Calculus 1 with Dr.

Janet Semester 1, 2021/22

1.1 What is Calculus?

Syllabus
• Arithmetic, algebra, geometry, etc. are useful for
1. Functions, Limits & Continuity describing quantities that are not changing or moving.
• But we live in a world full of change!
2. Differentiation
• Calculus gives us tools to describe change.
3. Applications of Differentiation
Examples:
4. Integration
5. Applications of Integration

Chapter 1 Functions, Limits Calculus is the best way to describe most of the 'laws
of nature' as well as many relationships in finance,
and Continuity engineering and other fields.
1.1 What is Calculus?
1.2 Straight Lines. Equations of Lines "Today calculus is used in
1.3 Functions and Graphs calculating the orbits of satellites and spacecraft,
1.4 New Functions from Old Functions. Inverse Functions in predicting population sizes,
1.5 Parametric Curves in estimating how fast coffee prices will rise,
1.6 Definition of a Limit. One-sided Limits in forecasting weather,
1.7 Laws of Limits. Evaluating Limits. The Squeeze
in measuring the cardiac output of the heart,
Theorem
in calculating life insurance premiums,
1.8 Limits Involving Infinity
1.9 Continuity and in a great variety of other areas."
1.10 The Intermediate Value Theorem James Stewart
2 4
 Example 1 Draw line segments with slope
1.2 Straight Lines. Equations of a) 3, b) 5, c) 1/2, d) -1.
Coordinates and Graphs Lines
O is the origin
Ox is the x-axis
Oy is the y-axis
(x, y) are the coordinates
of a point

The graph of an equation is the

y = x2
set of all points (x, y) whose
coordinates satisfy the equation.
5

The SLOPE of a Straight Line Example 2

Consider any two points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) on a straight Find the slope of the graph
line segment. On the interval [x1, x2], a) on the interval (2, 5)
is the change in x
is the change in y.
The slope (or gradient) of the
line is

b) on (0, 2)
• E.g. if m = 5 then Dy = 5 Dx,
so for every unit increase in x,
y increases by 5 units.
• m is a constant, characteristic of the line segment.
• m tells us the rate of change of y with respect to x. c) at x = 6
http://www.mathwarehouse.com/algebra/linear_equation/interactive-slope.php +slope gif 6 8
The Equation of a Straight Line Example 3
• Suppose a straight line with slope m crosses the y -axis at Sketch the following graphs:
y = c. We call c the y-intercept.
(a) y = x + 2 (c) y = 1 – x
• For any two points on the line,
(b) y = 2x – 6 (d) 2y = x + 2
• Setting (x1, y1) = (0, c) and letting (x2, y2) be a
general point (x2, y2) = (x, y),
we get

and so

This is the most common

way of writing the equation
of a straight line. It is called
the slope-intercept form. 11
9

The slope-intercept form is very convenient for graph-

OTHER FORMS
sketching.
The equation of a straight line can also be rearranged
slope intercept or written in other ways, for example:

y Point-Slope Form
y = 3x y=x+1
y For a line with slope m passing through point (x1, y1):
3
y=x
2 y=x Two Point Form
y=x–1
1 For a line passing through points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2):
1

x
1 x -1
-1 y=-x (These results follow directly from )
10 12
 Example 4 1.3 Functions and Graphs
Find the equation of the straight line passing through 1.3.1 Functions
points (2, 0) and (0, 3).
A function arises when one quantity depends on
another. E.g.
 the height H of a child varies with age t.
 the cost C of mailing a parcel depends on its mass m.
 the area A of a circle depends on the radius r.
Given the value of x, there is a rule which determines
the value of f. We say f is a function of x.

It is like a machine:

x is called an independent variable.

13 f(x) is a dependent variable. (It depends on x.) 15

Practical Application Functions are often expressed by formulae.

Example 5 On a certain day, the temperature of air at
ground level was 20 ºC and the temperature at a height of 1 km Example 6
was 10 ºC. Assume temperature varies linearly with height.
Given , find:
a) Sketch a graph of the temperature T (in ºC) as a function of
height h in kilometres. b) Find the equation of the line. a)
c) What is the slope? What are its units? What does it mean?
d) Find the temperature at a height of 2.5 km.
b)

c)

14 16
Definition Many functions can be represented by their graph.
A function f is a rule that assigns to each element in The graph of a function f is the graph y = f(x).
some set D(f) exactly one element f(x) in a set R(f).
The element f(x) is called the value of f at x.
It can also be visualized as an arrow diagram:

But not every graph or equation represents a function!

The domain D is the set of values x can take,
the range R is the set of values f(x) can take. To be a function, each x must correspond to a single
value of y = f(x).
If not explicitly given, D(f) is the set of numbers for which
f(x) makes sense.
17 19

Example 7 Vertical Line Test. A curve in the xy-plane is the

State the domain and range of the given functions. graph of a function of x if and only if any vertical line
intersects the curve not more than once.
a) f(x) = x2 + 3
Yes! No!

b)

Example 8
Sketch the graphs (a) y = x2, (b) y2 = x. State whether or not
c) h(x) = 2 + 3 sin(πx) each curve represents a function of x.

18 20
 Example 10
Representing Functions
A box with an open top is made from a rectangular piece of
A function can generally be represented in one or card, 15 cm  20 cm, by cutting out squares of side length x at
more of the following four ways: each corner, then folding up the sides, as shown in the figures.
(1) a verbal description Find a formula for the volume of the box as a function of x.

(2) a table of values

(3) a graph
(4) a formula

You need to be able to move between these forms.

21 23

Example 9 Functions and Mathematical Modelling

a) Sketch an approximate graph of your height H as a function In many practical situations, data does not fit a formula
of your age t. exactly, but we can use an approximate formula to ‘model’
the data.
For example, the table
shows the CO2 level
measured at a certain
b) Find a formula for the area A of a circle as a function of the place 1980 – 2002.
circumference l.

When we plot this

CO2 level (ppm)

data, we find it lies

approximately on a
straight line

22 year 24
So we could assume a linear model for this data. A polynomial of degree 1 has form f(x) = mx + c
- We could find the equation of so is a linear function.
the straight line through the
A polynomial of degree 2, f(x) = ax2 + bx + c,
end points.
- Then use our equation to is called a quadratic function.
predict the 2021 CO2 level, etc.. A polynomial of degree 3 is called a cubic function.
C = 1.545t - 2721
This is an example of
Example Sketches of four polynomials are shown below.
mathematical modelling.
What degree do you think each has?
real formulate maths solve maths interpret real
problem model solution prediction
test

Here, data was modelled with a linear function.

Sometimes other functional forms will be appropriate.
Models are never absolutely accurate but a good model
yields predictions close to reality. 25 27

1.3.2 Some Common Functions POWER FUNCTIONS have the form where
We will revise some common classes of functions. a is a constant.
You should be able to sketch these types of functions
You should know the graphs of common functions such as:
quickly and know their basic properties.
y = x3
POLYNOMIALS
A polynomial is a function of the form
y = x2

where n is a non-negative integer

and the numbers an are constants.
The numbers an are called coefficients.
The value of the highest power, n, is the degree of
the polynomial
26 28
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS have the form .
• You should know the sine (sin), cosine (cos) and x is the exponent (or power or index)
tangent (tan) functions a is the base
• Also The most common exponential function (often called the
exponential function) is f(x) = ex.
e is an irrational number called the exponential constant,
• In calculus, USE RADIANS unless told otherwise.
e = 2.7182818…. (Its importance will become clearer later!)
• Complete the table: Graphs
sin q cos q tan q
y = ex
q You should know the graphs of
0 a) y = ex (exponential growth)
p/6
b) y = e-x (exponential decay)
p/4
y = e-x
p/3
p/2 29 31

Trigonometric functions are periodic. LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

• sin x, cos x have period 2p, e.g. sin x = sin(x + 2p) If x = ay then y = loga x. This is a logarithmic
• sin wx has period T = 2p/w, function. a is again called the base.
Graphs: y = sin x
If no base is given, log x should be understood to
1
mean log10 x (log to the base 10).

-p 0 p
But in calculus we almost always natural logs,
2p
notated ln, which are logs to the base e.
-1 y = cos x
That is ln x = loge x.
y = tan x Graphs
You should know the
-p 0 p 2p graph y = ln x

30 32

Extra note: CIRCLES
A circle of radius r centred at (a,b) has
equation
Note that a circle cannot be described
by writing a single function of x or y. (Why not?)
1.3.3 Piecewise Functions & Symmetry
PIECEWISE FUNCTIONS
A piecewise function is defined by different formulae in
different parts of its domain. Two common examples are:
1) The Modulus Function
|x| is called the modulus or absolute value of x.

However we can write functions for We have

the upper half of the circle
and the lower half 2) A Step Function

You should be able to sketch circles from their equations.

You may need to first rearrange an equation into the
standard circle form using the technique of 'completing On graphs, indicates that the end point is included,
the square'. 33
indicates that the end point is not included. 35

Example 11 Example 12
Sketch the graph of the equation The table below gives the cost C of mailing a parcel as a
and describe it in words. function of its mass m. Write a formula for C(m) and sketch
the graph of the function.
Mass of Parcel Cost (USD)
Up to 100 g 1.25
100 to 250 g 2.30
250 to 500 g 4.10
500 to 1000 g 6.90

34 36
Example 13 Example 15
a) Sketch the graph of the function Give examples of even and odd functions. Draw their graphs.

b) Write a formula for the function g.

c) State the value of i) f(3) ii) g(5) 37 39

Symmetry An even function satisfies fe(-x) = fe(x) Note: The graph of an even function is symmetric with respect
to reflection in the y-axis. The graph of an odd function is
An odd function satisfies fo(-x) = – fo(x) symmetric with respect to rotation by 180° about the origin.

Example 14
Show that f(x) = x3 – 1/x is an odd function. It is easily proved that:
• Any sum of two or more even functions is even
• Any sum of two or more odd functions is odd
• For products, even × even = even
odd × odd = even
odd × even = odd

38
 Example 16
1.4 New Functions from Old
Sketch a)
Functions
1.4.1 New Graphs from Old Graphs
Suppose we know the graph of a certain function.
We can quickly obtain the graphs of some related
functions by some simple transformations. b)
Investigation Exercise
Plot the following graphs. What patterns do you notice?
1. a) y = x2, b) y = x2 + 3, c) y = (x – 3)2.
2. a) b) c)
http://www.meta-calculator.com/online/
41 43

TRANSLATIONS For a function f(x) and positive constant c, Example 17 Figure A is the graph of f(x) = x2.
to obtain the graph of What is the equation of graph B?
y = f(x) + c, shift the graph of y = f(x) UP by c units
y = f(x) – c, shift the graph of y = f(x) DOWN c units
y = f(x + c), shift the graph of y = f(x) LEFT c units
y = f(x – c), shift the graph of y = f(x) RIGHT c units A B

42 44
Investigation Exercise Example 20 The graph of f(x) is shown. Match the
Plot the following graphs. What patterns do you notice? other graphs with their equations:
1. a) y = sin x, b) y = 3 sin x, c) y = sin 2x.
2. a) b) c)

STRETCHES
To obtain the graph of y = 2f(x)
y = cf(x), stretch y = f(x) y = f(2x)
vertically by a factor c y = f(x)
y = f(cx), compress y = f(x)
horizontally by a factor c
45 47

REFLECTIONS Example 21 Sketch: (a) y = 1 – sin x , (b) y = |sin x|

To obtain y = – f(x),
reflect y = f(x) in the x-axis
To obtain y = f(–x),
reflect y = f(x) in the y-axis

Example 19
Sketch: a) y = – x2 , b)

Note that y = |f(x)| means

So where f(x) is positive, the graph is unchanged. Where f(x) is

negative the graph is reflected in the x-axis (to become positive).
46 48
1.4.2 Combinations and Compositions of Functions Compositions of Functions
Let f and g be functions with domains A and B respectively. Suppose and
These functions can be combined or composed to make By substitution,
new functions.
This procedure is called composition.
Combinations of Functions The new function is called the composition or
Algebraic operations on f and g are defined as follows: composite of f and g, denoted f ० g.
(f+g)(x) = f(x)+ g(x) with domain A  B
(f ० g)(x) = f(g(x))
(f – g)(x) = f(x) – g(x) with domain A  B
(fg)(x) = f(x)g(x) with domain A  B
f ० g is defined whenever both f and g are
(f /g)(x) = f(x)/g(x) with domain A  B  {x: g(x)  0}. defined. I.e. Its domain is the set of all x in the
domain of g such that g(x) is in the domain of f.
Addition and subtraction of functions can also be done
graphically. Note: In general f ० g  g ० f
49 51

Example 22 Example 23
Let Let
a) State the domains of f and g. Find a) f ० g , b) g ० f , c) (f ० g ० f )(0) .

b) Find f + g and its domain.

c) Find f / g and its domain.

50 52
One-to-One Functions 1.4.3 Inverse Functions
• We know that if y is a function of x then for every x Remember a function can be thought of as a machine:
there is exactly one value of y = f(x) (see slide 19-20).
• If it is also true that for every y there is exactly one
value of x, then f(x) is called a one-to-one function.

Examples
Q: Can we have another machine which does the
reverse process?
y=x f(x) ? x
?
y = x2

y is NOT a y is a function of x y is a function of x A: Yes if the original function is one-to-one.

function of x but is NOT one-to-one and is one-to-one The ‘reverse’ function is called the inverse function.
53 55

Definition Definition
A function f is called one-to-one if it never takes the Let f be a one-to-one function with domain A and
same value twice. That is, f(x1) ≠ f(x2) whenever x1≠ x2. range B. Then its inverse function, f –1, is defined by

Horizontal Line Test

for any y in B, and has domain B and range A.
A function is one-to-one if and only if no horizontal
line intersects its graph more than once. x f(x) x
f -1
Example 24
Are the following functions one-to-one?
a) y = sin x b) y = x3 + 1 Notes
1. f –1 is a special symbol for the inverse.
The -1 is NOT an exponent. f –1(x)  [f(x)] –1 = 1/ f(x).
2.
54 56
Finding an Inverse Function
To find the inverse of a given function f(x):
1. Write y = f(x).
2. Solve the equation to find x in terms of y.
3. To express f –1 as a function of x, interchange x and y.
This gives y = f –1(x).
Example 25
a) Find the inverse of the function f(x) = x2 + 3, x ≥ 0.
Graphs of Inverse Functions
• If f maps a onto b, then f –1 maps b onto a.
• So if the graph of f includes (a, b)
then the graph of f –1 includes (b, a).
• Point (b, a) is obtained from (a, b) by
reflecting in the line y = x.

• So the graph f –1 is obtained

by reflecting the graph f in the
line y = x.

57 Your answers to Ex25 should illustrate this! 59

Example 25, cont. Non-one-to-one functions and Inverses

b) Find the inverse of the function g(x) = e x Many important functions are not one-to-one!
But if we restrict the domain (as in Example 25a) we can
obtain a one-to-one then find the inverse of this function.

For example … Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Inverse Sine Function

c) Sketch graphs of the functions f and g and their inverses.
The function is one-to-one.
The inverse of this restricted sine function is denoted by
sin-1 or arcsin:

NOTE: do not confuse with

58 60
Inverse Cosine Function Example 26 a) Sketch the curve x = t2 – 2t , y = t + 1.
is one-to-one on [0, p], so we define We can construct a table of values and thus plot the curve:
t x y
-2 8 -1
Inverse Tangent Function -1 3 0
For tangent we take the interval (-p/2, p/2), and define 0 0 1
1 -1 2
2 0 3
3 3 4
4 8 5

b) Eliminate the parameter to find a Cartesian equation for

the curve in the form x = f(y).

The graphs are the reflections of the original graphs in the line y = x. 61 63

1.5 Parametric Curves Notes

Introduction • The parameter can sometimes be eliminated (as in

Example 26). But this is not always possible.
Suppose a particle moves
along the curve C. • The direct equation and parametric equations describe
C cannot be described by the same curve.
an equation of the form • But the parametric equations also tell us when the
y = f(x). (Why not?) particle was where, i.e. how the curve is traced.
But the x- and y- coordinates of the particle are both
functions of time: x= f(t) and y= g(t). • The parameter domain can be
restricted.
t is called a parameter. C is called a parametric curve.
E.g. x = t2 – 2t, y = t + 1,
C has parametric equations x= f(t) and y= g(t). 0 ≤ t ≤ 4.
We can also write c(t) = (f(t), g(t)).
• Parametric forms are especially useful for complicated
Generally, a parameter may be any quantity on which two other
quantities depend. Time and angle are common parameters. 62
curves which are not functions (or not one-to-one).
64
Parametric curves are easily drawn by computers and
are widely used in computer-aided design (CAD).
[Graphs drawn at https://www.desmos.com/ ]
Example 27
Sketch the curve with parametric equations
x = sin t y = sin2 t
Some Common Parametrizations
1) A circle of radius R centred at the origin
has Cartesian equation x2 + y2 = R2.
Letting t be the angle a point makes
with Ox, parametric equations to
traverse the circle once anti-clockwise
are:
2) The straight line segment that joins (x1, y1) and (x2, y2)
can be described by the parametric equations
For example, for the line segment from (1, 2) to (4, 9),
we can write
65 67
1.6 Definition of a Limit
Introduction
Suppose a scientist wants to know the value of a
certain physical quantity at zero air pressure. In his
laboratory he can produce low air pressures but he
cannot achieve a perfect vacuum. What might he do?
We are often interested in the value of a function f(x) when
x is very close to a value x0 but not necessarily equal to x0.
This requires the concept of the limit of a function.
66 68
Limits: A Working Definition One-Sided and Two-sided Limits

We ask: For the function above, we get the same answer whether
we approach from above or below. This is not always the
As x gets closer and closer to x0 (but x  x0), does
case. So we need the concept of one-sided limits.
f(x) get closer and closer to some finite number L?
A limit from the left
If ‘yes’, we say the limit of f(x) as x approaches x0 equals L.
(x approaching x0 from below):
Written
or A limit from the right
(x approaching x0 from above):
Equivalently: we can make the value of f(x) as close as
we like to L by taking x sufficiently close to x0. The two-sided limit exists if and only if
both one-sided limits exist and are the same, i.e.
Note: depends only on the values of f(x) near x0.
The value of f(x0) is not relevant! f(x0) may have a different if and only if
value or be undefined. 71
69

Three Examples Example 31

We will consider the following functions: (II) Sketch a graph of
What is the value of , and ?
These functions are not defined at x = 0.
But we can look at their behaviour close to x = 0.
(I) Consider f(x). Using a calculator or computer we can
draw a table of values or plot the graph.

It seems that 70 72
(III) The graph of is shown below. Limits: Formal Definition [Optional]
What can we say about , and ? The definition given above is rather informal. More
formally, the concept of a limit may be defined as follows.
Definition
Let f be a function that is defined on an open interval
containing x0, except possibly at x0. We say
if for every small quantity e > 0 there exists a d > 0 such
that | f(x) – L |< e for all x satisfying 0 < | x – x0|< d.
• As x  0+, 1/x gets bigger and bigger …
... and sin(1/x) continues to oscillate in the range [-1,1]. I.e. graphically, if f(x) lies inside the
I.e. the function does not tend towards any fixed value. horizontal strip of the width 2e around
L then x lies inside the vertical strip of
• This means does not exist.
the width 2d around x0 (irrespective or
• Similarly does not exist. whether or not point (x0, L) belongs to
• So also does not exist. the graph of f).
73 75

Example 32 Similar definitions can be written for one-sided limits.

Use the given graph of the function f to state the value of the These definitions can be used to find limits.
following limits. If a limit does not exist, explain why. Example 33 (Optional)
Use the definition above to prove that

74 76
 Example 34
1.7 Evaluating Limits. Laws of Using the theorem and laws above, find
Limits.
In section 1.5 we used tables and graphs to ‘guess’
limits. Then we met a formal proof but this is hard work
to use! Now we will develop tools for finding limits
precisely and relatively easily.
1.7.3 Limits of Elementary Functions
1.7.1 An Initial Theorem Most of the functions we meet are elementary functions:
From the definition of a limit, the following simple but polynomials, power functions, rational functions (ratios of
important result can be proved: two polynomials), exponentials, logarithms, trigonometric
and inverse trigonometric functions, and all the functions
For any constants x0 and c, which can be obtained from these by addition,
and subtraction, multiplication, division and composition.
E.g.
77 79

1.7.2 Laws of Limits Direct Substitution Property

If f is an elementary function and x0 is in the
domain of f , then

So if f is elementary and x0 is in its domain, the limit can

be found simply by substituting x0 into the formula for f.
If x0 is not in the domain then this property cannot be used!
In some cases the limit can still be found by algebraic
manipulation. Other techniques will be studied in Chapter 3.

(For proofs, see textbooks.) Example 35 Find the following limits:

From these basic laws, further results can be derived.

E.g.
can be proved by repeated application of (iii) with f(x)=g(x).
78 80
 1.7.4 The Squeeze Theorem (or sandwich theorem)

If f(x) ≤ g(x) ≤ h(x) for all x in an open interval

containing x0, except possibly at x0, and if
then .

If g is trapped between f
and h, and if f and h have
the same limit L at x0, (i.e.
f and h meet at x0), then g
must also have the same
limit L at x0.

81 83

Example 36 Example 37
Given , find and Use the squeeze theorem to show that

82 84
 An asymptote is a straight line which a graph approaches
1.8 Limits involving Infinity arbitrarily close to at long distances from the origin. It may
A cup of hot tea is placed in a room which is air be approached in many different ways:
conditioned at 25 ºC. After a long time, what will
the temperature of the tea be?
1.8.1 Limits at Infinity
Example Consider
E.g. For , we have
What happens to the value of f(x) as x becomes arbitrarily
large (approaches infinity)? so as x  , f(x) approaches the straight line y = 2.
- Both numerator and denominator become large We say y = 2 is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of f.
- But the quotient does not become large …
Dividing throughout by x2, f(x) (x  0).

As x  , 1/x2 0 so f(x)  2. So we say .

85

Limits at Infinity (Informal Definition) 1.8.2 Infinite Limits

Let f be a function defined on some interval (a, ∞). Example Consider the function
Then means the value of f(x) gets closer Sketch the graph. What is ?
and closer to L1 as x gets bigger and bigger.
Let g be a function defined on some interval (−∞, a). • As x → 0+ , the value of h(x) gets bigger and bigger,
Then means the value of g(x) gets closer without bound.
and closer to L2 as x gets more and more negative. • So h(x) do not approach any fixed value L.
[x   may be read as “x approaches infinity”, “x becomes • So the limit does not exist.
infinite” or “x increases without bound”.]
• However it is convenient to say that
Graphically, such a limit corresponds to a horizontal
[as x → 0+, h(x) “approaches infinity” or “tends to infinity”]
asymptote, y = L1 or y = L2.
• Similarly, it is convenient to say that
• The graph of h(x)=1/x has a vertical asymptote x = 0.
88
 Infinite Limits (Informal Definition) Example 39 Find the following limits:

The notation means f(x) becomes larger

and larger as x gets closer and closer to x0;
And means f(x) becomes more and
more negative as x gets closer and closer to x0.

Note: Whenever a limit has the value ∞ or −∞, this

means the limit does not exist.
(∞ is a useful concept but is not a real number!)

Where a function has an infinite limit, the graph has a

vertical asymptote.
I.e. if and/or then the
graph y = f(x) has a vertical asymptote at x = x0.
91

Example 38 Sketch the graphs of f(x) = 1/x2 and g(x) = ln x.
i) State the values of the following limits:
ii) What asymptote(s) does each graph have?
Asymptotes – summary
• If limx→ f(x) = L1 and/or limx→- f(x) = L2
then y = L1 and/or y = L2 is a horizontal asymptote to the graph
• If limx→a+ f(x) = ± and/or limx→a- f(x) = ± 
then x = a is a vertical asymptote to the graph.
• Horizontal asymptotes can be identified by looking at the
behaviour of the function as x → ± .
• Values where a function is undefined may indicate vertical
asymptotes.
Example 40
Identify the horizontal and vertical asymptotes of

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 Example 40
1.9 Continuity a) Consider again the graph shown.
Definition At what values of x is f discontinuous?
A function f is continuous at x0 if . What type of discontinuities are these?

I.e. To be continuous, f(x) must satisfy three conditions:

1) f is defined on an open interval containing x0
2) exists
b) Consider . Is f continuous at x = 1?
3)

Graphically, f is continuous at x0 if its graph extends

some distance to the right and left of the point (x0, f(x0))
and has no break at that point.

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Conversely, f is discontinuous at x0 if there is a break, Further DEFINITIONS

or the left and right limits are not equal or do not exist. A function f is continuous from the right at x0 if
Discontinuities are classified into three types:
(a) Removable Discontinuities A function f is continuous from the left at x0 if
could be ‘removed’ by redefining
the function at a single number.
E.g. in Example 40, at x = 1 is f continuous from the left.
(b) Infinite Discontinuities
A function f is continuous on the open interval (a, b) if it
(c) Jump Discontinuities is continuous at every interior point of the interval.
A function f is continuous on a closed interval [a, b] if it
is continuous on the open interval (a, b), continuous from
the right at x = a and continuous from the left at x = b.
Graphically, a function is continuous on (a, b) if you can draw
that part of the graph without lifting your pen off the paper!
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Further Theorems
If functions f and g are continuous at x0, then so are
f + g, f − g, fg, and f /g (provided g(x0)  0).
If g is continuous at x0 and f is continuous at g(x0), then
the composite function f ◦ g is continuous at x0.
Every elementary function is continuous on its domain.
A common use of this theorem is in locating solutions or
roots* of equations: if f(x) is continuous on [a, b] and if
f(a) and f(b) have opposite signs so f(a)f(b) < 0, then
there must exist a number c in (a, b) such that f(x) = 0.
Example 41
Show that the equation x4 + x2 − x − 3 = 0 has a root in
the interval (1, 2).

The inverse of any continuous function is also continuous.

(For proofs, see textbooks.)

The last theorem can be established graphically:

the graph of f −1 is the reflection of f in the line y = x,
so if f has no break then f −1 will also have no break.
97 *A root of a function f(x) is a solution to the equation f(x) = 0.

Preparation for Chapter 2: Questions to think about

1.9 The Intermediate Value
• What is meant by the ‘speed’ or ‘velocity’ of a
Theorem Theorem
moving object?
If f is continuous on a finite closed interval [a, b] and
• How is it calculated?
if M is a real number lying between f(a) and f(b), then
there exists a number c in (a, b) such that f(c) = M. • If we have a graph of distance as a function of
I.e., in the interval [a, b], a continuous function takes on time, how does speed relate to the graph?
every value between f(a) and f(b) at least once.
The idea is obvious graphically:
if a graph starts at height f(a) and
finishes at height f(b) and is
continuous, it must cross the a line
of height M at least once.
(For formal proof, see textbooks.)
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