Module 6 - Materials and Hardware S

i
Module 6
Materials and Hardware

B asic M a in te n a n c e Module 6 Materials and Hardware
T ra in in g M an u al
6.1 Aircraft Material - Ferrous T h e rm o p la s tic ............................................................................................................. 21

E la s to m e r.................................................................................................................... 21
S tre n g th s o f M a te r ia ls .................................................................................................... 2
C o m p o s ite M a t e r ia ls .................................................................................................... 22
P roperties of M a te r ia ls ............................................................................................... 2
T he rm o pla stic R e s in s ...............................................................................................22
A llo y in g a g e n ts in s te e l a nd a p p lic a tio n s o f a llo y s te e ls ................................. 4
T herm osetting R e s in s ...............................................................................................22
SAE C lassification of S t e e ls ......................................................................................4
R einforcing M a te r ia ls ...............................................................................................23
C a r b o n ........................................................................................................................... 4
W o v e n P r o d u c ts ..............................................................................................................25
S u lp h u r ............................................................................................................................4
Plain W e a v e ................................................................................................................25
M a n g a n e s e .................................................................................................................... 5
Tw ill W e a v e .................................................................................................................. 26
S ilic o n ..............................................................................................................................5
Satin W e a v e ................................................................................................................26
P h o s p h o ro u s ..................................................................................................................5
U nidirectional W e a v e ...............................................................................................27
N ic k e l..............................................................................................................................5
P re p re g s .......................................................................................................................28
C h ro m iu m .......................................................................................................................5
Film A d h e s iv e s ........................................................................................................... 29
M o ly b d e n u m .................................................................................................................. 5
Foam ing Adhesive Film .......................................................................................... 29
V a n a d iu m .......................................................................................................................5
Core M a te ria ls............................................................................................................. 30
T u n g s te n ......................................................................................................................... 5
D a m a g e to S a n d w ic h S t r u c t u r e s ............................................................................ 31
Carbon S te e l..................................................................................................................5
D am age In s p e c tio n ....................................................................................................31
C o rro s io n -R e s is ta n t (S ta in le s s ) S t e e l ..................................................................... 7
Visual In sp e ctio n .........................................................................................................32
S tainless S te e ls............................................................................................................. 7
C oin Tap T e s t............................................................................................................. 32
R adiographic (X-R ay) In s p e c tio n ......................................................................... 32
6.2 Aircraft Materials - Non Ferrous U ltrasonic In spe ction ................................................................................................. 32
A ir c ra ft M e ta ls a nd A llo y s .......................................................................................... 10 R e p a ir o f C o m p o s ite S t r u c tu r e .................................................................................33
Alum inium A llo y s ........................................................................................................ 12 T he W ater Break T e s t...............................................................................................33
E xperim ental A llo ys.................................................................................................... 12 D rying C om posite P a n e ls ........................................................................................33
H eat T re a tm e n t................................................................................................................ 14 C utting and Sanding C om posite M a te ria ls .........................................................33
Solution H eat T reatm ent (Natural A g e in g ) ......................................................... 14 Vacuum B agg ing ........................................................................................................ 34
Precipitation H eat Treatm ent (Artificial A g e in g ) ............................................... 14 S afety Around C o m p o s ite s ..................................................................................... 36
A p p lic a tio n o f A lu m in iu m A l l o y s ............................................................................ 15 S e a la n t s ............................................................................................................................37
Cladding of A lum inium A llo y s ................................................................................. 16 H igh-P ressure S e a ls ................................................................................................. 37
M a g n e s iu m .................................................................................................................. 18 C hevron S e a ls ........................................................................................................... 37
M onel M e ta l.................................................................................................................. 18 O -ring S e a ls ................................................................................................................38
T ita n iu m ....................................................................................................................... 18 T -S e a ls ......................................................................................................................... 39
Seal Id e n tific a tio n ...................................................................................................... 39
6.3 Composite and Non-Metallic Seal In sta lla tion ........................................................................................................... 40
W ip e rs ............................................................................................................................42
T h e th re e C la s s ific a tio n s o f P la s t ic s ..................................................................... 20
Sealing C o m p o u n d s ................................................................................................. 43
T h e rm o s e ts .................................................................................................................. 20
S ealer PR 1422........................................................................................................... 44
C orresponding with JAR 66

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P r o c e s s in g ..................... ............................................................................................44 U nified Inch T h re a d s ................................................................................................. 70

D im e n s io n s a n d T o le r a n c e s ..................................................................................... 72
6.4 Corrosion T hread F i t .................................................................................................................... 72
Effective D iam eter T o le ra n c e .................................................................................72
C o rro s io n G e n e r a l.........................................................................................................48
M ajor D iam eter T o le r a n c e ..................................................................................... 72
C hem ical F u n d a m e n ta ls .......................................................................................... 48
M inor D iam eter T o le r a n c e ..................................................................................... 72
C hem ical C o rro sio n ............................ ...................................................................... 48
D epth of E n g a g e m e n t............................................................................................... 72
Electro C hem ical C o r r o s io n ................................................................................... 48
M e a s u rin g S c re w T h re a d s .......................................................................................... 73
Form ation of C o rro s io n ................................................................................... .......... 49
Thread G a u g e s ........................................................................................................... 73
E ffe c ts o f C o r r o s io n ...................................................................................................... 50
Go G a u g e s .................................................................................................................. 73
Effects of C orrosion on M e ta ls .............................................................................. 50
No G o G a u g e s ........................................................................................................... ..73
Factors W hich Influence M etal C o rro s io n ........................................................... 50
G auge T o le r a n c e s .................................................................................................... 74
C auses of C o rro s io n ................................................................................................. 50
A d justable G a u g e s ....................................................................................................74
E lectro-C hem ical Series for M e ta l..........................................................................52
C heck G a u g e s ........................................................................................................... 74
Electro C hem ical Action ...........................................................................................52
M arking of G a u g e s .................................................................................................... 75
T y p e s o f C o r r o s i o n ...................................................................................................... 53
Pitting C o rro s io n ........................................................................................................ 53
Intergrannular C o rro s io n .......................................................................................... 53
6.5.2 Bolts, Studs and Screws
Filiform C o r r o s io n ...................................................................................................... 54 I n t r o d u c t io n .....................................................................................................................78
Exfoliation C o rro s io n .................................................................................................55 International S ta n d a rd s .............................................................................................78
Fretting C o rro s io n ...................................................................................................... 55 D e fin itio n s .................................................................................................................... 79
Fatigue C o rro s io n ...................................................................................................... 56 C om m on M aterials used in the M anufacture of B o lts ......................................79
M icrobial C o rro s io n ................................. ..................................................................56 A nticorrosion T re a tm e nts used in the M anufacture of B o lts .......................... 79
Stress C o rro s io n ........................................................................................................ 57 H ead T y p e s .......................................................................................................................80
G alvanic C o rro s io n ....................................................................................................58 The Hexagon Head B o lt .......................................................................................... 80
C revice C o rro s io n ...................................................................................................... 59 The C ountersunk H ead B o lt ...................................................................................80
S u s c e p tib ility to C o r r o s io n ........................................................................................ 60 The Internal H exagon H ead B o lt............................................................................ 80
D e te c tin g C o r r o s io n ...................................................................................................... 61 The 12 Point Head or D ouble Hexagon Head B o lt...........................................80
R e m o v in g a n d T re a tin g C o r r o s io n ..........................................................................62 The C levis B o lt ........................................................................................................... 80
C orrosion T reatm ent of Alum inium A llo y s ........................................................... 62 The Eye B o lt................................................................................................................80
S u m m a ry - C o rro s io n C o n tr o l................................................................................... 63 A ir c r a ft B o lt Head Id e n tific a t io n .............................................................................. 81
C lass of F i t .................................................................................................................. 82
6.5.1 Screw Threads N u t s ..................................................................................................................................... 83
Non Self Locking N u t s .............................................................................................83
S c re w N o m e n c la tu r e .................................................................................................... 66
Self Locking N u t s ...................................................................................................... 84
T h re a d F o r m s .................................................................................................................. 67
A n cho r N u t s ................................................................................................................84
S ta n d a rd s fo r S c re w T h r e a d s ................................................................................... 68
T innerm an N u t s .........................................................................................................85
ISO M etric T h re a d s ....................................................................................................68

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S c re w s ................................................................................................................................ 86 In tro d u c tio n .................................................................................................................113

D ifference betw een Bolts and S c r e w s ................................................................ 86 H ollow Saddle K e y ................................................................................................. .113
M achine S c r e w s ........................................................................................................ 86 W o o druff K e y ........................................................................................................... ..113
Structural S c r e w s ...................................................................................................... 86 Flat Saddle K e y ..........................................................................................................113
Self T apping S c re w s ................................................................................................. 87 C i r c l i p s ............................................................................................................................ 114
S t u d s ...................................................................................................................................88 R em oval & In s ta lla tio n .......................................................................................... ..114
D o w e ls ................................................................................................................................ 89
6.5.4 Aircraft Rivets
6.5.3 Locking Device I n t r o d u c t io n .................................................................................................................. 116
W a s h e r s ............................................................................................................................92 The Rivet J o in t ......................................................................................................... 117
In tro d u c tio n ..................................................................................................................92 A ircra ft Solid Shank R iv e ts ................................................................................... 117
Plain W a s h e rs ............................................................................................................. 92 Standardisation of R iv e t s ..................................................................................... 117
Lock W a s h e rs ............................................................................................................. 93 R iv e t H ead S ty le ........................................................................................................... 118
C ountersunk W a s h e r ............................................................................................... 94 B lin d R i v e t s .................................................................................................................. 119
S elf-A lig n in g W ashers............................................................................................... 94 C he rrylock R iv e ts .................................................................................................... 119
Tab W a s h e rs ................................................................................................................95 Bulbed C herrylock R iv e t........................................................................................ 120
Pre-Load Indicating W a s h e r ................................................................................... 97 C herrym ax R iv e ts .................................................................................................... 121
Locking P la te s ............................................................................................................. 98 Pop R ive ts.................................................................................................................. 122
C o tte r P in s / S p lit P in s ................................................................................................. 99 Grip Length of B lin d riv e ts ..................................................................................... 122
C otter Pin / Split Pin S a fe ty in g .............................................................................. 99 R iv n u ts ....................................................................................................................... 123
Flathead P i n s ........................................................................................................... 100 H i-S h e a r P in R iv e t s .................................................................................................... 124
Roll P i n s .................................................................................................................... 100
Taper P in s .................................................................................................................. 101 6.6 Pipes and Unions
G rooved P i n s ........................................................................................................... 101
I n t r o d u c t io n .................................................................................................................. 126
P a l- N u ts .................................................................................................................... 102
P ip e s a n d T u b e s ........................................................................................................... 127
W ire l o c k i n g .................................................................................................................. 103
R ig id F lu id L in e s ......................................................................................................... 128
Safety W iring M e th o d s .......................................................................................... 103
M a te ria ls .................................................................................................................... ..128
G eneral Safety W ire Locking R u le s ................................................................... 104
A lum inium T u b in g ......................................................................................................128
Safety W ire S p e c ific a tio n s ................................................................................... 107
C orrosion - R esistant Steel T u b in g .......................................................................128
Q u ic k R ele ase F a s te n e rs .......................................................................................... 108
Size D e s ig n a tio n s ......................................................................................................129
Dzus F a s te n e rs ........................................................................................................ 108
T u b e C u t tin g .................................................................................................................. 130
C am loc F a s te n e rs .................................................................................................... 110
T u b e B e n d in g ................................................................................................................ 131
Airloc F a s te n e r s ...................................................................................................... 111
Id e n tific a tio n o f T u b in g ............................................................................................. 133
A m a l........................................................................................................................... 112
R ig id P ip e C o n n e c tio n s ............................................................................................. 134
F a ir e y ......................................................................................................................... 112
T ubing F la rin g .............................................................................................................134
K e y s ...................................................................................................................................113
D ouble F la re ............................................................................................................. ..134

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Single F la re .................................................................................................................136 M aterials and C o n s tru c tio n ................................................................................... 165

Flared Tube End F ittin g s........................................................................................ .137
MS Flareless F itting s............................................................................................... .137 6.9 Transmission
HMS F ittin g .................................................................................................................139
I n t r o d u c t io n .................................................................................................................. 168
Brazed S leeves and F ittin g s ..................................................................................139
B a c k la s h ......................................................................................................................168
Sw aged T ube F ittin g s ..............................................................................................139
T y p e s o f G e a r s ..............................................................................................................168
F lu id L in e F i t t i n g s ...................................................................................................... 141
Spur G e a r .................................................................................................................. .168
Pipe F it t in g s ............................................................................................................. .141
H elical G e a r ............................................................................................................. .168
U niversal, or B ulkhead F ittin g s ............................................................................ .141
Bevel G e a r .................................................................................................................169
M etal Seal F it t in g .....................................................................................................142
H ypoid G e a r ............................................................................................................. ..169
AN and AC Flared Tube F ittin g s ........................................................................... 142
W orm G e a r ..................................................................................................................169
Q u ick-D iscon ne ct F ittin g s ........................................................................................144
P lanetary G e a r ...........................................................................................................170
In s ta lla tio n o f R ig id F lu id L in e s ............................................................................ 145
R e p a ir o f R ig id F lu id L in e s ......................................................................................146
F le x ib le F lu id L in e s .................................................................................................... 147
6.10 Control Cables
Flexible Hose C o n s tru c tio n ................................................................................... ..147 I n t r o d u c t io n .................................................................................................................. 172
Flexible Fluid Line Id e n tific a tio n ............................................................................147 C able C o n s tru c tio n ................................................................................................. 172
Types of Flexible P ip e s .......................................................................................... ..148 T y p e s o f C a b le s ........................................................................................................... 173
High Pressure H o s e ............................................................................................... ..149 N on-F lexible C a b le ................................................................................................. 173
Teflon H o s e s ............................................................................................................. ..149 Flexible C a b le ........................................................................................................... 173
Flexible Hose End F it t in g s ................................................................................... ..150 E xtra-F lexible C a b le s ............................................................................................. 173
Installation of Flexible H o s e s .............................................................................. 152 L o c k c la d .................................................................................................................... 173
F ue l L in e s ....................................................................................................................... 153 Nylon C oated C a b le s ............................................................................................. 173
Fuel System C o u p lin g s .......................................................................................... ..153 E nd F i t t i n g s .................................................................................................................. 174
Flexible C o u p lin g s ......................................................................................................153 N icopress Oval S le e v e s ........................................................................................ 176
Gam ah C o u p lin g ...................................................................................................... ..155 T u r n b u c k le s /T u r n b a r r e ls ........................................................................................177
P n e u m a tic a n d A ir S y s te m P ip e s ..........................................................................157 C o m p e n s a tio n D e v ic e s .............................................................................................179
G e n e ra l.........................................................................................................................157 P u l l e y s ............................................................................................................................180
V-Band C lam ps and C o u p lin g s ........................................................................... ..159 C a b le S y s te m C o m p o n e n ts ......................................................................................181
W orm Drive Hose C la m p s..................................................................................... ..161 F a irle a d s .................................................................................................................... 181
Janitrol T Bolt C la m p ............................................................................................... ..161 Pressure S e a ls ......................................................................................................... 182
B e llc ra n k s a nd W a lk in g B e a m s ............................................................................ 184
6.8 Bearings Q u a d ra n ts ...................................... ........................................................................... 186
Torque Tubes and T orq ue A rm s ......................................................................... 186
P u rp o s e o f B e a r in g s ..................................................................................................164
L e v e rs ......................................................................................................................... 187
Types of B e a rin g s .................................................................................................... 164
Push Pull Tube or R o d .......................................................................................... 187
Loads on B e a r in g s ................................................................................................. 164
A tta c h m e n ts ............................................................................................................. 188

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Push Pull C a b le ........................................................................................................ 189 6.10 Control C a b le s ......................................................................................... 218

Bowden C a b le s ......................................................................................................... 189 6.11 Electrical Cables and C o n n e c to rs ..................................................... 218
C o n n e c tio n s ............................................................................................................. 190
A ir c ra ft F le x ib le C o n tro l S y s t e m s ....................................................................... 191 Alphabetic Index.........................................................................221
6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors

In tro d u c tio n ................................................................................................................ 194
C a b le T y p e s .................................................................................................................. 195
C h a ra c te ris tic s ........................................................................................................ 195
C o n s tru c tio n ............................................................................................................. 195
Aircraft E nvironm ental Z o n e s .............................................................................. 196
S p e c ia l P u rp o s e W i r e s ............................................................................................. 197
Shielded W ir e ........................................................................................................... 197
Therm ocouple C a b le s ............................................................................................. 198
Kapton In s u la tio n ....................................................................................................200
Kapton W i r e ............................................................................................................. 200
High T em perature Fire W arning W ir e s ..............................................................202
C oaxial C a b le s ........................................................................................................ 203
W ire I d e n t if ic a t io n ...................................................................................................... 204
System C o d e ............................................................................................................. 205
W ire N u m b e r............................................................................................................. 205
Section N u m b e r ...................................................................................................... 205
W ire T e r m in a ls ............................................................................................................. 208
W ire S p lic e s .................................................................................................................. 210
Pins and S ockets (C o n ta cts).................................................................................211
Plugs and R e c e p ta c le s .......................................................................................... 212
Study Questions
6.1 Aircraft Material - Ferrous..................................................................... 215
6.2 Aircraft Material - Non Ferro u s............................................................ 215
6.3 Composite and Non - M etallic...............................................................215
6.4 C o rro s io n .................................................................................................. 215
6.5 F a s te n e rs .................................................................................................. 216
6.6 Pipes and Unions.....................................................................................217
6.8 B e a rin g s .....................................................................................................217
6.9 T ran sm iss io n ............................................................................................218

F o r training purposes only Cat: A Contents-5
T ra in in g M an u al 6.1 Aircraft Material - Ferrous
6.1 Aircraft Material - Ferrous
C orresponding w ith JAR 66

F o r training purp o se s only Cat: A 1
Strengths of Materials Toughness

The property of a m etal w hich allow s it to be deform ed w ithout breaking.
The strength of m aterials deals w ith the relations betw een external forces applied
to an elastic body and the d eform ations and internal stresses resulting from these Brittleness
applied forces, the use of the p rinciples of strength of m aterials to m eet functional
The property of a m etal to break w hen, deform ed, or ham m ered. It is the resist
requirem ents.
ance to change in the relative position of the m olecules w ithin the m aterial.
C ertain of the fo rm u la s that are used in strength of m aterials calculations are
based solely on m athem atical analysis; others, e m pirical form ulas, are the result Conductivity
of experim ent, te st and observation. The ch aracte ristic of a m aterial which m akes it possible for it to tran sm it heat or
W hether of the fo rm e r o r the latter type m ost of these form ulas m ake use of certain electrical conduction.
concepts and e xperim entally d eterm ined physical properties of m aterials such as
tensile strength, m odulus of elasticity, etc. Durability
T he m eaning of som e of these term s is explained in the follow ing paragraphs: The property of m etal that e nables it to w ithstand force over a period of time.
Properties of Materials M etallic M aterials

Having the nature of m etal or containing m etal.
Hardness
The property of a m aterial that e nables it to resist penetration, w ea r or cutting a c
N on-M etallic M aterials
tion. Having the nature to co ntaining no m etal.
Strength Ferrous M aterials

The ability of a m aterial to w ithstand forces which tend to deform the m etal in any Iron, or any alloy containing iron.
direction, or the ability of a m aterial to resist stress w itho ut breaking.
N on-Ferrous M aterials
Elasticity A m etal w hich contains no iron.
The capability of an object or m aterial to be stretched and to recover its size and
shape after its deform ation.
Plasticity
The property of a m etal w hich allow s it to be reshaped.
Ductility
The property w hich allow s m etal to be draw n into thinner sections w ithout b re ak
ing.
M alleability
T hat ch aracte ristic of m aterial that allow s it to be stretched or shaped by beating
with the ham m er or passing through rollers w ithout breaking.

F o r training p urp o se s only Cat: A 2
Figure 1: Materials

Fo r training purp o se s only Cat: A 3
Alloying agents in steel and applications of alloy 41xx C hrom e-m olybdenu m steel:
steels M ost a ircraft structural steel is a chrom e-m olybdenum alloy that com bines
toughness and high strength with ease of w elding and m achining.
SAE Classification of Steels SAE 4130 is one of the m ost popular alloys, and it is used extensively for
w elded steel structure such as fuselage fram es, landing gear, and engine
M ost of the steel used in aircraft structure is classified according to the SAE fo u r
m ounts. Engine cylind ers and other highly stressed parts are often m ade of
d igit num bering system that identifies its com position. In this system , the digits
SAE 4130 steel.
have the follow ing m eaning:
First digit: basic alloying elem ent 6xxx C hrom e-vanadium steel:
- Second digit: the percentage of the basic elem ent in the alloy C hrom e-vanadium steels are used e xtensively for w renches and other hand
Third and fourth digits: p ercen ta ge of carbon in the alloy in hundredths of tools w here extrem ely high strength and toughness are essential.
a percent
For exam ple, SAE 1020 steel is low -carbon steel that contains 0.20% carbon. Carbon
Som e of the m ost com m only used SAE steels are: C arbon is the m ost im portant elem ent found in steel, mixing w ith the iron to form
com p ou nd s of iron carbides called cem entite. It is the carbon in the steel that a l
1xxx Carbon steel: lows it to be heat-treated to obtain varying degrees of hardness, strength, and
Steels co ntaining betw een 0.10% and 0.30% carbon (SAE 1010 and 1030) toughness.
are classed as low -carbon steels and are used for m aking safety w ire and c e r
The greater the carbon content, the better the ability to heat treat and therefore the
tain se con da ry structural parts w here strength is not critical. Steels containing
higher the tensile strength and the hardness. How ever, increasing the carbon c o n
betw een 0.30% and 0.50% carbon (SAE 1030 and 1050) are m edium -carbon
tent d ecrea ses the m allea bility and the w eldability of the steel.
steels and are used for m achined and forged parts, especially w here surface
hardening is needed. Steel containing betw een 0.50% and 1.05% carbon A high carbon content, up to about 0.953% , may be used w here extrem e hardness
(SAE 1050 and 1105) are high-carbon steel and are used w here extrem e is needed and m alleability is not of prim ary concern. H igh-carbon steel is used in
hardness is required. Springs are m ade of high-carbon steel. the m anufacture of cutting to ols and springs.
Low -carbon steel that co nta ins about 0.203 carbon is used w here a great deal of
2xxx Nickel steel: form ing or deep draw ing is needed, and w here strength is of m inor concern.
Between 3% and 3.75% nickel m ay be alloyed w ith carbon steel to increase M edium -carbon steel, one having betw een 0.253 and 0.503 carbon, is used for a p
its hardness, te nsile strength, and elastic limit w itho ut appreciably decreasing plications w here both strength and ductility, or form ability, are required.
its ductility. SAE 2330 steel is used for aircraft bolts, cable term inals, keys,
clevises, and pins. Sulphur
3xxx N ickel-chrom ium steel: S ulphur is one of the m ore undesirable co nstitu en ts in steel, and as m uch of it as
possible m ust be rem oved in the refining process.
Nickel gives to ug hn e ss to steel, and chrom ium hardens it. Nickel chrom ium
steels such as SAE 3130 and 3250 are used for forged and m achined parts S ulphur causes steel to be brittle when it is being rolled or forged, as it m ixes with
w here high strength, ductility, toughness, and shock resistance are needed. the iron to form iron sulp hid es w hich are in th e ir liquid state at the tem peratures
required for this type of fabrication.

T rain in g M an u al 6.1 Aircraft Material - Ferrous
Using m anganese m ay counteract the effect of any sulphur that is not rem oved C hrom e-m olybdenum steel has the strength, toughness and lightw eight needed to
from the steel. T his converts it into m anganese sulphide, w hich is not d etrim ental m ake it the prim ary steel for aircraft structure and for high-strength engine co m p o
to the steel. nents such as cylinders.
N ickel-chrom e steel is the prim ary alloy used in the m anufacture of aircraft h ard
Manganese w are, and because of its strength and hardness at elevated tem peratures, tu n g
M anganese is alloyed with steel to elim inate som e of the oxides and the sulphur sten-chrom e steel is used fo r high-speed cutting tools.
from the steel, m aking it a clean, tough, and uniform metal. M anganese also im In addition to its im portant function as an alloying elem ent in the m anufacture of
proves the forging characteristics of the steel by m aking it less brittle at the rolling steel, chrom ium m ay be e le ctrolytically deposited on cylinder w alls and bearing
and forging tem peratures. jou rn a ls to provide a hard, w ea r-resista nt surface.
Silicon Molybdenum
W hen this n on-m etallic elem ent is alloyed with steel, it acts as a hardener. W hen O ne of the m ost w idely used alloying elem ents for aircraft structural steel is m o
it is used in sm all quantities, it also im proves the d uctility of the steel. lybdenum . It reduces the grain size of the steel and increases both its im pact
strength and its elastic limit. M olybdenum steels have som e of the best w ear re
Phosphorous sistance and fatigue strength of any of the alloys. This accounts for their popularity
This elem ent raises the yield strength of steel, w hich im proves the resistance of fo r high strength structural m em bers and for engine cylinder barrels.
low -carbon steel to atm ospheric corrosion. No m ore than 0.05% phosphorous is C hrom e-m olybdenum steel responds very well to heat treatm ent, m achines easily,
norm ally used in steel, as more of it will cause the m etal to becom e brittle w hen it and is readily w elded.
is cold.
Vanadium
Nickel
W hen extrem ely high strength is required of steel along with to ug hn e ss and good
N ickel adds strength and hardness to steel and increases its yield strength. And ductility, chrom e-vanadium steel is used. Vanadium used in am ounts up to about
nickel, used as an alloy, slows the critical rate of hardening when the steel is heat- 0.20% im proves the grain structure and increases both the ultim ate tensile
treated. This increases the depth of hardening and produces a finer grain stru c strength and the toughness. M ost w renches are m ade of chrom e-vanadium steel.
ture. Nickel also reduces the te nd en cy of steel to w arp and scale when it is heat-
treated. Nickel is one of the chief ingredients in corrosion resistant, or stainless Tungsten
steel.
T ungsten, which has an extrem ely high m elting point, brings som e of this ch a ra c
Chromium teristic into the steels w ith w hich it is alloyed. T ungsten alloys are used for breaker
contacts in m agnetos and for cutting tools. Tungsten steels retain th eir hardness
This hard high-m elting point elem ent is alloyed with steel to increase its strength even w hen operated red-hot.
and w ear resistance, as well as its resistance to corrosion. It also gives steel a
good m easure of hardness. C hrom ium is usually used in conjunction with other e l Carbon Steel
em ents, such as m olybdenum , nickel, and vanadium , to give steel the special
qualities that are needed in aircraft structure. Pig iron contains m ore than tw o- percent carbon, and when it is refined into steel,
the carbon is burned out and then a controlled am ount of carbon is put back into
C hrom e-vanadium alloy is used w hen extrem ely tough steel is needed for a pp lica the m olten iron.
tions such as w re nch e s and ball bearings.
L ow -carbon steels contain betw een 0.10 and 0.30 percent carbon and are classi
fied as SAE 1010 to SAE 1030 steel. This low carbon steel does not have sufficient

For training purp o se s only Cat: A 5
strength for aircraft structural a pplications, and its use is lim ited to secondary
structure w here the loads are not high.
Low carbon steel is easily w elded and m achines readily, but it does not a ccep t
heat treatm ent satisfactorily.
M edium -carbon steels contain betw een 0.30 and 0.50 percent carbon. The in
creased carbon m akes them accept heat treatm ent.
H igh-carbon steels, w hich are used fo r springs, files, and som e cutting tools, c o n
tain betw een 0.50 and 1.05% carbon. These steels can be heat-treated until they
are extrem ely hard.

F o r training purposes only Cat: A 6
Corrosion-Resistant (Stainless) Steel S tainless steels are m ore d ifficult to cut and form than m any m aterials.
Stainless steels have a m uch greater expansion coefficient than other steels, and
Since the 1940s the term stainless steel, also designated corrosio n-re sistan t steel
they conduct heat at a low er rate; this m akes w elding m ore difficult.
(C R ES), has becom e a household w ord because of its m any applications in c o n
sum er item s as well as in aircraft a pplications, for exam ple fire walls. M any of the stainless steels lose their corrosion resistance under high te m p e ra
tures.
The deve lo pm e nt of stainless steel has m ade possible m any of the outstanding
advances in aircraft, gas-turbine engines, and rockets. In the use of corrosion resistant steels for aircraft, the technician m ust assure that
the proper type is se le cte d for the part of the aircraft involved.
The m ost im portant characteristics of stainless steels are corrosion resistance,
strength, toughness, and resistance to high tem peratures. S tainless steels can be In m ost cases a d am aged part can be replaced by a fa cto ry-m a de part identified
d ivided into three general groups based on their structures: austenitic, ferritic and by the p art num ber; how ever, there are situations w here it is preferable to repair a
m artensitic. part by patching or w elding. In these cases, the correct type of corrosio n-re sistan t
steel (CRES) m ust be chosen.
T he a ustenitic steels are chrom ium (Cr), nickel (Ni) and chro m iu m -nicke l-m an ga -
nese alloys. They can be hardened only by cold w orking, and heat trea tm en t In w elding CRES, ine rt-g as arc w elding is preferred, because this process causes
serves only to anneal them . They are nonm agnetic in the annealed condition, a l less deform ation due to heat expansion of the metal and it prevents oxidisation.
though som e m ay be slightly m agnetic after cold w orking. The expansion of sta inless steel due to tem perature increases m ay be m ore than
tw ice th a t of ordinary carbon steels.
f A ustenitic B ecause of its toughness, stainless steel is m ore difficult to cut, form , shear, m a
Steels are form ed by heating the steel m ixture above the critical range and holding chine, or drill than o rd in a ry steel. For this reason the technician w ho is to w ork with
to form a structure called austenite. A controlled period of partial cooling is allow ed this m aterial su ccessfu lly m ust be expe rie nce d in the necessary processes or
\ follow ed by a rapid quench just above the critical range. m ust be directed by an experienced technician.I
\ Ferritic Table 1: Identification for Heat and Corrosion Resistant Steels

I Steel contains no carbon; they do not respond to heat treatm ent. They contain a
I substantial am ount of chrom ium and m any have a sm all am ount of alum inium . 2XX C hrom ium -nickel-m a n ga ne se (non-hardenable, austenitic, n on m a g
\ They are alw ays m agnetic. netic).
I M artensitic 3XX C hrom ium -nickel (non-hardenable, austenitic, nonm agnetic).
/ Steels are straight chrom ium alloy that harden intensely if th ey are allow ed to cool 4XX C hrom ium , (hardenable, m artensitic, m agnetic).
' rapidly from high tem peratures. They differ from the tw o preceding groups b e
cause they can be hardened by heat treatm ent. 5XX C hrom ium (low chrom ium , heat resisting).
T he m ost w idely used stainless steels fo r general use are those in the 300 series,
called 18-8 because they contain a pproxim ately 18 percent chrom ium and 8 per-
\ cent nickel. Typical of these types are 301, 302, 321 and 347.
Stainless Steels
Although stainless steels have m any a dvantages, there are certain disadvantages
th a t m ust be faced by the fabricator and designer:

Fo r training purposes only Cat: A 7
T ra in in g M an u al 6.2 Aircraft Materials - Non Ferrous
6.2 Aircraft Materials - Non Ferrous

Aircraft Metals and Alloys

M odern aircraft are m anufactured from m any different types of m aterials. T hose
m ost co m m only used are alum inium alloy, titanium alloy, M onel (a nickel alloy),
stainless steel, and chrom e-m olybdenum steel.
Civilian aircraft are constructed p rim arily from heat-treated alum inium alloys, w hile
m ilitary a ircraft are constructed p rim arily from titanium and stainless steel.

Figure 1: Aircraft Materials
APU CONE
TIP FENCE
FORWARD P R E S S U R E BU LKH EAD

F o r training p urposes only Cat: A 11
Aluminium Alloys in this group is 99% , the m inim um for certain grades is higher than 99% , and the
last tw o digits represent the hundredths of a per cent over 99.
Pure (99.0% ) cast alum inium is unsuitable for aircraft structures because it is to
soft. How ever, because of its light w eight (one-third the w eig ht of steel), it is, w hen T hus, 1030 would indicate 99.30% m inim um alum inium , w itho ut special control on
alloyed w ith other m etals or elem ents, an ideal structural m aterial. individual im purities. T he d esignations 1130, 1230, 1330, etc., indicate the sam e
purity w ith special control on one or m ore im purities. Likewise, 1100 indicates m in
A lloyed alum inium is produced in cast o r w ro ug h t form . C ast alum inium has a grain
im um alum inium co nte nt of 99.00% w ith individual im purity control.
structure that is very coarse; thus the m etal is brittle. C ast alum inium is used in the
construction of a ircraft w heel castings and engine crankcases. 2xxx C opper (Cu)
W hen alum inium is w rought, its grain structure is com pressed and tightened as it W hen copper is m ixed w ith alum inium , the alum inium becom es m ore m alleable
is forced into shapes of plates, rods, extrusions, or skins. W rought alum inium used and ductile.
e xtensively in a ircraft construction, is e ither non-heat-treated or heat-treated. M ost
structural aircraft parts are m ade of heat-treated alum inium alloys. D uctility is the ability o f the m etal to be draw n into wire and bar stock. Pure a lu m in
ium is also m alleable and ductile, but the addition of copper e nhances these p h ys
Alloying is m ixing alum inium w ith other m etals to m ake it stronger. W rought and ical properties. The co pp er also acts to p re ven t stress cracks from form ing w hile
cast alum inium alloys are identified by a fo ur-digit num ber, d esignated by the A lu the m etal is w orked and m akes som e alloys, like 2024-T3, shock resistant. C o p
m inium A ssociation of A m erica (A A -N um ber), the first digit of w hich generally ide n per, w hich m elts at 1083°C , is one of the m ost ductile of all the m etals. It can, h o w
tifies the m ajor alloying elem ent. ever, be m ade harder by cold w orking.
The second d igit indicates alloy m odification. If the second digit is zero, it indicates
the original alloy; dig its 1 through 9, w hich are assigned co nsecutively, indicate a l 3xxx M anganese (M n)
loy m odifications. The last tw o digits have no special significance, serving only to M anganese is a grey-w hite, brittle m etal w itch m elts at 1245°C. W hen m anganese
identify the d ifferen t alloys in the group. is m ixed with alum inium , it provides a surface highly resistant to w ea r and co rro
For casting alloys, the fourth digit is se parated from the first three digits by a d e c sion.
im al point, and indicates the form , that is to say casting or ingot.
4xxx Silicon (Si)
Experimental Alloys Although silicon, w hich m elts at 1392°C, is not m etallic, it has properties w hich, in
alloy, m ake alum inium harder but not brittle.
E xperim ental alloys are d esignated according to the four-digit system , but they are
prefixed by the letter X. The prefix is dropped w hen the alloy becom es standard. 5xxx M agnesium (M g)
D uring developm ent, and before they are d esignated as experim ental, new alloys M agnesium w eighs 2/3 as m uch as alum inium . It is strong enough to use s tru ctu r
are identified by serial num bers assigned by their originators. Use of the serial ally only w hen it is allo yed w ith alum inium , zinc, or m anganese. Also, because
num ber is d iscontinued w hen the X num ber is assigned m agnesium is very co rrosive and burns e asily-especially in ribbon or pow der form
it is seldom used in sh ee t form .
1xxx Series
H ow ever, the alum inium m agnesium 5056 rivet is com m only used to hold the skin
In this group, m inim um alum inium content is 99% , and there is no m ajor alloying
onto m agnesium control surfaces. M agnesium m elts at 650 C.
elem ent. The second d igit indicates m odifications in im purity lim its. If the second
d igit is zero, there is no special control on individual im purities.
Digits 1 through 9, w hich are assigned consecutively as needed, indicate special
control of one or m ore individual im purities. The last tw o digits indicate specific
m inim um alum inium content. A lthough the absolute m inim um alum inium content

T ra in in g M anual 6.2 Aircraft Materials - Non Ferrous
7xxx Zinc (Zn)

W hen zinc is m ixed w ith alum inium , the resulting alloy is stiffer and more brittle
than pure alum inium . Zinc (a bluish w hite, lustrous m etal) is brittle at room te m p e r f- v I- ■)
ature but m alleable w hen heated. Z inc m elts at 418°C.
'I - ' /1 i, Vtix .. H/ ... •. f (

Table 1: Basic Designation for W rought and Cast Aluminium Alloys (AA-
Numbering System Lv 1 I h i K • - •v
5 c
Wrought Alloys r ;t .i v Vv V
Cast Alloys
Alloy Number Major Identifying Alloy Number Major Identifying r 4 U r^ v \ h, tv ';.- it

I**
Elements Elements
1xxx 99.0% m inim um 1xx;< 99.0% m inim um VftaUoVe c, * Y I c . A - : , - . 5' k ,x tlv .4

Alum inium A lum inium v!
2xxx C opper 2xx,x C opper .W K:.‘ - vk JyV , _y
3xxx M anganese 3x)o< Silicon w ith added

^ V V , iV . - k V i. if ,'i V
copper and/or
m agnesium
v,
4xxx Silicon 4xxx Silicon j
. k U v-. A '^
«. >V
5xxx M agnesium 5xx/ M agnesium
A* \s . i ‘T-(./ O;
6xxx M agnesium and 6x>g< U nused Series U.C v si . ' -L ' <"*■] v '■* 1> r vV -
Silicon
7xxx Zinc 7 x >q< Zinc - •l ^ ' VÂ
8xxx O ther elem ents 8xxx Tin
9xxx U nused series 9xx,x O ther elem ents
M r , ..?a C * <W Y
ex >0 .)V t^ A 6. c t^
I
'4 MA vvvV

Heat Treatment and increased by returning the m etal to the oven and heating it to a tem perature
m uch low er than that used for solution heat treatm ent. It is held at this tem perature
N onferrous M etal Heat Treatm ent for up to 24 hours and then rem oved from the oven and allow ed to cool in still air.
This precipitation hardening, or artificial aging, greatly increases the strength and
H eat trea tm en t of alum inium , m agnesium , and titanium alloys d iffers in som e w ays
hardness of the metal, but it decreases the ductility; the m etal becom es m ore d if
from heat tre a tm e n t of ferrous m etals.
ficult to bend and form . T his procedure has no effect, how ever, on its corrosion re
sistance.
Alum inium and M agnesium Alloys
Several of the alum inium and m agnesium alloys m ay be hardened by solution heat A lum inium alloys co ntaining zinc, m agnesium , silicon, or copper are given a p re
treatm ent. Unlike ferrous m etals, these alloys are not hard w hen they are first re cipitation heat treatm ent after natural heat trea tm en t is com pleted.
m oved from the quenching m edium , rather they gain their full strength and hard
ness by natural aging over a period of a fe w days. To further strengthen these Table 2: Heat Treatment Temperatures
alloys, they m ay be artificially aged by a process called precipitation heat tre a t
ment. Solution Heat Treatment Precipitation Heat Treatment
Solution Heat Treatment (Natural Ageing) Alloy Temp. Quench Temper Temp. Time of Temper
Som e alum inium alloys m ay be hardened by heating them in a furnace until they °C desig. °C aging desig.
have reached a specified tem perature thro ug h ou t and im m ediately quenching
2017 500-510 C old T4 T
them in w ater. T he m etal does not have its full hardness im m ediately after it is
quenched, but it gains hardness and strength over a period o f several days W a te r
through the process of aging.
2117 500-510 C old T4 T
D uring the aging process, precipitation of the soluble co nstituents from the su p e r W a te r
saturated solid solution of the alloy occurs, and as precipitation progresses, the
strength of the m aterial increases. The subm icroscopic particles th a t are p re cip i 2024 490-500 W a te r T4 T
tated provide the keys, or locks, betw een the grains that resist internal slippage
and distortion w hen a load of any type is applied. 6061 515-525 W a te r T4 160-165 18hr T6
In the process of heat treating 2017 and 2024 alum inium alloys, the grain size is 175-180 8hr T6
reduced w hen the m etal is hot, and it grow s as the m etal cools. For m axim um
strength the m etal m ust be quenched im m ediately after it is taken from the oven 7075 465 W a te r 120 24hr T6
so it w ill have the sm allest grain size possible. If there is a d elay betw een the tim e
the m etal is rem oved from the oven and the tim e it is quenched, the grains w ill
grow large enough for the m etal to becom e susceptible to intergranular corrosion
that form s along the grain boundaries w ithin the m etal.
The heat treated alum inium alloys are exten sively used in a ircraft structures. C o m
m only used heat treatable alloys naturally age hardened are 2117, 2017 and 2024.
Precipitation Heat Treatment (Artificial Ageing)

W hen an alum inium alloy has been solution heat treated, it gains its full hardness
and strength by natural aging, but this strengthening process m ay be speeded up

T rain in g M anual 6.2 Aircraft Materials - Non Ferrous
Application of Aluminium Alloys 2017 Alum inium

2017 com bines excellent m achineability and high strength w ith the result that is
1100 A lum inium one of the m ost w idely used alloys for a utom atic screw m achine w ork. Its strength
This grade is com m ercially pure alum inium . It is soft and ductile and has excellent is slightly less than th a t of 2014. It is a tough, ductile alloy su itable for heavy-duty
w orkability. It is ideal for applications involving intricate form ing because it w ork structural parts. It has good form ability, and m ay be joined by arc or resistance
hardens m ore slow ly than other alloys. It is the m ost w eldable of alum inium alloys, w elding. Brazing or gas w elding is not recom m ended. Its corrosion resistance is
by any m ethod. It is non heat treatable. fair.
It has excellent resistance to corrosion, and is w idely used in the chem ical and 2024 A lum inium
food processing industries. It responds w ell to d ecorative finishes, which m akes it
suitable for giftw are and applications w here eye appeal is a factor. It has the high This is one of the best know n high strength alum inium alloys. W ith its high strength
est therm al conductivity of any alum inium alloy, and its electrical conductivity is and fa tigu e resistance, it is used on structures and parts w here a good strength-
second only to the E C (electrical conductor) grade. to -w e ig h t ratio is desired.
It is readily m achined to a high finish. 2024 in the annealed condition is easily
3003 Alum inium form ed and may be su bse qu en tly heat-treated. Arc or gas w elding is generally not
This is the m ost w idely used of ally alum inium alloys. It is essentially com m ercially recom m ended, although this alloy may be spot, seam or flash w elded.
pure alum inium w ith the addition of m anganese, which increases the strength Since corrosion resistance is relatively low, 2024 is com m only used with an ano-
som e 20% o ver 1100. Thus, it has all the excellent characteristics of 1100 with dised finish or in clad form (Alclad), with a thin surface layer of high purity a lu m in
higher strength. It has excellent corrosion resistance and w orkability, and it m ay ium.
be deep drawn or spun, w elded, or brazed. This alloy is non-heat treatable.
6061 A lum inium
5052 Alum inium
This is the m ost versatile o f the heat treatable alum inium alloys. It has m ost of the
This is the highest strength alloy of the m ore com m on non heat treatable grades. good q ualities of alum inium , and it offers a w ide range of m echanical properties
Fatigue strength is higher than m ost alum inium alloys. In addition, this grade has and corrosion resistance. It can be fabricated by m any of the co m m only used te c h
particularly good resistance to m arine atm osphere and salt w ater corrosion. niques.
It has excellent w orkability. It may be draw n or form ed into intricate shapes, and In the annealed condition it has good form ability. In the T4 condition fairly severe
its slightly gre ate r strength in the annealed condition m inim ises tearing that occurs form ing operations m ay be accom plished. T he T6 properties m ay be obtained by
in 1100 or 3003. The resistance w elding characteristics are equal to those of 1100 artificial ageing. It is w elded by all m ethods and it can be furnace brazed.
or 3003. The resistance w elding characte ristics are equal to those of 1100 and
It is available in the clad form (Alclad) with a thin surface layer of high purity a lu
3003. It has excellent finishing characteristics, and anodic coatings are bright and
m inium to im prove both appearance and corrosion resistance.
clear.
6063 A lum inium
2011 Alum inium
This grade is com m only referred to as the architectural alloy. It w as developed as
2011 is the m ost free-m achining of the com m on alum inium alloys. It also has e x
an extrusion alloy with relatively high tensile properties, excellent finishing ch arac
cellent m echanical properties. Thus, it is w idely used for autom atic screw m achine
te ristics and a high deg re e of resistance to corrosion.
products in parts requiring extensive m achining.
6063 alloy is m ost often found in various interior and exterior architectural a pp lica
It m ay be m achined at high speeds with relatively heavy feeds. It may be resist
tions, such as w indow s, d oors, store fronts and assorted trim item s. It is the alloy
ance w elded. Its corrosion resistance is good, and hardness and strength e xce l
best suited for anodising a pp lications - e ither plain or in a variety of colours.
lent.

7075 Alum inium Cladding of Aluminium Alloys

This is the highest strength alum inium alloy available. Its stren gth-to -w e ig ht ratio Several alum inium a lloys as for exam ple 2024 and 7075 are very susceptible to
is excellent, and it is ideally used for highly stressed parts. corrosion. S heets of such m aterial are clad with a thin layer of pure alum inium with
It may be form ed in the annealed condition and su bsequently heat-treated. Spot 1 % zinc on both sides as a m eans of corrosion protection.
or flash w elding can be used, although arc and gas w elding are not recom m ended. These layers are p erm a ne ntly w elded to the base m aterial in a rolling process at
It is available in the clad (Alclad) form to im prove the corrosion resistance with the high tem perature. O ther than electroplated stock, clad m aterial can be form ed.
over-all high strength m oderately affected. The thickness of the clad layers is about 3 or 5% of the m aterial thickness. An ink
print on US sheet m etal th a t reads Alclad, C lad or Ale indicates that such sheet is
clad.
\« i V ^ r -j v i' \f\C V V,
I- ;; £ v*v. ft
\
v.V ( dcuvcû , a - h . a M 'J
{ 5. y V* £ v
\ I-.'-
u -‘

Figure 2: Cladding of Aluminium Alloys
(Pure Aluminium)
ALclad = claded Material

Rubber Stamp on Sheet
Material thickness
in Inch

Magnesium high structural strength w hich it retains to a high tem perature. It is used in turbine
engines, and for aircraft skins in areas w here the tem perature is high.
M agnesium a lloys are used frequently in structures in cast, forged, and sheet form .
The greatest a dvantage of m agnesium is that it is one of the lightest m etals for its Titanium m ay be w orked by m ethods sim ilar to those used with sta inless steel, but
strength. it requires som e special techniques, and the tools used m ust be kept very sharp.
It m ay be w elded, but because it reacts with oxygen at high tem peratures, it m ust
The d isa dva ntag es in the use of m agnesium sheet are that it is m ore su bject to
be protected from the air with a blanket of helium or argon gas. For this reason,
corrosion than m any m etals, it is not e asily w orked at room tem peratures, and if it
inert-gas arc w elding is used.
becom es ignited, it is extrem ely d ifficult to extinguish.
W hen m agnesium is used in an airplane structure, it can often be recognised by
the fa ct that it has a yellow ish surface due to the chrom ate tre a tm e n t used to p re
vent corrosion and furnish a su itable p aint base.
W hen te chn icia ns encounter m agnesium in an aircraft, they m ust know that it ca n
not be cut easily b ut is likely to tear, it cannot be bent or otherw ise w orked under
norm al te m p era ture s, it is subject to corrosion and therefore should be treated with
the proper coating, and it presents a certain degree of fire hazard.
W hen standard parts are m ade of m agnesium , this fact w ill usually be stated in the
m anufacture’s o verhaul and service m anuals. Also in the m anuals w ill be d ire c
tions fo r proper treatm ent of such parts.
Because of m agnesium 's tendency to corrode easily, it is incum bent upon the
technician to m ake sure that the correct hardw are items, such as the correct rivets,
bolts and screw s, are used with any m agnesium parts; for exam ple, rivets used
w ith m agnesium should be m ade of 5056-H alum inium alloy. Any m etal part used
with m agnesium should be of a com patible m etal or there should be m etal-to-m etal
contact.
Monel Metai
The value of M onel lies principally in its strength and corrosion resistance. It is a
nickel alloy of approxim ately tw o-thirds nickel and one-third copper. Sm all
am ounts of o the r m etals such as Iron and M anganese m ay also be included.
M onel is nonm agnetic in all conditions. It is easily w orked in a m anner sim ilar to
steel and has com parable strength. K-M onel includes a sm all a m o un t of alum inium
and is heat-treatable to develop m axim um strength. It is particularly useful in m an
ufacturing durable parts that are or m ay be subjected to corrosive conditions.
Titanium
Titanium is a m etal th a t has been deve lo pe d w ithin the past fifty ye ars into an im
portant a ircraft structural m aterial. It is lightw eight and corrosion resistant, and has

Fo r training p urp o se s only Cat: A 18
T rain in g M an u al 6.3 Composite and Non-Metallic
6.3 Composite and Non-Metallic

T ra in in g M an u al 6.3 Composite and Non-Metallic
The three Classifications of Plastics Figure 1: Thermosets "Uncured”
Thermosets
Plastics w hich are not softened by heat are known as therm osets. M ost of them
start as liquid resins w hich are hardened by chem ical curing. So how does this
w ork?
If you could look at a polym er resin under a p ow erful enough m icroscope, you
w ould see m illions of very long m olecules. They w ould be tangled up rather like a
plate of spaghetti. This gives the resin its thick, syrupy consistency, but it can be
poured and shaped like any other thick liquid.
During the curing process, chem ical links, called crosslinks, form betw een the p ol
ym er m olecules, and these have the e ffe ct of fixing them in one position.
The polym er beco m e s rigid and stays in the sam e shape. O nce this has hap
pened, it can't be reversed and the p olym e r is fixed in a perm a ne nt shape.
Polyesters are the m ost w idely used therm osets in com posite m ouldings. M ost
boats, cars, w a te r tanks and o the r e veryda y Fibre R einforced Plastics articles are
based on polyesters. This is because they are cheap and very easy to use, but
w hen high p roperties are required, regardless of expense, epoxies, or epoxy res
ins, produce m uch better com posites. This is w hy they are preferred for the a e ro
space industry.

T rain in g M anual 6.3 Composite and Non-Metallic
Figure 2: Thermosets "Cured" Elastomer

The third group of plastic m aterials is called elastom er. If the m olecules in a p o ly
m er are linked to ge th er by a sm all num ber of valency bonds so that a loose net
w ork is form ed then a rubber like m aterial is form ed called an elastom er, and this
w ill have m ore elastic p roperties than a sim ple therm oplastic.
For exam ple:
- Silicon rubber
Tires
Solid Polymer Seals
- Sealing com p ou nd s
Crosslinks
Thermoplastic
Are Polym ers in w hich the m olecules are held to ge th er by w eak secondary b on d
ing forces soften w hen they are heated and so they are called therm oplastics.
T herm oplastic foils, sheets, plates can be form ed into d ifferen t shapes by applying
tem peratures of a bo ut 100°C to 200°C.
T his can be done o ver and over again.

For training p u rp o se s only Cat: A 21
Composite Materials Polyester Resin

P olyester resins are pop ular for aircraft construction. Pure p olyester is thick and
Just as m etal replaced w ood and fabric, new g en erations of a ircraft are being
unw orkable, so it is m ixed w ith another form of resin called styrene. If a m ixture of
m ade of m aterials destined to replace m uch of the m etal in a ircraft structure. polyester and styrene resins is allow ed to sit for a tim e it will cure into a solid mass,
These m aterials are plastic resins reinforced with filam ents of glass, carbon, Kev- so inhibitors are added to pre ven t this unw anted hardening.
lar, and boron. L e t’s look first at the resins used as the m atrix for these reinforcing
W hen you are ready to use the resin, add a ca talyst that suppresses the inhibitors
fibers.
and allow s the polyester m olecules to join to ge th er and cure; the curing tim e may
be decreased by adding a sm all am ount of another chem ical, called an a cce le ra
Plastic Resins
tor.
Plastics have replaced so m any m aterials in our daily life that we take them for
P olyester resins cure w hen heat causes the individual m olecules to join together
granted, and w e som etim es fail to appreciate this fam ily of truly w onderful m ateri
to form chains. Part of this heat is produced w ithin the resin by the chem ical action
als. In this section we w ill consider the resins used in aircraft construction and the
betw een the catalyst and the accelerator. It is this internal heat that causes a thick
m aterials that are used to reinforce them . W e can b asically divide plastic resins
layer of resin to cure m ore rapidly than a thin layer because the th ick layer slow s
into two groups: th erm op la stic and therm osetting.
the escape of the heat.
Thermoplastic Resins P olyester resins shrink as th ey cure. This is helpful when bonding m etal fittings
into a fiberglass structure as the shrinkage tightens the grip on the m etal. Care
T herm oplastic resins are those that can be softened by heat and will again b e
m ust be taken w hen applying long strips of fiberglass tape over a fla t surface so
com e hard w hen th ey cool dow n. T he m ost w idely used application for th e rm o p la s
that the shrinkage d oes not d istort the base surface. To prevent this distortion, s e v
tic resins in m odem aircraft construction is fo r w ind shield s and side w indow s.
eral short lengths of tape m ay be used rather than a single long piece.
M any of the earlie r therm oplastic resins w ere m ade of cellulose, a d erivative of co t
S pecial care m ust be e xercised w hen mixing polyester resins to use the exact p ro
ton. C ellulose nitrate w as one of the first therm oplastic resins, and it had the d ra w
cedure recom m ended by the resin m anufacturer. Do not mix ingredients from d if
back of being highly flam m able. C ellulose acetate has m ost of its characteristics
ferent m anufacturers. Use a ccurate scales and clean containers, and do not use
and is less flam m able.
polyesters w hen the te m p era ture is lower than 18' C or higher than 3 0 X . Mix
C ellulose acetate w as used for w ind shield s and side w indow s on m any of the very enough extra resin to m ake a test leap. If this te st lay up, made w ith identical resin
early lightplanes. W hen view ed along its edge, it has a slightly yellow tint, and and using identical procedures, gives the results you w ant, you m ay proceed co n
w hen it is e xposed to sunlight it becom es brittle, discolours, and shrinks. It w ill burn fidently w ith the actual job.
and when it ignites it produces a sm oky, sputtering flam e and an u npleasant
odour, Acetone will dissolve cellulose acetate m aterial. Epoxy Resin
A crylic resins sold under the trade nam es of Plexiglas, Lucite, and Perspex have Epoxy resins are strong, resistant to m oisture and chem icals and have extrem ely
alm ost com p le te ly replaced cellulose acetate resins in aircraft construction. A cryl good adhesion ch aracte ristics. There are m any d ifferent types of epoxy resins,
ics are m ore transparent, and are considerably stiffer than cellulose acetate. and they are used as the m atrix for m any of the advanced com posite m aterials.
Epoxy resins differ from polyester resins in th a t epoxy uses a curing agent rather
Thermosetting Resins than a catalyst. A typical mix of polyester resin calls for 64 ounces of resin and 1
A therm osetting resin w ill not soften w hen it is heated, and it w ill char and burn b e ounce of catalyst to produce 64 ounces of catalyzed resin. A typical epoxy resin
fore it m elts. The m ost im portant application for therm osetting resins in aircraft calls for mixing 1 part of curing agent with 4 parts of resin to produce 5 parts of
construction is as a m atrix to hold filam ents of glass, graphite, aram id, and other m aterial.
m aterials. These reinforced resins are w idely used under the collective nam e of
com posites.
C orresponding with JAR 66 /■* * . a oo

F o r training purp o se s only C 3 tl A 22
Reinforcing Materials Figure 3: Glass Fiber Fabrication

T he resins ju st d iscussed are used o nly to bond fibers of various m aterials to g e th
er. It is the fibers them selves that produce the strength and rigidity that m ake c o m
posite structures of such im portance in aircraft construction. In this section we will
d iscuss the fibers m ost w idely used in aircraft construction.
Glass Fibers
G lass fibers w ere one of the first reinforcing m aterials fo r aircraft com posite co n
struction and th ey are still used fo r m any applications even though they w eigh
m ore and have less strength than m any of the other fibers.
There are tw o typ es of fiberglass cloth for use in aircraft construction: E glass is
the original glass fabric, and S glass, w hich is stronger, tougher, and stiffer, and
w eighs slightly less than E glass.
Fiberglass is availab le in several form s. Fiberglass m at is a collection of fibers
pressed loosely to ge th er w ith just enough polyester resin to hold them in place.
M at is used as a fill when low cost is m ore im portant than strength.
Roving is sim ilar to mat, but the fib ers are form ed into a long loose strand. O O
Bidirectional cloth is woven of glass fibers with the m ajor fiber bundles running in
O Op G 1ass ba 11s
both the length of the fabric (warp threads) and w idth of the fabric (fill threads). U ni
o °o °o
directional cloth has all of the m ajor fiber bundles running in the direction of the
length of the fabric, and they are w oven together with sm all cross fibers that do not Pressured
air spray
carry any of the load.
Discoutinious fibers
Perforated drum for

fiber suction
SILICONNE SPOOL

G raphite (Carbon Fibre)

Thin filam ents of graphite, or carbon, are made into both bidirectional and u nidi
rectional sheets. It is extrem ely stiff and strong, and is m ore brittle than Kevlar. It
has the problem of being corrosive w hen it is bonded d irectly to alum inium alloys.
By orienting several layers of u nidirectional graphite fabric in the co rrect directions,
a ircraft structures can be m ade rigid enough to w ithstand flight loads not tolerated
by m ore conventional types of a ircraft construction.
Aram id
A ram id is m ost com m only know by th e nam e Kevlar w hich is trade nam e given to
A ram id by the Du Pont C hem ical C om pany of the U.S.A.
Kevlar
K evlar is an aram id fib er that is excep tion ally well adapted for use in aircraft stru c
ture. It has high tensile strength and excellent stiffness, toughness, and resistance
to im pact, and it is lighter than e ither glass or graphite. It is available in both b id i
rectional and u nidirectional cloths.

Fo r training p u rp o se s only Cat: A 24
Woven Products Figure 4: Plain Weave.
These are p roduced from threads form ed by tw isting to ge th er glass fibre strands,
just as other fib re s are tw isted w hen they are to be w oven. Like other w oven fa b
rics, a variety of d ifferen t w eaves can be produced from the threads, but in this
case they have im portant differences in properties rather than being m ade for their
appearance.
T he nature of th e w oven cloth produced depends on the n um ber of threads w hich
run along the length of the fabric, called the warp, and the num ber running across
it, called the w eft, as well as the w ay they cross each other.
Plain Weave
In this type of cloth, each w arp and w eft passes over one thread and under the
next. This is a good general purpose cloth.

Twill Weave Satin Weave

In this type of cloth, the num ber of w arp and w eft th re ad s passed over is varied. A In this type of cloth, each w eft passes over all but one of the w arps. This gives a
typical w eave is 2 x 2 twill. This m eans that each w eft passes over two w arps and sm ooth surface, and even higher tensile strength.
under two. This give s good tensile strength.
Figure 6: Satin W eave
Figure 5: Twill Weave
Warp
mu
o L i
O
£ 3
© o £ 2
o C
© Weft 2 Weft
0 ~j ... —»-
C
0
3
© \ 2
© c 3
o rz 2
o c
1

Unidirectional Weave
In this type of cloth, the w arp threads are straight and parallel. The w eft threads
are occasionally added to keep them in place. This gives very high strength in one
direction, but it is w ea k in the w eft direction.
Figure 7: Unidirectional Weave

Prepregs Figure 8: Prepreg Manufacturing
A prepreg is a sh ee t of fibre reinforcem e nt im pregnated w ith the resin/hardener

system . The resin is chosen so that it is fairly solid at room tem perature in its u n
cured state. It initially softens into a liquid when it is heated, and then crosslinks to
form a cured solid.
The advantages of a prepreg are that the resin/catalyst ratio and the fib re /resin ra
tio are carefully controlled by the m anufacturer. Each batch of prepreg is identical.
A lso the resin is a lready spread e venly th ro ug h ou t the fibres.
Of course p repregs can only be used for hot curing system s because th ey m ust
not cure during storage.
All that rem ains fo r the operator to do to produce a good lam inate from prepregs
is to cut them to shape, stack them properly on the m ould and cure them correctly
in the autoclave.
P repregs are usually bonded with a film adhesive. C onsistently good com posites
can be produced from prepregs.
R esins are cured in 3 stages:
A STA G E : W et resin,
- B STA G E : G elled resin (prepreg),
C S TA G E : C ured resin.

Film Adhesives Figure 9: Film Adhesives

Film adhesives are sim ilar to prepregs. They are used fo r bonding m etal to metal,
sandw ich core to skin and
- G FR P (G lass Fibre R einforced Plastic)
A FR P (A ram id Fibre R einforced Plastic)
- C FRP (C arbon Fibre R einforced Plastic)
A dhesives are available as unsupported and supported film s. Supported film s co n
tain a knitted nylon carrier.
Film adhesives are supplied on a release paper backing, in rolls with Polythene in
terleaving to p rotect the adhesive in storage and w hen being handled; these c o v
erings m ust be rem oved before the adh esive can be used. 6XTERHAL
DOUBLER
H eavy rolls should be stored on a horizontal m andrel passed through the tube core
on w hich the roll is w ound. This will avoid the risk of local thinning of the film under
the full w eight of th e roll.
T he film adhesive has to be cured under a curing cycle, in accordance w ith the
ABHESIVE FILR
S tructural R epair M anual.
T he film adhesive has to be stored under refrigeration at -18°C.
Foaming Adhesive Film

A foam ing a dhesive film is an adh esive in sheet form w hich expands during the
curing cycle, to fill gaps and adhere strongly to all parts of the structure w ith which
it com es into contact. It is m ainly used for the repair of honeycom b sandw ich p an
els as a honeycom b core splice and as an edge filling.
T he foam ing adh esive is designed fo r use in conjunction w ith structural adhesive
film s and prepregs. Therefore it has to be cured under a curing cycle, in a c c o rd
ance with the S tructural Repair M anual.
Foam ing adhesive film s have a lim ited shelf at room tem perature.
Therefore they should be kept under refrigeration at -18°C.

Core Materials Foam

Alum inium alloy has a high enough tensile strength that a very thin sheet m ay be M any of the com p osite -co nstru ction h om ebuilt aircraft are m ade by laying resin-
strong enough fo r a given application, but this thin sheet does not have enough im pregnated fiberglass or Kevlar fabric over a foam form . T here are two basic
stiffness to m ake it a totally adequate structural m aterial. O ne of the early incu r types o f foam used for this purpose, S tyrofoam and urethane foam .
sions into the field of com posite m aterials w as done by bonding end-grain balsa The S tyrofoam used fo r a ircraft construction is not the same m aterial used fo r c o f
wood betw een tw o thin sheets of alum inium alloy. The m etal p rovided the strength, fee cups and picnic ice chests. It is closed-cell foam w hose cell size and density
and the balsa w ood provided the thickness and thus the stiffness w ithout adding are carefully controlled. S tyrofoam is cut w ith a hot wire, and it m ust be used with
too m uch w eight. This type of co m posite is called sandw ich construction. e poxy resin, as polyester resin w ill dissolve it.
Sandw ich construction in which a lightw eight core m aterial is bonded betw een U rethane foam has an advantage over S tyrofoam in that, unlike S tyrofoam , it is
face plies of m etal or resin-reinforced fa bric is used today for all types of aircraft fuel proof. It m ust not be cut w ith a hot w ire as it gives off noxous fum es, but it can
from hom e built m achines to high-speed, state-of-the-art m ilitary aircraft. be cut and shaped w ith a sharp knife. E ither epoxy or polyester resins can be used
with urethane foam .
Figure 10: Honeycomb
H oneycom b
NODES CELL W hile foam finds m ost of its applications in lightw eight aircraft construction, h on
eycom b is used as the sandw ich core for m ost of the high-perform ance a pp lica
tions. H oneycom b for a ircra ft structural applications is m ade of alum inium , paper,
fiberglass, stainless steel, and N om ex@ , w hich is gaining a high degree of p o p u
larity. H oneycom b is m ade by form ing the core m aterial into a ribbon which c o n
tains a series of crim ps, then joining them together. H oneycom b core m aterial is
norm ally loaded in such a w ay that com pressive stresses are im posed p erpe nd ic
ular to the cells, in the th ickne ss direction. T he core has little strength in its width
d irection, and it is im p orta nt w hen replacing a piece of honeycom b core to be sure
that the cells are properly oriented so that the length, or the ribbon, of the new
piece runs in the sam e d irection as the length of the core in the dam aged area.

F o r training p u rp o se s only Cat: A 30
Damage to Sandwich Structures Figure 11: Damage Inspection
W hen honeycom b sandw ich structures are dam aged, the effect is usually se pa ra
tion of the honeycom b from the FRP skins. The honeycom b is bonded to the skins
by very fine bond lines along the edges of the honeycom b walls, and these are fa ir
ly easily broken. As the structure relies on the core for support, the w hole co m p o s
ite is w eakened.
If the sandw ich is hit very hard, the core m ay be crushed, but this degree of d a m
age is rare.
Damage Inspection
One of the g re ate st problem s caused by replacing alum inium w ith sandw ich s tru c
tures, is inspection for dam age. U nfortunately, w hen a com posite is hit, m ost of the
dam age takes place at the back, so it is possible for the com ponent to look OK,
but be badly d am aged inside.
This applies to sandw ich structures even m ore because the core is much softer
than the skin, and you cannot see the back of the panels.
D am age of this kind is often referred to as Barely Visible D am age (BVD).
< T > M EASURED FROM LONGEST A XIS

OF V IS IB L E DAMAGE

Visual Inspection Figure 12: Coin Tap Test

V isual inspection is the sim plest and m ost econom ical inspection m ethod and is
routinely used for process control and final part inspection.
A dequate, controlled lighting is necessary and visual aids, such as m irrors, bore-
scope, m agnifying glasses, m icroscopes and other optical devices are used to in
spect for d efects and m issing com ponents.
Coin Tap Test

To detect internal flaws, or areas suspected of delam ination, a coin tap test is
used. Coin tap lightly along a bond line or area suspected of having delam ination.
Listen for variations in the tapping sound. A sharp solid sound indicates a good
bond. A dull thud indicates bond separation.
H owever, changes in the thickness of the part, reinforcem ents, fa ste ne rs and p re
vious repairs m ay give false readings. W henever dam age is found visually, coin
tap around the area to find dam age such as a delam ination that cannot be seen
visually. M uch of the tim e if there is a hole, crack or other dam age, there is also
d elam ination around the area.
Radiographic (X-Ray) Inspection

R adiography (X-ray) is a useful tool for the inspection of com posite parts. R adiog
raphy provides an excellent m eans to exam ine the interior of honeycom b parts for
co nditions such as m isalignm ent, m issing parts, core dam age, inclusions, foam
porosity, foreign objects, etc.
Ultrasonic Inspection
U ltrasonic inspection has becom e the m ost w ide ly used m ethod for detecting in
ternal fla w s in com posite lam inates and honeycom b assem blies. In this m ethod,
high frequency sound e nergy is introduced into the test part, and interpretation of
the returned signals d ete rm ine s the presence o' porosity, voids, delam ination, dis-
bonds, and other ano m a lie s associated with com posite m aterials.

Repair of Composite Structure Figure 13: Drills
The Water Break Test

The w ater break test is a sim ple m ethod of determ ining w he th er the surface to be
bonded is clean. It is best suited to m etals. A pply d istilled w ater to the surface. If
the w ater film does not break up into droplets, the surface is assum ed to be free
of contam ination. U niform w etting of the surface by distilled w ater indicates that it
will probably be likew ise w etted by adhesive. Side view End view
It m ust be born in m ind that certain plastics, even w hen clean, m ay not be w etted
B ro d -p o in t d r ills a re u se d to d r ill K e v la r without le a v in g fuzz inside the hole.
by distilled w ater but will be w etted by the adhesive.
Drying Composite Panels

To dry out co m posite panels they should be vacuum bagged as show n heated to
norm ally 150°F fo r one hour. If the tem perature exceeds 150°F a build up of p re s
sure may dam age the part.
Cutting and Sanding Composite Materials

Side view End view
You can cut uncured reinforcing m aterials with conventional heavy-duty industrial
fabric shears, b ut th ere are special ceram ic-blade shears w ith serrated edges that
S p a d e d r ill fo r d r illin g gra/Hutc m a teria l
are better fo r cutting Kevlar. The set-rations hold the fibers, allow ing the cut to be
m ade with a m inim um of pulling and fraying.
C ured co m posite m aterials m ay be cut, drilled, and otherw ise m achined.
Som e of the tools used for w orking w ith com posites are d ifferent from those used
with metal.

Vacuum Bagging
Vacuum bagging is probably the m ost effective m ethod to apply pressure to a re
pair. It is recom m ended for use w he ne ver possible. If you are w orking in an area
w ith high hum idity, vacuum bagging should be used. High hum idity m ay effect the
cure of the resins and the vacuum bag system evacuates the air and the hum idity.
Vacuum Bagging Lay-Up

P erforated parting film ; a llow s air to be draw n from the repair.
S urface bleeder; absorbs any resin drawn from the repair.
Solid parting film ; prevents resin escaping onto the heat blanket and
causing dam age.
Surface breather; draw s air from around the repair.
C aul plate (optional); helps m aintain the original shape of the part being
repaired.
Heat blanket; supplies heat to the repair.
Insulation; prevents heat escaping from the repair.
Vacuum bag; applies pressure to the repair.
T acky ta pe (extruded sealing com pound); prevents air getting in.

Figure 14: Vacuum Bagging Lay-Up
VACUUM GAUGE
VACUUM BAG FILM VACUUM SOURCE
THERMOCOUPLE
(Optional)
HEATING BLANKET
BREATHER
LAYERS REQUIRED
CAUL PLATE (Optional)
FOR TEMPERATUR
APPLICATION BREATHER
NON PERFORATED
ESSENTIAL FOR PARTING FILM
REPAIR PROCESS BLEEDER
QUALITY
EDGE BREATHER,
or ROPES (2)
VACUUM BAG
SEALANT TAPE
PEEL PLY
PERFORATED
THERMOCOUPLE PARTING FILM

Edge Delam ination Safety Around Composites

M inor edge d elam ination can som e tim e s be repaired by injecting resin into the C ertain chem icals used w ith com posite construction cause allergic reactions for
d elam ination, clam ping the edge and allow ing the resin to cure. som e people, so take p recautions w hen w orking with them . Take special care
w hen handling ch em ica ls classified as hazardous m aterials, and be sure to d is
Figure 15: Edge Delamination
pose of their residue in a m anner that com plies with local environm ental req uire
m ents.
Skin Care
Take special care to keep the chem icals used in com posite construction and repair
from direct contact w ith the skin. If any of them do, w ash them off im m ediately.
W ear latex or butyl gloves w hen w orking w ith these chem icals, and w ear a shop
coat to prevent the ch em ica ls from contam inating your clothing and holding the v a
pors in contact with your skin.
There are protective hand gels that can be used on your hands before w orking with
the resins. These gels leave a thin, invisible, flexible film on your hands that p re
vent the chem icals getting to your skin. The gel is easy to w ash off w hen the w ork
is finished. T ypically this protective gel m ust not be used when w earing gloves.
Eye Care
T ake all p recautions to protect your eyes. It is extrem ely im portant to w ear goggles
that provide com plete eye protection w hen w orking with com posite m aterials. Be
HYPODERMIC NEEDLE sure that the goggles you w ea r protect your eyes from splashed ch em ica ls as well
as from sanding dust and particles that fly w hen you cut or drill the cured m aterials.
If you should get any ch em ica ls in your eyes, rinse them im m ediately with plenty
of fresh w ater and g et m edical assistance at once.
R espiratory Care
Particles of glass and graphite produced by sanding can be extrem ely hazardous
to your lungs, and you should not sand w ithout w earing a respirator that protects
against these particles. W hen w orking with resins such as epoxies in a poorly v e n
tilated area, you should w ear a respirator m ask designed to protect against these
vapors.

Sealants Figure 16: Chevron Seals
High-Pressure Seals
Seals are used th ro ug h ou t hydraulic and pneum atic system s to m inim ize leakage
and the loss o f system pressure. There are tw o types of seals in use, gaskets and
packings. G askets are used when th ere is no relative m otion betw een the parts
th a t are being sealed, and packings are used w here relative m otion does exist be
tw een the parts. Cross section of a chevron seal
Chevron Seals
There are m any d ifferen t kinds of seals used in a ircraft applications. These seals
range all of the w ay from flat paper gaskets up through com plex, m ulticom ponent
packings. V-ring packings, or chevron seals are found in m any h igh-pressure a c
tuators. C hevron seals are single-direction seals with the pressure applied to their
open sides. T hey are usually installed either in pairs, or in larger stacks w ith m etal
backup rings and spreaders used to force the lip of the seal tightly a ga in st the s u r
faces being sealed. The am ount the chevron seal spreads is dete rm ine d by the
tightness of the adjusting nut that holds the seal on the shaft.
Chevron seals

O-ring Seals Figure 18: O-ring Backup in High Pressure Systems

M any m odern hydraulic and p neum atic system s use O -rings fo r both packings and
gaskets. O -rings are fitted into grooves that are usually a bo ut 10% w ider than the
w idth of the O -ring, and deep enough that the distance betw een the bottom of the
groove and the other m ating surface is a little less than the cross-sectional d ia m
eter of the O -ring. This provides the sq ue eze needed fo r the O -ring to seal under
co nd itio ns of zero pressure. If the O -ring is not squeezed, fluid w ill leak past it.
Figure 17: O-Ring

IF THERE IS NO BACKUP RING, THE HIGH PRESSURE WILL
EXTRUDE THE O-RING BETWEEN THE MOVING
PARTS.
Other mating surlace
(A)
j Groove width
10% greater O-ring slightly squeezed
5' approx O-ring not squeezed
provides seal allows leakage
V/ /
V /'/.
Y /Z //////7 //A
A BACKUP RING PREVENTS THE EXTRUSTION OF
THE O-RING.
End view of groove and mating surlace Correct fit of O-ring Incorrecl fit of O-ring
<B>
An O -ring seal of the correct size can w ithstand p ressures of up to about 1,500 psi Figure 19: Backupring Installation
w itho ut distortion, but beyond this, there is a tendency fo r the ring to extrude into
the groove betw een the tw o m ating surfaces. The next Figure show s that as the si
pressure of the fluid increases, the O -ring begins to w edge in tight betw een the sm
w all of the groove and the inside of the cylinder. To prevent this, an anti-extrusion,
THE CORRECT SPIRALING OF THE BACKUP RING
or backup, ring is used. There are tw o types of antiextrusion rings in use. O ne is GIVES THIS PLACEMENT OF THE CHAMFERS.
m ade of leather, and the other is m ade of Teflon. (A)
Leather rings are installed in such a w ay that the hair side of the ring, the sm ooth
side, is against the O -ring. Before installing a leather backup ring, soften it by s o a k
ing it in the fluid the ring will be used w ith.
INCORRECT SPIRALING WILL CAUSE THE RING TO BE
S piraled Teflon backup rings are used fo r pressures higher than 1,500 psi. The DAMAGED WHEN PRESSURE IS APPLIED.
(B)
ends of the Teflon ring are scarfed, and it is possible fo r the ring to spiral in such
a direction that the scarfs w ill be on the w rong side, and the ring will be dam aged.
F igure 19: B ackupring In sta lla tio n ” on p a g e 38 show s im proper and proper in s ta l
lations. A show s the proper spiral, B the im proper installation and C show s the w ay WHEN PRESSURE IS APPLIED, THE CORRECTLY
INSTALLED BACKUP RING WILL PROVIDE A SMOOTH
the ring looks after pressure has been applied and the ring has taken its set. SURFACE ON BOTH SIDES.
(C)

T-Seals Figure 20: T-Seal Identification

A n othe r type of tw o -w ay seal is the T -seal shown in F igure 2 0 : T-Seai Id en tifica
tio n ” on pag e 39. T his seal can fit in the standard O-ring grooves, and is backed
up w ith two Teflon backup rings. T -seals are m ost often installed in high-pressure
(3,000 psi) system s. Color
Teflon backup rings Use
Seal Identification Blue dot or stripe A ir or M IL-H -5 60 6 fluid
Red d o t or stripe Fuel
The m aterial of w hich a seal is m ade is dictated by the fluid used in the system . Yellow dot S yn th e tic en gine oil
Seals are identified by colored m arks. Figure 20: T-Seal Id e n tific a tio n ” on p a g e 39.
T-Seal W hite stripe P etroleum -base
There is perhaps no other com ponent as sm all as a h ydraulic seal upon w hich so en qine oil
m uch im portance is placed. The correct seal and a w rong seal m ay look alike, and G reen dash P ho sph ate ester
it is highiy probable that if the w rong seal is installed, it m ay appear to w ork. The hyd rau lic fluid
m aterial of which the seal is made, its age, and its hardness are all im portant when
m aking the proper replacem ent. W hen replacing seals in a h ydraulic system , use
only the specific p art num ber of the seal specified by the a ircraft m anufacturer.
Purchase seals from the equipm ent m anufacturer or a reputable aircraft parts su p o \c ^ * r~
■A- (H/A) W a M
plier, and they should be sealed in individual packages m arked with the part
num ber, the com position of the seal, the nam e of the m anufacturer, and the cure
date. The cure date is the date the seal w as m anufactured, and it is given in q u a r LAj^CV<S •
ters. For exam ple, 2Q 94 indicates th a t the seal was m anufactured in the second
lr
quarter, during the m onths of April, M ay, or June, of 1994. R ubber goods are not
considered fresh if they are more than 24 m onths old.
H ydraulic seals m ust be bought only from a reputable supplier, because out-of-
date seals can be repackaged and stam ped with a fresh date. The old seal could
be installed in good faith by an aviation m aintenance technician and still fail b e
cause of deterioration. Yet, the technician is liable for the failure because installing
an im proper part in an aircraft is a violation of Federal A viation R egulations.

Seal Installation W hen installing an O -ring over a sharp edge, cover the edge w ith paper, a lu m in i
um foil, brass shim stock, or a piece of plastic, as in Figure 2 3: P rocedures fo r
W hen installing O -rings, take extrem e care that the ring is not tw isted, nicked, or
p ro p e r O -R ing in s ta lla tio n " on page 42.
dam aged by either sharp edges of the threads over w hich the ring is installed or
by the installation tool. Figure 2 1: Installation T o o ls” on p a g e 40 show s som e of
the special O-ring installation and rem oval tools that can be used. These to ols are
usually m ade of brass and are polished so that there are no sharp edges that could
nick the seal.
Figure 21: Installation Tools
V\
L
0 0
Pull type W edge type Pull type
(external-internai) (external-internal) (heavy duty)
Pull type Push type

(internal) (internal)
a e ::
Push type Pull type
(external) (external-internal)
Spoon type
(left- and right-hand external)
Figure 2 2: P rocedures fo r p ro p e r O -R in g re m o va l” on p a g e 41 show s how to use

these O-ring installation tools, and the p ro pe r m ethod o f installing and rem oving,
O -rings in both internal and external grooves.

Figure 22: Procedures for proper O-Ring removal

B a cku p ring s
E x tra c to r to o l
E x tra c to r tool
R e m o va l to o l (h o o k type )
E xtra c to r to o l (p u ll ty p e )
R e m o v a l to o l (h o o k type ) E x tra c to r to o l (p u sh type)
In te rn a l O -rin g re m o va l u sing p u ll-ty p e e xtra cto r In te rn a l O -rin g re m o v a l u sing p u sh type e x tra c to r

a n d h o o k type re m o va l to o ls a nd h o o k ty p e re m o v a l too ls
O -ring O -ring
E xtra cto r tool

In se rte d under 0 rings)
R e m o va l to o l (h o ok type ) E x tra c to r tool (p u sh typ e ) R e m o v a l to o l (h o o k type ) E x tra c to r to o l (w e d g e type)
D u a l in te rn a l O -ring re m o v a l u sin g p u s h type e x tra c to r In te rn a l O -rin g re m o v a l u sing w e d g e ty p e e x tra c to r

a n d h o o k typ e re m o va l to o ls and h o o k ty p e re m o v a l too ls
R e m o v a l to o l (h o o k type )
E x tra c to r to o l (w e d g e type )
E x te rn a l O -rin g re m o va l u s in g sp o o n type E xte rn a l O -rin g re m o v a l u sing w e d g e ty p e e x tra c to r

e x tra c to r a nd re m o val tools a n d h o o k ty p e re m o v a l tools

Figure 23: Procedures for proper O-Ring installation Wipers

O -rings and chevron seals do not seal around the shaft com pletely. Enough fluid
is allow ed to leak to lubricate the shaft, and this lubricant attracts dust.
A felt w ipe r is usually installed in a counterbore around the shaft to keep the seals
from being dam aged w hen the shaft is retracted into the cylinder. This w ipe r re
m oves any dirt or dust w itho ut restricting the m ovem ent of the shaft.
O-ring receiving groove
Internal O-ring installation using metallic

sleeve to avoid O-ring damage.
Sharp edges and corners
Paper entering sleeve O-ring receiving grooves

Internal O-ring installation using paper External O-ring installation using paper
sleeve to avoid O-ring damage cover to avoid O-ring damage.

F o r tra inin g purp o se s only Cat: A 42
Sealing Compounds Sealant Curing

C ertain areas of all aircraft are sealed or to prevent corrosion by sealing against The curing rate of m ixed sealant varies w ith tem perature and hum idity. For e x a m
the w eather. M ost sealant consists of tw o or more ingredients that are c o m p o u n d ple, at tem peratures below 15°C curing is extrem ely slow. H ow ever, a tem perature
ed to produce a d esired com bination of strength, flexibility, and adherence. Som e above 21 C typically results in a faster curing tim e. A tem perature of 25°C with 50
m aterials are ready fo r use as packaged, but others require m ixing before a p p lica p ercen t relative hum idity is the ideal condition for curing m ost sealant.
tion. If you m ust accelerate the curing tim e of a sealant, you m ay increase the te m p e r
ature by applying heat. H ow ever, the te m p era ture should not be allow ed to exceed
O ne-P art Sealant 50°C at any tim e in the curing cycle. Heat can be applied by using infrared lam ps
O ne-part sealant is prepared by the m anufacturer and is ready fo r application as or heated air. If heated air is used, it m ust be properly filtered to rem ove m oisture
packaged. How ever, the consistency of som e of these com p ou nd s can be altered and dirt.
to satisfy a particular application m ethod. For exam ple, if thinning is required, th in
H eat should not be a pplied to any faying surface sealant installation until all w ork
ner recom m ended by the sealant m anufacturer is mixed. is com pleted. All faying surface applications m ust have all attachm ents, p erm a
nent or tem porary, co m p le te d within, the application lim itations of the sealant.
T w o-P art Sealant
S ealant m ust be cured to a tack-free condition before applying brush top coatings.
T w o-pa rt sealant is com pounds requiring separate packaging to prevent curing
T ack-free consistency is the point at w hich a sh ee t of cellophane pressed onto the
prior to application. The two parts are identified as the base sealing com pound and
sealant no longer adheres.
the accelerator. C om bining equal portions (by w eight) of the base and a ccelerator
com pounds generally m ixes tw o-part sealant and any deviation from the p re
scribed ratios can reduce the m aterial’s quality.
To ensure the proper ratio is used, all sealant m aterial should be carefully w eighed
in accordance with the m anufacturer’s recom m endations. S ealant m aterials u su
ally w eighed w ith a balance scale e qu ipped w ith w eights specially prepared for
various quantities of sealant and accelerator. To ensure a proper mix ratio, the
base and a ccelerator should be thoroughly stirred before they are w eighed. A c c e l
erator, which is dried out, lum py or flaky, should be discarded. Som e m an ufa ctu r
ers produce p re-w eighed sealant kits th a t require no w eighing. In this case the
entire q uantity provided is mixed.
A fter the proper am ount of base com pound and a ccelerator has been determ ined,
the a ccelerator is added to the base com pound. Im m ediately after adding the a c
celerator, thoroughly mix the tw o parts by stirring or folding, depending on the m a
te ria l’s consistency. Mix the m aterial carefully to prevent air e ntrapm ent in the
m ixture. Avoid rapid or pro-longed stirring, since it shortens the sealant available
w orking tim e. To ensure a com pound is well m ixed, test a sm all portion by sm ea r
ing it on a clean, fla t m etal or glass surface. If flecks or lum ps are found, continue
m ixing. If the flecks or lum ps cannot be elim inated, the batch should be rejected.
The w orking life of m ixed sealant typically ranges from a h alf-hour to fo ur hours,
depending on the se alan t class. Therefore m ixed sealant should be applied as
soon as possible or placed in refrigerated storage.

Sealer PR 1422 Processing

G eneral PR1422 A 1/2
Brand nam e: PR 1422 A 1/2, PR 1422 B 1/2, V iscosity: Fluid
PR 1422 A 2, PR 1422 B 2 C om pound R elationship: 100/10

(Resin / Accelerator)
M anufacturer: Product and R esearch & C hem ical Corp.
W orking-life: 1/2 hour
Burbank, C alifornia
T ack-free after: 8 hour
Kind and A pplication
C ure tim e at 25°C 48 hour
Kind: 2 com ponent Thiokol sealer C ure tim e at 50 C 10 hour
A pplication: A ircraft general, Fuel Tank seals, K e rose ne -resist PR1422 A 2

ant, good adhesion
S pecification: M IL-S 8802F, T ype I, C lasses A & B V iscosity: Fluid
C om pound R elationship: 1 0 0 /1 0
Chem ical com position (Resin / Accelerator)
Resin: W orking-life: 2 hour

Polysulfid (Thiokol)
A ccelerator: D ichrom ate
Add. com p, for “A ” : C ure tim e at 25°C 72 hour

Toluol, MEK

PR 1422 B Vz Rule of thum b

A tem perature drop of 5°C will double the curing tim e.
Viscosity: C onsistent - A tem perature rise of 5PC will halve the curing tim e.
N ote: Do not exceed 50°C at any tim e in the curing cycle.
C om pound R elationship 1 0 0 /1 3 .5
(Resin / A ccelerator)
W orking-life: 1/2 hour
PR1422 B 2
Viscosity: C onsistent
C om pound R elationship: 1 0 0 /1 3 .5
(Resin / A ccelerator)
W orking-life: 2 hour

F o r training purposes o nly Cat: A 45
T ra in in g M an u al 6.4 Corrosion
6.4 Corrosion

T rain in g M an u al 6.4 Corrosion
Corrosion General Chemical Corrosion

Pure chem ical corrosion results from direct exposure of a bare surface to caustic
C orrosion is a natural phenom enon, w hich attacks m etal by chem ical or electro
liquid or gaseous agents. The m ost com m on agents causing direct chem ical c o r
chem ical action and converts it into a m etallic com pound, such as an oxide, hy
rosion include:
droxide, or sulphate. C orrosion is to be distinguished from erosion, w hich is p rim a
rily destruction by m echanical action. Spilled b attery acid or fum es from batteries.
R esidual flux d eposits resulting from inadequately cleaned, w elded,
T he corrosion o ccurs because of the tendency for m etals to return to th e ir natural
brazed, or soldered joints.
state. Noble m etals, such as gold and platinum , do not corrode since they are
chem ically u ncom bined in their natural state. All corrosive attacks begin on the Entrapped ca ustic cleaning solutions.
surface of the m etal.
Electro Chemical Corrosion
The corrosion p ro cess involves tw o chem ical changes. The m etal that is attacked
or oxidised u ndergoes an anodic change, with the corrosive agent being reduced E lectro chem ical corrosion is sim ilar to the electrolytic reaction that takes place in
and undergoing a cathodic change. T endency of m ost m etals to corrode creates a dry cell battery. W hen the num ber of electrons m atches the num ber of protons
one of the m ajor problem s in m aintenance of the aircraft, particularly in areas in an atom , the atom is said to be e lectrically balanced.
w here adverse environm ental or w e a th e r conditions exist. H ow ever, if there are m ore or few er e lectrons than protons, the atom is said to be
S om e m etals, under the right conditions, produce corrosion products th a t are so charged and is called an ion. If there are m ore electrons than protons, it is a neg
tightly bound to the corroding m etal th a t they form an invisible oxide film (called a ative ion, but if there are m ore protons than electrons, it is a positive ion. An ion is
passive film), w hich prevents fu rthe r corrosion. W hen the film of corrosion p ro d unstable, alw ays seeking to lose or gain electrons so it can change back into a b al
ucts is loose and porous, an electrolyte can easily penetrate and continue the c o r anced, or neutral, atom .
rosion process, producing more exten sive dam age than surface appearance
w ou ld show.
M ost pure m etals are not suitable fo r aircraft construction and are used only in
com bination w ith o the r m etals to form alloys. M ost alloys are made up e ntirely of
sm all crystalline regions, called grains.
C orrosion can o ccur on surfaces of th ose regions, w hich are less resistant, and
also at b oundaries betw een regions, resulting in form ation of pits and intergrannu-
lar corrosion. M etals have a wide range of corrosion resistance.
T he m ost active m etals (those w hich tend to lose electrons easily), such as m ag
nesium and alum inium , corrode easily. The m ost noble m etals (those, w hich do
not lose electrons easily); such as gold and silver do not corrode easily.
Chemical Fundamentals
T he re are tw o general classifications of corrosion, chem ical and electro ch em ical;
how ever, both types involve two sim u ltan e ou s changes. The m etal that is attacked
or oxidised suffers an anodic change, and the corrosive agent is reduced and s u f
fers a cathodic change.
C orresponding with JA R 66
Figure 1: Electrolytic Reaction M icrobiological

For years, w ater that condensed in fuel tanks produced relatively m inor corrosion
problem s. Jet aircraft, how ever, use a high viscosity fuel that holds m ore w ater in
suspension than other aviation fuels.
This w ater contains m icroscopic anim al and plant life called m icrobes. These o r
g anic bodies live in the w ater and feed on the hydrocarbon fuel.
Furtherm ore, the dark insides of the fuel tank prom ote their grow th, and in very
short periods of tim e th ese tiny creatures m ultiply and form a scum inside the tank.
This scum can grow to cover the entire bottom of a tank and hold w ater in contact
with the tank structure. This provides a place for concentration cell corrosion to
form . If the scum form s along the edge of the sealant in an integral fuel tank, the
sealant can pull aw ay from the structure, causing a leak and an expensive re-seal-
ing operation.
Stress
Stress corrosion occurs w hen m etal is subjected to a tensile stress in the presence
of a corrosive environm ent.
The stresses in the m etal can com e from im proper quenching after heat treatm ent,
or from an interference fit of a fastener. Stress corrosion can be tra n sgra nu la r or
inter granular in nature. C racks caused by stress corrosion grow rapidly as the c o r
rosive attack concentrates at the end of the crack rather than along its sides.
Figure 2: Stress Corrosion
Formation of Corrosion
*& sr ..
C orrosion is a very general term and it m aybe caused by a variety of form s, three
form s are listed below. l
G alvanic Action
T his com m on type of corrosion occurs any tim e tw o d issim ila r m etals m ake e le c
trical contact in the presence of an electrolyte.
tsi ■‘ • a
For exam ple, galvan ic corrosion can take place w here d issim ilar m etal skins are
riveted together, or w here alum inium inspection plates are attached to the struc
ture with steel screw s.
£ :■ y ' - v v , .- n s:

Effects of Corrosion Both bare and clad alu m in ium alloys resist corrosion in non-m arine areas. W here
airborne salts and/or industrial pollutants are present, all alum inium alloys require
M ost m etals are su bject to corrosion, but corrosion can be m inim ized by the use protection. The corrosion product of alum inium is a w hite-to-grey pow dery m a te ri
of corrosion resistant m etals and finishes. The principal m aterial used in airfram e al, w hich can be rem oved by m echanical polishing or brushing with m aterials s o ft
structure is high-strength alum inium alloy sheet coated (clad) w ith a pure a lu m in i er than the metal.
um coating (alclad) w hich is highly resista nt to corrosion on attack. G eneral surface atta ck of alum inium p en etra tes slow ly but is accentuated in the
H ow ever, with an a ccum ulation of airborne salts and/or industrial pollutants along p resence of dissolved salts. C onsiderable attack can usually ta ke place before s e
w ith an electrolyte (m oisture) pitting of the alclad will occur. O nce the alclad s u r rious loss of structural strength.
face is broken, rapid deterioration of high-strength alum inium alloy below occurs.
O ther m etals com m only used in airfram e structure, such as non-clad high-strength Factors Which Influence Metal Corrosion
alum inium alloys, steel, and m agnesium alloys, require special preventive m ea s
Som e factors w hich influ en ce m etal corrosion and the rate of corrosion are the:
ures to guard a ga in st corrosion.
- Type of m etal
- A lum inium alloys, fo r exam ple, are usually anodised (a chem ical c o a t
- Presence of a dissim ilar, less co rrod ible metal (galvanic corrosion)
ing), or alum inium applied plating, then prim ed and possibly top coated
w ith paint. - Anode and ca th o d e surface areas (in galvanic corrosion)
Steel (except m ost stainless steels) and other m etals, such as brass and T em perature
bronze, require cadm ium plating, zinc plating, and alum inium coating etc. Heat trea tm en t and grain direction
M agnesium alloys are highly susceptible to corrosion attack, e specially Presence of e le ctrolyte s (hard w ater, salt w ater, battery fluids, etc.)
w here airborne salts and/or industrial pollutants are present and require - A vailability of oxygen
special ch em ica l and electro chem ical treatm ents and paint finishes. - Presence of d iffe re n t concentrations of the sam e electrolyte
- Presence of bio log ica l organism s
Effects of Corrosion on Metals
M echanical stress on the corroding m etal
T he ch aracte ristics of corrosion in co m m on ly used a ircraft m etals are:
- Tim e of e xposure to a corrosive environm ent
Steel:
C orrosion of steel is easily recognised because the corrosion pro du ct is Causes of Corrosion
red rust. W hen iron-base alloys corrode, dark corrosion products usually
form first on the surface of the m etal. These p roducts are protective. C orrosion is an electro ch em ica l reaction of a m etal with its environm ent. The n e c
essary condition for th is reaction is an e lectrical potential differen ce and an e le c
H ow ever, if m oisture is present, this fe rro us oxide coating is converted to hydrated trolyte.
ferric oxide, which is red rust. This m aterial w ill prom ote fu rth e r attack by absorbing
m oisture from the air. The m ost practical m eans of controlling corrosion of steel is C orrosive agents such as:
com plete rem oval o f corrosion products by m echanical m eans and by m aintaining Acids
the protective coating system (usually a plating, often com bined with a paint s y s Alkalis
tem ). Salts
A lum inium : - The atm osphere
A lum inium and its alloys exhibit a w ide range of corrosive attack including
- W ater
uniform surface, galvanic, pitting, intergranular, exfoliation, crevice,
- M icro-organism s give the best co nd itio ns for corrosion to start w hen they
stress, and fretting corrosion.
com e in co nta ct w ith the m etal surface

Acids Marine Atmosphere

Most acids will cause corrosion on most of the alloys, which are used in the con The atmosphere in marine areas contains salt chlorides, or droplets of salt-satu-
struction of an aircraft. But in the list which follows you are given those acids which rated water. Corrosion on aluminium and magnesium alloys will occur very easily
can quickly cause corrosion: in this type of atmosphere. This is because saline moisture is a good electrolyte.
- Sulphuric Acid (battery acid)
Water
Halogen Acids (hydrochloric)
Hydrofluoric (hydrobromic) Water contains mineral and organic impurities and dissolved gases, for example
oxygen. The amount of these impurities will change the corrosion strength of w a
Organic Acids such as human and animal waste
ter. Corrosion on aluminium and magnesium alloys will occur very easily in this
Alkalis type of atmosphere. This is because saline moisture is a good electrolyte.
Alkalis do not usually cause corrosion as much as acids. But aluminium is very Micro-Organism
sensitive to alkaline solutions, which do not contain a corrosion inhibitor.
It is not unusual to get the water in aircraft fuel tanks, this water can contain iron
The list that follows gives you some of the alkaline solutions to which aluminium oxides and mineral salts. This water can also contain micro-organisms, these or
alloys are especially sensitive: ganisms make the water into slime. This slime will increase the rate of corrosion if
Wash Soda corrosion occurs.
Potash
- Lime
Salts
Most salt solutions are good electrolytes and can cause corrosion. On some stain
less steel alloys corrosion does not occur by a salt solution. Aluminium alloys and
steels are very sensitive to some solutions which contain salt.
The Atmosphere
The general atmosphere contains moisture and oxygen, which are the primary
causes of corrosion. Corrosion of ferrous alloys will occur in the general atm os
phere, if they have no protection.
There are other gases and contamination in the atmosphere, which also cause
corrosion, for example, the atmosphere in industrial and marine can give special
problems.
Industrial Atmosphere
The atmosphere in industrial areas will frequently contain oxidised sulphur and ni
trogen compounds. When these compounds mix with moisture they make an acid
which easily causes corrosion.

Electro-Chemical Series for Metal Aluminium is more negative than copper and will act as the anode in the galvanic
action that takes place. Within the metal itself, the forces are such that there will
One of the basic characteristics of metals is their electrode potential. This simply
be no flow of electrons between the two alloying agents until an external path is
means that when two dissimilar metals are placed in an electrolyte, there will exist
provided to form a com plete circuit. This path is provided by the electrolyte, which
between these two metals an electrical potential or voltage. This force will cause
may be a surface film of moisture, which contains such pollutants as acids, salts,
the electrons in the more negative material to flow to the less negative material the
or other industrial contam ination’s. In our illustration we will stick with a little hydro
cathode if a conductive path is provided.
chloric acid in the atmosphere.
Figure 3: Electro-Chemical Series for Metal
The electrode potential difference between the aluminium and the copper grains
causes positive ions to exist within the aluminium. When the electrolyte film covers
O Magnesium the surface, the aluminium ions attract chlorine ions from the hydrochloric acid and
5 Zinc form aluminium chloride, the salt of corrosion.
O 7075-T clad aluminum alloy Hydrogen ions will be attracted to the copper by the electrons from the aluminium.
^ 5056 aluminum alloy These hydrogen ions will become neutralised and form molecules (H2) which
Pure aluminum leave the surface as a free gas. Corrosion has formed on the anodic aluminium but
A 2024 clad aluminum alloy no corrosion products are evident on the copper, the cathode.
Cadmium
This type of electro chemical attack produces pits filled with the salts of corrosion
2024 aluminum alloy
and is usually rather localised. But, if the entire surface is covered with a strong
Steel
Iron electrolyte, there will be so much more corrosion that it will produce a more or less
Lead uniformly damaged area. This type of corrosion is called a direct chemical attack.
Chromium Figure 4: Direct Chemical Attack
Brass and bronze
u Copper
Stainless steel
(j Titanium
q Monel
O Silver
Nickel
< Inconel
<-> Gold
Electro Chemical Action

A piece of aluminium alloy such as alloy 2024, of which most aircraft structure is
made. In the material, copper is alloyed with aluminium, and the microscopic
grains of the copper and the aluminium serve as the cathode and the anode for
our explanation.

Types of Corrosion Intergrannular Corrosion

Intergrannular corrosion is an attack along the grain boundaries of the metal with
Pitting Corrosion h( \ only smaller or no indication on the surface. Each grain has a clear defined bound
The most common type of corrosion on aluminium and magnesium is pitting. Pit ary, which differs from the metal within the grain centre.
ting first appears as a white, powdery deposit. It starts on the surface of a material The grain boundary and the grain centre can react with each other as anode and
and then extends vertically into the material. cathode when it gets contact with an electrolyte. Rapid selective corrosion at the
This type of corrosion is dangerous because of the vertical extension, which de grain boundaries can occur with delamination.
crease the material strength. You do not get a large indication of this type of cor High strength aluminium alloys like 2024 and 7075 can develop intergrannular cor
rosion on the material surface. This corrosion can be the starting point of rosion if they have been improperly heat treated and are then exposed to corrosive
intergranular corrosion. environments.
For example: contam ination’s during the alloy process, metal chips, or electrolyte
Figure 6: Intergranular Corrosion
liquids can cause pitting.
Figure 5: Pitting Corrosion
CORROSION PRODUCTS
MOISTURE

Filiform Corrosion Figure 7: Filiform Corrosion

Filiform corrosion is a special form of oxygen concentration cell corrosion or crev
ice corrosion, which occurs on metal surfaces having an organic coating system.
It is identified by its characteristic worm-like trace of corrosion products beneath
the paint film.
Filiform occurs when the relative humidity of the air is between 78 and 90 percent
and the surface is slightly acid. Corrosion starts at breaks in the coating system
and at fastener heads and extends along the surface of the painted sheet under
neath the coating.
If filiform corrosion is not removed the corrosion can lead to intergrannular corro
sion, especially around fasteners and at seams. Filiform corrosion can be removed MOISTURE
by using glass bead blasting material with portable abrasive equipment and/or
sanding.

Exfoliation Corrosion Fretting Corrosion

Exfoliation corrosion is an advanced form of intergrannular corrosion where the Damage can occur at the interface of two highly loaded surfaces, which are not
surface grains of a metal are lifted up by the force of expanding corrosion products supposed to move against each other. However, vibrations may cause the surfac
occurring at the grain boundaries just below the surface. Exfoliation is most prone es to nib together resulting in an abrasive wear known as fretting.
to occur in wrought products such as extrusions, thick sheet sand, and thin plates, The protective film on the metallic surfaces is removed by the rubbing action. The
which have elongated flat type grain structure. continued rubbing of protective oxide film exposes fresh active metal to the atm os
Figure 8: Exfoliant Corrosion phere. Fretting can cause severe pitting.
Dampening of vibration, tightening of joints, application of a lubricant or installation
of a fretting resistant material between the two surfaces can reduce fretting corro
sion.
CORROSION PRODUCTS Figure 9: Fretting Corrosion
CORRODED AREA AL ALLOY
TOPCOAT
PRIMER
CORROSION
PRODUCTS
Corresponding with JAR 66

Fatigue Corrosion However, mould, bacteria, or other microbes attack some moisture proofing coat
ings, especially if the surfaces on which they are used are contaminated. Microbial
Fatigue corrosion is caused by the combined effects of cyclic stress and corrosion.
growth occurs at the interface of water and fuel, where the fungus feeds on the-
No metal is immune to some reduction in its resistance to cyclic stressing if the
fuel. Organic acids, alcohol’s, and esters are produced by growth of the fungus.
metal is in a corrosive environment. Damage from fatigue corrosion is greater than
the sum of the damage from both cyclic stresses and corrosion. These by-products provide even better growing conditions for the fungus. The fun
gus typically attaches itself to the bottom of the tank and looks like a brown deposit
Fatigue corrosion occurs in two stages. During the first stage the combined action
on the tank coating when the tank is dry. The fungus growth may start again when
of corrosion and cyclic stress damages the metal by pitting and crack formation to
water and fuel are present.
such a degree that fracture by cyclic stressing will ultimately occur, even if the cor
rosive environment is completely removed. The second stage is essentially a fa The spore form of some micro-organisms can remain for long periods while dry,
tigue stage in which failure proceeds by propagation of the crack (often from a and can become active when moisture is available. When desiccants become sat
corrosion pit or pits) and is controlled primarily by stress concentration effects and urated and unable to absorb moisture passing into the affected area, micro-organ
the physical properties of the metal. isms can begin to grow. Dirt, dust, and other airborne contamination’s are the least
recognised contributors to microbial attack. Unnoticed, small amounts of airborne
Fracture of a metal part, due to Fatigue corrosion, generally occurs at a stress lev
debris may be sufficient to promote fungal growth.
el far below the fatigue limit in laboratory air, even though the amount of corrosion
is relatively small. For this reason, protection of all parts subject to alternating Microbial corrosion can be minimised with a maintenance program which includes
stress is particularly important, even in environment that are only mildly corrosive. frequent sump draining, tank inspection, total removal of microbial growth, and ap
plication of biocide with effected soak periods.
Microbial Corrosion
Figure 10: Microbial Corrosion
Microbial attack includes actions of bacteria, fungi, or moulds. Micro-organisms
occur nearly everywhere. Those organisms causing the greatest corrosion prob
lems are bacteria and fungi. M IC R O ORGANISMS
Bacteria may be either aerobic or anaerobic. Aerobic bacteria require oxygen to

live. They accelerate corrosion by oxidising sulphur to produce sulphuric acid.
Bacteria living adjacent to metals may promote corrosion by depleting the oxygen
supply or by releasing metabolic products.
Anaerobic bacteria, on the other hand, can survive only when free oxygen is not
present. The metabolism of these bacteria requires them to obtain part of their sus
tenance by oxidising inorganic compounds, such as iron, sulphur, hydrogen, and
carbon monoxide. The resultant chemical reactions cause corrosion.
Fungi are the growths of micro-organisms that feed on organic materials. While
low humidity does not kill microbes, it slows their growth to prevent corrosion dam
age. Ideal growth conditions for most micro-organisms are temperatures between
68 and 104° F (20 and 40° C) and relative humidity between 85 and 100 percent.
It was formerly thought that fungal attack could be prevented by applying moisture-
proofing coatings to nutrient material or by drying the interiors of compartments
with desiccants.

////m
B asic M a in te n a n c e Module 6 M
SR Technics WJ T ra in in g M an u al
Galvanic Corrosion Figure 12: Galvanic Corrosion

Galvanic corrosion occurs when two dissimilar metals make electrical contact in
the presence of an electrolyte. The rate which corrosion occurs depends on the
difference in the activities.
The greater the difference in activity, the faster corrosion occurs. For example,
MOISTURE
magnesium would corrode very quickly when coupled with gold in a humid atm os
phere, but aluminium would corrode very slowly in contact with cadmium.
The rate of galvanic corrosion also depends on the size of the parts in contact. If
the surface area of the corroding metal (the anode) is sm aller than the surface
area of the less active metal (the cathode), corrosion will be rapid and severe.
When the corroding metal is larger than the less active metal, corrosion will be
slow and superficial.
For example, an aluminium fastener in contact with a relatively inert Monel struc
ture may corrode severely, while a Monel bracket secured to a large aluminium
member would result in a relatively superficial attack on the aluminium sheet.
D ec99/ju C orresponding with JAR 66

C opyright b y S R Technics F o r training p urposes only
B asic M a in te n a n c e Module 6 M
SR Technics T ra in in g M an u al
Stress Corrosion Figure 11: Stress Corrosion

Stress corrosion cracking is an intergrannular cracking of the metal, which is
caused by a combination of stress and corrosion. Stress may be caused by inter
nal or external loading.
Internal stress are produced by non-uniform deformation during cold working, by MOISTURE
unequal cooling from high temperatures, and by internal structural rearrangement
involving volume changes.
Internal stresses are induced when a piece of structure is deformed during an as
sembly operation (i.e. during pressing in bushings, shrinking a part for press fit, in
stalling interference bolts, installing rivets, etc.).
Concealed stress is more important than design stress. Corrosion is difficult to rec
ognise before it has overcome the design safety factor. The level of stress varies
from point to point within the metal. Stresses near the yield strength are generally
necessary to promote stress corrosion cracking, but failures may occur at lower
stresses.
Specific environments have been identified which cause stress corrosion cracking
of certain alloys. Salt solutions and seawater may cause stress corrosion cracking
of high strength heat treated steel and aluminium alloys. Methyl alcohol-hydrochlo-
ric acid solutions will cause stress corrosion cracking of some titanium alloys.
Magnesium alloys may stress corrode in moist air. Applying protective coatings,
stress relief heat treatment, using corrosion inhibitors, or controlling the environ
ment may reduce stress corrosion.
Shot peening a metal surface increases resistance to stress corrosion cracking by
creating compressive stresses on the surface which should be overcome by ap
plied tensile stress before the surface sees any tension load, and therefore, the
threshold stress level is increased.

C opyright b y S R Technics Fo r training purposes only
Crevice Corrosion
Crevice corrosion is a form of concentration cell corrosion. This is corrosion of met
al in a metal-to-metal joint, and corrosion at the edge of a joint. Sealing of joints
and gaps and using of protective coatings in the fraying surface area can reduce
crevice corrosion.
Figure 13: Crevice Corrosion
Electrolyte Metal
O xygen
O xygen
Rim A rea (Noble)
Expanding C orrosion Product

Susceptibility to Corrosion Lavatories and Food Service Areas

Organic materials such as food and human waste are highly corrosive to alum ini
Metals are arranged to show the relative ease with which they ionise in what is
um surfaces, and the areas where this type of material may be spilled must be
called the electro-chemical series. The earlier a metal appears in the series, the
carefully inspected.
more easily it gives up electrons. In other words, a metal that gives up electrons is
known as an anodic metal and corrodes easily. On the other hand, metals that ap Galleys, or food service areas, are especially troublesome as there is a possibility
pear later in the series do not give up electrons easily and are called cathodic met that some of the food particles can get into cracks under or be hind the galley.
als. While this material may not in itself be corrosive, if it is not removed, it can hold
water against the metal and cause it to corrode.
Figure 14:
The lavatory, or toilet, area is an especially important location to check for corro
sion. Human wastes are usually corrosive and they promote corrosion in a hurry if
(Nobility) Most Anodic they are allowed to remain on the skin or to get into cracks or seams in the struc
ture. Disinfectants used in this area may even cause further damage. Check any
Will give up electrons most easily.
disinfectant that is carried in the aircraft to be sure that is it is not of a type that is
harmful to aluminium. Aircraft that have relief tubes must have the area around
MAGNESIUM and behind the discharge of the tube carefully inspected for indication of corrosion.
ZINC The area where discharge contacts the aircraft skin must be painted with an acid-
CLAD 7075 ALUMINUM ALLOY proof paint.
COMMERCIALLY PURE ALUMINUM (1100)
CLAD 2024 ALUMINUM ALLOY
CADMIUM
7075-T6 ALUMINUM ALLOY
2024-T3 ALUMINUM ALLOY
MILD STEEL
LEAD
TIN
COPPER
STAINLESS STEEL
SILVER
NICKEL
CHROMIUM
GOLD

B asic M a in te n a n c e Module 6 IV
SR Technics VM T ra in in g M an u al
Removing and Treating Corrosion Chemical Treatment

After removing all of the corrosion products possible, treat the surface with a five
W hen corrosion is discovered on an aircraft structure, all traces of it must be re percent solution of chromic acid to neutralize any traces of the corrosion salts that
moved, and the surface treated to prevent the formation of more corrosion. might possibly remain. After the acid has been on the surface for at least five min
In this section we will consider some of the methods of removing the corrosion de utes, wash it off with water and blow the surface dry.
posits and treating the surface.
Alodine treatment that conforms to MILL-C-5541 specification may also be used.
It not only neutralizes the corrosion residue, but it also forms a protective film on
Corrosion Treatment of Aluminium Alloys the surface of the metal.
Since most of the metal in an aircraft structure is aluminium alloy, it is important to
understand the best way of treating it to prevent the recurrence of corrosion. Protective Coatings
After all of the corrosion deposits have been removed and the surface of the metal
Mechanical Corrosion Removal neutralized, the surface must be covered to prevent air or moisture from reaching
After all of the paint has been removed from the surface, you must remove all trac the unprotected metal. There are several methods used to keep electrolytes away
es of the corrosion products. Mild corrosion may be removed by scrubbing the af from the surface.
fected area with a nylon scrubber such as a “Scotch-Brite” pad, or by using a
household abrasive cleaner that does not contain any chlorine.
More severe corrosion can be removed with aluminium wool or with an aluminium
wire brush. Be sure that you do not use a steel wire brush or steel wool, because
little pieces of the steel will break off and embed themselves in the aluminium.
These tiny bits of steel will cause severe corrosion. You can also blast the surface
with glass beads smaller than 500 mesh to remove the deposits from pitting cor
rosion. After brushing or abrasive blasting, examine the cleaned surface of the
metal with a 5- to 10-power magnifying glass to be sure that all traces of the cor
rosion have been removed.
More drastic treatm ent is required to remove the corrosion from severely corroded
aluminium alloys. Rotary files or power grinders using rubber wheels impregnated
with aluminium oxide may be used to grind out every trace of corrosion damage.
Watch carefully to see that only the minimum amount of material is removed, but
that all of the damage is cleaned out. After an examination with a 5- to 10-power
magnifying glass shows that no trace of corrosion remains, remove about two
thousandths (0.002) of an inch more material to be sure that you have cleaned out
beyond the ends of any inter granular cracking. Sand the cleaned-out area
smooth, first with 280-grit sandpaper, then with 400~grit paper. Finally, clean the
area with solvent or an emulsion cleaner, and then treat the surface with a corro
sion-inhibiting conversion coating such as Alodine.

C op yrigh t b y SR Technics F o r training purposes only
Detecting Corrosion
The first step in corrosion control is finding it and determining its extent. In this sec
tion we will consider the most generally used inspection methods.
Visual Inspection
Elaborate inspection equipment is used in aircraft maintenance to make the work
of the technician more efficient, but the well trained and experienced eye is still the
most effective tool for inspection.
Corrosion of aluminium and magnesium appears as a white or gray powder along
the edges of skins, around rivet heads, and in small blisters that show up under
the finish on painted surfaces. Since the salts of corrosion take up more space
than sound metal, bulges along the lap joints of a skin are an indication that corro
sion has formed between the faying surfaces.
We should make use of magnifying glasses, mirrors, borescope, fiber optics, and
other tools that allow us to see inside the structure and around corners so we can
be assured of giving the aircraft a good visual inspection.
Penetrant Inspection
Stress corrosion cracks are sometimes difficult, if not impossible, to detect by a
simple visual inspection. However, these and other cracks may be found by using
dye penetrants which are usable for both ferrous and nonferrous metals. All of the
surface dirt must be removed from the material to be inspected before the pene
trating liquid is sprayed on the surface. This liquid contains a bright red dye, and it
has a very low surface tension, so it will seep deep into any crack that extends to
the surface. After this penetrating liquid has been left on the surface long enough
for it to seep into all cracks, it is wiped off. A developer is then sprayed over all of
the surface. This developer is a white chalky powder that completely covers the
surface and acts as a blotter to draw penetrant out of any cracks in the material
that extend to the surface. Cracks show up as a bright red line on the white back
ground of the developer. Another type of penetrant inspection uses a fluorescent
penetrant, and the part is inspected under an ultraviolet, or “black,” light. This spe
cial light causes the cracks show up as green lines on the surface.
The limitation of dye penetrant inspection is that it will not show up cracks that are
so full of corrosion product that the dye cannot penetrate. Also if the cracks are
tilled with oil or grease, the penetrant cannot get in, and there will be no indication
of a flaw. It is almost impossible to get all of the penetrant off of porous or rough
surfaces, and this type of surface should not be inspected by either of the pene
trant inspection methods.

C op yrigh t b y SR Technics Fo r training purposes only
Summary - Corrosion Control

Corrosion is the most damaging natural phenomenon that the aircraft technician
must contend with. The thin, highly reactive metals of which modern airplanes are
made make them especially vulnerable to corrosion’s attack. Once corrosion has
started in a structure, it opens the way for more, and the corrosion spreads until
the structure is destroyed.
Corrosion cannot be prevented totally, but it can be controlled by eliminating one
or more of the basic requirements for its formation.
- We can prevent the electrical potential difference within the metal.
- We can insulate the conductive path between areas of potential differ
ence.
- We can eliminate any electrolyte which could form a conductive path on
the surface of the metal.
While corrosion itself is highly complex, its control is mainly a matter of paying at
tention to detail. The structure must be kept clean and dry, and any breaks in the
finish must be repaired immediately. Any corrosion that is found must be promptly
removed, and the surface from which the corrosion was removed must be treated
to neutralize any residue and inhibit further corrosion.
Some of the modem surface treatments, sealers, and finishes are complex, and
they will not tolerate any improper procedures in their mixing or application. For
this reason, it is imperative that the technician understand and follow in detail the
specific instructions from the manufacturer of these products.

T ra in in g M an u al 6.5.1 Screw Threads
6.5.1 Screw Threads

Screw Nomenclature Figure 1: Srew Thread Teminology
Major Diameter
The largest diam eter of the thread measured in a plane normal to the axis.
Minor Diameter
The smallest diameter of the thread measured in a plane normal to the axis.
Pitch
The distance from the centre of one crest to the centre of the next crest measured
parallel to the main axis.

T rain in g M an u al 6.5.1 Screw Threads
Thread Forms Figure 2: Thread Forms.
According to the thread profile, the threads are named V-threads, ACME threads,
round threads and buttress threads.
V Threads
These are mostly used for attaching parts, e.g. aircraft nuts and bolts.
ACME Threads
These are mostly used for motions of axial drives, e.g. trailing edge flap drive.
V-Threads
Buttress Threads
These are mostly used for motions of axial drives with one-sided load, e.g. trailing
edge flap drive, landing gear systems.
Round Threads
These are mostly used for motions of axial drive and especially for stressed
threads
Round Threads
ACM E Threads

T ra in in g M anual 6.5.1 Screw Threads
Standards for Screw Threads

In past century numerous thread systems have been introduced, but many them
have gone out of use.
The future lies principally with the isometric thread, but the others are likely to be
in use for some years until the SI system is fully established.
ISO Metric Threads

In practice, the basic thread form is modified to give slightly different form for ex
ternal and internal threads.
The root of external threads should always be smoothly rounded. The crests of ex
ternal threads may be either rounded or flat depending on the method of manufac-
ture.
The root of internal threads should be cleared beyond a width of one-eight of the
pitch and is usually rounded. The crests of internal threads are usually flat.
There are two series of ISO Metric threads:
1. Coarse series for general use;
2. Fine series for special applications.
In each case the nominal diameter of the bolt is given in millimetres and the pitch
is given in millimetres.
Thus a bolt designated as M36 x 4:
is 36 millimetres in major diameter,
has a 4 mm pitch; therefore it is in the coarse series.

Figure 3: ISO Metric Threads
Bolt (External Thread) Threads Compared
Roots rounded and cleared beyond

a width of 1/8 P.
COARSE
SERIES
Pitch
FINE
Line SERIES
Nut (Internal Thread) Coarse and Fine Pitches

Unified Inch Threads Table 1: UNF Threads

The Unified Inch threads have the same design form and practical shape ISO Met
12 28 .216 5.48 14 0.182 4.60
ric threads.
Also there are two series: 1/4 28 .250 6.53 3 0.213 5.50
Course series - UNC
5/16 24 .3125 7.93 I 0.272 6.90
- Fine series - UNF
Below Vi inch diam eter the nominal sizes of both are given as series of numbers 3/8 24 .375 9.52 Q 0.332 8.50
from 0 to 12.
7/16 20 .4375 11.11 25/64 0.3906 9.90
Above 1/4 inch diameter the nominal sizes as given as fraction an inch.
Pitches are given as the number of threads per inch. 1/2 20 .500 12.70 29/64 0.4531 11.50
Thus a 1" diameter bolt with UNC thread has 8 threads per inch and is designated 9/16 18 .5625 14.28 33/64 0.5156 13.00
1-8 UNC.
5/8 18 .625 15.87 37/64 0.5781 14.50
Table 1: UNF Threads
3/4 16 .750 19.05 11/16 0.6875 17.50
UNFTHREAD SIZE MAJOR TAPDRIL .L SIZE
7/8 14 .875 22.22 59/64 0.9291 20.50
IN INCH AND DIAMETER IN
NUMBER OF
INCH MM DRILL INCH MM The size 0-80 through 12-28 are machine screws. The first number is a code
THREADS PER
number and indicates not the screw diameter. The second number indicates
INCH NO
number of threads per inch.
0 80 .060 1.52 3/64 0.449 1.20 For example: 10-24. 10’ stands for .190 inch. 24’ stands for 24 threads per inch.
The size 1/4-28 through 7/8-14 are aircraft bolts. The fraction indicates the diam
1 72 .073 1.85 53 0.595 1.50 eter & the number indicates number of threads per inch
2 64 .086 2.18 50 0.07 1.80
3 56 .099 2.51 45 0.082 2.10
4 48 .112 2.84 42 0.0935 2.40
5 44 .125 3.17 37 0.104 2.65
6 40 .138 3.50 33 0.113 2.90
8 36 .164 4.16 29 0.136 3.50
10 32 .190 4.82 21 0.159 4.10
C orresponding with JAR 66 r* + * -rr\

F o r training p urposes only A 70
Table 2: UNC Threads

1/4 20 .250 6.35 7 0.201 5.1
UNC THREAD MAJOR TAP DRIL.L SIZE 5/16 18 .3125 7.93 F 0.257 6.5
SIZE IN INCH AND DIAMETER IN 3/8 9.52
16 .375 5/16 0.3125 7.9
NUMBER OF
THREADS PER INCH MM DRILL INCH MM 7/16 14 .4375 11.11 U 0.368 9.3
INCH NO
1/2 13 .500 12.70 27/64 0.4219 10.8
1 64 .073 1.85 53 0.0595 1.5
9/16 12 .5625 14.28 31/64 0.4844 12.2
2 56 .086 2.18 50 0.07 1.80
5/8 11 .625 15.87 17/32 0.5312 13.5
3 45 .099 2.51 47 0.08 2.05
3/4 10 .750 19.05 21/32 0.6562 16.5
4 40 .112 2.84 43 0.09 2.30
7/8 9 .850 22.22 49/64 0.7656 19.5
5 40 .125 3.17 38 0.10 2.60
The size 1-64 through 12-24 are machine screws the first number is a code
6 32 .138 3.50 36 0.11 2.75 number and indicates not the screw diameter. The second number indicates
number of threads per inch.
8 32 .164 4.16 29 0.136 3.5
For example: 10-24. 10’ stands for 1.90 inch. 24’ stands for 24 threads per inch.
10 24 .190 4.82 25 0.1495 3.8 The size 1/4-20 through 7/8-9 are aircraft bolts. The fractions indicate the diameter
& the number indicates number of threads per inch.
12 24 .216 5.48 16 0.177 4.5

Dimensions and Tolerances Depth of Engagement

The depth of engagem ent (i.e. radial amount of thread overlap) is 5 H/8 for stand
In order to provide for interchangeability and ensure the correct class of fit for a
ard Unified threads and 9H/16 for UNJ threads when mating threads are in the
particular application, standard Unified threads are controlled by a system of toler
maximum metal condition.
ances.
This is reduced by the tolerances permitted on the major diameter of the external
The tolerances permitted for the major, effective and minor diameters of a screw
thread and the minor diam eter of the internal thread.
thread provide, in effect, an envelope of limiting boundaries within which the thread
surface must lie. The accuracy of pitch, however, should be assessed over the
specified length of engagement of the mating parts, since on separate tolerance is
given. In a similar manner no separate tolerance is normally quoted for the flank
angle.
Thread Fit
The relative tightness between the nut and the bolt is called the fit of the threads.
A class- 1 fit is a loose fit. This is used for coarse-thread stove bolts fitted with
square nuts.
A class-2 fit is a free fit. It is used for some machine screws. ?.
A class-3 fit is a medium fit. It is used for almost all standard aircraft bolts.
A class-4 fit is a close fit, that requires a wrench to turn the nut onto the bolt.
Effective Diameter Tolerance

This is derived from a three-part formula, which takes account of diameter, pitch
and length of engagement.
Major Diameter Tolerance

With external threads the tolerance on major diameter is derived solely from a for
mula based on pitch. With internal threads no tolerance is quoted, it being consid
ered that this dimension will be adequately controlled by the crests of the tap or
cutting tool.
Minor Diameter Tolerance

The minor diameter tolerance on external threads is related to the effective diam
eter tolerance. The minor diameter of an internal thread is formed by an operation
prior to threading and the tolerance is related to pitch and diameter.
Measuring Screw Threads The high addendum gauge is, however, recommended for checking Unified
threads in the numbered sizes. To minimise the effect of pitch errors, NOT Go
Thread Gauges screw gauges embody only 2 or 3 turns of thread.
There are different types of gauges to be used when checking screw threads of
Unified form. Following American practice only one series of gauges is specified
for use during both manufacture and inspection.
Go Gauges
These gauges are designed to ensure that the product does not exceed the max
imum metal condition specified in the appropriate standard for the type and size of
thread.
A GO screw plug gauge will ensure that the major and effective diameters of an
internal thread are not below the minimum size specified; it will not check the minor
diameter however as the gauge thread roots are cleared beyond the minor diam
eter for practical reasons. The minor diameter of the internal thread is checked
with a plain GO plug gauge.
A GO screw ring or calliper gauge will ensure that the effective diameter of an ex
ternal thread is not greater than the maximum size specified and that it will assem
ble with an internal thread of minimum size. It will not ensure that the major
diameter is not too large; this is checked by a plain ring or calliper gauge.
GO gauges are normally made to a length at least equal to the length of engage
ment of the product threads.
No Go Gauges
These gauges are designed to ensure that the product meets the minimum metal
limit specified in the appropriate Standard and are similar in appearance threads
and plain ring or calliper gauges for external threads, made to the minimum metal
limit of the product thread.
NOT GO screw gauges for checking the minimum metal limit on effective diam e
ters are of two types, namely, low addendum or high addendum.
A low addendum gauge only contacts the thread over a short length of flank
whereas the high addendum gauge has a much larger area of contact. The low
addendum gauge is a better method of checking simple effective diameters where
flank angle or other thread malformations are present, and is used widely in ihe
United Kingdom.

Figure 4: Thread Gauges Gauge Tolerances

The manufacturing tolerances for GO Gauges are placed within the limits specified
for the product thread to ensure that no work is accepted which is outside these
limits and that mating threads will always assemble.
The manufacturing tolerances for NOT GO gauges, however, are placed outside
the product limits in British practice, but the tolerances are so small that accept
ance of threads outside the limits is unlikely.
Adjustable Gauges
SCREW PLUG GAUGE
To permit their continued use after wear has taken place, ring and calliper gauges
are often manufactured in an adjustable form. To set the size of an adjustable ring
gauge a ‘double-length’ setting plug is used.
The effective diameter of this setting plug remains constant over its whole length,
but while the major diam eter of one half is at the maximum size the other half is
truncated to the minimum size.
On GO gauges it is possible to verify that both the effective diameter and major
SINGLE LENGTH DOUBLE LENGTH diameter are satisfactory. Adjustable calliper gauges are set with a ‘single length’
setting plug, which has a length approximately equal to that of the gauge.
Check Gauges
GO and NOT GO check gauges are required for verifying the size of a new solid
SETTING PLUGS type ring gauge and are similar to the plug gauges used for checking product
threads but are made to finer limits.
NOT GO effective diam eter check gauges are also required to ensure that solid
ring gauges are not kept in use when worn beyond limits. Check gauges are alter
native to direct measurement and are indispensable in sizes below Vi inch diam e
ter.
NOT GO
PLAIN PLUG GAUGE
Figure 5: Gauge Tolerances Marking of Gauges

Each gauge must be adequately marked to show the use for which it is intended
and the size of the limits it is intended to control.
(GO OR NOT GO) (GO AND NOT GO) Examples of typical marking are given below:
1. GO screw plug gauge (low addendum)
1/4 - 28 UNF 2B GO EFF 0.2268
2. NOT GO screw calliper
1/4 - 28 UNF 2A NOT GO EFF 0.2258
3. GO Pre-coating screw plug gauge
1/4 - 28 UNF 2B GO EFF 0.2278 BEF COAT
SOLID SCREW RING GAUGE
GO NOT GO
(GO OR NOT GO)
LwwJ —v\J
j- A / W V I^ ^ a a /
ADJUSTABLE SCREW
RING GAUGE
SCREW CALIPERS
(The anvils may be of roller type.)

T ra in in g M an u al 6.5.2 Bolts, Studs and Screws
6.5.2 Bolts, Studs and Screws

Introduction son for installing bolts in this way is that they are less likely to fall out if the nut
should ever be lost.
People talk about ‘getting down to the nuts and bolts’ when describing something
in minute detail. An apt phrase. It recognises that standard fasteners are the basic International Standards
and fundamental components of assembled metal products.
Before the Federal Aviation Administration issues a Type Certificate for an aircraft,
Despite their uncommon importance to all industry these common place fasteners the manufacturer must demonstrate that the aircraft conforms to all airworthiness
are too seldom viewed as highly engineered items. Frequently they are applied by requirements. These requirements pertain not only to performance, but also to
‘rule of thum b’ rather than by slide of rule. The engineering talent behind them is structural strength and integrity as well.
often overlooked.
To meet these requirements, each individual aircraft produced from a given design
What the Designer wants of a Threaded Fastener System must meet the same standards. To accomplish this, all materials and hardware
must be manufactured to a standard of quality.
Threaded fasteners have proved to be the most efficient and effective way to put
together shapes that would be impractical as one piece structures. Specifications and standards for aircraft hardware are generally identified by the
organisation originating them.
They also simplify or reduce costs, or make practical the disassembly of such
structures for safety inspection, cleaning, repair or rebuilding. When a vehicle or Some of the most common are listed below:
structure or machine is overhauled, if it is worn or corroded parts may be replaced
as a routine maintenance operation. AMS Aeronautical Material Specifications
However threaded fasteners are not generally regarded as things that wear out or
deteriorate. They are expected to be reusable. AN Air Force-Navy
Fasteners must carry loads. They resist various combinations of tension and shear
AND Air Force-Navy Design
loading without permitting any movement of the fastened parts.
Most threaded fasteners are screwed up tight so that they clamp the fastened AS Aeronautical Standard
parts together. It is desirable to maintain this initial clamping force.
Although their primary function is to permit convenient assembly and disassembly, ASA American Standards Association
threaded fasteners are expected to stay in place between those events without fail.
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
Required Characteristics
- Reliability MS Military Standard
Strength
Tightness NAF Naval Aircraft Factory
- Convenience in service
- Economy NAS National Aerospace Standard
Rule of Thumb SAE Society of Automotive Engineers

When bolts are installed in aircraft structur, unless some reason dictates other
wise, the heads should be upward, in a foreward direction, or outboard. The rea NSA Norm Sud Aviation

Basic M a in te n a n c e Module 6 Materials and Hardware
Definitions Common Materials used in the Manufacture of Bolts

Carbon steel;
Grip
Corrosion resistant steel (CRS);
Thickness of the material, which it is designed to secure when, assembled.
- Aluminium alloys;
Length Titanium alloys.
Hexagonal head bolt: Distance from the bottom of the head to the extreme point.
Anticorrosion Treatments used in the Manufacture of Bolts
Countersunk head bolt: Distance from the top of the head to the extreme point.
Cadmium plating;
Shank - Chrome plating;
Portion of the bolt, which lies between the head and the extreme point. - Anodising;
Nitrating.
Plating
Protective coat applied to the bolt to protect against corrosion.
Recess
Indentation in the head, used in the identification or to drive the bolts.
Figure 1: Grip Length
Grip
r
)—
I
Im
>-

Head Types Examples of use would be seat belt attachment point, attachment point for cargo
netting.
The Hexagon Head Bolt Figure 2: Bolt Heads
An all purpose structural bolt used in general application involving tension and
shear loads.
They are available in cadmium plated nickel steel, corrosion resistant steel and
2024 aluminium alloy.
bz
The drilled hexagon head bolt is similar to the standard bolt but with a deeper head
Standard head bolt Drilled hex head bolt
which is drilled to receive locking wire.
The standard hex head bolt and the drilled head bolt are inter-changeable for all
practical purposes from the standpoint of shear and tension strength. O
r
The Countersunk Head Bolt Countersink head bolt Internal hex head bolt
A close tolerance bolt used in high performance aircraft where the bolted joint is
subjected to severe load reversals and vibrations.
The Internal Hexagon Head Bolt Eyebolt Clevis bolt
Used in both shear and tension applications.

The are high strength steel bolts, which are stronger than the standard hexagon
head bolt.
The head is specially hardened to allow for tightening loads.
They are particularly useful for applications where access is limited.
The 12 Point Head or Double Hexagon Head Bolt

A heat resistant bolt made from titanium or other heat resistant steel. Their main
application being engine component assembly in hot areas.
The Clevis Bolt

Used only in shear application, e.g. joining a control cable to a control rod. The bolt
must be loose enough to allow the cable to pivot freely and remain secure.
The Eye Bolt

Used in various applications for attaching components to the aircraft structure
where relevant movement is required.
Manufactured from various materials depending on the application.

Aircraft Bolt Head Identification Figure 3: Identification of AN Bolt Heads
It is necessary to be able to positively identify a bolt, this is because as you have

seen there are so many of these components used in the manufacture of an air
craft and many of these components will look alike but their strength and material
specification may vary considerably.
Because of this bolts are marked with a coding system. This code is on the head
of an AN series bolt to identify the material that the bolt is made from as shown.
The amount of information on the bolt head will depend on the size of the bolt and \O c\£/
AN Standard AN Standard .4 AN Standard AN Standard
the amount of room available. steel bolt steel bolt steel bolt
steel bolt
There are as many codes in use as there are standards and therefore it is not pos (corrosion resistant)
sible to cover all of them here.

The only way to decode much of the information found on the bolts will be to go to *
the relevant standard normally found in the aircraft maintenance manual or the il c
lustrated parts catalogue. AN Standard Sp ecial bolt
steel bolt
/ y~
Special bolt Special bolt N A S close iS Alumium alloy

tolerance bolt (2024) bolt
Magnetically O range-dyed C levis bolt Reworded boll Low strength

inspected magnetic ins. material bolt

T rain in g M an u al 6.5.2 Bolts, Studs and Screws
Figure 4: Bolt Identification Number MS-Standard Class of Fit

Threads are designated by class of fit. The class of a thread indicates the toler
ance allowed in manufacturing:
Class 1 is a loose fit.
G rip | Class 2 is a free fit.
GRIP LENGTH - Class 3 is a medium fit.
Class 4 fit is a close fit.
Aircraft bolts are manufactured in the Class 3, medium fit.
PART NO.
A Class 1 fit can easily be turned with the fingers.
A Class 4 fit requires a wrench to turn the nut onto the bolt.
Aircraft screws are manufactured with a Class 2 thread fit for ease of assembly.
Caution
Aircraft bolts and nuts must not be rethread, as they may loose strength.
BACB30NE 5 D H 8 (X)
X = 1/64" OVERSIZE
Y = 1/32" OVERSIZE
GRIP LENGTH IN /16" = 8/16" - 1/2"
DRILLED HEAD
DRILLED SHANK
NOMINAL THREAD DIAMETER IN /16" = 5/16"
BASIC PART NO.

NE = LONG THREADED
NF = SHORT THREADED

Nuts Plain Engine Nut

Similar to above but with out cotter pin slots.
A nut is a block or sleeve having an internal thread designed to assemble with the
external thread on a bolt, screw, or other threaded part. Wing Nut
It may serve as a fastening means, an adjusting means, a means for transmitting Used when it is necessary to remove a unit frequently without the use of tools they
motion, or a means of transmitting power with a large mechanical advantage and are generally made from brass or cadmium coated steel.
non-reversible motion.
Figure 5: Nuts
Nuts that we are interested in are the nuts which are used with the external thread
ed fasteners, bolts and screws.
The number and variety of nuts used in the manufacture of nuts is the same as for
bolts, also the protective coatings applied to nuts is the same as that applied to
bolts.
7-
a
Non Self Locking Nuts
Aircraft Castle Nut A Castle nut B Shear castle nut
Used with standard bolts and may be used when the bolt is used in either shear or
tension situations.
Aircraft Shear Castle Nut

The same as above but much thinner, normally only 0.2” thick in any diameter.
Used only when the bolt is subjected to shear loads, such as on a clevis bolt.
Aircraft Plain Nut

Has no means of positively locking it to the bolt so it must be used with either a
lock nut or a check nut to lock it to the material. It can be used in either shear or
tensile load application.
Aircraft Check Nut

Used to jam against a plain nut to lock it to a bolt so that it will not move. Course F Wing nut
thread and fine thread machine screw nuts manufactured with matching threads,
materials and coating for machine screws and can be used in any application call
ing for a machine screw.
Slotted Engine Nut

Is designed for aircraft engine applications and is not approved for airframe use.

F o r training purp o se s o nly Cat: A 83
Self Locking Nuts Another method is to squeeze the end of the nut into an oval shape, as the bolt is
driven through the oval it must reshape it back to round again which provides a
Low Temperature Self Locking Nuts gripping action.
Self locking nuts are used with bolts or machine screws and are prevented from 2 1/2 threads should be shown after the nut has been tightened.
vibrating loose by a fibre or plastic insert which is fitted into the nut.
Figure 7: Self Locking Nut (Hi-Temp)
The insert has a sm aller hole than the thread diameter. The nut will run onto the
bolt easily until the bolt thread enters the insert and then it will be necessary to use
a spanner to advance the nut further.
When the bolt threads enter the insert the insert exerts a strong backward push on
the bolt removing any axial play between the bolt threads and the nut threads. This
creates a high friction between all of the contacting faces and will prevent the nut
from turning under normal vibration.
Self locking nuts remain serviceable as long as it is not possible to turn the nut onto
the bolt fully without the use of a spanner. Self locking nuts should not be used in
I#
locations where the nut or bolt is subject to rotation.
2 1/2 threads should be shown after the nut has been tightened. X /
Figure 6: Self Locking Nuts (Lo-Temp)
Fiber collar
Anchor Nuts
Inspection plates and access doors fastened to an aircraft with screws have an
chor nuts secured to the inside of the structure into which these screws fit.
Most Commonly used anchor nuts are:
- One-lug anchor nut;
- Two-lug anchor nut;
Corner anchor nut.
High Temperature Self Locking Nuts
In applications where temperatures exceed 120°C the insert may deteriorate re Installation of access door with large number of screws, the floating anchor nut is
ducing the locking ability of the nut. In this case it is necessary to use other meth used.
ods of increasing the friction between nut and bolt. These nuts fits loosely into a basket, which is riveted to the skin and the nut floats
One method is to use nuts, which have slots in the end of the nut, the slots are then enough to align itself with the screw.
swaged together reducing the diameter of the hole, when the bolt is driven into this To speed up the production of aircraft, ganged anchor nuts are installed around
portion of the nut the nut threads grip the bolt and raise friction levels. inspection plate openings. These are floating-type anchor nuts, and there are a
number of them in a channel that is riveted to the structure.

Each nut floats in the channel with enough play that screws can move the nut in alignment behind the hole and accepts the screw that holds the instrument in
enough to align it the pan.
Figure 8: Anchor Nuts. If the instrument is rear mounted, the legs of the nut are long enough to pass
through the instrument case, but if the instrument is front mounted, the nut fastens
into the screw hole in the instrument panel.
Anchor-Type Tinnerman Nut

Are riveted to the structure to hold the screws for inspection plates. These nuts do
not have the strength of a regular threaded nut plate, but they are approved for
non-structural inspection plates where their use protects the aircraft skin from be
ing damaged by the repeated insertion and removal of self-tapping screws.
A Anchor nuts U-Type Tinnerman Nuts

To prevent the holes being enlarged from repeated use, a U Type Tinnerman nut
can be slipped over the edge of the inside cowling so that it straddles screw hole.
The screw passes through the hole in the outer cowling and into the nut, a when it
is tightened, the spring action of the nut holds the screw tight.
n
p A Figure 9: Tinnerman Nut (U-Type)
B Channel nuts
Clip Nuts
Due to ease of installation and removal, substantial cost reductions result where
clip nuts are used in place of riveted anchor or plate nuts.
e
Ideal for secondary structure applications such as fastening aircraft flooring, ac
cess panels, instrument components, electronic cabinet construction wire clips
and tubing harness.
Tinnerman Nuts
Instrument Mounting Nuts
Used in the instrument panel or in the instrument case itself to mount aircraft in
struments in the panel. A non-magnetic phosphoric bronze cage holds a brass nut

Screws Figure 10: Machine Screws
Difference between Bolts and Screws

A bolt is an externally threaded fastener designed for insertion through holes in as
sembled parts, and is normally intended to be tightened or released using a nut.
A screw is an externally threaded fastener capable of being inserted into holes in
assembled parts of matting with performed internal threads or of cutting its own
thread and of being tightened or released using its own head.
In aviation there are three basic types of screw in use; these are:
A 10 0° F la t-h e a d m ach in e screw
1. Machine screws;
2. Structural screws;
3. Self-tapping screws.
Machine Screws B B u tton -head m ach in e screw
Machine screws are generally used in non-structural applications and are thread
ed for their full length.
They normally have a class 2 (free) fit thread and are available in a number of dif
C 1 0 0 ° F la t-h e a d structural
ferent thread forms.
m ach ine screw
Materials and coatings are similar to those used for bolt applications. Head forms
are considerably different to those of bolt heads.
Structural Screws
Structural screws are sim ilar in appearance to machine screws but will be manu
factured from higher strength metals.
Structural screws are manufactured to the same specification as structural bolts
and differ only in the type of head. The normal application for this type of screw is
in shear loading only.

Figure 11: Structural Screws There are four head forms in use:
- Round head;
Truss head which is less proud than the round head;
100° countersink with flat head;
- 100° countersink with oval head.
(A) (B)
Figure 12: Self Tapping Screws
DIA. A Type ‘A’ with B Type 'B' C Round head

D!A. gimlet point with blunt point
D Pan head
STRUCTURAL SCREWS A -A N 5 2 5
WASHER HEAD B - AN509 (MS24694) 100° COUNTERSUNK HEAD

E Truss head F Countersunk head G Countersunk oval head
Self Tapping Screws

Self-tapping screws are course-threaded fasteners, which are used to hold thin
sheets of metal, plastics or plywood together.
In aircraft they may be used to attach nameplates, or other minor removable parts
and non-structural components.
Self-tapping screws must never be used to replace standard screws, bolts, or riv
ets in original structure.
Self-tapping screws used in aviation come as two basic types:
Type ‘A ’ has a sharp point or gimlet and course threads.
Type ‘B’ has a blunt point and a finer thread than the type ‘A ’.

F o r training p urp o se s o nly Cat: A 87
Studs Figure 13: Studs
Studs are headless bolts that are threaded for their entire length or at both ends.
The stud is inserted into the main body of the component, (sometimes; into heli-
coils inserts) with the assembly passing over the studs and being clamped into
place by nuts.
Removal & Installation

Removal and installation is with the use of a stud remover. The remover usually
has two holes to accommodate different size studs.
The stud remover is passed over the stud and by rotating the drive brings a ser
rated concentric to bear on the stud thus enabling it to be removed or installed.

Dowels
Dowel pins are used to retain parts in a fixed position or to preserve alignment. A
properly fitted dowel pin is subject to shearing strain only
Figure 14: Dowel Pins
Cham fered Sq uare End
- L +/- 0 012 L + /- 0.012 -

! +-/-0.010

T ra in in g M an u al 6.5.3 Locking Device
6.5.3 Locking Device

Fo r training p urposes only Cat: A 91
Washers Figure 1: .Plain W asher
Introduction
Washers are used to:
provide a bearing surface area for nuts;
act as spacers or shim;
apply a tension between a nut and the surface of the material to prevent
the nut vibrating loose.
Plain Washers
Used to provide a smooth bearing surface between the nut and material being
clamped. To act as a shim in obtaining correct grip length for a bolt and nut assem
bly.
They are used to adjust the position of castellated nuts in respect to drilled cotter
pin holes in bolts.
Aluminium alloy washer may be used under bolt heads and/or nuts on aluminium
alloy or magnesium alloy structures where corrosion due to dissimilar metals is a
factor. _ T
- J
It is also common practice to use a cadmium plated steel washer under a nut bear
ing directly against a structure as this w asher will resist the cutting action of the nut.
Plain washers are made from the following materials:
Cadmium plated steel;
- Brass;
- Corrosion resistant steel;
Aluminium alloy

T rain in g M an u al 6.5.3 Locking Device
Lock Washers Figure 2: Lock Washers.

Used under screws or bolts where a self-locking or castellated nut is not appropri
ate.
The spring action of the washer provides enough friction to prevent the loosening
of the nut caused by vibration.
There are two types of lock washers:
1. Spring Washer, also called split lock washers.
2. Shake Proof Washers, which are available with internal and external teeth.
Spring Washer
Spring washers consist of a single or double coil of square section spring. They
are placed under the nut and are compressed by tightening the nut, thus prevent
ing the nut from slackening off. They may be used again as long as the washer
retains the spring tension.
Shakeproof Washer
Shakeproof washers work on the same principle except that the washer’s teeth are
sharp and bent at an angle. When the nut is tightened the sharp teeth tend to dig
into the face of the nut and the component it is securing, this prevents the bolt from
undoing.
SPLIT WASHER SHAKE PROOF WASHER
Lock washers should never be used under the following conditions:
1. With fasteners to primary or secondary structures.
2. With fasteners on any part of the aircraft where failure might result in damage
or danger to the aircraft or personnel.
3. Where failure would permit the opening of a joint to the airflow.
4. Where the screw is subject to frequent removal.
5. Where the washers are exposed to the airflow.
6. Where the washers are subject to corrosive conditions.
7. Where the washer is against soft material without a plain washer underneath
to prevent gouging the surface

Countersunk Washer Self-Aligning Washers

Used to seat the bolt head shank radius and a plain type washer is used under the Used in special applications where the bolt is installed at angle to the surface or
nut, both of these washers are made from high strength steel and cadmium plated. when perfect alignment with the surface is required at all times. These washers
Use with 100 degree flush bolts permanently installed in magnesium. come in two parts, which must always be used together.
The washer is used to reduce corrosion of magnesium sheet. Figure 4: Self Aligning Washer
Figure 3: Countersunk Washer.
SELF-ALIGNING WASHER
C O U N TER SU N K WASHER

m B asic M a in te n a n c e Module 6 IV
SR Technics T rain in g M an u al
Figure 6: Applications of Washers
0.032 INCH
STANDARD MINIMUM
THIN'
T
FLAT WASHER USED FOR SPACING
(MAXIMUM 3 WASHERS)
FLAT WASHER
1
SOFT MATERIAL
(SEALS,
INSULATION, ETC.)
LOCK WASHER
cm
( 2 K
0 5 2 :
(§>-
LOCK WASHER
I .1 O
STANDARD RADIUS WASHER
FLAT WASHERS STAR ANGLE

LOCK WASHERS

C op yrigh t b y S R Technics Fo r training p urp o se s only
Tab Washers
Have two or more tabs projecting from the external diameter. When the washer is
fitted one tab is bent against the component or fitted into a hole provided for that
purpose, whilst the second tab is bent against the flat of the nut, after it has been
correctly tightened down.
Figure 5: Tab Washer
=LJ=

C opyright b y S R Technics Fo r training purposes only
Pre-Load Indicating Washer Figure 7: Pre-Load Indicating Washer.

In critical bolted joints the manufacturer may specify the use of a pre-load indicat
ing washer (PLI). This method gives a very accurate means of torque loading an
individual joint.
PLI washers consist of concentric inner and outer rings, and two high strength
steel washers. The outer ring is thinner than the inner ring and has a series of ra
dial holes drilled through it.
A stiff wire tool is inserted in the holes in the outer ring and is used to check wheth
er the ring is free to rotate.
As the nut is tightened the inner ring is compressed until at a predetermined toque
the outer ring is nipped between the washers. At the point that the outer ring can
no longer be rotated the tightening is complete.
PLI washers are unaffected by thread or nut friction, or by lubrication and provide STANDARD PLI WASHER SET
a means of pre-loading a bolt which is more consistent than torque loading.
The pre-load of any particular size of bolt can be varied to suit its application by
changes in the material or dimension of the inner ring. Since the inner ring is com
pressed during tightening it must only be used once, if the joint is slackened it must
be replaced.
AFTER TIGHTENING
PRE-LOAD INDICATING WASHERS
CHECKING PU WASHER FOR ROTATION
Locking Plates
Locking plates are thin metal plate’s places over a nut or bolt installation to provide
positive locking of the nut or bolt.
Their main advantage is that they are quick to assemble and disassemble.
The locking plate will itself be locked by a smaller screw or bolt which may then be
safetied using lock wire or a self locking nut and bolt.
Figure 8: Locking Plate.

Cotter Pins / Split Pins Figure 9: Cotter Pin Assembling
The cotter pins, commonly referred to as split pins, used in general aviation are
made of either:
1. Corrosion Resistant Steel.
2. Cadmium plated, low carbon steel.
Used for safetying bolts, screws, nuts, other pins, and in various applications
where such safetying is necessary.
Corrosion Resistant Steel Split Pin

Used in locations where nonmagnetic material is required or in locations where re
sistance to corrosion is desired.
Cadmium Plated, Low Carbon Steel Split Pin

Used for safetying bolts, screws, nuts, other pins and in various applications where
such safetying is necessary.
Cotter Pin / Split Pin Safetying

Castellated nuts are used with bolts that have been drilled for split pins. The pins
should fit neatly into the hole, with very little sideplay.
There are two methods of securing split pins that are generally acceptable. In the
preferred method, one leg of the split pin is bent up over the end of the bolt, and
the other leg is bent down over one of the flats of the nut. With the optional method,
the split pin is rotated
90 degrees and the legs wrapped around the castellations.
It is important to note that nuts should never be over torqued to make the hole in
the bolt align with the castellations. If the castellations in the nut fail to align with
the drilled bolt hole, add washers under the nut until a split pin can be inserted.
The following general rules apply to cotter pin safety:
1. The leg bent over the bolt end should not extend beyond the bolt diameter.
Optional Preferred
2. The leg bent down should not rest against the surface of the washer.
3. If the optional wraparound method is used, the legs should not extend out
wards from the side of the nut.
4. All legs should be bent over a reasonable radius.

Flathead Pins Roll Pins

Commonly called Clevis Pin, the flathead pin is used with tie-rod terminals and in Is a press fit with chamfered ends. It is tubular in shape and has a slot running its
secondary control, which are not subject to continuous operation. full length.
The pin is usually installed head up so that if the cotter pin should fail, the pin will The pin is inserted with hand tools and is compressed as it is driven into place.
remain in the same place. Pressure exerted by the roll pin against the walls of the hole keep it in place, until
removed by use of a drift or pin punch
Figure 10: Flathead Pin
Figure 11: Roll Pin.
DIAMETER

Taper Pins Grooved Pins

Plain and threaded taper pins are used in joints which carry shear loads and the This type of pin is forced into a drilled hole of the proper diameter locking fit is ob
absence of play is essential. tained by the compression of the groove.
Grooved pins are resistant to loosening from shock and vibration and may be re
Plain Taper Pin
moved and reused without reducing their holding force.
Drilled and safetied with locking wire.
Figure 13: Grooved Pins.
Threaded Taper Pin
Used with a taper pin washer and shear nut safetied with a split pin or a self-locking
nut.
Figure 12: .Taper Pins
- L ±0.010
TYPE A TYPE B
) - L ±0.010- E -l [■ —L to. MO 1 ' -t

i i ’ t
11 |*pi- - — - d --------=J
(A)
TYPEC R TYPED
(B)
TYPEE TYPE F

Pal-Nuts
Pal-Nuts, commonly known as check nuts or lock nuts, are thin nuts which are
tightened down firmly on top of the primary nut, after the primary nut has been cor
rectly tightened.
This action wedges the threads and prevents the primary nut from slackening off.
The pal-nut must not be over-tightened, as stripping or over-stressing of the thread
may occur.
Before reusing the pal-nuts, ensure the threads are not damaged.
Figure 14: Pal Nut

Wire locking Figure 15: Single W ire Methode
It is the most positive and satisfactory method of ensuring that threaded fasteners
remain secure under all conditions.
It is a method of wiring together any two or more components in such a manner
that any tendency of one to loosen is counteracted by the tightening of the wire.
Safety Wiring Methods

There are two recognised wire locking methods in use:
Single wire method
Double twist method
Nuts, bolts and screws are safety wired by the single-wire or double-twist method.
The double-twist method is the most common method of safety wiring. The single
wire method may be used on small screws in a closely spaced geometrical pattern,
on parts in electrical systems, and in places that are extremely difficult to reach

General Safety Wire Locking Rules

When using the safety wire method of safetying the following general rules should
be followed:
1. A pigtail of 1/4 to 1/2 inch three to six twists should be made at the end of the
wiring this pigtail must be bent back or under to prevent it from becoming
snagged.
2. The safety wire must be new upon each application.
3. When castellated nuts are to be secured with safety wire, tighten the nut to
the low side of the selected torque range, unless otherwise specified, and if
necessary, continue tightening until a slot aligns with the hole.
4. A safety wires must be tight after installation, but not under such tension that
normal handling or vibration will break the wire.
5. The wire must be applied so that all pull exerted by the wire tends to tighten
the nut.
6. Twists should be tight and even, and the wire between the nuts as taut as pos
sible without over twisting, applying not more than 7 - 1 0 windings per one-
inch length.
7. The safety wire should always be installed and twisted so that the loop around
the head stays down and dose not, tend to come up over the bolthead causing
a slack in the wire.

Figure 16: Locking Rules
Keeping wire under tension, Grasp the wire beyond the

twist in a clockwise direction twisted portion and twist
Position the holes. until the wire is tight. When the wire ends counter
tightened the wire shall have -clockwise until tight
7-10 twists per inch approx.
Insert the proper gage wire. Insert the uppermost wire,

Grasp the upper end of the which points towards the
wire and bend it around the second bolt, through the During the final twisting
head of the bolt, then under hole which lies between the motion of the pliers, bend
the other end of the wire. nine and twelve o’clock the wire down and under
Ensure that the wire is tight positions. Grasp the end of the-head of the bolt.
around the head. the wire with a pair of pliers
and pull the wire tight.
Bring the free end of the

wire around the bolt head
in a counter-clockwise Cut off the excess wire
direction and under the with a diagonal cutters.
end protruding from the
bolt hole.Twist the wire in a
counter-clockwise direction.


Figure 18: L o c k in g Rules Safety Wire Specifications

Is given under MS 20995.
Example for a complete identification:
MS 2 0 9 9 5 - C - 32
MS Military specification
20995 Standard number
C Material code letter
32 Wire diam eter
Material code letters are:
C Corrosion resistant. 19% Cr. and steel (CRES). 9% Ni. The

most commonly used
F Low carbon steel, 0.18 to 0.23% carbon content. The surface

is Zinc coated.
N Nickel-Chrome steel alloy. Nickel-based with 15.6% Cr. and

8% iron. Used in high temperature areas.
NC Nickel copper Nickel-based alloy (MONEL) with 30% copper.
A v a ila b le W ire D ia m e te rs
- 20 = 20/1000 inch = 0.5 mm
- 32 = 32/1000 inch = 0.8 mm
41 = 41/1000 inch = 1.0 mm
- 47 = 47/1000 inch = 1.2 mm
Select the proper safety wire material and diameter according to the drawing in
struction or requirements.

Quick Release Fasteners

Used to secure inspection plates, doors, and other removable panels on an air
craft. Also referred to by such terms as turnlock, quick-action and stress panel fas
teners.
Most desirable feature of these fasteners is that they permit quick and easy remov
al of access panels for inspection and servicing purposes.
Turnlock fasteners are manufactured and supplied by a number of manufacturers
under various trade names.
Some of the most commonly used are:
Dzus;
- Camloc;
- Airloc.
Dzus Fasteners
Consists of a stud, grommet, and receptacle. The figure below illustrates an in
stalled Dzus fastener and the various parts.
The grommet is made of aluminium or aluminium alloy material, and acts as a
holding device for the stud. Grommets can be fabricated from 1100 aluminium tub
ing, if none are available from normal sources.
The spring is made of steel, cadmium plated to prevent corrosion. The spring sup
plies the force that locks or secures the stud in place when two assemblies are
joined.
The studs are fabricated from steel and are cadmium plated. They are available in
three head styles: wing, flush, and oval. Body diameter, length, and head type may
be identified or determined by markings found on the head of the stud (see figure
below).
The diameter is always measured in sixteenths of an inch. Stud length is meas
ured in hundredths of an inch and is the distance form head of the stud to the bot
tom of the spring hole.
A quarter of a turn of the stud (clockwise) locks the fastener. The fastener may be
unlocked only by turning the stud counter-clockwise. A Dzus key locks or unlocks
the fastener.

Figure 19: Dzus Fasteners
STUD
DETACHABLE
PART
STUD ASSEMBLY
I
GROMMET
CUT-AWAY VIEW OF COMPLETE

DZUS ASSEMBLY
SPRING ASSEMBLY

Camloc Fasteners Figure 20: Camlock Fastener

Made in a variety of styles and designs. Included among the most commonly used
are the 2600, 2700, 4001, and 4002 series in the regular line, and the stressed-
panel fastener in the heavy-duty line.
The latter is used in stressed panels, which carry structural loads.
Used to secure aircraft cowlings and fairings. It consists of three parts: recepta
cles, studs, and grommets.
Two types of receptacles are available:
1. Rigid type;
2. Floating type.
STUD
The stud and grommet are installed in the removable portion; the receptacle is riv ASSEMBLY
eted to the structure of the aircraft.
The stud and grommet are installed in either a plain, dimpled, countersunk, or
counter-bored hole, depending upon the location and thickness of the material in
volved.
GROMMET
A quarter turn (clockwise) of the stud locks the fastener. Can be unlocked by turn
ing the stud counter-clockwise. RECEPTACLE

F o r training p urp o se s o nly Cat: A 110
Airloc Fasteners Figure 21: Airloc Fasteners

Consists of three parts: a stud, a cross pin, and a stud receptacle.
The studs are manufactured from steel and case hardened to prevent excessive
wear.
The stud hole is reamed for a press fit of the cross pin.
The total amount of material thickness to be secured with the Airloc fastener must
be known before the correct length of stud can be selected for installation.
The total thickness of material that each stud will satisfactorily lock together is
stamped on the head of the stud in thousandths of an inch (.040,.070,.190, etc.).
Studs are manufactured in three head styles:
1. Flush; INSTALLED FASTENER
2. Oval;
3. Wing.
The cross pin is manufactured from chrome-vanadium steel and heat-treated to
provide maximum strength, wear and holding power.
It should never be used the second time once removed from the stud; it should be
replaced with a new pin.
Receptacles for Airloc fasteners are manufactured in two types:
1. Rigid;
2. Floating.
Sizes are classified by number: No. 2, No. 5 and No. 7.
They are also classified by the centre-to-centre distance between the rivet holes
of the receptacle:
1. No. 2: 3/4 inch; STUD RECEPTACLES STUDS
2. No. 5: 1 inch;
3. 3.No. 7: 1 3/8 inch.
Receptacles are fabricated from high-carbon, heat-treated steel.
An upper wing assures ejection of the stud when unlocked and enables the cross
pin to be held in a locked position between the upper wing, cam, stop, and wing CROSS PIN
detent, regardless of the tension to which the receptacles is subjected.

Amal Fairey
Locking: Locking:
1. Insert the fastener through elongated hole in fixed member. Depress locking 1. Insert cotter through elliptical hole in fixed member.
screw to hold cotter clear of back anchor plate. 2. Depress locking plate.
2. While still depressing locking screw turn it through 90°. 3. Turn locking plate and cotter through 90°.
3. Release pressure on locking screw and spring will then return cotter between 4. Release pressure on locking plate.
projection on back anchor plate. Screw up fastener.
Unlocking:
Unlocking:
1. Depress locking plate and turn through 90°
Rotate locking screw two turns in anti-clockwise direction. Depress locking screw
and make a quarter turn anti-clockwise. Panel can be removed. Figure 23: Fairey.
Figure 22: Amal

Keys Figure 24: Keys
Introduction
- Transmission Drive Assemblies
- 'V' Belt Drive
This type of belted drive uses friction as a turning force. That is to say that the belt
is VEE in shape and fits on to pulleys of the same corresponding shape.
To ensure that mechanical movement takes place it is important to apply the cor
rect amount of tension to the belt so that it fits neatly into the pulley.
A further example of a belted drive is the serrated toot method. This method uses
teeth built into the belt and pulley, and the two are mated to provide a mechanical
HOLLOW SADDLE KEY WOODRUFF KEY
drive. Similar to a rotating cog wheel.
Tension must still be applied to the belt to ensure that the belt and pulley teeth re
main in mesh.
We have discussed two methods of applying a drive using belts and in both meth
ods pulleys are utilised as part of the drive mechanism. Flat Saddle Key
However, we must have some method of attaching the pulleys to the rotating A flat saddle key is square or rectangle in section and fits into a key way.
shafts to enable the drive element to take place. This can be achieved by using a In the pulley and rides on a flat machined on the shaft.
key or key way as means of attaching the pulley to the shaft.
Figure 25: Flat Saddle Key
The following pages will illustrate some examples of keys and key ways.
Hollow Saddle Key

Hollow Saddle Key has one face hollowed to suit the surface of the shaft.
The pulley has a key way.
Woodruff Key
The W oodruff Key is made in the form of a segment of a parallel-sided disc.
It fits into a cavity in the shaft, which conforms to the rounded portion of the key.
The top of the key fits into a key way in the pulley.
Can be used on parallel or tapered shafts.

Circlips Removal & Installation

The removal and installation of circlips is with the use of a special circlips pliers.
Circlips are part of the retaining ring family. The main advantage of retaining rings
is that they reduce weight and are a cost saving device, this is due manly to the In some cases you will require two different pliers one for internal circlips and one
simplicity of design and use. for external circlips. Another type of pliers allows for the removal of both internal
and external circlips.
These retaining devices have internal and external applications. Most retaining
rings (Circlips) sit in a recess, other types have a self-locking action. After installation ensure that the retaining ring has seated correctly in its groove.
Figure 26: Circlips
INTERNAL POSITION EXTERNAL POSITION

T ra in in g M an u al 6.5.4 Aircraft Rivets
6.5.4 Aircraft Rivets

Introduction formed previously by the manufacturer.The metal pieces to joined have holes of
the proper size drilled through them.
The structure of modern civil transport aircraft is generally made of all metal com The shank of the rivet is inserted through one of these holes. The size and shape
ponents. To keep the aircraft weight as low as possible, the selection and the uti of the rivet is inserted through the holes in the metal, a bucked head is formed on
lisation of the materials used is most important. the end opposite the manufactured head.
The materials must be selected with consideration to the special purpose of the With rivets it is possible to transfer two different kinds of load from one sheet of
various structural members. Light metal alloys are used mainly in the structure of metal to another sheet of metal. Most structure is designed for the primary load to
the fuselage, wings and empennage. be carried in ‘shear’.
Rivets are necessary for fastening two or more pieces of metal together. A rivet is
a metal pin or bar with a cylindrical shank and one end of the rivet has a head
Figure 1: Different Loads
LOAD IN ‘SHEAR’ LOAD IN ‘TENSION’
C orresponding w ith JA R 66
The Rivet Joint Figure 2: Modern Solid Rivet Design

The benefits of a rivet joint are several:
- Low maintenance cost because they last longer.
- No malfunctioning; they are reliable.
They will hold the parts together under stress; they are strong.
They allow a light and yet strong design, because of the low weight.
They are resistance to fatigue, due to their high elasticity which contrib
utes to their durability.
High productivity because of the low costs involved, compared to other
MS20470 MS20426 MS20430 MS20442
methods. universal 100’ -countersunk round head rivet flat head rivet
head rivet head rivet
Competitive methods like the use of threaded fasteners, such as HI-LOK and Hl-
Shear, are mostly used for accessibility reasons and to diminish noise problems.
The cost of installing threaded fasteners are, however, much higher than that of
rivets.
Gluing is an increasingly used method, but is still normally combined with riveting.
Aircraft Solid Shank Rivets

Solid shank rivets are the most commonly used rivets in aircraft construction. They
consist of a manufactured head, a shank, and a driven head. The driven head,
sometimes called an upset head, is caused by upsetting the shank with a rivet gun
or rivet squeezer.
Standardisation of Rivets
Rivets used in American transport aircraft are normally specified by American
standardisation. The diameter of a rivet is standardised in 1/32”. The rivet lengths
are graduated by 1/16” increments.
Basic Differences are:

Head Styles;
Pin Length;
- Pin Diameter;
- Pin Material.
C orresponding with JAR 66 r * +■ A

F o r training purposes o n ly v » 3 l. A 117
Rivet Head Style Figure 3: Head Styles
Rivet head style is identified by its MS or AN number

Round head and flat head rivets are used primarily for interior sub-assemblies, and
these are usually installed with high speed production riveting machines. Nearly
all sheet metal repair work is done using either the MS 20470, universal head riv
ets, or the MS 20426, 100 degree countersunk head rivets.
1. Countersunk head 100° MS 20426 (AN 426) for Aluminium Alloy;
2. Flat head AN 441 for Steel, Monel, Titanium AN 442 for Aluminium Alloy;
3. Brazier head AN456 for Aluminium Alloy;
4. Universal head MS 20470 (AN 470) for Aluminium Alloy;
5. Round head MS 20430 (AN 430) for Aluminium Alloy, MS 30435 (AN 435) for
Steel, Monel.
C orresponding with JAR 66 r* *. a

F o r training purp o se s only O a t. A 118
T rain in g M an u al 6.5.4 Aircraft Rivets
Blind Rivets Figure 4: Friction Cherrylock Rivets.
Cherrylock Rivets
The friction Cherrylock rivet is an older special blind fastener, which is still used by
many sheet metal mechanics. Friction is the only thing that holds the stem of this
fastener in place.
In locations where vibrations occur, the stem can work loose and fall out. For this
reason, whenever the Cherrylock friction rivet is used to replace a solid shank riv
et, it must be 1/32 inch larger in diameter.
The friction Cherrylock rivet is available in three diameters: 1/8, 5/32, and 3/16
inch.
The friction Cherrylock rivet is constructed of two parts: the rivet, with either a uni
versal or a countersunk head, and a mandrel or pulling stem that runs through the
centre of the hollow rivet for installation purposes.
The pulling stem is designed with an expanding section which causes the shank
to fill the hole when it is being drawn up. On the bottom of the puller is a part called
the header, which forms the bucktail on the blind side.
The upper portion of the pulling stem has a break point which lets go when the rivet
is pulled to its maximum. When the break point snaps, the m anufacturer’s head
and has to be clipped and filed down flush
C orresponding with JAR 66 /** +• a

F o r training p urp o se s only 031. A 119
Bulbed Cherrylock Rivet Figure 5: Bulbed Cherrylock Rivet

The bulbed cherrylock rivet is an improvement over the friction cherrylock rivet be
cause its stem is locked into place with a retaining ring.
The bulbed cherrylock with its locked spindle, has many uses, such as thin sheet,
skin to spar stackup, and wing leading edge applications. Its large blind head, high
strength, and locked spindle make the bulbed cherrylock structurally sound
enough to replace solid shank rivets.
The bulbed cherrylock rivet is available in two head styles: countersunk and uni
versal. Its diam eter are measured in increments of 1/32 inch.
It is available in three standard diameters of 1/8, 5/32 and 3/16 inch, and an over
size of 1/64 inch diameter. The rivet portion of the bulbed cherrylock rivet is made
of 2017 or 5056 aluminium alloy, Monel, or stainless steel.
The main disadvantage of the cherrylock mechanical rivet is that a special tooling
head is required to install different sizes and head styles.
r t
1. As the stem is pulled into the rivet sleeve, a bulb forms on the rivet’s blind side
that begins to clamp the two pieces of metal together and fill the hole.
2. Once the pieces are clamped tightly together, the bulb continues to form until
the shear ring shears and allows the stem to pull further into the rivet.
3. With the shear ring gone, the stem is pulled upward until the pulling head au
tomatically stops at the stem break notch and the locking collar is ready to be
inserted.
4. When completely installed, the collar is inserted and the stem is fractured
flush with the rivet head.

Cherrymax Rivets Figure 6: .Cherrymax Rivets

The Cherrymax fastener is a reliable, high strength, structural rivet. It is inexpen
sive, easy to install and to inspect, and a suitable replacement for solid shank riv
ets.
The Cherrymax has five parts:
a serrated pulling stem with a breakaway notch;
- a driving anvil to insure a visible mechanical lock;
- a locking collar with an internal grip adjustment cone;
- a rivet sleeve with a recessed head;
- a bulbed blind head.
The driving anvil, which looks like a washer, eliminates wear and tear on the instal
lation tool. This allows the use of one pulling head on all diameters.
The Cherrymax Rivet is available in six diameters:
1/8 inch nominal and oversize;
5/32 inch nominal and oversize;
3/16 inch nominal and oversize.
It is manufactured in five head styles:
- Universal MS20470;
- 100° Flush (MS20426);
- 100° Flush (NAS 1097);
- Unisink;
- 120° Flush

Pop Rivets Figure 7: Grip Length

Pop rivets are used in many commercial devices where speed of installation is im
portant. They are not used for structural applications in certificated aircraft, but are
used in many applications for amateur-built aircraft.
Grip Length of Blindrivets

The shank diameter of mechanical-lock self-plugging rivets is measured in incre
£, JL_j1..
Read Read
ments of 1/32 inch and the grip length is measured in 1/16 inch increments.
To determine the correct grip length a special grip gage is used. In this example
A i ?_ lJ )
the gage indicates a -4 grip length, which is usable for material thickness between
3/16 and1/4 inch.
Rivet grip
number to
be used: -4
Max. „ Min.
grip grip

Rivnuts Figure 9: Rivnut Heading Tool

It is often necessary to install a threaded fastener in a piece of thin sheet metal. A
practical solution to this problem was found many years ago by the B.F.Goodrich
Company for the installation of their rubber deicing boots on the leading edges of
wings and empennages. A hole of the correct size is drilled and a keyway is cut in
the edge of the hole. If the Rivnut is to be a flush type, the hole is dimpled. The
Rivnut is screwed onto the installation tool and is inserted in the hole with the key
in the keyway. The installation tool pulls the Rivnut tight enough to form a head on
the inside of the structure and squeezes the Rivnut tight enough around the skin
to prevent it turning when it is used as a nut.
Rivnut is a trade name of hollow, blind rivets for secondary structures. It is a one-
piece, internally-threaded rivet which can be used as blind nutplates, blind rivets,
or as a combination of both. Rivnuts are normally used to attach brackets, trim m a
terials, and lightly loaded fittings after the assembly has been completed.
Rivnuts are available with or without small keys attached to the head to keep the
Rivnut from turning. Keyed Rivnuts used for service as a nutplate, while those
without keys are used for straight blind riveting repairs where no loads are im
posed. A keyway cutter is needed when installing Rivnuts which have keys.
Figure 8: Rivnuts
Rivnut before installation Rivnut after it has been upset
Hi-Shear Pin Rivets

There are locations in an aircraft structure where the strength of a steel bolt is re
quired, but there is no need for the fastener to be removed in normal maintenance
operations. For these applications, a high-strength pin rivet may be used. A steel
pin with a flat head on one end and a groove around the other end is slipped
through the hole in the structure. An aluminium alloy collar is slipped over the
grooved end and a special swaging tool is used to swage the collar into the groove.
Hi-Shear rivets have sufficient strength to replace structural steel bolts on a size-
for- size basis.
Figure 10: Hi-Shear Pin Rivet

T ra in in g M an u al 6.6 Pipes and Unions
6.6 Pipes and Unions

Introduction
All aircraft, from the smallest trainers to the largest transports, have systems to di
rect the flow of fluids from their source to the units requiring them. These systems
consist of hoses, tubing, fittings, and connectors and are often referred to as an
aircraft’s “plum bing”.
Even though aircraft fluid lines and related hardware are very reliable and require
little maintenance, they cannot be overlooked. For example, because of the variety
of fluids used in aircraft, the requirements for fluid lines differ greatly.
Therefore, it is very important that you, as a maintenance technician, understand
the different types of fluid lines used, their applications, and the inspection and
maintenance requirements of each. For example replacement lines must be of the
same size and material as the original line, and the correct fittings must be select
ed and properly installed.
An error in the selection or installation of a component could result in damage to a
unit, loss of fluid, or complete system failure. Regular inspection and tim e-speci
fied replacements ensure continuous and safe operation.

Pipes and Tubes Figure 1: Pipes and Tubes
Used to transfer:
Hydraulic fluid
- Oil
- Fuel
Water
Air:
• Bleed air
• Conditioned air
• Static instrument air
• Pitot instrument air
Made from:
- Aluminium Alloy
- Stainless Steel
Newer types are also available in composite material.
Pipes are repeatedly exposed to negative influences.
Vibration, bending, stress, pre-load, incorrect support twisting condition and im
proper installation etc. will lead sooner or later to pipe damage. Pipes are also ex
posed to corrosion by negative environmental conditions.
To facilitate both installation and maintenance many break points are required. A
variety of connection and fitting types are in use depending on aircraft m anufac
tures engineering specifications.
For hydraulic systems the high-pressure (HP) hydraulic pipes are made from stain
less steel.
Suction and return pipes are made from aluminium alloy except in the fire zones
on the landing gears and in the wing section and wheel well of the landing gears.

T rain in g M an u al 6.6 Pipes and Unions
Rigid Fluid Lines These colour bands are no more than 4 inches wide and are painted on the tube’s
ends and mid section. When a bank consists for two colours, one-half the width is
A single aircraft typically contains several different types of rigid fluid lines. Each used for each colour.
type of line has a specific application. However, as a rule, rigid tubing is used in
stationary applications and where long, relatively straight runs are possible. Sys Table 1: ALUMINIUM ALLOY TUBING
tems that typically utilise rigid tubing include fuel, oil, oxygen, and instrument.
Aluminium Alloy Number Colour of Band
Materials
Many fluid lines used in early aircraft were made of copper tubing. Copper tubing 1100 White
however proved troublesome because it became hard and brittle from the vibration
3003 Green
encountered during flight, and eventually failed.
To help prevent failures and extend the life of copper tubing, it must be periodically 2014 Grey
annealed to restore it to a soft condition. Annealing is accomplished by heating the
tube until it is red-hot and then quenching in cold water. When working on an air 2024 Red
craft that has copper tubing, the tubing should be annealed each time it is re
moved. Furthermore, copper lines must be regularly inspected for cracks, 5052 Purple
hardness, and general condition.
6053 Black
Today, aluminium-alloy and corrosion-resistant steel lines have replaced copper
in most applications. 6061 Blue and Yellow
Aluminium Tubing 7075 Brown and Yellow
Aluminium tubing comes in a variety of alloys.

For example, in low pressure systems (below 1,000 psi) such as those used for
Corrosion - Resistant Steel Tubing
instrument air or ventilating air, commercially pure aluminium tubing made from Corrosion-resistant steel tubing, either annealed or 1/4 hard, is used in high pres
1100-H14 (half-hard), or aluminium alloy 3003-H14 (half-hard) is used. sure system (3,000 psi).
Low-pressure fuel and oil and medium pressure (1,000 to 1,500 psi) hydraulic and Applications include high pressure hydraulic, pneumatic and oxygen systems.
pneumatic systems often use lines made of 5052-0 aluminium alloy. This alloy, Corrosion-resistant steel is also used in areas that are subject to physical damage
even in its annealed state, is about one and three quarters times stronger than from dirt, debris, and corrosion caused by moisture, exhaust fumes, and salt air.
half-hard, commercially pure aluminium. Such areas include flap wells and external brake lines.
Occasionally, 2024-T aluminium alloy is used for fluid lines because of its high Another benefit of corrosion-resistant steel tubing is that it has a higher tensile
strength. However, it is not as flexible and, therefore, is more difficult to bend and strength, which permits the use of tubing with thin walls. As a result, the installation
flare without cracking. weight is similar to that of thicker-walled aluminium alloy tubing.
Aluminium alloy tubes are identified in a number of ways. For example, on larger
tubes, the alloy designation is stamped directly on the tube’s surface. However, on
small tubing, the alloy designation is typically identified by a coloured band.

Size Designations
The size of rigid tubing is determined by its outside diameter in increments of 1/16
inch. Therefore, a - 4 “B” nut tubing is 4/16 or 1/4 inch in diameter. A tube diameter
is typically printed on all rigid tubing.
Another important size designation is wall thickness, since this determines a tube’s
strength. Like the outside diameter, wall thickness is generally printed on the tube
in thousandths of an inch.
One dimension that is not printed on rigid tubing is the inside diameter. However,
since the outside diameter and wall thickness are indicated, the inside diameter is
determined by subtracting twice the wall thickness from the outside diameter. For
example, if you have a piece of - 8 tubing with a wall thickness of 0.072 inches, you
know the inside diameter is .356 inches, 0.5 - (2 x .072) = 0.356.
Table 2: Size / OD Relationship
Fluid Line Size Outside Diameter (inch)
4 1/4
6 3/8
8 1/2
10 5/8
12 3/4
16 1

Tube Cutting Figure 2: Wheel Type Tubing Cutter
It is important that metal tubing be cut with a square end that is free of burrs. A fine-
tooth hacksaw blade can be used, but it is much better if a special tubing cutter
such as the one seen in “Figure 2" is used. Place the tubing in the cutter and turn
the knob on the handle to bring the cutting wheel up snugly against the tubing at
the location the tubing is to be cut. Rotate the cutter around the tubing and then
turn the knob to move the cutting wheel in. Continue to rotate the cutter around the
tubing, advancing the cutter in with each rotation until the tubing is cut. Be careful
not to screw the cutting wheel in too tightly, as it will deform the tubing or cause an
excessive burr to form inside.
After the tubing is cut, carefully use a knife or the deburring blade on the cutter to
remove any burrs or raised metal resulting from the cutting operation. If the tubing
is to be flared, the cut end should be polished with fine abrasive paper to remove
any sharp edges that could cause the tubing to crack.

Tube Bending Figure 3: Correct and Incorrect Tubing Bends
Thin-wall tubing must be bent carefully to prevent it collapsing in the bend.

“Figure 3 " shows an example of a good bend and three examples of bends that
are not satisfactory. The tubing in the bend is often deformed, and the bend is not
satisfactory if its small diameter is less than 75% of the outside diameter of the
straight tubing.
Thin-wall tubing that is to be bent with many complex bends is often filled with a
special metal alloy that melts at a tem perature lower than that of boiling water to
prevent it collapsing in the bends. After the tubing is bent, it is placed in a vat of
boiling water, and the metal melts out and is used again. In the event the special
alloy is not available, the tubing can be filled with clean sand and the ends plugged
with wooden plugs. When using sand, it is extremely important, of course, that
every trace of the sand be removed before the tubing is installed in the aircraft.
Tubing with an outside diameter of 1/4 inch or less may be bent by hand without
collapsing in the bend, and soft aluminium alloy and copper tubing may be bent by the bend
placing it in a special coil of spring steel that prevents flattening.
Aircraft maintenance shops often have large table-mounted benders that prevent
the tubing from collapsing in the bend by placing a mandrel, or smooth, round-end
bar, inside the tubing in such a way that it is always at the point the bend is being
made. The tubing is bent around a radius block so that the bend is smooth and has
the correct radius.
bend

Figure 4: Hand operated Tubing Bender Tubing up to 3/4 inch in diameter may be bent with hand benders (see “Figure 4:
Hand operated Tubing B ender" on page 132). Choose the proper size bender and
raise the slide bar upward. Place the tubing in the radius block with the location of
the beginning of the bend at the 0” mark, and drop the clip over the tubing to hold
it securely while the bend is being made. Rotate the slide bar down over the tubing,
Incidence and the incidence mark on the bar will coincide with the 0” on the radius block.
mark Force the tubing around the radius block with the slide bar until the incidence mark
aligns with the degree mark on the radius block for the desired degrees of bend.
Thin-wall tubing installed in aircraft fluid systems must not be bent with a bend ra
dius smaller than shown (see “Table 3: Minimum Bend R adiuss” on page 132).
The bend radius shown in this table is that measured to the center line of the tub
ing.
Table 3: Minimum Bend Radiuss
Tubing OD (inches) Minimum Bend Radius (inches)
Aluminium Alloy Steel
1/8 3/8
3/16 -I - 7/16 21/32
1/4 9/16 7/8
5/16 3/4 1 1/8
3/8 15/16 1 5/16
1/2 1 1/4 1 3/4
5/8 1 1/2 2 3/16
3/4 1 3/4 2 5/8
1 3 3 1/2
above steps

Identification of Tubing Figure 5: Rigid Tubing Identification
All fluid or gas lines and ducts, (except as outline below) are marked to identify sys
tems on which installed. Marking is either by a code marker as shown in the figure,
or with colour band corresponding to colour of code marker. Location of coding will
>
o 4*
2 foil
o >N
0) >
vary according to length of assembly. Coding location is readily visible. ‘D
O $
0) O
<0
cc 0 o j (Jo 00 1
o
GO
Hose assemblies in pylon and pod areas are not colour coded. > a5
Heating and ventilation flexible air ducts are identified by part number only and are
not coded. F u e l Hydraulic Air conditioning
Lines and ducts which are subject to temperatures exceeding 260°C (500°F) are
identified by part number only and are not coded. u
Orange
5
"D >N
Skydrol resistant hose assemblies are identified during manufacturing and do not o
I___j
<D WOw
C
require colour coding.

Static and pitot system hoses are identified, by function as well as system, with a
>
CD
u 1 cr o
<0> )
marker of white acetate tape imprinted with function. Acetate marker tape is cov Lubrication Compressed gas Rocket fuel
ered with overlay of transparent Mylar to prevent deterioration of marker.
□□□□[
Hydraulic lines have additional marking to identify function and direction of fluid c I
Green
flow within each line. 0) <D >s
co
Q)
CO O
Note:
1. Filler and vent lines are identified with same markings as system.
0
j
Coolant Breathing oxygen Rocket oxidizer
2. No identification is required on lines installed in integral fuel tanks.
A
> . A c
a>
A
Gray
T3
CD
*o
©
o a>
15
A a
t r 0 r r
>
Wafer injection Deicing Rocket catalyst
o %
o
Orange
Brown
c
o
s
o
1
Fire protection Electrical conduit Warning symbol

Rigid Pipe Connections Figure 6: Flared Tubing
Sections of rigid tubing can be joined to another tube or to a fitting by several meth
ods. These include single and double-flare connectors, flareless connectors, or a
hose and clamps over a beaded tube.
The most common ones will be made of steel or aluminium alloy.
The type of fittings used is determined by the pressure range, the routing, and the
material being used for the lines. W henever you must replace a fitting, make sure
you select a fitting made of the same material as the original.
Precautions must be taken when selecting fittings to prevent dissimilar metal cor
rosion from forming.
Tubing Flaring
Most of the metal tubing used in modern aircraft is connected to other tubing or to
components by flaring its ends and using flare-type fittings. When flaring tubing for
installation in aircraft, be sure to use the correct flaring tool. Fluid lines in autom o
biles have a 45” flare angle, but those used with AN or AC fittings in aircraft must
be flared with a 37” angle.
Double Flare
Tubing made of 5 0 5 2-0 and 6061 -T aluminium alloy in sizes from 1/8 to 3/8 inch
OD should be flared with a double flare, (see “Figure 6: Flared Tubing” on
page 134) Double flares are smoother than single flares and are more concentric.
Also, the extra metal makes the flare resistant to the shearing effect when the fit
tings are torqued.
Correct way to form a double flare

Cut the end of the tubing square and polish it, then slip the nut and sleeve onto the
tube. Push the end of the tube into the flaring block until it contacts the stop pin,
then clamp the block tightly in a vice to prevent the tube moving when it is being
flared. Upset the end of the tubing by inserting the upsetting tool and striking it with
a hammer. Finally, form the flare by inserting the flaring cone and striking it with a
hammer, (see “Figure 7: Double Flaring” on page 135)

Figure 7: Double Flaring
Flaring block Upsetting tool

Single Flare The minimum outside diameter of a properly made flare should be at least as large
as the inside diameter of the toe of the sleeve. The maximum outside diameter
Single flares are produced on the end of a piece of tubing with either an impact-
should be no larger than the outside diam eter of the sleeve, (see “Figure 9: Flare
type flaring tool (see “Figure 8: Single Flaring Tool” on page 136) or a tool in which
Dimensions" on page 136)
the flaring cone is forced into the end of the tubing with hand-operated screw.
When using the impact-type flaring tool, follow these steps: Figure 9: Flare Dimensions
1. Slip the nut and sleeve on the tube.
2. Place the tube in the proper size hole in the flaring block.
Min.
3. Center the plunger, or flaring pin, over the tube. k ------------------------
4. Project the end of the tube slightly from the tip of the flaring tool, about the
thickness of a dime.
5. Tighten the set screw securely to prevent slippage.
6. Strike the plunger several light blows with a lightweight hammer or mallet, and
turn the plunger one-half turn after each blow.
Figure 8: Single Flaring Tool
Max.

Flared Tube End Fittings Figure 11: MS Flareless Fitting

There are two types of nuts that may be used on a flared tube; the singlepiece
Preset Tool or
AN817 nut and the two-piece AN818 nut and AN819 sleeve, (see “Figure 10:
Flared Tube End Fittings” on page 137) Connector Fitting Nut Sleeve Tut
The AN817 nut cannot be used on tubing where there is a bend near the end. The
AN818 nut and AN819 sleeve combination is the preferred type of connector be
cause it lessens the possibility of reducing the thickness of the flare by the wiping
or ironing action when the nut is tightened. With the twopiece fitting, there is no
relative motion between the fitting and the flare when the nut is being tightened.
Figure 10: Flared Tube End Fittings
PI
A ssem bled
AN 818 Nut A N 819 Sleeve AN 818 - 819 Fitting
MS Flareless Fittings
The fluid lines used in some of the high-pressure hydraulic and pneumatic systems
are so hard they are difficult to flare without cracking, so a system of flareless fit
tings has been developed. These fittings, (see “Figure 11: MS Flareless Fitting”
on page 1 3 7 ), consist of a body or a fitting, a sleeve, and a nut. The inside of the
fitting has a smooth counterbore into which the end of the tube fits. The taper at
the mouth of the fitting provides the seal between the fitting and the sleeve, and
the seal between the sleeve and the tube is provided by the bite of the sleeve into
the tube.
MS flareless fittings are attached to the end of the metal tubing by presetting the
sleeve on the tube. Presetting puts enough pressure on the fitting to deform the
sleeve and cause it to cut into the outside of the tube.
C orresponding with JAR 66 r* *. a

Fo r training purposes o nly O a t. A 137
Presetting MS Flareless Fitting Figure 13: Characteristics of a properly preset Sleeve

1. Cut the tubing to the correct length, with the ends perfectly square. Deburr the
inside and outside of the tube. Slip the nut on first, and then slide the sleeve
over the end of the tube.
2. Lubricate the threads of the presetting tool and nut with hydraulic fluid. Place
the tool in a vice, and hold the tubing firmly and squarely on the seat of the
tool. The tube must bottom firmly in the tool. Tighten the nut until the cutting
edge of the sleeve grips the tube. This point is determined by slowly turning
the tube back and forth while tightening the nut. When the tube no longer
1. The cutting lip of the sleeve should be embedded into the tube OD between
turns, the nut is ready for its final tightening.
0.003 and 0.008 inch, depending upon the material (A).
3. Final tightening depends upon the tubing. For aluminium alloy tubing up to
A lip of material will be raised under the pilot (B).
and including 1/2-inch OD, tighten the nut from 1 to 1 1/6 turns. For steel tub
ing and aluminium alloy tubing over 1/2 inch OD, tighten from 1 1/6 to 1 1/2 The pilot of the sleeve should contact or be quite close to the outside diam eter
turns. of the tube (C).
The tube projection from the sleeve pilot (D) should be between 7/64 inch for
Figure 12: Presetting a Flareless Tube Fitting
No. 2 tubing to 9/32 for No. 32 tubing.
5. The sleeve should be bowed slightly (E), and the sleeve may rotate on the
tube and have a maximum lengthwise movement of I/M inch.
6. The sealing surface (F) of the sleeve which contacts the 24" angle of the fitting
body seat should be smooth and free from scores. There should be no evi
dence of any lengthwise or circular cracks.
When installing the fitting in an aircraft hydraulic system, tighten the nut by hand
until resistance is felt, and then turn it 1/6 to 1/3 of a turn (one hex to two hexes)
with a wrench. Overtightening a fitting to stop a leak will damage the fitting and will
probably cause the leak to become worse.
Sleeve
An under- and overtightened sleeve is shown in Figure 14 on page 139.
< --------- Presetting

tool

Figure 14: Incorrect presetting of sleeves HMS Fitting

Sleeve undertightened Figure 15: Harrison Fitting: A modified and improved MS fitting.
j \ .
Brazed Sleeves and Fittings

On Engines, the connections of tubes are often brazed which means the sleeve is
i y brazed on the tube. The next Figure shows examples of brazed connections.
Sleeve Overtightened and Crushed
Tube Restricted
Swaged Tube Fittings

Modem high-performance aircraft that have high-pressure hydraulic and pneum at
ic systems often use swaged fittings on the rigid tubing used in these systems. To
join two tubes with a swaged fitting, the ends of the tubes are cut square and the
swaged fitting is slipped over them. The fitting is swaged, or forced into the tube,
by hydraulic pressure acting on dies. Portable swaging tools are available that al
low a technician to make permanent repairs to fluid lines installed in the aircraft by
cutting out the damaged section and splicing in a new section with swaged fittings.

Figure 16: Swaging Tool Figure 17: Swaged Fitting
Sw aged Aircraft
fitting tubing
pressure
connection

Fluid Line Fittings Figure 18: Pipe Fittings
The size of fittings used with fluid lines is indicated by the dash numbers following
the AN number of the fitting. These dash numbers are in 1/16-inch increments for
the outside diam eter of the rigid tube the fitting matches. For example, a -6 fitting
is for a 3/8-inch tube.
The size of pipe fittings relates to the inside diameter of an iron pipe that has these
threads on its outside.
Pipe Fittings AN 816 Fitting AN 804 Universal Fitting
Many of the fittings that connect a fluid line to a component such as a pump or
valve have tapered pipe threads on the end that screw into the component.
AN816 nipple (see "Figure 18: Pipe Fittings” on page 141). One end has tapered
pipe threads and the other end has the standard flare cone and threads that fit an
AN818 nut.
When installing a fitting having pipe threads, start the fitting into the hole for about
one turn, and then put a small amount of thread lubricant on the second thread
from the end. Screw the fitting into the hole and tighten it snugly. If the fitting is be
ing screwed into an aluminium casting, it is possible that over tightening can cause
the tapered threads to crack the casting.
Universal Fitting Installation
Universal, or Bulkhead Fittings

Some components, such as selector valves and actuator cylinders, use fittings
with double threads such as those on the AN804 Tee. (see “Figure 18: Pipe Fit
tings” on page 141) An AN924 nut is screwed onto the fitting above the cutout por
tion of the threads. A Teflon ring and an O-ring gasket are slipped over the end
threads and into the groove. The fitting is screwed into the housing until the O-ring
contacts the housing and then screwed an additional amount needed to properly
align the fitting with the lines that are to connect with it. Hold the fitting and turn the
nut down until it contacts the housing. This will force the O-ring into the chamfered
edge of the hole to provide the fluid-tight seal.

T ra in in g M anual 6.6 Pipes and Unions
Metal Seal Fitting AN and AC Flared Tube Fittings

There are many types of metal-seal fittings: unions, reducers and plugs. It is nec Flared tube fittings are available in many configurations. The AN816 nipple and
essary that the metal-seal fitting touches against the surface of the boss to seal AN822 elbow are used to connect a flared tube or a flexible hose to a component
correctly. The new metal-seal fittings have an O-Ring and a backup ring. The met with tapered pipe threads. The AN821 elbow and AN815 union are used to join
al-seal fittings with the secondary seal are identified by notches on the edges of flared tubes or flexible hose, The AN820 cap and AN806 plug are used to seal
the hex flats. lines and fittings to keep dirt and contaminants out of the system.
Figure 19: Metal Seal Fitting Figure 20: AN and AC Flared Type Fittings
AN

Figure 21: AN Flared Tube Fittings Many of the airplanes built during World War II used AC fittings which are similar
to the AN fitting. However, there is enough difference that they are not inter
changeable. AN fittings have a short shoulder between the end of the flare cone
and the beginning of the threads. The older AC fittings do not have this recess.
Steel AN fittings are colored black, and aluminium alloy AN fittings are colored
blue. AC fittings are colored either gray or yellow.
-------------------- v j l; ------------- —
AN 821 AN 822

Quick-Disconnect Fittings
It is often necessary to actuate a hydraulic system without running the aircraft en
gine. This is usually done with pressure supplied by a ground-power unit also
called a CPU, or hydraulic “mule.” The inlet and outlet lines are disconnected from
the engine-driven pump and connected to the pump in the mule. To prevent loss
of fluid when making this change, the lines to the pump are fitted with quick-dis-
connect fittings such as the ones shown, (see “Figure 22: Quick - Disconnect Fit
tings” on page 144)
When the lines are disconnected the springs inside both halves of the fitting pull
the poppet valves tightly into their seats and seal off the lines. When the lines are
connected, plungers in each fitting meet and force the poppets off of their seats
allowing fluid to flow freely through the fittings.
Figure 22: Quick - Disconnect Fittings
W hen fittings are disconnected, the springs hold poppet valves tightly on
their seats
W hen fittings are connected, the plungers force poppets

off their seats and fluid flows freely through the fittings.

Installation of Rigid Fluid Lines Table 4: Max. Distance between Supports
When a fuel or hydraulic line is routed through a compartment parallel with an elec Tubing OD (inches) Distance Between Supports (inches)
trical wire bundle, the fluid line should be installed below the wire bundle to prevent
a leak wetting the wires. Aluminium Alloy Steel
Fluid lines must be installed in such a way that they are supported and protected
from physical damage. They should be installed in such a way that they cannot be 3/4 24 27 1/2
used as a hand hold or a step.
1 26 1/2 30
Each section of rigid tubing should have at least one bend in it to absorb vibration
and the dimensional changes that occur when the tubing is pressurized, and the
tubing should fit squarely against the fitting before the nut is started. Pulling a tube Figure 23: Installation of Fluid Lines
to the fitting with the nut will deform the flare and can cause a flare to fail.
Metal fluid lines are installed in an aircraft with bonded cushion clamps. These Tubing securely
supported
clamps have a strip of metal inside the cushion that electrically connects the tubing
to the aircraft structure. When installing a bonded clamp, remove all of the paint
and the anodized oxide film from the location to which the clamp is fastened. This
will provide a good electrical connection between the tubing and the aircraft struc
ture. The maximum distance between supports for rigid tubing installed in an air
craft. (see “Table 4: Max. Distance between Supports" on page 145)
N o interface betw een Liner properly
Table 4: Max. Distance between Supports m ating surfaces of positioned
clam p strap
Tubing OD (inches) Distance Between Supports (inches) Correct
Aluminium Alloy Steel Tubing not

securely supported
1/8 9 1/2 11 1/2
3/16 12 14
1/4 13 1/2 16
5/16 15 18 Teflon liner 1 Liner improperly

interference with positioned
3/8 16 1/2 20 m ating surfaces
of clam p strap
1/2 19 23
Incorrect
5/8 22 25 1/2

Repair of Rigid Fluid Lines Swaged fittings may also be used to make a permanent repair on a damaged fluid
line. "A" shows the way a pinhole leak or circumferential crack can be repaired with
Scratches and nicks that are no deeper than 10% of the wall thickness of a piece a single swaged fitting; "B" shows how more extensive damage is repaired by
of metal tubing can be repaired by burnishing, provided the damage is not in the splicing in a new section of tubing.
heel of a bend. Tubing containing damage in the heel of a bend must be replaced.
Figure 25: Approved Repairs
Dents that are less than 20% of the tube diameter are not objectionable unless
they are in the heel of the bend. Dents can be removed by pulling a bullet-shaped
forming tool of the correct diameter through the tube. This can be done by using a
length of cable.
Damage in a section of tubing may be repaired by cutting out the damaged area.
Then, insert a new piece of tubing and join the ends with the proper nuts and un
ions. (see "Figure 24: Approved R epairs” on page 146)
Swaged fitting Aircraft tubing
Figure 24: Approved Repairs
i::: ■ ■
AN818 nut damaged section of tubing AN819 sleeve Not to

i exceed 0.30
« AN815 union
Tubing end Tubing end

AN818 nut
D£
new section AN819 sleeve

New section
A N 8 1 8 nuts an d A N 8 1 9 sleeves on Original tubing
new section of tubing and flare ends
B
repaired tubing

Flexible Fluid Lines Flexible Fluid Line Identification

Flexible Fluid Lines (Hoses) deliver fluid and gas to various systems. Lay Line
They carry: The flexible hose is marked with yellow, white or red strip running the length of the
Hydraulic fluid; hose.
- Oil; Along this line is information needed to identify the hose:
Fuel; Specification Number;
Water; - Manufactures Name;
Oxygen. Year and quarter of Manufacture;
Flexible fluid lines are used extensively on aircraft to connect stationary parts to - Dash Number.
moving parts and in areas of high vibration. This lay line not only identifies the hose but also indicates if the hose is twisted dur
ing installation.
Flexible Hose Construction When installed properly the line will run straight and not spiral around the hose.
Flexible hose construction generally consists of an inner liner covered with layers
of reinforcement to provide strength, and an outer cover to protect from physical Size Designation
damage. The size of a flexible hose is determined by its inside diameter and is measured in
The materials and manufacturing process of each layer determine the suitability of increments of 1/16 inch.
a specific hose for a particular application. Like rigid tubing, a dash number indicates the tube diameter.
Hoses are made of rubber or Teflon with stainless steel reinforcement to meet the
system requirements of low, medium and high pressure.
On the landing gear assembly’s high-pressure type hoses are installed and
equipped with corrosion resistant fittings.
Figure 26: Flex Hose Construction

Types of Flexible Pipes Medium Pressure Hose

While aircraft hoses are manufactured for various applications, the types of hoses Made with a seamless inner tube and a cotton braid impregnated with a rubber
are normally classified by the amount of pressure they are designed to withstand. type compound to securely bond the single steel braid to the inner tube.
These include low-pressure, medium-pressure, and high-pressure. Over the steel braid reinforcement is placed a braid of rough oil resistant cotton.
For hoses used with petroleum products, the inner liner in made from synthetic
Low Pressure Hose rubber and outer braid is grey black.
Used for low-pressure instrument air. For hoses used with Skydrol products, the inner liner in made from synthetic Butyl
Made with a seamless inner tube and a reinforcement made of a single layer of rubber and outer braid is green.
cotton braid. The lay line has the word skydrol on it.
An outer cover of ribbon or smooth rubber is used to protect the reinforcement
from physical abrasion. Figure 28: Medium Pressure Hose
Figure 27: Low Pressure Hose
DASH SIZE MAX. DASH SIZE MAX.

SIZE |.D. OPER. SIZE |.D. OPER.
PSI PSI
- 21/8 600 -3 1/8 3,000

-3 3/16 500 -4 • 3/16 3,000
-4 1/4 400 -5 1/4 3,000
-6 3/8 300 -6 5/16 2,000
-8 1/2 250 -8 13/32 2,000
-10 5/8 250 -10 1/2 1,750
- 12 5/8 1,500
- 16 7/8 800
-2 0 1-1/8 600

High Pressure Hose Teflon Hoses

Two or more steel braids are used and the outer cover on hose is smooth. Teflon is not effected by :
For hoses used with petroleum products the inner liner is made from synthetic rub Fuels
ber and other cover is black with a yellow lay line. - Oil
For hoses used with skydrol products the inner liner is made from synthetic Butyl Coolants
rubber and outer cover is green. Solvents
The lay line is withe. That are used on aircraft systems.
Figure 29: High Pressure Hose A seamless inner liner of Teflon is covered with stainless steel braid for medium
pressure and with two or with a double spiral wrap for highpressure applications.
After installation the hose will take a set this means that the hose becomes some
what rigid and when the hose is removed from the aircraft is should NOT be bent
against its set.
Figure 30: Teflon Hoses with Support Wire
DASH SIZE MAX.

SIZE I.D. OPER.
PSI
-4 7/32 3,000
-6 11/32 3,000
-8 7/16 3,000
-10 9/16 3,000
-12 11/16 3,000
-16 7/8 3,000
C orresponding with JAR 66 r* t- A 1/10

-
Fo r training purp o se s only O a t. A 14y
Figure 31: Teflon Hose er of the hose that goes into the socket, and twist the socket onto the hose, twisting
in a counterclockwise direction.
Place the nipple in the nut and screw the nut onto a fitting and tighten it securely.
Lubricate the inside of the hose and the threads on the nipple, using mineral-base
hydraulic fluid for hoses that will be used with this fluid, or with vegetable soap for
hoses that will be used with Skydrol fluid. Screw the nipple into the socket until it
bottoms, and then back it off until there is a clearance of between 0.005 and 0.031
inch between the nut and the socket. Remove the fitting from the nut and be sure
the nut turns freely on the nipple.
When the fittings are installed, the hose must be installed on a hydraulic test stand
and pressurized to 200% of the operating pressure of the hose. Hold this pressure
Medium-pressure Teflon hose is covered with one layer o f stainless steel braid. for at least 30 seconds, but not more than five minutes. There should be no leaks
at the fittings while the pressure is being. After the test is completed, drain the hose
and seal the ends with the proper plugs until the hose is installed on the aircraft.
Figure 32: Replacable Sleeve Type Fitting
Nut Socket
High-pressure Teflon hose is covered with two layers o f stainless steel braid. i r
rt
fv V ^ ^
Flexible Hose End Fittings

Flexible hoses may be equipped with either swaged or replaceable end fittings. If (Mm r a
■HI-----------
........................................................... i
a hose having swaged fittings is damaged, the entire hose must be replaced with
one carrying the same part number or one that is approved by the aircraft manu
facturer as a replacement. Nipple
Replaceable end fittings consist of three pieces: a nut, a nipple, and a socket.
Clamp the hose in a vice and cut it to the correct length with the ends cut off
square, using a fine-tooth hacksaw blade or a cutoff wheel. Remove the outer cov

Figure 33: Installation of End Fitting
Locate and slit

cover with knife
to wire braid
Twist off
cover with
pliers
Installation o f end fitting on

a high-pressure hose
A. Cut the hose to the correct length with
a fine-tooth hacksaw blade or a cutoff
wheel.
B. Cut the outer cover with a knife and slit
it so it can be twisted o ff to expose the
outer braid for the distance that will be
inserted into the socket.
C. Twist the socket onto the end o f the
hose, twisting in a counterclockwise
direction.
D. Lubricate the inside o f the hose and the
threads on the nipple.
E. Screw the nipple into the socket until it
bottoms, and then back it off until there
is a slight clearance between the nut
and the socket.

Installation of Flexible Hoses In "B", we see an example of using the correct type of elbow fittings to prevent fluid
lines from making sharp bends. In "C", we see the correct way to connect a m ov
The right and wrong way of installing flexible hose in an aircraft fluid system.
able actuator into the aircraft hydraulic system. The hose must be of sufficient
In "A", Flexible hoses should be approximately 5% to 8% longer than the distance length, and installed in such a way that it is not crimped in any position of the ac
between the fittings. This slack allows for contraction as the line expands its diam tuator.
eter and shortens its length when it is pressurized, (see “Figure 34: Right and
Wrong Way o f Installation” on page 152)
Figure 34: Right and Wrong W ay of Installation
Wrong
8 & =
Right

Fuel Lines
Fuel lines are made from stainless steel, where hoses are required hose must be
made out of fire resistant material.
As a common rule self locking line connections are used inside the fuel tanks.
Wire locked connections are used in fuel lines outside the fuel tanks.
However, for safety requirements consult the applicable maintenance manual.
Fuel System Couplings

Fuel pipe ends are flared or beaded to accept the specified type of coupling.
Standard pipe couplings are available in sizes up to 2.5 inches diameter, and
these are often used in aircraft fuel systems. Where flexibility is required in joints,
because of flight loads and temperature variations, specially designed couplings
may be used.
Flexible Couplings
Two types of flexible couplings are illustrated.
Sketch (A) shows a coupling which has provision for a certain amount of misalign
ment, as well as both angular and axial movement of the pipes. The pipe ends are
beaded, and the surfaces within the joint are smooth and polished, so that the
seals may slide freely over the pipes.
A split retainer encloses the beads. When the coupling nut is tightened on the
body, the O-rings are squeezed between the gland washers and the split retainer,
and expand to form a seal between the body and the pipes.
Sketch (B) shows a coupling which is less flexible, but which has provision for a
limited amount of misalignment and movement.
When the inner and outer sleeves are screwed together pressure is applied to the
split collars, and the rubber seal is squeezed out to form a seal between the inner
sleeve and pipe beads.

Figure 35: Flexible Couplings
Spl it R e ta i ne r O uter Sleeve Inner Sleev«
Seal Split Collar
( A) ( 8)

I
Gamah Coupling
Are mainly used for fuel line connections.
Installation Directives
1. Position fuel line to obtain gap between lines as applicable.
2. Tighten fuel line support clamps.
3. Slide sleeve over flange until sleeve contacts entire circumference of packing.
CAUTION:
Make certain that O-ring is entirely within its cavity.
Excessive cocking o f sleeves undue forcing or twisting could cause O-ring dam
age.
4. With slight rocking motion slide sleeve over O-ring.
5. Move the sleeve (4) on the second packing (3).
6. Move the nuts (1) along the flange until they fully touch the sleeve (4).
7. Turn the coupling nuts (1) on the sleeve threads.
NOTE.
A fter the initial turn, the coupling nut moves on to a locking insert.
8. Continue to turn the coupling nuts (1) until it moves tightly against the sleeve
shoulder.
9. Ensure that couplings are properly tightened before safetying and that safety
holes are exposed.
10. Do not loosen or over torque parts beyond specific values in order to improve
the location of safety hole.

Figure 36: Gamah Coupling
ZERO GAP ZERO GAP
5, FLANGE
6. FUEL UNE

Pneumatic and Air System Pipes

General
Ducts are mainly used to transfer air from one point to another. Ducts carry differ
ent sorts of air to and from various systems:
Engine bleed air (High and low pressure);
De-icing system;
- Air conditioning;
Cabin pressurisation;
Ventilation;
Ambient air.
Ducts are made from:
Stainless steel;
- Titanium;
Aluminium alloy in a wide range of configurations.
Ducts require break point to facilitate both installation of ducts and maintenance.
These break points are usually provided by installing flanges or hoses on each end
of ducting.
Holding the flanges and duct sections together is different kind of clamps and cou
plings.
Care is required in assembly handling and installation of ducts that requires spe
cial clamps and couplings.
Keep protective covers in place at all times on precision flanges and precision mat
ing surfaces etc.

Figure 37: Pressure Joints
CLAMP STRAP
LOCKING THANG SHOWN
V-CLAMP
JANITROL CLAMP
CHECK CLEARANCE AT "A" (BOTH SIDE)
MAXIMUM CLEARANCE
"A" 0.015 IN
DUCT FLANGE
DUCT FLANGE
O-RING
CORRUJOINT SEAL
LOW PRESSURE JOINT HIGH PRESSURE JOINT

V-Band Clamps and Couplings

General
These are high temperature, high pressure couplings used in engine bleed pneu
matic systems, pressurisation and air conditioning systems. They may be made
from stainless steel, Inconel or Titanium.
Each coupling usually consists of a single metal clamp and two precision formed
metal flanges which are welded to the ends of the duct sections.
Some couplings provide a metal to metal seal without the use of a gasket. The
coupling can be repeatedly disconnected and reconnected without affecting its de
sign leakage rate. Other couplings incorporate metal sealing gaskets. Low-pres
sure couplings incorporate 'O'-rings.
Note
V-band clamps may also be used to attach generators to gearboxes and blanking
plates to unused blower outlets etc.
Fitting and Removal

Before a V-clamp is fitted, its bolt must be checked for freedom of movement and
its stiff-nut for satisfactory friction. It may be necessary to reject the clamp bolt al
so, if the nut is defective. Refer to the Aircraft Maintenance Manual.
If a clamp bolt does not pivot freely, it must be soaked in a suitable dismantling
fluid. If it still fails to pivot freely it must be sent for overhaul. Before fitting or re
moving a clamp, lubricate the threads of the bolt.
Ensure that the locking tang passes freely through the strap slot to its locking po
sition.
When fitting V-clamps which use two bolts and fail safe links, the links must be cor
rectly positioned prior to fitting the clamp securing nuts.
Tighten the clamp bolts initially so that both flanges are just nipped, and check that
the amount of thread protruding from each nut is approximately equal. Continue
tightening the clamp by applying small torque increments to each nut in turn until
the required torque is reached. The clamp periphery should be tapped frequently
during the tightening process to assist settling of the flanges.
When removing clamps which incorporate a locking tang, unscrew the nut until at
least 1.0 in. of thread is visible. Slightly contract the clamp and depress the locking
tang to release it. Lift the bolt clear of its channel and remove the clamp.

Figure 38: V-Band Clamp
"V"- BAND CLAMP AND COUPLING FLANGES
C orresponding with JAR 66 _

F o r training purp o se s only Gfltl A 160
Worm Drive Hose Clamps Janitrol T Bolt Clamp

Large diameter lines carrying low-pressure air etc. may be joined with a rubber Slip expanded clamp over matting surfaces and insert t bolt into trunnion.
hose slipped over the ends of the tube and held in place with screw type hose Tighten nut using torque wrench to the value stamped in clamp.
clamps.
The ends of the tubes being joined must be beaded. After the hose is slipped over
the beads, the hose clamps are centred between the ends of the hose and the
beads. The clamps are tightened finger tight and then one and one half to two
complete turns with a pair of 'pliers'.
Tightening the hose clamps too tight will cause 'cold flow' of the hose. This is a
condition in which the rubber is squeezed so tight that it loses its resilience, and
its sealing qualities are impaired.
Figure 39: Hose Clamp Installation

Figure 40: T-Bolt Coupling
C orresponding with JAR 66 _ . ,

F o r training purposes only O a t. A 162
T ra in in g M an u al 6.8 Bearings
6.8 Bearings

Fo r training p u rp o se s only Cat: A 163
Purpose of Bearings Figure 1: Ball Bearing Loads
To quote the dictionary "a bearing is a means of support of moving part of a ma
chine". In our case bearings support moving parts of aircraft, either in aircraft en
gines, wheels that rotate at high speeds or in control systems that have relatively
small angular movements.
I }
Types of Bearings
f I
There are many variants of bearings, but the main types are as follows:
- Ball Bearing
Roller Bearing
Plain or shell type Bearings
Ball and roller bearings are used where a high degree of reliability and precision is
required.
The advantages are:
Low frictional loss
Wide range of loads may be accepted
- Simple lubrication requirements
The service live of a bearing depends of the RPM. Ball and Roller bearings are
sensitive against shock loads and vibrations.
Loads on Bearings
Bearings used on the aircraft that provide sliding contact between mating surfaces
are designed to operate under two main loads:
Thrust loads
Radial loads
In addition to this, nearly all aircraft bearings are subjected to shock loads.

Materials and Construction Figure 2: Buildup shown on a Ball Bearing

The bearing must be made of a material that is strong enough to withstand the
pressures imposed upon it and should also permit the surfaces to move with the
minimum friction and wear.
Ball and roller bearings are generally constructed with three parts:
Races
- Balls
Cages or Separators
Races
The races are made of high carbon steel with case hardened raceways or special
corrosion resistant steel alloys or tool steel, (eg.100 Cr 6)
Balls
Hardened high carbon steel or special corrosion resistant steel alloys.
Cages or Separators
Brass or glass fibre reinforced polyamide.

Tapered Roller Bearing Figure 3: Tapered bearing application

W heel-half assy W heel-half assy
This is a variation of the cylindrical roller bearing. Note that in this type of bearing,
the axes of the bearing rollers are not parallel to the shaft they are supporting and inner outer
the bearing will accept radial loads and axial loads in one direction.
The proportions of the loads the bearing has to carry, will determine the degree of
taper. The greater the axial load the greater the taper.
A typical application for tapered bearings are wheels as shown in Figure 3 on
page 166.

T ra in in g M an u al 6.9 Transm ission
6.9 Transmission

Introduction Figure 1: Spur gears
We shall look at:

- Gear types
- their uses
where they are fitted
A gear is a toothed wheel or disc, which meshes with another toothed wheel or
disc to transmit motion.
Gears or gearing refer to a system, which transmits motion and often-heavy loads.
The gears used on gas turbines are normally made of steel.
Where loads to be transmitted are very light and quietness is required, synthetic
resins and plastics, such as nylon, may be used for the manufacture of gears. This
would be the case for gears used in engine instruments.
Backlash Internal
This is the lost motion between the gear teeth, and is the distance the gear teeth
must travel form drive in the forward direction to drive in the reverse direction. Helical Gear
Backlash must exist between gears, as it is essential to allow for thermal expan This is a smoother, less noisy running gear than the spur gear, the teeth are cut
sion and lubrication. on a curve or helix, which produces a sliding engagement of the teeth, and more
than one tooth is in engagem ent at any one time.
Types of Gears A disadvantage of this gear for is that it produces a heavy axial load. This disad
vantage can be eliminated by using double helical gears, with the teeth being cut
Spur Gear in an opposite helix.
This is the most common type of gear tooth shape, and would be fitted in the ac An advantage of this type of gear is that it can accept and transmit a higher loading
cessory gearbox of an engine. than a spur gear of the same size.
The gear can be formed either internally or externally. An internal gear would be Helical gears might be fitted in the reduction gearbox of a turbo prop engine.
used where a change in speed is required without changing the axis of drive. Ex Figure 2: Helical gears
ternal spur gears are used where a change in speed is required but the shafts lie
parallel to each other.
Spur gears may be noisy owing to the impact of the teeth upon each other as they
rotate.
Single Double

Bevel Gear Hypoid Gear

This type of gear is used when the drive is required to be transmitted through an This is a type of bevel gear, which is used where a change in speed is required,
angle; in this case the gear teeth can be straight cut or in a helical form, when the but the axis of the shafts do not intersect. This gear form is not normally used on
axis of the shafts intersect. gas turbines.
An example of use would be for the transmission of drive from the main rotating
assembly on a gas turbine to the accessory gearbox, or the tail rotor gearbox on Worm Gear
a helicopter. This gear form is used where there is a large resistance to turning, and a large re
duction in speed is required. The worm teeth are similar to a multi start thread, and
Figure 3: Bevel Gears are cut at an angle or on the skew, in which case the gear may be called a skew
gear.
Figure 4: Hypoid and worm gear
Straight Hypoid gear pair with

hypoid tooth system

Planetary Gear like cage that holds the planetary gears. These planetary gears rotate around a
fixed central sun ear.
Planetary gear systems are typically used to reduce the propeller shaft speed on
more powerful aircraft engines. This allows the engine to turn at a higher rpm and In some planetary gear systems, the sun gear is the drive gear and the ring gear
develop more power. In a planetary gear system, the propeller mounts on a spider is fixed in the nose section of the engine. In this situation, the planetary gears act
as simple idler gears in the system.
Figure 5: Planetary gears
(a) Spur planelary with fixed outer gear (b) Spur planetary with fixed inner gear

T rain in g M an u al 6.10 Control Cables
6.10 Control Cables

T ra in in g M an u al 6.10 Control Cables
Introduction Figure 1: Cable Construction
Control cables are used to operate flight and engine controls from the cockpit.
Control cables provide a strong, light and flexible method of control.
These cables only operate in tension, and can only be used in a ‘pull’ direction.
However, cables are normally arranged in pairs. That is, making a continuous
loop, providing a pull in both directions.
The flexible control cable system is the most widely used because deflection of the
structure to which it is attached does not effect its operation.
Cable Construction
To form a cable, a number of wires are wound together to form a strand, and a
number of strands are wound together to form a cable. The straight strand running
through the centre of the cable is known as the heart strand.
Cables are made of galvanised carbon steel alloy or corrosion resistant steel.
Aircraft control cables are preformed, which means that the wires were shaped in
their spiral form before the cable was wound. This gives them the following advan
tages:
1. Cable will resist unstranding
2. Resist kinking
3. Are more easily spliced
4. If a wire breaks it will tend to lie flat
CABLE

Types of Cables Figure 2: Types of Cables
Non-Flexible Cable
In areas where a linkage does not pass over any pulleys nonflexible cable can be
used. It is available in either a 1 x 7 or 1 x 19 configuration. The 1 x 7 cable is made
up of one strand comprised of seven individual wires, whereas the 1 x 19 consists
of one strand made up of 19 individual wires. Nonflexible cable is available in both
galvanised carbon steel and stainless steel.
Flexible Cable
Flexible steel cable made up of seven strands of seven wires each is called 7 x 7
or flexible cable, and is available in 1/16 and 3/32 inch sizes in both galvanised A 1 x 7 Nonflexible B 1 x 19 Nonflexible
carbon steel and stainless steel. Both types are preformed, which means that
when the cable is manufactured each strand is formed into a spiral shape. This control cable control cable
process keeps strands together when the cable is wound and also helps prevent
the cable from spreading out when cut. Furthermore, preforming gives cable great
er flexibility and relieves bending stresses when the strands are woven into the ca
ble.
Extra-Flexible Cables
The most widely used cable, 7 x 19, is available in sizes from 1/8 inch up. It is extra
flexible and is made of 133 individual wires wound in seven strands, each strand
having 19 wires. These cables are preformed and are available in both galvanised
and stainless steel. Galvanised cable is more resistant to fatigue than stainless
steel, but in applications where corrosion is a factor, stainless steel is used.
Lockclad
Used on some large aircraft for all long straight runs. It consists of the conventional D 7 x 19 Extra
7 x 7 Flexible
flexible cable with aluminium tubing swaged to it to lock the cable inside the tubing.
This construction has certain advantages: changes in tension due to temperature control cable f lexible control
changes are less; also the amount of stretch for a given load is less. cable
Nylon Coated Cables
Used in high corrosion environments.

End Fittings
Cable terminals are the various fittings that are attached to the end of a cable to
strengthen it where it is attached to another component.
The cable fittings used most in large aircraft manufacture are MS-type swaged ca
ble terminals. To install these terminals, cut the cable and insert it into the end of
a terminal. Then, use either a hand or power-swaging tool to force the metal of the
terminal down into the cable. This forms a joint that is at least as strong as the ca
ble itself.
To ensure that a terminal is properly swaged, a measurement is made of the
swaged terminal with a go / no-go gauge. The swaging process must decrease the
term inal’s diameter to the extent that the go end of a go / no-go gauge passes over
the swaged terminal, but the no-go end does not.
As an inspection aid to ensure the cable does not pull out of the terminal, a small
mark of paint is placed over the terminal end and onto the cable. A broken paint
mark indicates the cable has slipped inside the terminal.

Figure 3: Swaged Control Cable Terminals
Measure shank
after swagging
ir
1/16 cable 3.'32 Measure shank
sleeves before swagging
o
Measure ball
before swagging
SLJl Measure ball

after swagging
A. Gaging a swaged-on control cable terminal to determine that it has been

properly swaged.
B. Typical terminal gage

Nicopress Oval Sleeves Figure 4: Nicopress Oval Sleeve

Many light aircraft use Nicopress sleeves that are squeezed onto control cables to
form terminal ends. A Nicopress sleeve is made of copper and has two holes to
accommodate a control cable.
When a cable is wrapped around an AN 100 thimble and properly squeezed with
the correct Nicopress squeezer, the term inal develops at least the strength of the
cable.
Sleeve
num ber is
stamped here
A. Installation o f Nicopress-type sleeves on a control cable.

B. Typical Nicopress gage

Turnbuckles/ Turnbarrels When the cable tension is properly adjusted, safety the turnbuckle with the meth
ods shown.
Used in cable control systems to adjust cable tension.
Figure 6: Safetying Methods
It is threaded with left-hand thread at one end and a right hand thread at the other.
When adjusting the cable tension the cable terminals are screwed into either end Four turns minimum
This applies to all turnbuckle wrapping,
of the barrel an equal distance by turning the barrel.
y
After the turnbarrel is adjusted it must be safetied.
When installing cable in aircraft the terminal threads shall be visually inspected for
defects or burrs that might damage the turnbarrel threads during rigging.
Double-wrap spiral
Any burrs shall be removed.
Both terminals shall be screwed an equal number of turns into the barrel so that
no more than three threads are exposed and shall not be buried beyond the spec
ified distance.
Double-wrap
Terminals must be screwed into barrel until the desired right load has been
achieved.
Observe thread adjustment limitation as per applicable specifications.
Control cable tension is adjusted by using turnbuckles. The bronze barrel has
right-hand threads in one end and lefthand threads in the other end. The cable ter Single-wrap spiral
minal ends are screwed into the barrel and as it is turned, it pulls the ends into it.
To be sure that the terminals are screwed into the barrel enough to produce full
strength, there must be no more than three threads exposed on either end of the
barrel.
Figure 5: Control Cable Turnbuckle Single-wrap
Pin eye
Barrel

Figure 7: Clip Type Locking Device
Some tumbuckles are made for special locking devices. The cable tension is ad
justed with the turnbuckle, and it is safetied by inserting the long end of the
MS21256 wire locking clip into the groove cut into the inside of the barrel and the
terminal ends. The clip is locked in place by passing its end into the hole in the side
of the barrel. Notice that there is a groove around one end of the turnbuckle barrel.
This groove identifies the end of the barrel that has the left-hand threads.

Compensation Devices results in lower and nearer constant cable system friction and operating forces.
Lower cable tension also reduces cable and pulley wear. Since the cable tension
Cable operated flying control systems in larger aircraft need to be fitted with a de is nearly constant, the frequency of vibration (resonance) of the cables can be con
vice which will maintain the correct cable tension at all times. This is necessary for trolled within close limits away from any critical aircraft resonances.
a number of reasons.
Figure 8: Cable Tension Regulator
Aircraft structure and control cables are made of different materials and expand
and contract by different amounts when the temperature changes.
As the aircraft reaches cruising speed at altitude the fuselage outer structure may
get very cold, or hot depending on the speed. The cable system inside will be at a
temperature determined by the air conditioning system or perhaps heated by ad
Scale indicator
jacent engines, thermal anti-icing or cabin heating ducts. Even if there is no heat
ing or cooling inside, there is insulating air between the control system and the
structure causing the cables and structure to be at different temperatures.
An additional thermal factor becomes important when the aircraft is left standing
in the sun before take off with the control cables at a lower temperature in the air
conditioned cabin. This causes the tension in the cables of unregulated control
systems to become unusually high just before take-off at a time when it is usually
necessary to fly the aircraft manually for a considerable length of time.
Cable tension regulators maintain the correct cable tension under all conditions.
Control system cables are quite often not located on the neutral bending and tor
sional axes of the aircraft fuselage or wing.
Deflection of the structure then results in the cables becoming slack or over ten-
sioned. For example the nose of a large aircraft may move 6 inches (152.4 mm)
or so with respect to the central part of the aircraft. If the cables are located near
the side of the fuselage, they must expand and contract as fuselage deflection oc
curs. An aircraft on the ground may have the wings deflected downwards, while in
the air the wings will deflect upwards. If the cables are not located on the neutral
bending axis of the wing, relative length changes between cable and structure will
again occur.
Pressurisation of the aircraft cabin can also result in changes in structure length
relative to cable length.
W ithout cable tension regulators, high initial cable tensions must be used to pre
vent the cables from becoming slack in one extreme thermal or structural condi
tion. In the other extreme condition, the cable tension would increase to a still
higher value. Cable pulley friction varies in proportion to the cable tension, there
fore the cable system friction will vary widely. Cable tension regulators maintain a
nearly constant tension thus allowing the use of lower initial cable tensions. This

Pulleys Metallic pulleys are used where high tension, high temperature and hazardous en
vironment conditions are present.
Pulleys are used to guide cables and also to change the direction of cable m ove
ment. Cable Guards
They are also used to support straight ‘runs’ of cables where they travel over a Cables passing pulleys are kept in place by guards. Guards are close fitting to pre
large distance. vent jamming or to prevent cables from slipping out when cables slakes due to
tem perature variations, or when cable tension being relived for maintenance pur
When adjusting a control cable it is important that the cable end fittings do not foul
poses.
the pulley, otherwise cable movement will be restricted.
Different types of guards are in use:
Pulley bearings are sealed and need no further lubrication other than the lubrica
tion done at the factory or overhaul shop. Pins
Clips
Types of Pulleys Fittings
Metallic; For proper type installations see requested type specifications.
- Non Metallic.
Figure 9: Pulley Assembly

Cable System Components Figure 10: Fairleads
Fairleads
Used to guide cables in a straight line through or between structural members of
the aircraft.
Maximum deviations from straight-line 3° or consult applicable specification.
Fairleads may be made from non-metallic materials such as phenolic micarta or a
metallic material such as soft aluminium.
The fairlead completely encircles the cable where it passes through bulkheads or
other structural parts.
Split fairlead
*
Fairlead for cable passing
Solid fairlead Plastic rub strip through pressurized bulkhead

Pressure Seals
Installed where cables route from a pressurised area to a non-pressurised area.
Seals are moulded of synthetic or silicon rubber.
Silicone rubber seals are less susceptible to damage caused by bushing popout,
cleaning abuse and ageing.
When replacement is necessary the damaged seal should be replaced according
to applicable maintenance directives.

Figure 11: Pressure Seal

Bellcranks and Walking Beams

Used in rigid control systems to gain mechanical advantage and to change direc
tion of motion in a system.
Bellcrank has two arms, which form an angle of less than 180°, with a pivot point
where the two arms meet.
Walking beam is a straight beam with a pivot point in the centre.
The two are so similar in construction and use that the names are often used to
describe the same crank.
Bellcranks and walking beams are mounted in the structure in the same way as
pulley assemblies. Brackets or the structure itself may be used as a point of attach
ment or the shaft or bolt on which the unit is mounted.

Figure 12: Bellcranks and Walking Beams
TYPICAL BELLCRANK TYPICAL WALKING BEAM A PUSH PULL ROD CONNECTED TO A BELLCRANK
Corresponding with JAR 66 r* *. a

F o r training purp o se s o n ly 031. A 185
Quadrants Torque Tubes and Torque Arms

Serves the same purpose as a wheel. However, the quadrant moves through a Is a hollow shaft used to change the linear motion of a cable into rotary motion.
small arc, as much as 100°. Used at the base of a control column or control stick A torque arm or ‘Horn’ is attached to the tube by welding or bolting and imparts a
to impart motion to a cable system. twisting motion to the tube as the arm is moved back and forth.
Figure 13: Quadrant / Torque Arm
A Q U A D R A N T U SED FOR M O VEM EN T

OF C O N TR O L CA B LES

Levers Push Pull Tube or Rod

Is a rigid bar not necessarily straight, which is turned about a fixed point, called a Used as linkage in various types or mechanically operated systems. This type of
fulcrum. linkage eliminates the problem of varying tension and permits the transfer of com
Used to: pression and tension loads through a single tube.
magnify force or displacement; Made in short lengths to prevent vibration and bending under compression loads.
change direction of movement.
Figure 14: Lever and Push Pull Rods
LEVER
S e lf-a lig n in g C heck T h re a d e d S te e l o r C le v is

ro d -e n d b e a rin g nu t ro d e n d a lu m in u m tu b e r o d -e n d fittin g

Attachments Ball bearing

Four types of attachment - Ball joint
Clevis and pin Threaded
Figure 15: Attachments
CLEVIS ROD END PUSH-PULL CONTROL ROD
BEA M A N D C L E V IS RO D END
The rod must be screwed into the rod end bearing

until it covers the check hole.
C O N T R O L S Y S T E M BELL C R A N K

Push Pull Cable Bowden Cables

Used for a variety of remote control situations. Bowden cables consist of a stainless steel wire housed in a flexible sleeve or con
Limited to large radius bends. duit. The control is intended for pull operation only, the cable being returned on re
lease of the control lever by a spring.
Very strong and hard wearing.
The flexible cable is made up of several strands of stainless steel wire on the ends
Main advantage is than only one cable gives both push and pull action. are brass nipples which are soldered or swaged on.
Note: The conduit consists of a close coiled wire, covered with cotton braiding and fin
Lubricate only as specified. ished with a black waterproof coating, metal caps are fitted on each end. On long
runs metal tubing may be used.
Figure 16: Push Pull Cable
At the transmitting end a hand lever is fitted which engages with the nipple on the
end of the cable. At the receiving end the cable passes through an adjustable stop
and the nipple engages component operating lever.
Figure 17: Bowden Cable

Connections Junction Boxes

These are used where it is necessary to uncouple the cable at some point in the Used when connecting a single cable to two others, where there are two com po
control run or where the bowden cable is used in conjunction with some other type nents to be operated by a single control.
of control cable.
Figure 18: Connector/Junction Box
Barrel Connecting Cables
Typical Junction Box
One cable entering operates two cables leaving

Aircraft Flexible Control Systems One disadvantage of a cable system for control movement relates to thermal con
traction. As an aircraft climbs to a high altitude, its temperature drops and its struc
While a number of different systems are used to actuate flight and engine controls ture contracts.
from the cockpit, flexible control cables are by far the most commonly used meth Furthermore, the aluminium structure contracts much more than the small mass of
od. Multiple-strand control cables are simple, strong, and reliable. steel in a control cable, and as a result, cables lose their tension. Large aircraft
Cable has several advantages over other types of linkages. It is strong and light in have a rather complex automatic tensioning system to keep control cable tension
weight, and its flexibility makes it easy to route. In addition to primary flight con relatively constant as the aircraft contracts and expands. However, small aircraft
trols, cable is used on engine controls, emergency landing gear extension con must have their cable tension adjusted as a compromise so they are not too tight
trols, trim tab system, and various other applications. when the aeroplane is hot nor too loose when it is cold.
All control cables are tensioned to a specific load according to the applicable main
tenance manual.
Figure 19: Control System Application

T ra in in g M an u al 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors
6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors

Introduction
The aircraft electrical installation is of the single-wire type, this means only one
wire is used to support the supply of electric current to the user, and the return path
is via the metallic structure of the aircraft.
Below are listed some of the groups responsible for the design specifications for
aircraft electrical installations,
Boeing Aircraft Company (BAC),
- McDonnell - Douglas Corp. (MDC),
Aeronautical Radio Inc. (ARINC),
- Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR),
British Civil Aviation Regulations (BCAR),
- Military Wiring Specs. (MIL-W),
International Standards Organisation (ISO).

Cable Types A cable will be understood to be larger stranded conductors or multiple conductors
in one outer sheath.
A variety of cable types has been developed for aircraft use.
Current handling capacity is also an important consideration, the current rating be
The choice of cable for a particular function will be governed by its ing defined as, the amount of current a cable will carry without sustaining a tem
purpose and location for use. perature rise sufficient to cause the value of insulation resistance to deteriorate to
an unacceptable level or without exceeding a specified voltage drop.
Great care must be exercised during the manufacture of aircraft cables and strin
gent tests are applied to ensure maximum reliability. Table 1: Wire Sizes
A large modern aircraft may require many miles of electrical wiring and even a
small reduction in size and weight may result in considerable savings in space and Stranded Wires
economy.
Size "AWG" Code No. Size mm2 Piece Stranded
Characteristics
Aircraft cables must possess the following properties, AN-24 002 0.25 19
Voltage resistant up to 600 volts, AN-22 004 0.4 19
AN-20 006 0.6 19
Resistant to all fluids, AN-18 010 1 19
Highly flexible, AN-16 012 1.2 19
Highly strengthened, AN-14 020 2 37
AN-12 030 3 37
Light in weight. AN-10 050 5 37
For use in different environmental zones where temperature will be high, special AN-8 090 9 117
insulation is required, AN-6 140 14 127
AN-4 220 22 182
Up to 100\150° C (norm temperature type),
AN-2 340 34 201
Up to 250°C (high temperature type), AN-0 530 53 322
Up to 400° C (fire resistant type). AN-00 680 68 416
AN-000 850 85 513
Construction AN-0000 1070 107 660
Copper and Aluminium conductors are used. Copper may be tinned for general
service wire and nickel plated for use in high temperature areas.
Aluminium being about 2/3rds the weight of copper is only used for large loads,
such as galleys as larger diameter wire is needed to compensate for its higher re
sistance.
All wires are manufactured to Military Specification standards.
Throughout this manual: -
A wire will be understood to be a single wire strand or small stranded conductors.
C orresponding with JAR 66 _ . . . .

Fo r training purposes only 0 3 t. A 195
T ra in in g M an u al 6.11 Electrical Cables and C onnectors
Aircraft Environmental Zones Figure 1: High Vibration and High Tem erature Areas on M D11
Aircraft electrical cables will be required for many uses in many different locations
throughout the structure of the aircraft.
Location is a major factor in the type of cable to be used.
It should be obvious a cable chosen for use in the cabin would not be chosen for
use in the wheel wells or on the engines.
Listed below is an indication of the various environmental zones.
Table 2: Aircraft Environmental Zones
High Vibration Areas (blue) High Temperature Areas (red)
Engine Engine
Pylon or Apron Pylon or Apron
APU Compartment APU Compartment
Wheel Well Air Conditioning Compartment
Wing
Behind Pressurised Areas

Special Purpose Wires Figure 2: Shielded W ire
Shielded Wire Cu-Conductor

Shielding of wires is used to protect wires carrying sensitive signals. These wires (Silver-plated) Shield
carry signals sensitive to electric fields.
Examples of these wires are, a Glass-fibre E
- Computer wiring. plaiting PVC Sheath
Audio and video circuits.
C G
Metering and bridge input circuits.
- Microphone circuits.
These wires can be single wire shielded, twisted and shielded wire pairs or m ulti
conductor shielded.
They should be grounded at only ONE end to prevent earth loops. They operate
in circuits below 50 kHz
Construction:
A = copper conductor
B = primary insulation
B D F
C = secondary insulation
D = PVC insulation Insulator PVC Polyamide
E = tinned copper shield
F = shield insulation
G = cable Isolation

Thermocouple Cables
These cables are used for the connection of cylinder head temperature indicators
and turbine engine exhaust gas temperature indicators, to their respective therm o
couple sensing elements.
The conducting metal conductors are normally the same as those materials used
in the thermocouple sensing elements.
Copper and Constantan: - cylinder head temperature.
Chromel and Alumel: - exhaust gas temperature.
For EGT measurement, the thermocouple sensing elements are arranged radially
in a harness in the gas stream from the engine.
The insulating material of the harness cables is either silicone rubber or PTFE im
pregnated fibreglass.

Figure 3: Therm ocouples harness installation
THERMOCOUPLE
HARNESS

Kapton Insulation Hybrid cable types use s o n e combinations of Kapton, PTFE, FEP, and Fibreglass
to give improved performance.
Insulation material is applied to conductors by one of two basic methods; extrusion
and wrapping.
Table 3: Kapton Isolation
The most com m cnly used wrapping insulation is Kapton, which is the registered
trade name of an aromatic polyimide produced by DuPont. Maximum Materials
Kapton is an advanced electrical insulation material which: Temperature
- maintains its mechanical stability at very high and very low temperatures, 150°C Kapton
-269°C to +400°C.
resists high mechanical stress during installation / assembly operations, 200°C Kapton / FEP
is thin and lightweight and has excellent electrical insulation and thermal
properties. 200°C Kapton / PTFE
has significant resistance to most chemicals, solvents, lubricants and fu 200°C PTFE / FEP / Kapton
els or hydrocarbons.
- allows space and weight savings. 200°C PTFE / FEP / Kapton / FEP
has excellent formable and bondable characteristics,
260°C PTFE / Kapton / PTFE
allows significant potential for increasing the energy-to-size ratio of mo
tors and transformers (power-to-weight ratio). 260°C Kapton / Glass / PTFE
Kapton is used as the insulation on magnet wire used in transformers, motors and
alternators and as wire and cable insulation. It is used by Airbus as a slot liner for
the stator in the alternator, which functions as a back-up to the generator windings
in case of a major electrical failure. It is also used as the primary winding insulation
of the transformer rectifier, which provides main DC current to the onboard com
puters and flight instruments.
Kapton Wire
Many aircraft cable manufacturers use Kapton, either singly or in combination with
other materials to give a so called 'Hybrid' construction.
Single or double tapes are spirally wound over the conductor to a defined over-lap
to give the required tape thickness at any one point.
The process of wrapping insulation provides good control of overall insulation wall
thickness. Some general wiring cable types employ only four layers of Kapton, giv
ing a total wall thickness of approximately 0.06 inches (0.15mm).
Kapton is naturally copper coloured. A top coat provides a coloured surface which
gives added protection to the cable and will also accept print.
C orresponding with JAR 66 /■* +. a onn

F o r training p u rp o se s only V * 3 t. A Û U
Figure 4: Manufacturer’s Identification
M A N U F A C T U R E R ' S IDEN TIF ICA TI ON

CF24V-FA-A
Tyoe code T D i s p e r s i o n code(**)

Size code ■Manufacturer coce
Year of m a n u f a c t u r e code
For a p p l i c a t i o n s , see N S A 9 3 5 0 0 0 ( c h a p t e r s 1.3 and IV.B.1)
1st K A P T O N tape 12QF61o(*) 2nd K A P T O N tape 1 2 0 F 6 1 6 ©

opti o na l p it c h sense, reverse pitch of 1st tape,
51 X mini, o ve rl ap 51 % mini, overlap
( * ) Make
DU P O N T DE NE MO URS
7
j © COMPLETELY REVISE
Cure; - n ic <e u- pL at ed copper for size s 22 to 10 |di sper sion, ( FEP or PTF£)
** ni ck e l - p l a t e d copper alloy for sizes 24 to 26 j(0,01 m m mini.) mar ka ble
as per spe ci fi ca ti on AECMA EN2083
A p p ro v e d Title Cl assi fi cati on
A IR B U S I N D U S T R IE CAB LE CF - O N E - W I R E , N O N - S C R E E N E D , STANDARDS M A N U A L
K A P T O N - I N S U L A T E D , 200°C MAX.
ASNE0261
Issue: 0 2 / 8 3 R evisio n:® 1 1 /84 Page Q1 of 03

High Temperature Fire Warning Wires The normal temperature range is up to 400°C, but on the other side resistant for 5
min. against a temperature of 1093 C (flame).
For this use only a high temperature resistant wire shall be used. This wire shall
agree with MIL-W-25038. The outside insulation colour is mainly red, but sometimes also white.
Figure 5: Fire Warning Wires
Cu/NI SI PTFE GPTFE
copper/nickel Silikon Glas, P T F E - red o r white co lo red

conductor
Polytetraflurathylen
Temperature resistance : up to 400°C

Fire safe : up to 1093 °C
(max. 5 min)

Coaxial Cables Figure 6: Single Shield Coax Antenna Cable

This type of cable is used mostly in RF applications, examples:
Radio antenna cables, DIELECTRIC
SHIELD (OUTER
- Fuel quantity cables.
These cables contain two or more conductors, the innermost conductor may be
CONDUCTOR) A
]
solid, or stranded copper wire type, and may be plain, tinned, silver-plated or gold-
plated in some applications depending on the degree of conductivity required.
Note
A single core with dual braided conductors is called Triaxial, used in ADF systems.
The remaining conductors are in the form of tubes, usually of fine wire braid. The
insulation is usually of polyethylene of Teflon.
\ _ OUTER
Outer coverings or jackets serve to weatherproof the cables and provide protec CONDUCTOR
tion from fluids and mechanical and electrical damage. PVC is normally used.
JACKET
Coaxial cables are grounded at both ends.
For certain applications their length is critical and must not be altered.

Wire Identification
To facilitate installation and maintenance, all wiring shall be indelibly marked for
identification.
The wire identification number shall consist of a combination of numbers and let
ters.
The identification number shall contain:
- System it belongs too.
Wire size.
Wire number.
Other information to relate the wire to the wiring diagram.
The wire will be stamped using the wire-stamping machine.
The spacing of the identification number shall be at intervals of from
12 to 15 inches, wires less than 3 inches long need not be stamped.
If the outer covering or wire insulation will not stamp easily, or cannot be stamped
without causing insulation damage, a stamped sleeve will be used around the ca
ble.
The following wires should not be stamped:
Shielded wire.
- Thermocouple wire.
- Multi-conductor wire.
- High temperature wire (with insulation difficult to mark).
Note
Boeing, MDC Corp., and Airbus all use a different method of identifying wires.

Coding System System Code

The MDC Corporation uses the following component parts for the identification of The identification number starts with the system letter code (see table). If more
wires. than one system is installed, the system number appears before the system letter.
Part Description:
1 System number.
Wire Number
2 System. All wire sections with the same potential use the same wire number. If there is a
change in potential due to the computer, lamps, switches, etc., the wire number
3 Wire number. will change.
4 Wire section.
Section Number
5 Wire size (AWG).
6 Colour \ phase. All wire sections are coded with letters. Starting with letter A at the circuit breaker
and ending at the next termination point.
Figure 7: Wire Identification Wire sections are between,
1. Terminal strips.
2 L88A18R D ------ =3% 2. Plugs \ receptacles.
3. Splices.
TP.'
All wire sections at the same potential have the same wire number, but different
section letters.
Wire sections at different potentials will have different wire number.
Power cables use the letters A, B, C, to identify the phase connections, the letter
2 N is used for the neutral connection.
L
8
8
A
1
8
R
D

E x a m p le : Table 4: Letter Code(Continued)
M Miscellaneous
A cable numbered 2L88A18RD
N Unassigned (Neutral)
2 system # 2
P DC Power
L lighting
Q Fuel and Oil
88 number 88 wire
R Radio (Navigation and
A section A
Communication)
18 wire size 18 (AWG) RA Instrument Landing
RD colour red RF Liaison (VHF Comm)
RL Liaison (HF Comm)
Table 4: Letter Code RM Marker Beacon
RN Navigation Systems
A Auto Pilot
RP Radio Power
C Surface Controls
RT Teleprinter System
D Instruments (other than
Flight or Engine Instru RV VHF Comm System
ments
RX Recorder
E Engine Instruments
RZ Audio Interphone
F Flight Instruments
S Radar
G Landing Gear
SA Radio Altimeter
H Heating, Ventilating and
de-icing SN Radar Navigation
J Ignition SX ATC
K Engine Controls SY TCAS
L Lighting T Special Electronics

Table 4: Letter Code(Continued)
TD Passenger Address Table 5: Colours Used
TL Visual Approach System RD Red,
TN INS BL Blue,
TP Special Electronic Power YE Yellow,
TW W eather Radar GR Green,
TZ Passenger Entertainment WH White,

V DC Power and DC Control AL Aluminium,
W Warning and Emergency A Phase A,
X AC Power B Phase B,
z Spares C Phase C,
N Neutral, Ground.

Wire Terminals Figure 8: Terminals
Pre-insulated crimp-on terminals are used on all wires connected to terminal

strips. The insulation is stripped from the end of the wire, which is inserted into the
terminal until the insulation butts up against the sleeve of the terminal and the end
of the wire sticks out slightly beyond the end of the sleeve. When the terminal is
crimped with a special crimping tool, the terminal sleeve grips the wire tightly
enough to make a joint that is as strong as the wire itself.
The insulation around the sleeve is crimped at the same time, so it is forced tightly
against the insulation on the wire and helps remove some of the strain from the
wire strands when the wire is subjected to movement and vibration. Barrel
The color of the insulation on the terminal indicates the wire size the terminal is
C olor-coded
designed to fit. A small yellow terminal fits on wire gages 26 through 22, a red ter
insulation
minal fits wires from 20 through 18, a blue terminal fits wires from 16 through 14,
and a large yellow terminal fits wire gages 12 through 10. Insulation
grip
Ring-type term inal
Slotted-type term inal

Figure 9: Terminal Installations
■T"1
m
■J^ v_ VoVy
<©>* Terminal tip Cross crimp for
=?! A < Q /.\
U fi >\\\ V
'iv *
\\ w
//// \\\', '\\'
(U! \i>
When it is necessary to connect more than

4 wires to a single point, 2 or more studs are
connected with a bus strap.
X T
- y ---
Correct method of stacking wire terminals

on a stud

Wire Splices Figure 10: Splice
At one time it was common practice to splice wires by wrapping the ends of the
wires together and soldering them, but now almost all wire splicing is done with the
proper size pre-insulated solderless splices. To install the terminals, strip the insu
lation off the ends of the wires, slip the ends of the two wires into the splice, and
Pre-insulated splice
crimp the splice, using the proper crimping tool.
Wire ends
There should not be more than one splice in any wire segment between any two
connections or other disconnect points. When several wires in a bundle are to be
spliced, the wires should be cut so that the splices are staggered along the bundle.
Figure 11: Staggering of Splices in a Bundle

Pins and Sockets (Contacts) Pins and contacts may be of the soldered type, but more commonly are of the
crimped type, to attach them to individual wires. Contacts are normally round in
To facilitate maintenance where frequent disconnection of wires is required, con
shape.
nectors are used.
Contacts are normally colour coded to identify the following:
Connectors in construction can be broken into two parts, Plugs and Receptacles.
- The wire size its wire barrel can accommodate.
Each wire in a connector is terminated in a contact. A contact may be a Pin or a
- The contact size it will mate with.
Socket.
Contacts are inserted and extracted from their terminating device, by special in
sertion and extraction tools.
Figure 12: Electrical Contacts
'FRONT RELEASE CONTACTS)

(REAR RELEASE \ D N T A C r )
- L 0 C n *6 CL I P r N S A G lN f i S H O U LD E R •— \
SOCKET
h;n -
/
J ]:
■> V , V .
•/a k s t
TYPICAL CONTACTS T YPI CAL CONNECTORS

T rain in g M an u al 6.11 Electrical Cables and C onnectors
Plugs and Receptacles Figure 13: Electrical Connectors

Where frequent disconnection of aircraft wiring is necessary for maintenance,
plugs and receptacles are used.
Mating of electrical wires between plugs and receptacles is via contacts (pins and
sockets).
Electrical connection between wire and contact is normally through crimped con
tacts, although soldered type contacts may be encountered.
Mating connection between plugs and receptacles is either through,
Thread coupling.
Bayonet coupling.
For correct connection of plugs to receptacles and also to protect contacts while MS3101
connection is being made, stone keys and polarisation keys are used. CAB LE nHCErtACI F
The normal contact arrangement for plugs and receptacles, is that sockets are fit
ted to wires in a receptacle (hot connector- powered side), and pins are fitted to
wires in a plug.
Connectors are normally made from:
Aluminium Alloy (general purpose use).
Stainless steel with Cadmium plating (high temperature areas).
STRAIGHT PLUG
MS3108
ANCW F m u o

Figure 14: Part Numbers Figure 15: Connector Details
Military S tandard
Type number R E C E P TA C LE
Class G R O M M E T N U T ...
(usually used
Size
without cable clam
Insert arrangem ent num ber
Insert rotation
Contact style
s h e ll —
insulator
m o u n t i n y
h u lb t -
Class Application Shell j c k e t:s m a l r ‘ lJ 1 0 D V r i
A General Purpose Solid Aluminium Alloy

PLU G
B General Purpose Solid Aluminium Alloy
CABLE C LAM P
C Pressurized Solid Aluminium Alloy
D Environmental Resistant Solid Aluminium Alloy
K Fire and Flame Proof Solid Steel
P a r t nuinbe
C O U P L I N G RING
pit
C orresponding with JAR 66 r* A

F o r training purposes only V>31. A 213
B a l l s .................................................................. 165 C o m p e n sa tio n D e v ic e s ..............................179 E xfoliation C orrosion .....................................55

Numerics
B ellcranks and W alking Beam s ...............184 C o m po site M a t e r ia ls ..................................... 22 E xperim ental A l l o y s ....................................... 12
12 Point Head o r D o ub le Hexagon Head Bolt
Bevel G e a r ...................................................... 169 C o n n e ctio n s ................................................. 190 E xtra-F lexible C a b le s .................................. 173
.............................................................................. 80
Blind R ivets ....................................................119 C ore M a te r ia ls ................................................. 30 Eye Care ...........................................................36
Bow den C a ble s ............................................ 189 C o rro sio n - R esistant Steel T u b in g . . . . 128
A Brazed S leeves and F ittings ....................139 C o rrosio n G e n e r a l..........................................48 F
A c i d s .................................................................. 51 Bulbed C h e rrylo ck R ivet ........................... 120 C o rro sio n R esistant Steel S p lit P i n ..........99 F actors W hich Influence M etal C o rrosio n 50
A C M E T hrea ds .............................................. 67 B uttress T h re a d s ............................................ 67 C o rro sio n T re a tm e n t of A lu m in iu m A lloys 62 F a ir e y ............................................................... 112
A d ju sta b le G au ges ....................................... 74 C o rro sio n -R e sista n t (S tain le ss) S teel . . . . 7 F airlead s ........................................................ 181
A ircra ft Bolt H ead Id e n tific a tio n ................. 81
A ircra ft C astle N u t ..........................................83
c C o tte r Pin / S plit Pin S afe tying ................. 99 F atigue C orrosion ..........................................56
C able C o nstructio n .....................................172 C o tte r Pins / Split Pins ................................ 99 Filiform C o rr o s io n ............................................ 54
A ircra ft C h eck N u t ..........................................83 C o u n te rsu n k W ashe r ...................................94
C able G u a r d s ................................................. 180 Film A d h e s iv e s ................................................. 29
A ircra ft E nviron m ental Z one s ................. 196 C re vice C o r r o s io n ..........................................59
C able S ystem C o m p o n e n ts ...................... 181 F itting and R e m o v a l.....................................159
A ircra ft Flexible C o ntrol S ystem s ..........191 C u ttin g and S anding C o m p o site M aterials .
C able T y p e s ....................................................195 Flared T ube End Fittings ...........................137
A ircra ft M etals and A lloys ...........................10 33
C ables Flat S addle Key ............................................ 113
A ircra ft Plain N u t ............................................83
C h a ra c te ris tic s ..........................................195 F lathead P in s ................................................. 100
A ircra ft S he ar C a stle N ut ...........................83
C o nstructio n ............................................ 195 D F lexible Cable ...............................................173
A ircra ft Solid S ha nk R ivets ......................117
C adm ium Plated, Low C arbon Steel S plit Pin D a m ag e In s p e c tio n ....................................... 31 F lexible C ouplings ....................................... 153
A irlo c F asteners ..........................................111
.............................................................................. 99 D am age to S andw ich S tru ctu re s ............ 31 F lexible Fluid Line Id e n tific a tio n ...............147
A lka lis ................................................................51
Cages or S e p a ra to rs .................................. 165 D e fin itio n s ........................................................ 79 F lexible Fluid Lines .....................................147
A lloyin g agents in steel and applicatio ns of a l
C am loc F asten ers ....................................... 110 Depth of E n g a g e m e n t...................................72 F lexible Hose C o nstructio n ...................... 147
loy s t e e ls ............................................................. 4 D e te cting C orrosion ..................................... 61 F lexible Hose End F it t in g s ........................ 150
C a r b o n .................................................................. 4
A lu m inium A llo y s ............................................12
Carbon Steel ...................................................... 5 D iffe re n ce betw een Bolts and S cre w s . . 86 Fluid Line F ittin g s ..........................................141
A lu m inium and M ag n e siu m A lloys ..........14
C auses of C o rrosio n .....................................50 D im e n sio n s and T ole ran ces ...................... 72 F oam ing A dhesive Film ................................29
A lu m in iu m T ubing ....................................... 128
C heck G a u g e s ................................................. 74 D ouble F l a r e ................................................. 134 F orm atio n of C o rrosio n ................................49
A m al ................................................................112
C hem ical C o rro sio n ....................................... 48 D ow els ............................................................. 89 F retting C orrosion ..........................................55
AN and AC Flared T u b e F it t in g s ............ 142
C hem ical F u nd am e ntals ............................. 48 D rying C o m po site P a n e ls ........................... 33 Fuel Lines ......................................................153
A n ch o r N uts ................................................... 84
C hem ical T r e a tm e n t ....................................... 62 D zus F a s te n e r s ............................................ 108 Fuel S ystem C o up lin gs ............................. 153
A n ch o r-T yp e T inn erm a n N u t ......................85
C herrylock R iv e t s ..........................................119
A n tico rro sio n T re a tm e n ts used in the M a n u
C herrym ax R ivets ....................................... 121 E G
fa ctu re of Bolts .............................................. 79
Chevron S e a l s ................................................. 37 Edge D e lam ina tion ....................................... 36 G a lva n ic Action ...............................................49
A p p lic a tio n of A lu m in iu m A lloys .............. 15
C hrom ium ...........................................................5 E ffe ctive D iam ete r T o le ra n ce ....................72 G a lva n ic C orrosion ....................................... 58
A r a m id ............................................................... 24
C ir c lip s ............................................................. 114 Effects of C orrosion ..................................... 50 G am ah Coupling ..........................................155
A tm o s p h e r e ......................................................51
C ladding of A lu m inium A lloys ....................16 Effects of C orrosion on M etals ................. 50 G au ge T o le r a n c e s ..........................................74
A tm o sp h e re I n d u s t r ia l.................................. 51
C lass of F i t ........................................................ 82 E la sto m er ........................................................ 21 G e n e ra l S afety W ire Locking Rules . . . . 104
A tm o sp h e re M a r in e ....................................... 51
Clip Nuts ...........................................................85 E lectro C h em ica l Action ..............................52 G lass F ib e r s ......................................................23
A tta ch m e n ts ................................................. 188
C oaxial C a b le s ...............................................203 E le ctro C h em ica l C orrosion ...................... 48 G o G a u g e s ........................................................ 73
A va ila b le W ire D ia m e te rs ........................ 107
Coin Tap T e st ................................................. 32 E le ctro -C h e m ica l S eries fo r M etal ..........52 G ra p h ite (C arbon F ib r e ) ................................24
C om m on M aterials used in the M an u fa ctu re End F it t in g s ....................................................174 G rip .................................................................... 79
B of B o l t s ................................................................79 Epoxy R esin ....................................................22 G rip Length of B lin d riv e ts ........................... 122
B acklash ........................................................ 168

F o r training purp o se s only Cat: A Index-221
G ro o ve d Pins .................................. .. 101 Levers ..............................................................187 O -ring S ea ls ....................................................38 R a c e s ................................................................165

Loads on B e a r in g s ....................................... 164 R a dio gra ph ic (X-R ay) In s p e c tio n ...............32
H Lock W ashe rs ................................................. 93 P R e c e s s ................................................................79
H e ad T y p e s ......................................................80 L o c k c la d ........................................................... 173 P al-N uts .........................................................102 R einforcing M a t e r ia ls .....................................23
H e at T r e a t m e n t.............................................. 14 Locking P lates ................................................. 98 P en etran t In s p e c tio n ..................................... 61 R e m ovin g and T reating C o r r o s io n ............ 62
H elical G e a r ................................................. 168 Low P ressure H o se .....................................148 P h o s p h o r o u s ...................................................... 5 R e pa ir of C om posite S tr u c tu r e ....................33
H igh P ressure H ose .................................. 149 Low T e m pe rature S elf Locking N uts . . . .8 4 Pins and S ocke ts ....................................... 211 R e pa ir of Rigid Fluid L i n e s ........................ 146
High T e m pe rature Fire W arning W ires . 202 Pipe F ittings ................................................. 141 R equ ired C h ara cte ristics ............................. 78
High T e m pe rature S elf Locking Nuts . . . 84 M Pipes and T u b e s ..........................................127 R e spira tory Care ............................................ 36
H ig h -P re ssu re S e a l s .....................................37 M achine S c r e w s ...............................................86 Pitch .................................................................. 66 R igid Fluid Lines ..........................................128
H i-S h e a r Pin R iv e t s .....................................124 M agnesium ...................................................... 18 P itting C o r r o s io n ............................................ 53 Rigid Pipe C o nn ection s ............................. 134
H M S Fitting ................................................... 139 M ajor D iam ete r ...............................................66 Plain E ngine N u t ............................................ 83 R ivet Head S tyle ..........................................118
H o llo w S addle Key .....................................113 M ajor D iam ete r T o le ra n ce ........................... 72 Plain T a p e r P i n ............................................ 101 R iv n u t s ............................................................. 123
H yp oid G e a r ................................................. 169 M an ga nese .........................................................5 Plain W a s h e r s ................................................. 92 Roll P in s ...........................................................100
M arking of G a u g e s ..........................................75 Plain W e a ve ....................................................25 R ound T hreads ...............................................67
I
Ide ntificatio n of T u bing ............................. 133
M aterials .........................................................128
M aterials and C o nstructio n ...................... 165
P la ne ta ry G e a r ............................................ 170
Plastic R e s in s ................................................. 22 s
Installatio n D irectives ................................155 M easuring S crew T h r e a d s ........................... 73 P la t in g ................................................................ 79 S AE C lassifica tion of S t e e ls ...........................4
Installation of Flexible H oses ................. 152 M echanical C o rrosio n R e m o v a l................. 62 Plugs and R e c e p ta c le s ..............................212 S afe ty A round C o m po sites ........................ 36
Installation of Rigid Fluid L i n e s ...............145 M edium P ressu re H ose ............................. 148 P ne um a tic and A ir S ystem P ip es ..........157 S afe ty W ire S p e c ific a tio n s ........................ 107
Instrum e nt M ounting N u t s ...........................85 M icrobial C orrosio n ....................................... 56 P olyester R e s in ...............................................22 S afe ty W iring M e th o d s ................................103
In te rg ra n n u la r C o r r o s io n ............................. 53 M ic r o b io lo g ic a l................................................. 49 Pop R iv e t s ...................................................... 122 S a l t s .................................................................... 51
M icro -O rg anism ...............................................51 P recipita tion H eat T re a tm e n t (A rtificia l A g e S atin W e a v e ......................................................26
Intern ation al S ta n d a r d s ................................78
M inor D iam ete r ...............................................66 ing) .....................................................................14 S cre w N o m en clature .....................................66
ISO M etric T h r e a d s ....................................... 68
M inor D iam ete r T o le ra n ce ........................... 72 P re-Load Indicating W a s h e r ...................... 97 S c r e w s ................................................................86
M olybdenum ...................................................... 5 P r e p r e g s ........................................................... 28 Seal Id e n tific a tio n ............................................ 39
J
M onel M etal ...................................................... 18 P rese tting M S F lareless F it t in g ...............138 Seal Installation ...............................................40
Ja n itro l T B olt C la m p .................................. 161
MS F lareless F ittings .................................. 137 P ressu re S eals ............................................ 182 S e a la n t s ............................................................. 37
J u n ctio n Boxes ............................................ 190
P rote ctive C o a tin g s ....................................... 62 S ectio n N u m b e r ............................................ 205
N P ulleys ........................................................... 180 S elf Locking N u t s ............................................ 84
K P urp ose o f B e a r in g s ...................................164 S elf T apping S crew s .....................................87
N i c k e l.....................................................................5
K ap ton Insulation ....................................... 200 Push Pull C a ble ..........................................189 S elf-A lig nin g W ashe rs .................................. 94
N icopress O val S le e v e s ...................... 176
K apton W ire ................................................. 200 Push Pull T ube or Rod ..............................187 S ha ke p ro o f W a s h e r ....................................... 93
No G o G a u g e s ................................................. 73
K e vla r ................................................................24 S h a n k ..................................................................79
Non Self Locking N uts .................................. 83
K eys ................................................................113
N onferrous M etal H eat T r e a t m e n t ............ 14 Q S h ie ld e d W ir e ................................................. 197
N on-F lexible C a ble .................................. . 173 Q u a d r a n ts ...................................................... 186 S ilicon .................................................................. 5
L Nuts .....................................................................83 Q u ick R e lea se F asteners .........................108 S in gle Flare ................................................... 136
L a vatories and Food S ervice A reas . . . . 60 Nylon C oated C a b le s .................................. 173 Q u ick-D isco n n e ct F it t in g s .........................144 S ize D esignation ..........................................147
Lay L i n e ............................................ ..............147 S ize D e sign atio ns ....................................... 129
L e n g t h ...................... .........................................79 o R S kin C a r e ...........................................................36

F o r training purposes only Cat: A Index-222
T rain in g M an u al
S lo tte d Engine N ut ....................................... 83 T it a n iu m ............................................................. 18 W o o d ru ff Key ...............................................113

S olution H eat T re a tm e n t (N atural A ge in g) 14 T orqu e T ube s and T orque A rm s ............ 186 W orm Drive Hose C lam ps ...................... 161
S pecial P urpose W ire s ............................. 197 T - S e a ls ................................................................39 W orm G e a r ....................................................169
S pring W a sh e r .............................................. 93 T ube B e n d in g ................................................. 131 W oven P roducts ............................................ 25
S p u r G ear ......................................................168 T ube C u ttin g ................................................. 130
S tain le ss S t e e ls ................................................. 7 Tubing Flaring ...............................................134
S tan dard isa tion of R ivets ........................ 117 T ungsten ............................................................. 5
S tan dard s fo r S cre w T h r e a d s ................... 68 T u rn b u c k le s /T u rn b a rre ls ...........................177
S tren gths of M a t e r ia ls .....................................2 Twill W e a ve ......................................................26
S tress ................................................................49 Types of C a b le s ............................................ 173
S tress C orrosion ............................................ 57 T ypes of C o r r o s io n ..........................................53
S tructura l S crew s ..........................................86 T ypes of F lexible Pipes ............................. 148
S t u d s .................................................................. 88 T ypes of G e a rs ............................................ 168
S u lp h u r ................................................................4 T ypes of P u lle y s ............................................ 180
S u m m a ry - C o rrosio n C o n t r o l....................63
S u sce p tib ility to C o r r o s io n ...........................60 u
S w a ge d Tube F it t i n g s ................................139 U ltrasonic Inspection .....................................32
S ystem C o d e ................................................. 205 U n idirectio nal W e a v e .....................................27
U nified Inch T h re a d s .....................................70
T U niversal or B ulkhead F it t in g s ................. 141
T a b W a s h e r s ................................................... 95 U -T ype T inn erm a n N u t s ................................85
T a p e r P in s ......................................................101
T eflon H o s e s ................................................. 149 V
T h e C levis B olt .............................................. 80 V T h re a d s ........................................................ 67
T he C o un te rsunk H ead Bolt ......................80 Vacuum B agging Lay U p ............................. 34
T he Eye Bolt ................................................... 80 V a n a d iu m ............................................................. 5
T h e H exagon H ead B olt ............................. 80 V -B and C lam ps and C o up lin gs ...............159
T h e Internal H e xag on Head B o l t ...............80 Visual Insp ection .....................................3 2 , 61
T h e R ivet Jo in t ............................................ 117
T he three C la ssifica tio n s of P lastics . . . . 20
T h e rm o co u p le C a b le s ................................198
w
W a s h e r s ............................................................. 92
T h e r m o p la s tic ................................................. 21
W ater .................................................................. 51
T h e rm o p la stic R esins .................................. 22
W ater B reak T e s t ............................................ 33
T h e r m o s e ts ...................................................... 20
W ing N ut ...........................................................83
T h e rm o se ttin g R e s in s .................................. 22
W ipers ................................................................42
T hrea d Fit ........................................................ 72
W ire Ide ntificatio n ....................................... 204
T h re a d Form s ................................................. 67
W ire locking ....................................................103
T hrea d G a u g e s .............................................. 73
W ire N u m be r ................................................. 205
T h re a d e d T ape r Pin .................................. 101
W ire S p lic e s ................................................... 210
T inn erm a n N u t s .............................................. 85
W ire T e r m in a ls ...............................................208
C orresponding with JAR 66 r* *■ A

F o r training p u rp o se s o n ly L /3 u A Index-223

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Materials and Hardware

6.1 Aircraft Material - Ferrous T h e rm o p la s tic ............................................................................................................. 21

C orresponding with JAR 66

P r o c e s s in g ..................... ............................................................................................44 U nified Inch T h re a d s ................................................................................................. 70

C orresponding with JAR 66

S c re w s ................................................................................................................................ 86 In tro d u c tio n .................................................................................................................113

C orresponding with JAR 66

Single F la re .................................................................................................................136 M aterials and C o n s tru c tio n ................................................................................... 165

C orresponding with JAR 66

Push Pull C a b le ........................................................................................................ 189 6.10 Control C a b le s ......................................................................................... 218

6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors

C orresponding with JAR 66

6.1 Aircraft Material - Ferrous

C orresponding w ith JAR 66

Strengths of Materials Toughness

Properties of Materials M etallic M aterials

Strength Ferrous M aterials

C orresponding with JAR 66

C orresponding with JAR 66

C orresponding with JAR 66

C orresponding with JAR 66

C orresponding with JAR 66

\ Ferritic Table 1: Identification for Heat and Corrosion Resistant Steels

I M artensitic 3XX C hrom ium -nickel (non-hardenable, austenitic, nonm agnetic).

C orresponding with JAR 66

6.2 Aircraft Materials - Non Ferrous

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Aircraft Metals and Alloys

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Figure 1: Aircraft Materials

FORWARD P R E S S U R E BU LKH EAD

C orresponding with JAR 66

C orresponding with JAR 66

7xxx Zinc (Zn)

'I - ' /1 i, Vtix .. H/ ... •. f (

Alloy Number Major Identifying Alloy Number Major Identifying r 4 U r^ v \ h, tv ';.- it

1xxx 99.0% m inim um 1xx;< 99.0% m inim um VftaUoVe c, * Y I c . A - : , - . 5' k ,x tlv .4

2xxx C opper 2xx,x C opper .W K:.‘ - vk JyV , _y

3xxx M anganese 3x)o< Silicon w ith added

7xxx Zinc 7 x >q< Zinc - •l ^ ' V^A

8xxx O ther elem ents 8xxx Tin

9xxx U nused series 9xx,x O ther elem ents

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Precipitation Heat Treatment (Artificial Ageing)

C orresponding with JAR 66

Application of Aluminium Alloys 2017 Alum inium

C orresponding with JAR 66

7075 Alum inium Cladding of Aluminium Alloys

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Figure 2: Cladding of Aluminium Alloys

ALclad = claded Material

C orresponding with JAR 66

C orresponding with JAR 66

6.3 Composite and Non-Metallic

C orresponding with JAR 66

The three Classifications of Plastics Figure 1: Thermosets "Uncured”

C orresponding with JAR 66