Role of Genetics in Growth and

Development
Lecture 3
Course Title: Human Development
Course code: SPED 2112
Program: B.Ed (Hons) Special Education
Semester IV
Dr. Afaf Manzoor
University of Education, Lahore
Agenda

• Concept of genetics foundation

• Role of Genetics in Child Development
• Role of heredity and enviornment
Learning Outcomes

• Know about the definition and concept of Development and

Growth
• Understand role of environment and heredity in child
development
• Determine the role of Genetics in Child Development
Unit 1: The Nature of Child Development

ü1.1 Definition and Concept of Development and Growth

ü1.2 Biological Periods of Life Span
ü 1.2.1 Prenatal
ü 1.2.2 Natal
ü 1.2.3 Postnatal
ü 1.3 Role of Genetics in Child Development
ü 1.4 Basic Biological Terms
 What determines how a child develops?

While it is impossible to account for each and every influence that

contributes to who a child eventually becomes, research studies tell
us some of the most apparent factors. These include things such as
1. genetics,
2. parenting,
3. experiences,
4. friends,
5. family,
6. education, and
7. Relationships.
 Role of Genetics in Child Development

In order to understand child

development, it is important to
look at the biological influences
that help shape child
development, how experiences
interact with genetics, and
some of the genetic disorders
that can have an impact
on child psychology and
development.
 Role of Genetics in Child Development

The Earliest Period of Child Development:

• At its very beginning, the development of a child starts when the male
reproductive cell, or sperm, penetrates the protective outer membrane
of the female reproductive cell, or ovum. The sperm and ovum each
contain chromosomes that act as a blueprint for human life.
• The genes contained in these chromosomes are made up of a chemical
structure known as DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) that contains the genetic
code, or instructions, that make up all life. Except for the sperm and
ova, all cells in the body contain 46 chromosomes. As you might guess,
the sperm and ova each contain only contain 23 chromosomes. This
ensures that when the two cells meet, the resulting new organism has
the correct 46 chromosomes.
Genetic foundation
• Genetic process:
– Human life begins as a single cell
– Nucleus of each cell contains DNA
– DNA carries genetic information in double-
helix
– Genes are units of hereditary
information in each chromosome
 Genes and chromosomes
• Every cell in your body, except the sperm and the
egg, has 46 chromosomes arranged in 23 pairs
Mitosis
• Cellular reproduction in which the cell’s nucleus
duplicates itself with two new cells being formed,
each containing the same DNA as the parent cell,
arranged in the same 23 pairs of chromosomes
Meiosis
• It Forms Gametes. During meiosis, a cell of the
male or female duplicates its chromosomes. By the
end of meiosis, each egg or sperm has 23 unpaired
chromosome
• Child’s sex determined by 23rd pair of chromosomes
Sex-linked genes:
– X-linked diseases and mutations such as hemophilia and fragile-X
syndrome
– Females have a second X chromosome so chances of having mutation or
disease are less, BUT they are carriers of it
– Males have no second chance; more males than females have X-linked
diseases
Genetic Abnormalities:

• Genetic instructions are not infallible and can go off track

at times.
• Sometimes when a sperm or ovum is formed, the number
of chromosomes may divide unevenly, causing the
organism to have more or less than the normal 23
chromosomes.
• When one of these abnormal cells joins with a normal
cell, the resulting zygote will have an uneven number of
chromosomes.
• Researchers suggest that as many as half of all zygotes
that form have more or less than 23 chromosomes, but
most of these are spontaneously aborted and never
develop into a full-term baby.
• In some cases, babies are born with an abnormal number
of chromosomes.
• In every case, the result is some type of syndrome with a
set of distinguishing characteristics.
• Chromosome abnormalities usually arise in meiosis when
chromosomes do not properly separate
Abnormalities of the Sex Chromosomes
• The vast majority of newborns, both boys and girls, have
at least one X chromosome. In some cases, about 1 in
every 500 births, children are born with either a missing
X chromosome or an additional sex chromosome.
• Klinefelter syndrome, Fragile X syndrome, and Turner
syndrome are all examples of abnormalities involving
the sex chromosomes.
• Kleinfelter's syndrome is caused by an extra X
chromosome and is characterized by a lack of
development of the secondary sex characteristics and as
well as learning disabilities.
• Fragile X syndrome is caused when part of the X chromosome
is attached to the other chromosomes by such a thin string of
molecules that it seems in danger of breaking off. It can affect
both males and females, but the impact can vary. Some with
Fragile X show few if any signs, while others develop mild to
severe intellectual disability.
• Turner syndrome occurs when only one sex chromosome (the
X chromosome) is present. It affects only females and can
result in short stature, a "webbed" neck and a lack of
secondary sex characteristics. Psychological impairments
associated with Turner syndrome include learning disabilities
and difficulty recognizing emotions conveyed through facial
expressions.
Sex-linked abnormalities:
– Klinefelter syndrome: males born with XXY mutation instead of XY

– Fragile X syndrome: occurs more often in males than females; X

chromosome constricted or breaks off

– Turner syndrome: females born with XO rather than XX, sometimes

causing infertility

– XYY syndrome: males with extra Y chromosome

Gene-linked abnormalities:

– PKU: occurs in 1 out of 10,000-20,000

births but can be treated if detected
early enough
– Sickle-cell anemia: impaired red blood
cells die more quickly; more often found in
African Americans
– Other abnormalities: cystic fibrosis,
diabetes, spina bifida, Huntington disease,
and Tay-Sachs disease
 Down Syndrome

• The most common type of chromosomal disorder is known as

trisomy 21, or Down syndrome.8 In this case, the child has three
chromosomes at the site of the 21st chromosomes instead of the
normal two.
• Down syndrome is characterized by facial characteristics including
a round face, slanted eyes, and a thick tongue. Individuals with
Down syndrome may also face other physical problems including
heart defects and hearing problems. Nearly all individuals with
Down syndrome experience some type of intellectual impairment,
but the exact severity can vary dramatically.
 Heredity, Environment,
and Individual Differences
How Environment Influences Gene Expression:
• So how exactly do the genetic instructions passed down from both parents
influence how a child develops and the traits they will have? In order to fully
understand this, it is important to first distinguish between a child's genetic
inheritance and the actual expression of those genes.
• A genotype refers to all of the genes that a person has inherited. A phenotype
is how these genes are actually expressed. The phenotype can include
physical traits, such as height and color or the eyes, as well as nonphysical
traits such as shyness and extroversion.
• While your genotype may represent a blueprint for how children grow up, the
way that these building blocks are put together determines how these genes
will be expressed. Think of it as a bit like building a house. The same
blueprint can result in a range of different homes that look quite similar but
have important differences based on the material and color choices used
during construction.
Genotype–environment correlations:

– Intelligent biological parents who like to read provide books and

encouragement for child to read – likely outcome is skilled reader
– Active, smiling, cooperative, and attentive child gets more pleasant,
encouraging responses from adults than passive, quiet child
– Some children actively seek out aspects of their environment that enhance
their ability to excel
• Siblings’ shared and non shared environmental
experiences analyzed 2 ways
Shared examined as common experiences
like family SES, parental personalities,
and neighborhood
– Non-shared examined as child’s unique
experiences inside & outside family not
shared by siblings
• Personal relationship with each parent
• Friends and classmates
• Teachers and other influential adults
• “Niches” sought out due to unique
personality traits (musical/artistic abilities
Factors That Influence How Genes Are Expressed:
Whether or not a gene is expressed depends on two different things: the
interaction of the gene with other genes and the continual interaction between
the genotype and the environment.
Genetic Interactions:
• Genes can sometimes contain conflicting information, and in most
cases, one gene will win the battle for dominance. Some genes act in
an additive way.
• For example, if a child has one tall parent and one short parent, the
child may end up splitting the difference by being of average height.
• In other cases, some genes follow a dominant-recessive pattern. Eye
color is one example of dominant-recessive genes at work. The gene
for brown eyes is dominant and the gene for blue eyes is recessive.
• If one parent hands down a dominant brown eye gene while the other
parent hands down a recessive blue eye gene, the dominant gene will
win out and the child will have brown eyes.
Gene-Environment Interactions:
The environment a child is exposed to both in utero and
throughout the rest of his or her life can also impact how genes
are expressed.
For example, exposure to harmful drugs while in utero can
have a dramatic impact on later child development. Height is a
good example of a genetic trait that can be influenced by
environmental factors. While a child's genetic code may provide
instructions for tallness, the expression of this height might be
suppressed if the child has poor nutrition or chronic illness.
• Clearly, genetic influences have an enormous
influence on how a child develops.
• However, it is important to remember that
genetics is just one piece of the intricate
puzzle that makes up a child's life.
• Environmental variables including parenting,
culture, education, and social relationships also
play a vital role.