MEANING OF RESEARCH

Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. Once can also define research as
a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic. In fact, research is an
art of scientific investigation.
Research is an academic activity and as such the term should be used in a technical sense.
According to Clifford Woody research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating
hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organising and evaluating data; making deductions and
reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the
formulating hypothesis.
In short, the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of
finding solution to a problem is research. The systematic approach concerning generalisation and the
formulation of a theory is also research. As such the term ‘research’ refers to the systematic method
consisting of enunciating the problem, formulating a hypothesis, collecting the facts or data, analysing
the facts and reaching certain conclusions either in the form of solutions(s) towards the concerned
problem or in certain generalisations for some theoretical formulation.

Features of Research

1. Empirical - based on observations and experimentation on theories.

2. Systematic - follows orderly and sequential procedure.
3. Controlled - all variables except those that are tested/experimented upon are kept
constant.
4. Employs hypothesis - guides the investigation process
5. Analytical - There is critical analysis of all data used so that there is no error in their
interpretation
6. Objective, Unbiased, & Logical - all findings are logically based on empirical
7. Employs quantitative or statistical methods - data are transformed into numerical
measures and are treated statistically.

Scientific Research
Scientific researches are studies that should be systematically planned before performing them.
In this review, classification and description of scientific studies, planning stage randomisation
and bias are explained.
Research conducted for the purpose of contributing towards science by the systematic
collection, interpretation and evaluation of data and that, too, in a planned manner is called
scientific research: a researcher is the one who conducts this research. The results obtained
from a small group through scientific studies are socialised, and new information is revealed
with respect to diagnosis, treatment and reliability of applications. The purpose of this review is
to provide information about the definition, classification and methodology of scientific
research. Before beginning the scientific research, the researcher should determine the subject,
do planning and specify the methodology.

Classification of Scientific Research

 According to data collection techniques:

  Observational

 Experimental

 According to causality relationships:

 Descriptive

 Analytical

 According to relationships with time:

 Retrospective

 Prospective

 Cross-sectional

 According to the medium through which they are applied:

 Clinical

 Laboratory

 Social descriptive research (3)

Steps of the Scientific Method

1. Ask a Question

The scientific method starts when you ask a question about something that you observe: How,
What, When, Who, Which, Why, or Where?

For a science fair project some teachers require that the question be something you can measure,
preferably with a number.

For detailed help with this step, use these resources:

 Your Question
 Laboratory Notebook

2. Do Background Research

Rather than starting from scratch in putting together a plan for answering your question, you
want to be a savvy scientist using library and Internet research to help you find the best way to
do things and ensure that you don't repeat mistakes from the past.
For detailed help with this step, use these resources:

 Background Research Plan

 Finding Information
 Bibliography
 Research Paper

3. Construct a Hypothesis

A hypothesis is an educated guess about how things work. It is an attempt to answer your
question with an explanation that can be tested. A good hypothesis allows you to then make a
prediction:
"If _____[I do this] _____, then _____[this]_____ will happen."

State both your hypothesis and the resulting prediction you will be testing. Predictions must be
easy to measure.

For detailed help with this step, use these resources:

 Variables
 Variables for Beginners
 Hypothesis

4. Test Your Hypothesis by Doing an Experiment

Your experiment tests whether your prediction is accurate and thus your hypothesis is supported
or not. It is important for your experiment to be a fair test. You conduct a fair test by making sure
that you change only one factor at a time while keeping all other conditions the same.

You should also repeat your experiments several times to make sure that the first results weren't
just an accident.

For detailed help with this step, use these resources:

 Experimental Procedure
 Materials List
 Conducting an Experiment

5. Analyze Your Data and Draw a Conclusion

Once your experiment is complete, you collect your measurements and analyze them to see if
they support your hypothesis or not.

Scientists often find that their predictions were not accurate and their hypothesis was not
supported, and in such cases they will communicate the results of their experiment and then go
back and construct a new hypothesis and prediction based on the information they learned during
their experiment. This starts much of the process of the scientific method over again. Even if
they find that their hypothesis was supported, they may want to test it again in a new way.

For detailed help with this step, use these resources:

 Data Analysis & Graphs

 Conclusions

6. Communicate Your Results

To complete your science fair project you will communicate your results to others in a final
report and/or a display board. Professional scientists do almost exactly the same thing by
publishing their final report in a scientific journal or by presenting their results on a poster or
during a talk at a scientific meeting. In a science fair, judges are interested in your findings
regardless of whether or not they support your original hypothesis.

For detailed help with this step, use these resources:

 Final Report
 Abstract
 Display Board
 Science Fair Judging

Applied vs. Fundamental (Basic) Research

Applied vs. Fundamental: Research can either be applied (or action) research or
fundamental (to basic or pure) research. Applied research aims at finding a solution for an
immediate problem facing a society or an industrial/business organisation, whereas fundamental
research is mainly concerned with generalisations and with the formulation of a theory.
“Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research.” 4 Research
concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics are examples of
fundamental research. Similarly, research studies, concerning human behaviour carried on
with a view to make generalisations about human behaviour, are also examples of
fundamental research, but research aimed at certain conclusions (say, a solution) facing a
concrete social or business problem is an example of applied research. Research to identify
social, economic or political trends that may affect a particular institution or the copy research
(research to find out whether certain communications will be read and understood) or the
marketing research or evaluation research are examples of applied research. Thus, the
central aim of applied research is to discover a solution for some pressing practical problem,
whereas basic research is directed towards finding information that has a broad base of applications and
thus, adds to the already existing organized body of scientific knowledge.

Quantitative vs. Qualitative

Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity
or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.
Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e.,
phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind. For instance, when we are interested in
investigating the reasons for human behaviour (i.e., why people think or do certain things),
we quite often talk of ‘Motivation Research’, an important type of qualitative research.
This type of research aims at discovering the underlying motives and desires, using in depth
interviews for the purpose. Other techniques of such research are word association tests,
sentence completion tests, story completion tests and similar other projective techniques.
Attitude or opinion research i.e., research designed to find out how people feel or what
they think about a particular subject or institution is also qualitative research. Qualitative
research is specially important in the behavioural sciences where the aim is to discover the
underlying motives of human behaviour. Through such research we can analyse the various
factors which motivate people to behave in a particular manner or which make people like or dislike a
particular thing. It may be stated, however, that to apply qualitative research in practice is relatively a
difficult job and therefore, while doing such research, one should seek guidance from experimental
psychologists.

Role of Research in Economics and Management

8 stages in the research process are;
1. Identifying the problem.
2. Reviewing literature.
3. Setting research questions, objectives, and hypotheses.
4. Choosing the study design.
5. Deciding on the sample design.
6. Collecting data.
7. Processing and analyzing data.
8. Writing the report.

Step – 1: Identifying the Problem

The first and foremost task in the entire process of scientific research is to identify a research
problem.

A well-identified problem will lead the researcher to accomplish all-important phases of the
research process, starting from setting objectives to the selection of the research methodology.

But the core question is: whether all problems require research.

We have countless problems around us, but all that we encounter do not qualify as research
problems, and thus, these do not need to be researched.

Keeping this point in view, we must draw a line between a research problem and a non-research
problem.

Step – 2: Reviewing of Literature

A review of relevant literature is an integral part of the research process. It enables the researcher
to formulate his problem in terms of the specific aspects of the general area of his interest that
has not been so far researched.
Such a review, not only provides him exposure to a larger body of knowledge but also equips
him with enhanced knowledge to efficiently follow the research process.

Through a proper review of the literature, the researcher may develop the coherence between the
results of his study and those of the others.

Step – 3: Setting research questions, objectives, and hypotheses

After discovering and defining the research problem, researchers should make a formal statement
of the problem leading to research objectives.

An objective will precisely say what should be researched, to delineate the type of information
that should be collected, and provide a framework for the scope of the study. The best expression
of a research objective is a well-formulated, testable research hypothesis.

A hypothesis is an unproven statement or proposition that can be refuted or supported by

empirical data. Hypothetical statements assert a possible answer to a research question.

Step -4: Choosing the study design

The research design is the blueprint or framework for fulfilling objectives and answering
research questions.

It is a master plan specifying the methods and procedures for collecting, processing, and
analyzing the collected data. There are four basic research designs that a researcher can use to
conduct his or her study;

1. survey,
2. experiment,
3. secondary data study, and
4. observational study.

The type of research design to be chosen from among the above four designs depends primarily
on four factors:

 The type of problem

 The objectives of the study,
 The existing state of knowledge about the problem that is being studied, and
 The resources are available for the study.

Step – 5: Deciding on the sample design

Sampling is an important and separate step in the research process. The basic idea of sampling is
that it involves any procedure that uses a relatively small number of items or portions (called a
sample) of a universe (called population) to conclude the whole population.
It contrasts with the process of complete enumeration, in which every member of the population
is included.

Such a complete enumeration is referred to as census.

A population is the total collection of elements about which we wish to make some inference or
generalization.

A sample is a part of the population, carefully selected to represent that population. If certain
statistical procedures are followed in selecting the sample, it should have the same characteristics
as the population as a whole. These procedures are embedded in the sample design.

Step – 6: Collecting data

The gathering of data may range from simple observation to a large-scale survey in any defined
population. There are many ways to collect data.

The approach selected depends on the objectives of the study, the research design, and the
availability of time, money, and personnel.

With the variation in the type of data (qualitative or quantitative) to be collected, the method of
data collection also varies.

The most common means for collecting quantitative data is the structured interview.

Studies that obtain data by interviewing respondents are called surveys. Data can also be
collected by using self-administered questionnaires. Telephone interviewing is another way
in which data may be collected.

Other means of data collection include the use of secondary sources, such as the census, vital
registration records, official documents, previous surveys, etc.

Qualitative data are collected mainly through in-depth interviews, focus group discussions,
KII, and observational studies.

Step-7: Processing and Analyzing Data

Data processing generally begins with the editing and coding of data. Data are edited to ensure
consistency across respondents and to locate omissions, if any.

In survey data, editing reduces errors in the recording, improves legibility, and clarifies unclear
and inappropriate responses. In addition to editing, the data also need coding.

Because it is impractical to place raw data into a report, alphanumeric codes are used to reduce
the responses to a more manageable form for storage and future processing.
This coding process facilitates processing the data. The personal computer offers an excellent
opportunity in data editing and coding processes.

Data analysis usually involves reducing accumulated data to a manageable size, developing
summaries, searching for patterns, and applying statistical techniques for understanding and
interpreting the findings in the light of the research questions.

Further, the researcher, based on his analysis, determines if his findings are consistent with the
formulated hypotheses and theories.

The techniques to be used in analyzing data may range from simple graphical technique to very
complex multivariate analysis depending on the objectives of the study, research design
employed, and the nature of data collected.

As in the case of methods of data collection, an analytical technique appropriate in one situation
may not be appropriate for another.

Step-8: Writing the report – Developing Research Proposal, Writing Report,

Disseminating and Utilizing Results

The entire task of a research study is accumulated in a document called a proposal.

A research proposal is a work plan, prospectus, outline, an offer, a statement of intent or

commitment from an individual researcher or an organization to produce a product or render a
service to a potential client or sponsor.

The proposal will be prepared to keep in view the sequence presented in the research process.
The proposal tells us what, how, where, and to whom it will be done.

It must also show the benefit of doing it. It always includes an explanation of the purpose of the
study (the research objectives) or a definition of the problem.

It systematically outlines the particular research methodology and details the procedures that will
be utilized at each stage of the research process.

The end goal of a scientific study is to interpret the results and draw conclusions.

To this end, it is necessary to prepare a report and transmit the findings and recommendations to
administrators, policymakers, and program managers for the intended purpose of making a
decision.
There are various forms of research reports: term papers, dissertations, journal articles, papers for
presentation at professional conferences and seminars, books, and so on. The results of a
research investigation prepared in any form are of little utility if they are not communicated to
others.

The primary purpose of a dissemination strategy is to identify the most effective media channels
to reach different audience groups with study findings most relevant to their needs.

The dissemination may be made through a conference, a seminar, a report, or an oral or poster
presentation.

The style and organization of the report will differ according to the target audience, the occasion,
and the purpose of the research. Reports should be developed from the client’s perspectives.

Problems Encountered by Researchers in India

Researchers in India, particularly those engaged in empirical research, are facing several problems.
Some of the important problems are as follows:
1. The lack of a scientific training in the methodology of research is a great impediment
for researchers in our country. There is paucity of competent researchers. Many researchers
take a leap in the dark without knowing research methods. Most of the work, which goes
in the name of research is not methodologically sound. Research to many researchers and
even to their guides, is mostly a scissor and paste job without any insight shed on the
collated materials. The consequence is obvious, viz., the research results, quite often, do
not reflect the reality or realities. Thus, a systematic study of research methodology is an
urgent necessity. Before undertaking research projects, researchers should be well equipped
with all the methodological aspects. As such, efforts should be made to provide shortduration
intensive courses for meeting this requirement.
2. There is insufficient interaction between the university research departments on one side
and business establishments, government departments and research institutions on the other
side. A great deal of primary data of non-confidential nature remain untouched/untreated
by the researchers for want of proper contacts. Efforts should be made to develop
satisfactory liaison among all concerned for better and realistic researches. There is
need for developing some mechanisms of a university—industry interaction programme so
that academics can get ideas from practitioners on what needs to be researched and
practitioners can apply the research done by the academics.
3. Most of the business units in our country do not have the confidence that the material
supplied by them to researchers will not be misused and as such they are often reluctant in
supplying the needed information to researchers. The concept of secrecy seems to be
sacrosanct to business organisations in the country so much so that it proves an impermeable
barrier to researchers. Thus, there is the need for generating the confidence that the
information/data obtained from a business unit will not be misused.
4. Research studies overlapping one another are undertaken quite often for want of
adequate information. This results in duplication and fritters away resources. This problem
can be solved by proper compilation and revision, at regular intervals, of a list of subjects on
which and the places where the research is going on. Due attention should be given toward
identification of research problems in various disciplines of applied science which are of
immediate concern to the industries.
5. There does not exist a code of conduct for researchers and inter-university and interdepartmental
rivalries are also quite common. Hence, there is need for developing a code
of conduct for researchers which, if adhered sincerely, can win over this problem.

6. Many researchers in our country also face the difficulty of adequate and timely secretarial
assistance, including computerial assistance. This causes unnecessary delays in the
completion of research studies. All possible efforts be made in this direction so that efficient
secretarial assistance is made available to researchers and that too well in time. University
Grants Commission must play a dynamic role in solving this difficulty.
7. Library management and functioning is not satisfactory at many places and much of
the time and energy of researchers are spent in tracing out the books, journals, reports, etc.,
rather than in tracing out relevant material from them.
8. There is also the problem that many of our libraries are not able to get copies of old
and new Acts/Rules, reports and other government publications in time. This problem
is felt more in libraries which are away in places from Delhi and/or the state capitals. Thus,
efforts should be made for the regular and speedy supply of all governmental publications
to reach our libraries.
9. There is also the difficulty of timely availability of published data from various
government and other agencies doing this job in our country. Researcher also faces the
problem on account of the fact that the published data vary quite significantly because of
differences in coverage by the concerning agencies.
9. There may, at times, take place the problem of conceptualization and also problems relating to the
process of data collection and related things.

How do you overcome a research problem?

1. Develop a doable topic.
2. Read everything you can on the topic.
3. Find a theoretical basis to support your topic.
4. Make sure the topic will hold your interest.
5. Look for a niche in which you can make a difference …
6. …
7. Let yourself shift gears.
8. Fine-tune your topic based on input from others.

Sources of the literature

Primary sources of information are those types of information that come first. Some examples
of primary sources are:

 original research, like data from an experiment with plankton.

 diaries, journals, photographs
 data from the census bureau or a survey you have done
 original documents, like the constitution or a birth certificate
 newspapers are primary sources when they report current events or current opinion
 speeches, interviews, email, letters
 religious books
  personal memoirs and autobiographies
 art work
 pottery or weavings

There are different types of primary sources for different disciplines.  In the discipline of history,
for example, a diary or transcript of a speech is a primary source.  In education and nursing,
primary sources will generally be original research, including data sets.

Secondary sources are written about primary sources to interpret or analyze them. They are a
step or more removed from the primary event or item. Some examples of secondary sources are:

 commentaries on speeches
 critiques of plays, journalism, or books
 a journal article that talks about a primary source such as an interpretation of Steinbeck’s The
Grapes of Wrath, or the flower symbolism of Monet’s water garden paintings
 textbooks (can also be considered tertiary)
 biographies
 encyclopedias
 websites

Tertiary sources are further removed from the original material and are a distillation and
collection of primary and secondary sources. Some examples are:

 bibliography of critical works about an author

 textbooks (also considered secondary)
 factbooks
 guidebooks
 manuals

A comparison of information sources across disciplines:

SUBJECT PRIMARY SECONDARY TERTIARY

Journal article reporting on Handbook of afterschool

Article in Teacher Magazine about after
Education quantitative study of after programming ERIC
school programs
school programs database

Systematic review of treatment or

Journal article reporting on
device, such as those found in the Encyclopedia of Nursing
Nursing a Cclinical trial of a
Cochrane Database of Systematic Research
treatment or device
Reviews

Patient notes taken by Magazine article about the patient’s Textbook on clinical
Psychology
clinical psychologist psychological condition psychology
Literature Review Steps

1. Define your topic. The first step is defining your task -- choosing a topic and noting
the questions you have about the topic. This will provide a focus that guides your
strategy in step II and will provide potential words to use in searches in step III.

2. Develop a strategy. Strategy involves figuring out where the information might be
and identifying the best tools for finding those types of sources. The strategy section
identifies specific types of research databases to use for specific purposes.

3. Locate the information. In this step, you implement the strategy developed in II in
order to actually locate specific articles, books, technical reports, etc.

4. Use and Evaluate the information. Having located relevant and useful material, in
step IV you read and analyze the items to determine whether they have value for your
project and credibility as sources.

5. Synthesize. In step V, you will make sense of what you've learned and demonstrate
your knowledge. You will thoroughly understand, organize and integrate the information
--become knowledgeable-- so that you are able to use your own words to support and
explain your research project and its relationship to existing research by others.

6. Evaluate your work. At every step along the way, you should evaluate your work.
However, this final step is a last check to make sure your work is complete and of high
quality.

Presenting Literature Review

1. Introduce the topic.

2. Establish the significance of the study.
3. Provide an overview of the relevant literature.
4. Establish a context for the study using the literature.
5. Identify knowledge gaps.
6. Illustrate how the study will advance knowledge on the topic.

Structure of literature review

 Introduction • Gives a quick idea of the topic of the literature review, such as the
central theme or organizational pattern.•
 Body • Contains your discussion of sources.•
 Conclusions/Recommendations • Discuss what you have drawn from reviewing
literature so far. Where might the discussion proceed?
Data Analysis?

Data analysis is defined as a process of cleaning, transforming, and modeling data to discover
useful information for business decision-making. The purpose of Data Analysis is to extract
useful information from data and taking the decision based upon the data analysis.

A simple example of Data analysis is whenever we take any decision in our day-to-day life is by
thinking about what happened last time or what will happen by choosing that particular decision.
This is nothing but analyzing our past or future and making decisions based on it. For that, we
gather memories of our past or dreams of our future. So that is nothing but data analysis. Now
same thing analyst does for business purposes, is called Data Analysis.

Why Data Analysis?

To grow your business even to grow in your life, sometimes all you need to do is Analysis!

If your business is not growing, then you have to look back and acknowledge your mistakes and
make a plan again without repeating those mistakes. And even if your business is growing, then
you have to look forward to making the business to grow more. All you need to do is analyze
your business data and business processes.

Types of Data Analysis: Techniques and Methods

There are several types of Data Analysis techniques that exist based on business and
technology. However, the major Data Analysis methods are:

 Text Analysis
 Statistical Analysis
 Diagnostic Analysis
 Predictive Analysis
 Prescriptive Analysis

Text Analysis

Text Analysis is also referred to as Data Mining. It is one of the methods of data analysis to
discover a pattern in large data sets using databases or data mining tools. It used to transform raw
data into business information. Business Intelligence tools are present in the market which is
used to take strategic business decisions. Overall it offers a way to extract and examine data and
deriving patterns and finally interpretation of the data.

Statistical Analysis

Statistical Analysis shows “What happen?” by using past data in the form of dashboards.
Statistical Analysis includes collection, Analysis, interpretation, presentation, and modeling of
data. It analyses a set of data or a sample of data. There are two categories of this type of
Analysis – Descriptive Analysis and Inferential Analysis.
Descriptive Analysis

analyses complete data or a sample of summarized numerical data. It shows mean and deviation
for continuous data whereas percentage and frequency for categorical data.

Inferential Analysis

analyses sample from complete data. In this type of Analysis, you can find different conclusions
from the same data by selecting different samples.

Data Analysis consists of the following phases:

 Data Requirement Gathering

 Data Collection
 Data Cleaning
 Data Analysis
 Data Interpretation
 Data Visualization

Data Requirement Gathering

First of all, you have to think about why do you want to do this data analysis? All you need to
find out the purpose or aim of doing the Analysis of data. You have to decide which type of data
analysis you wanted to do! In this phase, you have to decide what to analyze and how to measure
it, you have to understand why you are investigating and what measures you have to use to do
this Analysis.

Data Collection

After requirement gathering, you will get a clear idea about what things you have to measure and
what should be your findings. Now it’s time to collect your data based on requirements. Once
you collect your data, remember that the collected data must be processed or organized for
Analysis. As you collected data from various sources, you must have to keep a log with a
collection date and source of the data.

Data Cleaning

Now whatever data is collected may not be useful or irrelevant to your aim of Analysis, hence it
should be cleaned. The data which is collected may contain duplicate records, white spaces or
errors. The data should be cleaned and error free. This phase must be done before Analysis
because based on data cleaning, your output of Analysis will be closer to your expected outcome.

Data Analysis

Once the data is collected, cleaned, and processed, it is ready for Analysis. As you manipulate
data, you may find you have the exact information you need, or you might need to collect more
data. During this phase, you can use data analysis tools and software which will help you to
understand, interpret, and derive conclusions based on the requirements.

Data Interpretation

After analyzing your data, it’s finally time to interpret your results. You can choose the way to
express or communicate your data analysis either you can use simply in words or maybe a table
or chart. Then use the results of your data analysis process to decide your best course of action.

Data Visualization

Data visualization is very common in your day to day life; they often appear in the form of charts
and graphs. In other words, data shown graphically so that it will be easier for the human brain to
understand and process it. Data visualization often used to discover unknown facts and trends.
By observing relationships and comparing datasets, you can find a way to find out meaningful
information.

Data Analysis Tools

There are several data analysis tools available in the market, each with its own set of functions.
The selection of tools should always be based on the type of analysis performed and the type of
data worked. Here is a list of a few compelling tools for Data Analysis. 

. Excel

It has various compelling features, and with additional plugins installed, it can handle a massive
amount of data. So, if you have data that does not come near the significant data margin, Excel
can be a versatile tool for data analysis.

Looking to learn Excel? Data Analysis with Excel Pivot Tables course is the highest-rated Excel
course on udemy.

2. Tableau

It falls under the BI Tool category, made for the sole purpose of data analysis. The essence of
Tableau is the Pivot Table and Pivot Chart and works towards representing data in the most user-
friendly way. It additionally has a data cleaning feature along with brilliant analytical functions.

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Science can be a great asset for you.

3. Power BI

It initially started as a plugin for Excel, but later on, detached from it to develop in one of the
most data analytics tools. It comes in three versions: Free, Pro, and Premium. Its PowerPivot and
DAX language can implement sophisticated advanced analytics similar to writing Excel
formulas.

4. Fine Report

Fine Report comes with a straightforward drag and drops operation, which helps design various
reports and build a data decision analysis system. It can directly connect to all kinds of databases,
and its format is similar to that of Excel. Additionally, it also provides a variety of dashboard
templates and several self-developed visual plug-in libraries.

5. R & Python

These are programming languages that are very powerful and flexible. R is best at statistical
analysis, such as normal distribution, cluster classification algorithms, and regression analysis. It
also performs individual predictive analyses like customer behavior, spending, items preferred
by him based on his browsing history, and more. It also involves concepts of machine learning
and artificial intelligence.

6. SAS

It is a programming language for data analytics and data manipulation, which can easily access
data from any source. SAS has introduced a broad set of customer profiling products for web,
social media, and marketing analytics. It can predict their behaviors, manage, and optimize
communications.

Conclusion

This is our complete beginner's guide on "What is Data Analysis". If you want to learn more
about data analysis, Complete Introduction to Business Data Analysis is a great introductory
course.

Data Analysis is the key to any business, whether starting up a new venture, making marketing
decisions, continuing with a particular course of action, or going for a complete shut-down. The
inferences and the statistical probabilities calculated from data analysis help base the most
critical decisions by ruling out all human bias. Different analytical tools have overlapping
functions and different limitations, but they are also complementary tools. Before choosing a
data analytical tool, it is essential to consider the scope of work, infrastructure limitations,
economic feasibility, and the final report to be prepared.

Summary:

 Data analysis means a process of cleaning, transforming and modeling data to discover useful
information for business decision-making
 Types of Data Analysis are Text, Statistical, Diagnostic, Predictive, Prescriptive Analysis
 Data Analysis consists of Data Requirement Gathering, Data Collection, Data Cleaning, Data
Analysis, Data Interpretation, Data Visualization
 Research Problem
In research process, the first and foremost step happens to be that of selecting and properly defining
a research problem.* A researcher must find the problem and formulate it so that it becomes susceptible
to research. Like a medical doctor, a researcher must examine all the symptoms (presented to him or
observed by him) concerning a problem before he can diagnose correctly. To define a problem
correctly, a researcher must know: what a problem is?
WHAT IS A RESEARCH PROBLEM?
A research problem, in general, refers to some difficulty which a researcher experiences in the
context of either a theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for the same.
Usually we say that a research problem does exist if the following conditions are met with:
(i) There must be an individual (or a group or an organisation), let us call it ‘I,’ to whom the
problem can be attributed. The individual or the organisation, as the case may be, occupies
an environment, say ‘N’, which is defined by values of the uncontrolled variables, Yj.
(ii) There must be at least two courses of action, say C1 and C2, to be pursued. A course of
action is defined by one or more values of the controlled variables. For example, the number
of items purchased at a specified time is said to be one course of action.
(iii) There must be at least two possible outcomes, say O1 and O2, of the course of action, of
which one should be preferable to the other. In other words, this means that there must be
at least one outcome that the researcher wants, i.e., an objective.
(iv) The courses of action available must provides some chance of obtaining the objective, but
they cannot provide the same chance, otherwise the choice would not matter. Thus, if
P (Oj | I, Cj, N) represents the probability that an outcome Oj will occur, if I select Cj in N,

b
then P O1| I , C1, N g b P O1| I , C2 , Ng . In simple words, we can say that the choices
must have unequal efficiencies for the desired outcomes. We can, thus, state the components1 of a
research problem as under:
(i) There must be an individual or a group which has some difficulty or the problem.
(ii) There must be some objective(s) to be attained at. If one wants nothing, one cannot have
a problem.
(iii) There must be alternative means (or the courses of action) for obtaining the objective(s)
one wishes to attain. This means that there must be at least two means available to a
researcher for if he has no choice of means, he cannot have a problem.
(iv) There must remain some doubt in the mind of a researcher with regard to the selection of
alternatives. This means that research must answer the question concerning the relative
efficiency of the possible alternatives.
(v) There must be some environment(s) to which the difficulty pertains.
Thus, a research problem is one which requires a researcher to find out the best solution for the
given problem, i.e., to find out by which course of action the objective can be attained optimally in the
context of a given environment. There are several factors which may result in making the problem
complicated. For instance, the environment may change affecting the efficiencies of the courses of
action or the values of the outcomes; the number of alternative courses of action may be very large;
persons not involved in making the decision may be affected by it and react to it favourably or
unfavourably, and similar other factors. All such elements (or at least the important ones) may be thought
of in context of a research problem.
DEFINING A PROBLEM
Defining a problem means “To pin-point the problem or defining a problem to reach the core of the
problem i.e. threadbare analysis.”
(a) Need of defining a problem
The definition of a problem serves the following purposes:
1. The definition of a problem sets the direction of the study.
2. The definition reveals the methodology or procedure of the study.
3. The definition helps the researcher to control subjectivity or biases of the researcher.
4. The definition of the problem suggests and specifies the variables to be taken up into the
investigation through a problem involved into so many variables.
5. The-definition makes the research work practicable.
(b) Precautions are to be taken in identifying the problem
The following precautions should be taken into consideration for identifying problem.
1. The words used for defining a problem should have a single meaning.
2. The statement of the problem must be brief but comprehensive.
3. The assumptions are to be recognised for the study.
4. The problem should have practical importance in the field of Education.
5. The definition or the statement of the problem should have certain rationale.
(c) Steps in defining a problem
The following steps are to be followed in defining a problem:
Assortment of Problem 27
1. Researcher should have to develop a conceptual framework of the problem. The conceptual
framework should be such that it can be stated into verbal form.
2. Delimiting the elements of the problem.
3. Classifying the elements in the homogeneous group.
4. Locating the key-points in the conceptual framework.
5. Evaluating the theoretical security of the problem.
6. The final form of the statement can be given into verbal form to a conceptual framework of
the problem.
7. Deciding the practical difficulty in conducting the study.

Variables: Definition, Types of Variable in

Research
Within the context of a research investigation, concepts are generally referred to as variables. A
variable is, as the name applies, something that varies. Age, sex, export, income and expenses,
family size, country of birth, capital expenditure, class grades, blood pressure readings,
preoperative anxiety levels, eye color, and vehicle type are all examples of variables because
each of these properties varies or differs from one individual to another.

A variable is any property, a characteristic, a number, or a quantity that increases or decreases

over time or can take on different values (as opposed to constants, such as n, that do not vary) in
different situations.

When conducting research, experiments often manipulate variables. For example, an

experimenter might compare the effectiveness of four types of fertilizers.

Dependent and Independent Variables

In many research settings, there are two specific classes of variables that need to be distinguished
from one another, independent variable and dependent variable.
Many research studies are aimed at unrevealing and understanding the causes of underlying
phenomena or problems with the ultimate goal of establishing a causal relationship between
them.

Look at the following statements:

 Low intake of food causes underweight.

 Smoking enhances the risk of lung cancer.
 Level of education influences job satisfaction.
 Advertisement helps in sales promotion.
 The drug causes the improvement of a health problem.
 Nursing intervention causes more rapid recovery.
 Previous job experiences determine the initial salary.
 Blueberries slow down aging.
 The dividend per share determines share prices.

In each of the above queries, we have two variables: one independent and one dependent. In the
first example, ‘low intake of food’ is believed to have caused the ‘problem of underweight.’

Independent Variable

The variable that is used to describe or measure the factor that is assumed to cause or at least to
influence the problem or outcome is called an independent variable.

The definition implies that the experimenter uses the independent variable to describe or explain
the influence or effect of it on the dependent variable.

Variability in the dependent variable is presumed to depend on variability in the independent

variable.

Depending on the context, an independent variable is sometimes called a predictor variable,

regressor, controlled variable, manipulated variable, explanatory variable, exposure variable (as
used in reliability theory), risk factor (as used in medical statistics), feature (as used in machine
learning and pattern recognition) or input variable.

The explanatory variable is preferred by some authors over the independent variable when the
quantities treated as independent variables may not be statistically independent or independently
manipulable by the researcher.

If the independent variable is referred to as an explanatory variable, then the term response
variable is preferred by some authors for the dependent variable.
Dependent Variable

The variable that is used to describe or measure the problem or outcome under study is called a
dependent variable.

In a causal relationship, the cause is the independent variable, and the effect is the dependent
variable. If we hypothesize that smoking causes lung cancer, ‘smoking’ is the independent
variable and cancer the dependent variable.

A business researcher may find it useful to include the dividend in determining the share prices.
Here dividend is the independent variable, while the share price is the dependent variable.

The dependent variable usually is the variable the researcher is interested in understanding,
explaining, or predicting.

In lung cancer research, it is the carcinoma that is of real interest to the researcher, not smoking
behavior per se. The independent variable is the presumed cause of, antecedent to, or influence
on the dependent variable.

Depending on the context, a dependent variable is sometimes called a response variable,

regressand, predicted variable, measured variable, explained variable, experimental variable,
responding variable, outcome variable, output variable, or label.

An explained variable is preferred by some authors over the dependent variable when the
quantities treated as dependent variables may not be statistically dependent.

If the dependent variable is referred to as an explained variable, then the term predictor variable
is preferred by some authors for the independent variable.

Hypotheses Formulation
The second step in the research process of social study is to formulate hypotheses. The hypothesis is
a tentative solution of a problem. The research activities are planned to verify the hypothesis and not to
find out the solution of the problem or to seek an answer of a question. It is very essential to a research
worker to understand the meaning and nature of hypothesis. The researcher always plan or formulate a
hypothesis in the begining of the problem.
The scientist
observes the man of special class of phenomena and broads over it until by a flash of insight he
perceives an order and intelligent harmony in it. This is often referred to as an ‘explanation’ of the facts
he has observed. He has a ‘theory’ about particular mass of fact. This theory when stated testable
proposition formally and clearly subjected to empirical or experimental verification is known as a
hypothesis. The hypothesis furnishes the germinal basis of the whole investigation and remains to the
end its corner stone, for the whole research is directed to test it out by facts. At the start of investigation
the hypothesis is a stimulus to critical thoughts offers insights into the confusion of phenomena. At the
end it comes to prominence as the proposition to be accepted or rejected in the light of the findings.
The word hypothesis consists of two words:
Hypo + thesis = Hypothesis
‘Hypo’ means tentative or subject to the verification and ‘Thesis’ means statement about solution
of a problem.
The world meaning of the term hypothesis is a tentative statement about the solution of the
problem. Hypothesis offers a solution of the problem that is to be verified empirically and based on
some rationale.
Another meaning of the word hypothesis which is composed of two words:
‘Hypo’ means composition of two or more variables which is to be verified.
‘Thesis’ means position of these variables in the specific frame of reference.
This is the operational meaning of the term hypothesis. Hypothesis is the composition of some
variables which have some specific position or role of the variables i.e. to be verified empirically. It is
a proposition about the factual and conceptual’ elements. Hypothesis is called a leap into the dark. It is
a brilliant guess about the solution of a problem.
“A hypothesis is defined as a statement for the tentative relationship of two or more variables.
The relationship of the variables may either be normative or causal relationship. It should be based on
some rationale.”
NATURE OF HYPOTHESIS
The following are the main features of a hypothesis:
1. It is conceptual in nature. Some kind of conceptual elements in the framework are involved
in a hypothesis.
2. It is a verbal statement in a declarative form. It is a verbal expression of ideas and concepts,
it is not merely idea but in the verbal form, the idea is ready enough for empirical verification.
3. It has the empirical referent. A hypothesis contains some empirical referent. It indicates the
tentative relationship between two or more variables.
4. It has a forward or future reference. A hypothesis is future oriented. It relates to the future
verification not the past facts and informations.
5. It is the pivot of a scientific research. All the research activities are designed for its verification.
The nature of hypothesis can be well understood by differentiating it with other terms like
assumption and postulate.

FUNCTIONS OF HYPOTHESIS
The following are the main functions of hypothesis in the research process suggested by H.H. Mc.
Ashan :
1. It is a temporary solution of a problem concerning with some truth which enables an
investigator to start his research work.
2. It offers a basis in establishing the specifics what to study for and may provide possible
solutions to the problem.
3. Each hypothesis may lead to formulate another hypothesis.
4. A preliminary hypothesis may take the shape of final hypothesis.
5. Each hypothesis provides the investigator with definite statement which may be objectively
tested and accepted or rejected and leads for interpreting results and drawing conclusions
that is related to original purpose.
The functions of a hypothesis may be condensed into three. The following are the threefold
functions of a hypothesis:
(a) To delimit the field of the investigation.
(b) To sensitize the researcher so that he should work selectively, and have very realistic approach
to the problem.
(c) To offer the simple means for collecting evidences to the verification.
IMPORTANCE OF A HYPOTHESIS
1. Hypothesis as the Investigator’s “Eyes”: Carter V. Good thinks that by guiding the investigator
in further investigation it serves as the investigator’s “Eyes” in seeking answers to tentatively
adopted generalization.
2. It Focuses Research: Without it, research is unfocussed research and remains like a random
empirical wandering. It serves as necessary link between theory and the investigation.
3. It Places Clear and Specific Goals: A well thought out set of hypothesis is that they place
clear and specific goals before the research worker and provide him with a basis for selecting
sample and research procedure to meet these goals.
4. It Links Together: “It serves the important function of linking together related facts and
information and organizing them into wholes.”
– Good Barr and Scates
5. It Prevents Blind Research: “The use of hypothesis prevents a blind search and indiscriminate
gathering of masses of data which may later prove irrelevant to the problem under study.”
– P. V. Young
6. As a Sort of Guiding Light: A hypothesis serves as a powerful beacon that lights the way for
the research work.
Two Types of Errors
Type I error (a error) : When an alternative hypothesis H1 may be accepted and H0 is rejected. It
shows that obtained difference exists and not due chance or sampling errors.
Type II error (b error) : When null hypothesis H1 is accepted and alternative hypothesis H1 is
rejected. It indicates that obtained difference is due to chance or sampling error.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD HYPOTHESIS
A good hypothesis must possess the following main characteristics:
1. A good hypothesis is in agreement with the observed facts.
2. A good hypothesis does not conflict with any law of nature which is known to be true.
Foundation of Hypotheses 63
3. A good hypothesis is stated in the simplest possible term.
4. A good hypothesis permits of the application of deductive reasoning.
5. A good hypothesis shows very clear verbalization. It is different from what is generally
called hunch.
6. A good hypothesis ensures that the methods of verification are under control of the investigator.
7. A good hypothesis guarantees that available tools and techniques will be effectively used for
the purpose of verification.
8. A good hypothesis takes into account the different types controls which are to be exercised
for the purpose of verification.
9. A good hypothesis ensures that the sample is readily approachable.
10. A good hypothesis indicates clearly the role of different variables involved in the study.
11. A good hypothesis maintains a very apparent distinction with what is called theory law,
facts, assumption and postulate.

FORMULATING HYPOTHESIS
From any problem statement, it is generally possible to derive more than one hypothesis. There are
three simple hypotheses generated from this problem to determine, “the effect of ” massive, positive,
verbal rewards on the reading achievement of children.”
At first glance these three hypotheses might be offered :
(A) Reward Increases reading achievement.
(B) Reward decreases reading achievement.
(C) Reward has no effect on reading achievement.
Evidence has already been obtained in the laboratory to support the hypothesis (A) rewards
increase performance. However, upon closer examination, the primary purpose of this study is to
determine whether the enhancing effect of rewards can be incorporated into a class-room setting to
facilitate children’s learning to read. This theory is based on the assumption that the ‘law’ of learning
should apply in classroom. If perhaps more subtly than in a laboratory and on the laboratory findings
that support the assumed relationship between reward and performance, the logical conclusion would
be that rewards would have a demonstrable enhancing effect on classroom performance. This conclusion
is based on the first assumption arrived at deductively and the second arrived at inductively.
Both induction and deduction. are needed to choose among the possibilities. Many theories, both
psychological and educational deal with stabilization (and rigidifying) of behaviour patterns as a function
of their use.
Researchers formulate hypotheses using induction and deduction, one of the goals of researcher
is to produce that pieces for generalizable bodies of theory which will provide answers to practical
problems. Hypothesis construction and testing enable researchers to generalize their findings beyond
the specific conditions which they were obtained.
Since a hypothesis is a formulation of anticipated findings, students are advised to develop a
hypothesis as a means of demonstrating the basis for their study to themselves and their reader. The
task of introducing a study and discussing the findings are facilitated by existence of a hypothesis.

FORMULATION OF TESTABLE HYPOTHESIS

A hypothesis is a tentative assumption drawn from knowledge and theory which is used as a guide in
the investigation of other facts and theory that are as yet unknown. The hypothesis formulation is one
of the most difficult and most difficult step in the entire scientific process. A poorly chosen or poorly
worded hypothesis can prevent:
(a) the obtaining of enough pertinent data,
(b) the drawing of conclusions and generalizations, and
(c) the application of certain statistical measures in the analysis of the result.
It is impossible to over-emphasize the role of the hypothesis in research. It is the central core of
study that directs the selection of the data to be gathered, the experimental design, the statistical
analysis, and the conclusions drawn from the study.
A study may be devoted to the testing of one major hypothesis, a number of subsidiary hypotheses,
or both major and subsidiary hypotheses. When several hypotheses are used, each should be stated
separately in order to anticipate the type of analysis required and in order to definitely accept or reject
each hypothesis on its own merit. Regardless of the number or type of hypotheses used, it is extremely
important that each be specific testable, and based upon a logical foundation. Hildreth Hoke McAshan
says only one possible exception to the above statements, which is that when fact finding alone is the
primary aim of the study, it may not always be necessary to formulate an explicit hypothesis. However,
this need not be a concern of most scientific researchers.

FORMAL CONDITIONS FOR TESTING HYPOTHESES

There are two types of hypothesis statements:
(a) Null hypothesis, and
(b) Hypothesis prediction form.
Whether the experimenter chooses the hypothesis prediction or the null form, there are certain
formal conditions which must be met in order for the hypothesis to be considered testable. These are
listed below:
1. It must be stated so that deductions can be made from it and so that decisions can be
reached as to whether or not it explains the facts being considered.
2. It should be worded clearly and unequivocally in operational terms. This should leave no
doubt as to what action, what prediction, what quality or quantity, or who is involved ?
3. It must be capable of being refuted. There must be some comparisons possible which will
allow the researcher to give either a ‘yes’ or ‘no’ answer to the hypothesis stated.
4. It should be specific and testable, with all predictions and operations to be tested spelled out.
5. It should have simplicity. If it is too complex, consideration should be given to dividing it into
sub-hypothesis.
6. It should be directly related to the empirical phenomena.
7. It must be stated in final form early in the experiment before any attempt at verification is
made.
8. It should be so designed that its test will provide an answer to the original problem which
forms the primary purpose of the investigation.
9. It must be related to available techniques of design procedure, and statistical analysis.
10. It should be related to available knowledge or theory concerning the original problem area.
CRITERIA FOR EVALUATING HYPOTHESIS
Some hypotheses are considered more satisfactory than others. The following are the serious
considerations of a satisfactory hypothesis and these criteria may be helpful to make this judgement.
1. Plausibility of Explanation: Several criteria are involved in establishing the plausibility of
explanations. A satisfactory hypothesis should have relevant and logical possibility about the
relationship of variables included in them.
2. Testability of Explanation: The variables should be defined operationally and the predicted
relations among them can be tested empirically. The variables of the hypothesis should be
measurable or quantifiable. The suitable measuring instrument is available or it can be
considered easily.
3. Adequacy of Scope: The most useful hypotheses explain all the facts that are relevant to the
phenomena being explained and contradict none of them. The broader the scope of a theory,
the more valuable it is. The more consequences that a hypothesis yields, the greater is its
fruitfulness.
A hypothesis is of greater value if it establishes a generalization that can be applied in many
areas of education or in many fields.
The most satisfactory hypotheses not only explain all the known facts that gave rise to the
original problems but also enable scientists to make predictions about as yet unobserved
events and relationships.
4. Usefulness of False Hypotheses: Hypotheses need not be the correct answers to problems
to be useful. In almost every inquiry a scholar formulates several hypotheses and hopes that
one will provide a satisfactory solution to the problem. By eliminating the false hypotheses
one by one the investigator keeps narrowing the field in which the answer must lie. The
testing of false hypotheses is also of value if it directs the attention of scientists to unsuspected
facts or relations they eventually help in solving the problem.
5. Roots in Existing Theories: A useful educational hypothesis, therefore, adds something to
previously established knowledge by supporting, qualifying, refuting or enlarging upon existing
theories. A hypothesis that is compatible with well-attested theories is in a favourable position
to advance knowledge. If progress is to be made new hypotheses must fit into the framework
of existing theories and transform them into more perfect explanatory schemes. Thus, even
the more revolutionary theories are not completely different from the existing edifice of
knowledge.
6. Suitability for Intended Purpose: Each hypothesis that offers a satisfactory explanation
of what it intends to explain is useful for that purpose. Every hypothesis serves a specific
purpose and must be adequate for the purpose it claims to serve. Thus, suitability is also the
important criterion for an effective hypothesis.
7. Simplicity of Explanation: If two hypotheses are capable to explain the same facts, the
simpler one is the better hypothesis. Simplicity means that the hypothesis explains the
phenomena with the least complexes theoretical structure. The hypothesis that accounts for
all facts with the fewest independent or special assumptions and complexities is always
preferable.

THE ROLE OF HYPOTHESES

The hypotheses play significant role in the scientific studies. The following are some of the important
role of a hypothesis
• The purpose of stating hypothesis, like the purpose of theories that may be involved, is to
provide a framework for the research procedure and methodology. It directs the research
activities.
• A research project need to proceed from a statement of hypotheses. Such hypotheses are
not ends in themselves but rather aids to the research process.
• A hypothesis takes on some characteristics of a theory which is usually considered as a
larger set of generalization about a certain phenomenon.
• The verification. of a hypothesis does not prove or disprove it; it merely sustains or refutes
the hypotheses.
• The hypotheses may imply research procedures to be used and necessary data to be organized.
• Such hypotheses are not ends in themselves but rather aids to the research process.
• The conclusions of the research problem may also be stated in the context of the initial
hypotheses.
• The stating a hypotheses in experimental research provide the basis for designing the
experiment and collecting evidences empirically for its verification so as to formulate new
theory in field of education.
• The hypothesis orients the research process for its verification rather than finding out the
solution of the problem.

OBJECTIONS AGAINST STATING HYPOTHESES

The following objections are raised against stating hypotheses which are directional in nature
• One is that hypotheses bias the researcher in favour of certain conclusions or retain the
hypotheses.
• Another is that in his pursuit of the stating hypothesis the researcher may overlook other
possibly worthwhile hypotheses.
• The statement of hypotheses in some situations also may appear premature.
• A directional hypothesis needs some theoretical rationale but in some situations there is very
little background information about them.
• The researcher may decide to defer any hypothesis or theories until he has some empirical
evidence upon which is to base them.
• The hypotheses are stated in vacuum. These should be concerned with a situation in which
it can be experienced.
• The directional hypotheses should be so stated as to reveal the role of variables involved in
the investigation.
The overall consensus is in favour of stating hypotheses whenever they are feasible. In view of
the above objections. researchers prefer to formulate the non-directional hypotheses these days.

RESEARCH PLAN/DESIGN
Research design is a choice of an investigator about the components of his project and development of
certain components of the design. A design of research does not consists of an ordered sequential stepby-
step procedure. It is a planning stage of research which is usually made logically visualizing its
practicability. The selection of research components is done keeping in view of the objectives of the
research. Research hypotheses also provide the basis for designing a research work. A research design
includes the following components :
(a) Research method or research strategy.
(b) Sampling design.
(c) Choice of research tools, and
(d) Choice of statistical techniques.
A design of research is good or not, it is judged by standards such as the degree of accuracy
attainable on the level of relevant evidence sought. A distinction should be drawn between statistical
significance and substantive significance and appropriately applied. Above all, a good research design
must be practical.

“research design is a mapping strategy. It is essentially a statement

of the object of the inquiry and the strategies for collecting the evidences, analysing the evidences and
reporting the findings.”
It should be made clear that the design components are in part mandatory and in part choices
made by the researcher. Just as the object of the inquiry often determines the class of inquiry or model
to be utilised, so too, does the model or class of inquiry determine the consideration and development
of certain of the design components. In fact, it is essentially the variation in some of the designcomponents
that differentiates among the classes of inquiry.
CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD RESEARCH DESIGN
In a general sense we could answer the question (what makes for good research design)? With such
statements as the design should be appropriate for the hypotheses or the design should be feasible
within the limits of available resources. The following are the specific characteristics of a good research
design:
1. It should be free from bias or learnings.
2. It should be free from confounding effect. A good research design eliminates confounding
of variables or kept it to a minimum so the results can be interpreted separately. There should
be a statistical precision. The hypotheses can be tested by employing most appropriate
statistical technique.
There should be enough scope to impose the control over the situation. There are basically four
ways by which control can be enhanced :
(a) Through the method of Randomization.
(b) Holding conditions or factors constant.
(c) Building conditions or factors into the design as independent variables.
(d) Statistical adjustment.

POTENTIAL PROBLEMS IN RESEARCH DESIGN

There are several difficulties which make poor research design:
1. Inadequately stating and testing hypotheses.
2. Missing or unusable data.
3. Bias in sampling.
4. Inadequate measurement.
5. Lack of precision in statistical technique or inappropriate statistical devices.

Steps of Research Design

Types of Research Design

 Exploratory Research
 Descriptive Research
 Developmental
 Explanatory
 Survey and Action Research
 Exploratory Research
The major emphasis in exploratory research is on converting broad, vague problem statements into
small, precise sub-problem statements, which is done in order to formulate specific hypothesis. The
hypothesis is a statement that specifies, “how two
or more variables are related?”
In the early stages of research, we usually lack sufficient understanding of the problem to
formulate a specific hypothesis. Further, there are often several tentative explanations. For Example
“Sales are down because our prices are too high”, “our dealers or sales representatives are not doing a
good job”, “our advertisement is weak” and so on. In this scenario, very little information is available to
point out, what is the actual cause of the problem. We can say that the major purpose of exploratory
research is to identify the problem more specifically. Therefore, exploratory study is used in the initial
stages of research.

Characteristics of Exploratory Research

1. Exploratory research is flexible and very versatile.
2. For data collection structured forms are not used.
3. Experimentation is not a requirement.
4. Cost incurred to conduct study is low.
5. This type of research allows very wide exploration of views.
Research is interactive in nature and also it is open ended
Exploratory Research Methods
The quickest and the cheapest way to formulate a hypothesis in exploratory research is by using any
of the four methods:
1. Literature search
2. Experience survey
3. Focus group
4. Analysis of selected cases
Under What Circumstances is Exploratory Study Ideal?
The following are the circumstances in which exploratory study would be ideally suited:
 To gain an insight into the problem
 To generate new product ideas
 To list all possibilities. Among the several possibilities, we need to prioritize
the possibilities which seem likely to occur
 To develop hypothesis occasionally
 Exploratory study is also used to increase the analyst’s familiarity with the problem. This is
 particularly true, when the analyst is new to the problem area. For example, a market
researcher working for (new entrant) a company for the first time.
 To establish priorities so that further research can be conducted.
 Exploratory studies may be used to clarify concepts and help in formulating precise problems.
For example, the management is considering a change in the contract policy, which it hopes,
will result in improved satisfaction for channel members. An exploratory study can be used to
clarify the present state of channel members’ satisfaction and to develop a method by which
satisfaction level of channel members is measured.
 To pre-test a draft questionnaire.
 In general, exploratory research is appropriate to any problem about which very little is known.
This research is the foundation for any future study.