Research Article

Advances in Mechanical Engineering

2016, Vol. 8(7) 1–9
Ó The Author(s) 2016
The effect of initial pressure on DOI: 10.1177/1687814016659862
aime.sagepub.com
detonation propagation across a
mixture

Yao-Chung Hsu1, Yei-Chin Chao1 and Kung-Ming Chung2

Abstract
This study determines the effect of the initial pressure on the propagation of a Chapman–Jouguet detonation wave from
a stoichiometric C3H8/O2 mixture (donor) to a stoichiometric C3H8/air mixture (acceptor). Depending on the initial
pressure ratio in the donor and the acceptor, the result can be a smooth transmission, a re-initiated detonation wave, or
a transmitted shock wave. When the donor is divided into a driver donor and a driven donor, the degree of overdrive in
a driven donor varies with the donor pressure ratio. There must be a greater degree of overdrive in the driven donor
for re-initiation of a detonation wave in the acceptor, particularly if the initial pressure in the driven donor is lower than
the Chapman–Jouguet pressure in the acceptor. The bi-dimensional effect is also another major factor.

Keywords
Detonation, initial pressure, degree of overdrive, bi-dimensional effect

Date received: 26 April 2016; accepted: 25 June 2016

Academic Editor: Takahiro Tsukahara

Introduction low-sensitivity mixture in the acceptor. Haloua et al.5

In applications where a pre-detonator is used in pulse
detonation engines, the propagation of a detonation
wave from a hydrocarbon–oxygen mixture (donor) to a
hydrocarbon–air mixture (acceptor) is of interest. In a
highly sensitive mixture, a detonation wave can be initi-
ated via the deflagration-to-detonation (DDT) process.
Previous studies1,2 have found that when an incident
detonation wave propagates into a less sensitive mix-
ture, there are several modes of wave transmission,
depending on the properties of the two mixtures.
Initiation energy is another important parameter.3 The
longer the donor (less effect from the rarefaction wave),
the higher the degree of overdrive in the acceptor. The
wave propagation is characterized as detonation decay,
decay and re-initiation, detonation transition, and criti-
cal detonation transition. Engebretsen et al.4 also noted
that the strength of the incident shock is critical in
detonation re-initiation, particularly when there is a
showed that the detonation propagation mode varies
with the initial pressure of the mixture in the acceptor.
As the initial pressure decreases, a stable detonation
wave may switch into a shuttered detonation wave, a
galloping detonation wave, or a failure. The tube or
channel size also plays an important role for detonation
propagation.6 When a detonation wave propagates
from a large tube into a narrow channel, there is a velo-
city deficit. As the width of the channel decreases, the
stable detonation wave may transit to a galloping
1
Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics, National Cheng Kung
University, Tainan, Taiwan
2
Aerospace Science and Technology Research Center, National Cheng
Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
Corresponding author:
Kung-Ming Chung, Aerospace Science and Technology Research Center,
National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 711, Taiwan.
Email: kmchung@mail.ncku.edu.tw

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2 Advances in Mechanical Engineering
Figure 1. Experimental setup: 1. donor (Case A) or driver donor (Case B); 2. donor (Case A) or driven donor (Case B); 3.
acceptor; 4. piezoelectric pressure transducers; 5. spark electrodes; 6. Mylar; 7. Mylar (only for Case B); 8. circulation pump; and 9.
vacuum pump.
detonation wave or a failure. A study by Li et al.7 also
noted that a transmitted overdriven detonation wave
occurs when there is a strong incident overdriven deto-
nation wave. Krivosheev and Penyaz’kov8 found that
the value of the critical pressure for successful wave
transmission is reduced by a factor of 3–5 when there is
an overdriven detonation wave.
In some previous studies, the incident detonation
wave was not in a stable condition; for example, an
overdriven detonation wave approaching the
Chapman–Jouguet (CJ) state. In this study, a CJ deto-
nation wave is formed in a stoichiometric C3H8/O2
mixture in the donor or in the driver donor when the
donor is divided into two sections. An overdriven deto-
nation wave is generated in the driven donor and the
degree of overdrive varies with the donor pressure
ratio. The incident detonation wave then propagates
into a stoichiometric C3H8/air mixture at a fixed initial
pressure. The effect of the initial pressure on the propa-
gation of an incident detonation wave is determined. In
a tube of finite size, a curved detonation wave propa-
gates downstream. Because of the curvature, the
streamline of the burned products behind the detona-
tion wave turns at a small angle toward to the tube
wall. Flow expansion results in a decrease in pressure
and a reduction in the degree of overdrive.9 This bi-
dimensional effect, which affects detonation propaga-
tion, is also studied.
Experimental setup
The experimental setup is shown in Figure 1. The
smooth, aluminum 6061-T6 tube with an inner dia-
meter of 50.8 mm is 1219.2 mm in length. The donor
and the acceptor are 762 and 457.2 mm, respectively.
For a stoichiometric C3H8/O2 mixture at 1 atm, Li
et al.10 demonstrated that the run-up distance for DDT
(xDDT) is approximately 150 mm from the closed end of
a smooth tube with an inner diameter of 50.8 mm. An
overdriven detonation is observed and this approaches
a CJ detonation at x/xDDT ’ 2, where x is the stream-
wise distance from the closed end.7 Li et al.11 also stud-
ied the diaphragm effect (t = 25–100 mm in thickness)
on detonation propagation across a mixture.
Quenching of the incident detonation wave near the
interface is observed and the presence of the diaphragm
means that a longer distance is required for the re-
initiation of a detonation wave in the acceptor. It was
also found that the propagation velocity of a detona-
tion wave when t  50 mm is similar to that for mix-
tures that are separated by a slide gate valve (no
diaphragm). Therefore, a thin LUMIRROR Mylar dia-
phragm (t = 30 mm) is located at x = 762 mm for this
study. This separates the donor (C3H8/O2) and the
acceptor (C3H8/air at 1 atm). A CJ detonation wave
forms ahead of the diaphragm, which is denoted for
Case A. To study the propagation of an overdriven
Hsu et al. 3

detonation from a C3H8/O2 mixture to a C3H8/air mix-

ture, the donor with C3H8/O2 is divided into a driver
donor and a driven donor (Case B). Another Mylar
diaphragm (t = 30 mm) is located at x = 584.2 mm.
Notably, the driven donor is 177.8 mm in length, in
which the overdriven detonation is relatively stable
from the preliminary tests. Prior to each run, the tube
is evacuated to 20 Pa. The C3H8 and O2 are then
injected into the tube and the equivalence ratio of the
mixtures was determined by the partial pressure
method. For Case A, the initial pressure of the donor,
pd, ranges from 0.5 to 2.25 atm. The cell width is 1.87–
0.32 mm12 and the ratios for the tube diameter and cell
width are 27–158. For Case B, the initial pressures in
the driver donor, pd1, and the driven donor, pd2, are
0.5–2.0 and 0.027–0.5 atm, respectively. The donor
pressure ratio (pd* = pd1/pd2) ranges from 1 to 33. The Figure 2. The speed of the pressure wave at x* = 0.44 for a
C3H8/air mixture or air in the acceptor.
acceptor that is filled with the stoichiometric C3H8/air
has an initial pressure, pa, of 1 atm for all test cases. It
is also noted that the form of diaphragms is not planar
at different pressures in the tube sections and some
Results and discussion
time is required for its destruction. To ensure the Case A: CJ detonation
homogeneity of the mixtures in the donor and the
For a detonation shock tube, a self-sustained detona-
acceptor, two circulation pumps are used for approxi-
tion wave in a driver tube (or the donor) is attenuated
mately 3 min. The filling pipes are mounted near both
because there is a reflected rarefaction wave. This
end of the donor to ensure homogeneity of mixtures
results in direct transmission, re-ignition, or a trans-
and the concentration of the mixtures is calibrated by
mitted shock wave in a driven tube (or the acceptor).
gas chromatography (CHINA chromatography Model
In this study, the experiments were conducted using a
9800 GC/TCD). The ignition system consists of a
stoichiometric C3H8/O2 mixture at pd = 0.5–2.25 atm.
transformer (May & Christe z201402e2, 220–14,000 V)
The pa value for a stoichiometric C3H8/air mixture or
and an electric spark at the closed end and the maxi-
air in the acceptor was 1 atm. It is expected that the
mum effective discharge energy is estimated to be 0.5 J. pressure wave for a C3H8/air mixture that does not
The velocities of the shock and detonation waves
undergo chemical reaction propagates at the same
were measured using time-of-flight, by pressure sensors.
speed as that of the air in the acceptor. The variations
Piezoelectric pressure transducers (PCB 113B22) were in the speed of the pressure wave versus pd near the dia-
installed on the tube wall (x = 3.81–30.48 cm). The rise phragm (x* = 0.44) are shown in Figure 2. It is seen
time for the transducers is 1 ms. Sensors were mounted that the pressure wave propagates at a greater speed
on the donor to characterize the propagation of the when there is an increase in pd. At pd = 1.75–2.25 atm,
incident detonation wave (overdriven or CJ detona- the speed of the pressure wave in a C3H8/air mixture is
tion). The wave velocity in the acceptor was also mea- greater than that for air (DV ’ 140 m/s), indicating
sured. The propagation speed of the pressure wave was there is a chemical reaction from C3H8/O2 to C3H8/air
estimated to be u = DL/(Dt 6 et), where Dt and DL are at higher pd.
the propagation time for a wave past two pressure sen- When there is a C3H8/O2 mixture in a donor that is
sors and the spacing between them (=3.81 cm), respec- 762 mm in length, a CJ detonation wave is formed
tively. The uncertainty in the propagation time for a ahead of the diaphragm.7 It is also known that a C3H8/
detonation past two pressure sensors is equal to
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi air mixture is less sensitive than a C3H8/O2 mixture for
et = e2t + e2r , where et corresponds to the error that the same initial conditions. Therefore, both the velo-
is due to the actual wave front spreading over a small city, VCJ, and pressure, pCJ, of a CJ detonation wave in
time interval, instead of a step rise, and er is the inher- a C3H8/O2 mixture are greater than those for a C3H8/
ent rise time in the pressure transducers.13 The signals air mixture. Therefore, when an incident CJ detonation
from the pressure transducers were acquired simultane- wave propagates from a C3H8/O2 mixture to a C3H8/
ously and stored by NI-PXI 6133 high-speed data air mixture, the transmitted wave is an overdriven deto-
acquisition modules at a typical sampling rate of nation wave. The velocity of the transmitted pressure
1 MHz. The uncertainty in the speed of the pressure wave in the acceptor is shown in Figure 3. The origin
wave speed is approximately 6.3%. in the abscissa corresponds to the location of the
4 Advances in Mechanical Engineering

Figure 3. The effect of pd on the propagation of a pressure Figure 4. The effect of pd* on the propagation of a pressure
wave in the acceptor. wave in the acceptor when pd2 = 0.5 atm.

diaphragm and the relative distance from the dia-

phragm x* (=x/d) is normalized by the tube diameter.
In the diagram, x* denotes a location that is equidi-
stant from the two pressure transducers. The value of
VCJ for a C3H8/air mixture at 1 atm is also shown, for
reference. When pd = 2 atm, the incident detonation
wave is smoothly transmitted to the acceptor and an
overdriven detonation wave propagates downstream.
When the value of pd is reduced (=1.0 and 0.75 atm),
there is quenching of the detonation near the interface
and a re-initiated detonation wave with a lower degree
of overdrive (V* = V/VCJ) forms at locations further
downstream. When pd = 0.5 atm, there is no transmis-
sion of the incident detonation wave. Instead, a trans-
mitted shock wave (or a quasi-detonation wave) is
observed within the limited length of the acceptor.
Figure 5. The effect of pd* on propagation of a pressure wave
in the acceptor when pd1 = 1.0 atm.
Case B: overdriven detonation
When the donor is divided into a driver donor and a (V = 2681, 3175, and 3402 m/s), respectively. The corre-
driven donor, V* in the driven donor is dependent on sponding peak driven donor pressure is 12.31, 6.12, and
pd*. Figure 4 shows the distribution of the speed of the 4.56 atm. The distribution of the speed of the pressure
pressure wave in the acceptor. pd1 ranges from 0.5 to wave in the acceptor is shown in Figure 5. The pressure
2 atm and pd2 = 0.5 atm (pd* = 1, 2, and 4). Note that of the incident overdriven detonation is less than the
pd* = 1 corresponds to Case A, where pd = 0.5 atm, in value of pCJ for a C3H8/air mixture in the acceptor.
which a quasi-detonation wave (no re-initiated detona- Quenching of detonation is seen near the interface and
tion) propagates downstream within the limited length no smooth transmission is observed in all three test
in this study. When pd* = 2 and 4 (V* = 1.04 and 1.09, cases. When pd* = 6 and 21, re-initiated overdriven
respectively), the incident overdriven detonation is suc- detonation waves form at x* = 2.02 and 1.27, and then
cessfully transmitted to the acceptor (x* = 1.27) either decay to a CJ wave at locations further downstream.
by re-initiation (pd* = 2) or by smooth transmission Therefore, even though the incident overdriven detona-
(pd* = 4). At further downstream locations, the value tion is not directly transmitted to a detonation wave in
of V* increases as pd* increases. For a fixed value of pd1 the acceptor, there is transmission by re-initiation for
(=1 atm), a decrease in pd2 also results in an increase in greater values of V* or pd*.
pd*. Note that the value of pd2 is less than that for pa. The effect of a decrease in pd1 on the propagation of
When pd* = 6, 21, and 33, V* = 1.18, 1.41, and 1.53 an incident overdriven detonation wave is also of
Hsu et al. 5

Figure 6. The effect of pd* on propagation of a pressure wave

in the acceptor when pd1 = 0.75 atm.

interest. In Figure 6, pd1 is fixed at 0.75 atm and the

value of pd* ranges from 2.0 to 15 (pd2 = 0.05–
0.375 atm). When pd* = 2.0 and 4.5, V* = 0.95 and
1.06, respectively. The incident overdriven detonation
wave is not transmitted to the acceptor, or a shock
wave is transmitted. With the value of pd* increases
(=7.5; V* = 1.18 or V = 2681 m/s; the peak driven
donor pressure = 8.3 atm), there is no instantaneous
initiation of a transmitted detonation wave. Instead, a
transmitted shock forms and then a re-initiated detona-
tion is observed at x* ’ 4.27. At locations further
downstream, V* approaches the CJ value. When pd* =
9.5 and 15.0 (V* = 1.25, and 1.33; V = 2822 and
2998 m/s, respectively), the re-initiation occurs further
upstream, that is, x* = 2.02 and 1.27, respectively. The
corresponding peak driven donor pressure is 8.03 and
6.33 atm. Therefore, even when there is a relatively
lower pressure in both the driver and the driven donors,
an increase in V* (or higher pd*) results in re-initiation
of the detonation in the acceptor. It is also noted that
the re-initiated detonation appears to be unstable. Figure 7. The pressure profiles for the sensors in the acceptor
There is a repeated process of decay, transition, and when pd1 = 0.75 atm and pd* = 15.0.
decay (or longitudinal pulsations), which may corre-
spond to a spinning detonation.7,14 A study by Austin
and Shepard15 demonstrated that the cell width of a pd* = 15.0. The pressure profiles are shown in Figure 7.
stoichiometric C3H8/air mixture at 1 atm is 51.3 mm It is seen that the peak pressure of the transmitted
and that this value varies with the value of V*.16 In this shock wave increases continuously as it propagates
study, the tube diameter (=50.8 mm) is similar to the downstream. The maximum peak pressure ( ’ 52 atm)
cell width and this partially accounts for the unstable is observed at x* = 3.14. At locations further down-
detonation wave in the acceptor. stream locations (x* = 3.89 and 4.64), the amplitude of
The ‘‘shock wave amplification through coherent the peak pressure ( ’ 34 atm) is similar, which demon-
energy release (SWACER)’’ theory, which is similar to strates an overdriven detonation that corresponds to
the induction time gradient theory that was developed shock amplification and slows down to a CJ condition.
by Zeldovich et al.,17 provides a qualitative description When pd* = 7.5, a detonation wave is also initiated in
of DDT.18,19Figure 6 shows that a detonation wave is the acceptor and the pressure profiles are shown in
re-initiated in the acceptor when pd1 = 0.75 atm and Figure 8. It is seen that the shock wave propagates
6 Advances in Mechanical Engineering
Figure 8. The pressure profiles for the sensors in the acceptor
when pd1 = 0.75 atm and pd* = 7.5.
downstream and the peak pressures are 21–25 atm at
x* = 0.89–3.14, which corresponds to a transmitted
shock wave. At x* = 3.89, the increase in the initial
pressure is approximately the same, following a second
peak pressure of 50 atm. A high peak pressure (or a
detonation wave with a higher value for V*, as shown
in Figure 6, is observed at x* = 4.64. A localized explo-
sion probably occurs at x* = 3.89–4.64, resulting in
larger local pressure and velocity than those for pd* =
15.0. The second peak pressure at x* = 3.89 corre-
sponds to the upstream propagation of a retonation
wave, so the re-initiation originates from the heated
Figure 9. The pressure and velocity ratios when there is
transmission of a detonation wave across a mixture.
unburned mixture behind the shock wave. When pd* =
9.5, the propagation pressure wave is similar to that for
pd* = 7.5. This implies that a re-initiated detonation
wave corresponds to a local explosion that originates
near the turbulent flame, or the SWACER mechanism,
depending on the value of pd*.
Both the pressure and the velocity of the burned
products in the donor are dominant elements in the
transmission of an incident detonation wave that pro-
pagates into the acceptor. The normalized wave velo-
city, S*, and the pressure, p*, are shown in Figure 9,
where S  = (VDW , d2 =VCJ, a ) and p ( = pDW , d2 =pCJ, a ) are,
respectively, the velocity and pressure of an incident
detonation wave in the driven donor, normalized by
the CJ values of the C3H8/air mixture in the acceptor.
For all test cases, the value of S* is .1 (an overdriven
detonation wave). The solid symbols denote smooth
transmission or re-initiation and the hollow symbols
correspond to transmitted shock waves. When p*
ranges from 2.0 to 2.5, the pressure of an incident deto-
nation wave is greater than the CJ pressure for the
C3H8/air mixture in the acceptor, so smooth transmis-
sion is observed. A decrease in the value of p* (=1–2)
results in quenching of the detonation near the inter-
face between the driven donor and the acceptor. A re-
initiated detonation is observed at locations further
downstream. When p* ranges from 0.6 to 1.0, a re-
initiated detonation wave or a transmitted shock is
observed. Transmission of an incident detonation wave
depends on the values of both S* and p*. An incident
detonation wave may not be sustained in the acceptor
for lower values of S*. For lower values of p* (\0.5)
and higher values of S* (.1.5), re-initiation of detona-
tion waves is observed, for which the value of p*0.5 S*
is approximately a constant. This demonstrates that the
velocity of an incident detonation wave plays an
Hsu et al. 7

Figure 10. A sketch of wave propagation in a driver donor and a driven donor.

important role in the re-initiation of a detonation wave,

particularly for lower values of p*.

Bi-dimensional effect on the degree of overdrive in

the donor
As previously mentioned, a CJ detonation wave forms
ahead of the first diaphragm for Case B and the value
of V* in the driven donor is dependent on pd*.
According to the Hugonoit equation, the mechanical
balance of a flow means that the particle velocity in the
driver donor must be equal to that of the driven donor;
that is, up, d1 = up, d2 . A sketch of the wave propagation
is shown in Figure 10. In laboratory coordinates, the
velocity (up, d2 = u1  u2 = (1  (n2 =n1 ))u1 ,
particlepffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
u1 = y 1 (p2  p1 )=(y1  y 2 )) for an overdriven detona- Figure 11. The degree of overdrive versus pressure ratio for a
tion is given on the left-hand side of equation (1), stoichiometric C3H8/O2 mixture.
where p is the pressure, n is the specific volume, g is the
specific heat ratio, and u is the velocity in the stationary
coordinate. Subscripts 1 and 2, respectively, denote the approximately 1 atm and pd* = 2–8. It was found that
state of the unburned mixture and burned product. The P = 0.7. Using equation (1), the calculation of P
right-hand side of equation (1) corresponds to up, d1 , for (=0.5–1.0) is shown in Figure 11. When pd2 = 0.1 and
which the properties of the CJ state (pCJ , uCJ , and g CJ 0.25 atm, the value of P is approximately 0.6, although
can be calculated using STANJAN code20 the data are slightly scattered. A decrease in pd2
(=0.05 atm) results in a reduction in the value of P
  rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi  g 1
y2 p2  p1 pCJ CJ (=0.5), except when pd* = 15–25, where P ranges from
1 y1 = uCJ ð1Þ 0.5 to 0.6. For the CJ theory, P = 1 and the induction
y1 y1  y2 p2
distance is assumed to be 0. However, according to the
where v2 =½qc +((g 1 )=(g 1  1))p1 y1 +1=2 (p2  p1 )y1 = ZND model, there is a longer induction distance when
½((g2 )=(g 2  1))p2 +1=2(p2  p1 ) and qc is the difference there is an increase in the cell width for a given mixture.
in enthalpy between State 1 and State 2. At an initial pressure of 0.125 atm, the cell widths for
The bi-dimensional effect in a tube of finite size may stoichiometric C2H2/O2 and C3H8/O2 mixtures are 221
result in a decrease in V*, when a curved detonation and 8 mm,12 respectively. When there is a decrease in
wave propagates downstream.9 The non-dimensional the initial pressure, the cell widths for a stoichiometric
modified pressure, P, is given as pDW , d1 =pCJ , d1 , where C3H8/O2 mixture at 0.1 and 0.05 atm, respectively, are
pDW , d1 is the modified pressure of a detonation wave in estimated to be 12 and 27 mm.12 Therefore, the discre-
the driver donor. In Desbordes’ study (d = 52 mm), the pancy between Desbordes’ data and the present find-
value of pd1 for a stoichiometric C2H2/O2 mixture was ings corresponds to the scale of the induction distance
8 Advances in Mechanical Engineering
(or cell width). This demonstrates that the bi-
dimensional effect is dependent on the values of both
pd* and pd2. In other words, the value of V* decreases
when the cell width increases or when there is a longer
induction distance.
Conclusion
An experimental study is conducted to investigate deto-
nation propagation from a stoichiometric C3H8/O2
mixture (donor) to a stoichiometric C3H8/air mixture
(acceptor, pa = 1 atm). For Case A, there is direct trans-
mission, re-ignition, or a transmitted shock wave. A
greater initial pressure in the donor (pd  0.5 atm or pd/
pa  0.5) is required for successful transmission. For
Case B, the donor is divided into a driver donor and a
driven donor. When there is a fixed pressure in the dri-
ven donor (pd2 = 0.5 atm), a CJ detonation wave is
formed in the driver donor. The degree of overdrive
in the driven donor (V* = 1.04–1.53) varies with the
initial donor pressure ratio (pd* = 2–33). When the
initial driver donor pressure (pd1 = 0.75 atm) is fixed,
there is a transmitted shock and a re-initiated detona-
tion is observed at locations further downstream, for
pd* = 2–15. In a tube of finite size, the bi-dimensional
effect results in a lower degree of overdrive than the the-
oretical value, particularly when there is a decrease in
pd2. It is found that an incident overdrive detonation at
high pressure is required for smooth transmission. Re-
initiated detonation waves are observed through a local
explosion or possibly a SWACER mechanism, which is
dependent on the value of pd*. The velocity of an inci-
dent overdriven detonation wave also plays an impor-
tant role. Therefore, even for lower values of the initial
pressure in both the driver and the driven donors, a
detonation wave in the acceptor can be re-initiated
when there is a higher degree of overdrive in the driven
donor.
Declaration of conflicting interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with
respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
article.
Funding
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial sup-
port for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
article: This work was supported by the Ministry of Science
and Technology (MOST 101-2221-E-006-079), Taiwan,
Republic of China.
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or the diaphragm
Appendix 1
Notation Subscript
d tube diameter a acceptor
p pressure CJ Chapman–Jouguet condition
p* pressure ratio; pDW , d2 =pCJ, a d donor
pd* donor pressure ratio; pd1/pd2 d1 driver donor
P modified pressure; pDW , d1 =pCJ , d1 d2 driven donor
S* velocity ratio; VDW , d2 =VCJ , a DDT deflagration-to-detonation
t thickness of a diaphragm DW detonation wave
u propagation speed of the pressure wave