates Animation 2

20
 2. Basic components

Animation 3
(Small-size (Large-size (Squirrel-cage
machines) machines) induction motors)
Animation 4
Types of slots 21

2. Basic components

(Induction machines) (Synchronous machines) (DC machines)

Basic configurations for stator and rotor

22
 2. Basic components

= Magnetic angle
= Geometric angle
= Pole pairs

Animation 5

2-pole and 4-pole machines

23

Unit 2. Fundamentals of
electrical machines
1. Magnetic circuits

2. Basic components of electrical machines

3. Ring collector and commutator

4. Windings

5. Rated power and power losses

6. Ferraris’ theorem

7. Faraday’s law

8. Electrical machines classification 24

 3. Ring collector and commutator
• Collector: introducing or delivering currents to the windings by
means of brushes (fixed part):
Faraday’s induction law:

   ωm dt  m t

Induced e.m.f. in the coil:

Amplitude: Em  B S p m
Ring collector Angular freq.:   2  f  p m  p 2  n 60
Animation 6
(alternating current) Frequency: f  n p 60 25

3. Ring collector and commutator

Rectification

Commutator
(Direct current) 26
3. Ring collector and commutator

27
Behaviour of the commutator (2 contact segments)

3. Ring collector and commutator

Less ripple

28
Behaviour of the commutator (4 contact segments)
 Unit 2. Fundamentals of
electrical machines
1. Magnetic circuits

2. Basic components of electrical machines

3. Ring collector and commutator

4. Windings
5. Rated power and power losses

6. Ferraris’ theorem

7. Faraday’s law

8. Electrical machines classification 29

4. Windings
• Field and armature windings.
• Copper + insulating.
• Concentrated winding:
– Around the poles.
– Used in for the excitation (field) in both synchronous and DC
machines.

30
 4. Windings
• Distributed winding:
– Placed in the rotor slots (armature).
– Used in both AC and DC machines.

(Dawn of electricity) (Nowadays)

Peripherical windings were the All the conductors are placed at
only ones which were useful. the external part of the rotor 31
periphery.

4. Windings
• Concentric and eccentric windins (in AC):

Different-width
windings (step)

Same-width windings,
but shifted in time

32
 4. Windings
• Imbricated and wavy windings (in DC):

33

Unit 2. Fundamentals of
electrical machines
1. Magnetic circuits

2. Basic components of electrical machines

3. Ring collector and commutator

4. Windings

5. Rated power and power losses

6. Ferraris’ theorem

7. Faraday’s law

8. Electrical machines classification 34

5. Rated power and power losses
• Regulation: UNE EN 60034-1:1995.
• Assigned value = magnitude’s value assigned by a
manufacturer for a given operating condition of the
machine.
• Assigned (rated) power = numerical value of the power
which is included in the assigned characteristics:
– Fixed by the manufacturer for the normal operating point
(continuous service).
– Rated power of the machine.
– For generators: electrical power in the terminals.
– For motors: mechanical power in the shaft.

35

5. Rated power and power losses

• Rating plate of an electrical motor:

Animation 7 36
5. Rated power and power losses
• Mechanical energy Electrical energy

Losses

Copper: Iron: Mechanical:

- Joule’s effect - Hysteresis + Foucault - Bearing
- Electrical circuit - Magnetic circuit - Brushes
- Unavoidable - Minimize: core in plates - Ventilation

37

5. Rated power and power losses

• Hysteresis:

38
5. Rated power and power losses
• Foucault currents:

39

5. Rated power and power losses

• Losses = heating = high temperatures.
• Thermal insulating:
– Regulations: UNE 21-305, UNE EN 600345-1:1995 & CEI-85.
– Maximum working temperature
– Insulation class:
• A: < 105 ºC.
• E: < 120 ºC.
• B: < 130 ºC.
• F: < 155 ºC.
• H: < 180 ºC.
• 200: < 200 ºC.
• 220: < 220 ºC.
• 250: < 250 ºC.

40
 Unit 2. Fundamentals of
electrical machines
1. Magnetic circuits

2. Basic components of electrical machines

3. Ring collector and commutator

4. Windings

5. Rated power and power losses

6. Ferraris’ theorem
7. Faraday’s law

8. Electrical machines classification 41

6. Ferraris’ theorem
• Magnetic induction lines:

N
S
N S

(Right hand rule)

(Ampere law)
42
6. Ferraris’ theorem
Ampere law:

b c g f
Applied to region 2 (width of 180º):

Airgap induction:

43

6. Ferraris’ theorem
Magneto-motive force (m.m.f.):

b c g f

Square and periodial wave: it can be

decomposed into its Fourier series
(fundamental wave + harmonics):

Fundamental (sinusoidal at 50 Hz):

44
 6. Ferraris’ theorem
• Ferraris’ theorem:
– 3 windings shifted 120º in space.
– Fed by 3-phase sinusoidal currents shifted 120º in time.

– Each winding will produce a sinusoidal m.m.f. in the space:

45

6. Ferraris’ theorem
• Ferraris’ theorem:
– M.m.f. wave that results in point P (airgap):

– Using the trigonometric relation:

– We obtain:

– Note: the m.m.f. in the airgap is a sinusoidal wave with both amplitude and
angular frequency constant. 46
 6. Ferraris’ theorem

47

6. Ferraris’ theorem
• Ferraris’ theorem:
– Conclusion:
• 3 coils fixed in space and shifted 120º + fed by 3-phase balanced
sinusoidal currents and shifted 120º in time will produce a rotating
magnetic field, which:
– Has a constant amplitude:

F̂
– Rotates at constant speed (synchronous speed):

48
 Unit 2. Fundamentals of
electrical machines
1. Magnetic circuits

2. Basic components of electrical machines

3. Ring collector and commutator

4. Windings

5. Rated power and power losses

6. Ferraris’ theorem

7. Faraday’s law
8. Electrical machines classification 49

7. Faraday’s law
• Assumptions:

- Field: sinusoidal flux (1).

- Airgap: sinusoidal flux (between 1

and 2).

- Rotor winding axis (2) located with

respect to the stator winding axis
according to:

  p   p m t

- Armature: open-circuit winding (in

order not to consider the armature
reaction).

50
 7. Faraday’s law
• Hopkinson law:

– M.m.f.:

– Magnetic reluctance:

• Flux (sinusoidal) in the airgap due to the field winding:

• Faraday’s law (induced e.m.f.):

E.m.f. due to the E.m.f. due to the 51

flux angular frequency armature rotation

7. Faraday’s law
• Trigonometric relations:

• We obtain:

52
 7. Faraday’s law
• Angular frequencies:

• Frequency:

- Relation between the field frequency (1) and armature frequency (2)
in a rotating electrical machine.

- If n = 0 rpm (transformer), then f2 = f1 .

53

Unit 2. Fundamentals of
electrical machines
1. Magnetic circuits

2. Basic components of electrical machines

3. Ring collector and commutator

4. Windings

5. Rated power and power losses

6. Ferraris’ theorem

7. Faraday’s law

8. Electrical machines classification 54

8. Electrical machines classification

55

8. Electrical machines classification

• Transformers:
– Static machines (n = 0).
– 2 windings (field or primary and induced or secondary).
– Step-up (V1 < V2) or step-down (V1 > V2).

56
8. Electrical machines classification
• Synchronous machines:

– Rotating machines (n ≠ 0).

– Frequencies:

• Inductor or field (rotor): winding fed by a DC current (f1 = 0).

• Armature (stator): three-phase winding (generator).

– They usually work as generators (alternators) in conventional power

plants (hydraulic, thermal and nuclear power plants).

– The DC current in the field winding is given by a small DC motor (exciter

dynamo). 57

8. Electrical machines classification

• Synchronous machines:
– Types:

58
8. Electrical machines classification
• DC machines:
– Rotating machines(n ≠ 0).
– Frequencies:

• Inductor or field = fed by DC current (f1 = 0).

• Armature (induced).
• Rectification: the load has a DC voltage ( ).
– They usually work as motors.
– DC generators are named dynamos and were the 1st electrical
generators in history.
– Easily controlled in speed → OK for variable-speed applications
(electrical traction, rolling mills, and so on).
– Field types: independent, series, shunt (parallel), compound (series +
parallel). 59

8. Electrical machines classification

• DC machines:
– Constitution:

60
8. Electrical machines classification
• Asynchronous (or induction) machines:
– Rotating machines (n ≠ 0).
– Frequencies:

• Field = fed by three-phase AC currents (f1 ≠ 0).

• Three-phase winding in the stator.
• Rotating magnetic field (Ferraris’ theorem), which rotates at synchronous speed:

• Armature = winding (three-phase or not) in the rotor.

– They usually work as motors.
– > 80 % motors in the industry are asynchronous motors (cranes,
elevators, concrete mixers, etc.).
61

8. Electrical machines classification

• Asynchronous (or induction) machines:
– Types:

62
8. Electrical machines classification
• Asynchronous (or induction) machines:
– Field (stator):
• 3 windings shifted 120º in space + fed by three-phase balanced sinusoidal
currents and shifted 120º in time.
• A rotating magnetic field is produced (Ferraris’ theorem).
– Armature (rotor):
• The rotating magnetic field in the stator induces e.m.f. in the rotor windings.
• As the rotor windings are short-circuited, the induced e.m.f. creates a current
that circulates through them.
• Let’s consider a conductor through which a current circulates and this
conductor is placed inside a magnetic field. Then, this conductor is under the
action of a force (Laplace law):

(Left hand rule)

63

8. Electrical machines classification

• Asynchronous (or induction) machines:

– Due to the force, the rotor starts rotating but it never reaches the
synchronous speed (the rotor speed is always under this value).

– Slip (usually between 3% and 8%):

– If the machine rotates at n > n1 , then s < 0 → energy is delivered to the

grid (the machine operates as a generator).
64
65