Fundamentals of Electric Circuits

DC Circuits

Chapter 5. Operational Amplifiers

5.1. Introduction
5.2. Operational amplifiers
5.3. Ideal Op Amp
5.4. Inverting – Non-inverting amplifier
5.5. Summing amplifier
5.6. Difference amplifier
5.7. Cascaded Op Amp circuits
5.8. Applications
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS – DC Circuits

5.1. Introduction
+ Operational amplifier (op amp)  an electronic unit that behaves like a voltage-controlled voltage source
+ Op amp can: sum, amplify, integrate, or differentiate a signal
+ Op amp are popular in practical circuit designs because they are versatile, inexpensive, easy to use,…

+ In this chapter:

o Ideal op amp first and the non-ideal op amp later

o Op amp circuits: the inverter, voltage follower, summer and difference amplifier

o Using nodal analysis as a tool to analyze circuits

 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS – DC Circuits

5.2. Operational Amplifiers

+ Op amp  an active circuit element designed to perform mathematical
operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, differentiation, and
integration An op amp package

+ Op amp  an electronic device consisting of a complex arrangement of

resistor, transistor, capacitor, and diodes  treat them as a circuit building block,
study what takes place at its terminals

+ Several important terminals in an op amp:

o inverting input: pin 2 (-) Dual in-line package of op amp
o non-inverting input: pin 3 (+)
o output: pin 6
o positive power supply V+: pin 7
o negative power supply V-: pin 4
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS – DC Circuits

5.2. Operational Amplifiers

i+
+ An op amp:  must be powered by a voltage supply: 8 +V

7
i1
2 i0 CC
-
o often ignored in op amp circuit diagram 3
6
+
VCC
o power supply currents must not be overlook i2 5
1
-
i-

4
i0  i1  i 2  i   i 

+ Equivalent circuit model of a non-ideal op amp:

o Output section: Voltage-controlled source A.vd in series
with output resistance R0
o Ri: Thevenin equivalent resistance seen at input terminals
o R0: Thevenin equivalent resistance seen at the output The equivalent circuit of the

 A.vd  A.(v2  v1 )
non-ideal op amp
o Output voltage : v0

A: Open-loop voltage gain (gain of the op amp without any

external feedback from output to input)
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS – DC Circuits

5.2. Operational Amplifiers

+ Typical parameter values of op am:
Parameter Typical range Ideal value
Open-loop gain, A 105 - 108 ∞
Input resistance, Ri 106 - 1013 Ω ∞Ω
Output resistance, R0 10 - 100 Ω 0Ω
Supply voltage, Vcc 5 - 24 V

+ Modes of operation: 3 (depending on the v0 )

o Positive saturation: v0 = Vcc
o Linear region: -Vcc ≤ v0 = A.vd ≤ Vcc
o Negative saturation: v0 = -Vcc
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS – DC Circuits

741 parameter Value

5.2. Operational Amplifiers
Open-loop gain, A 2.105
+ Example 1: Find the closed-loop gain V0 / Vs. Determine current i Input resistance, Ri 2MΩ
when Vs = 2V Output resistance, R0 50 Ω

From op amp equivalent circuit  applying the nodal analysis:

R2 20kΩ i
At node 1: V  V V  V V1 2Vs  V0
   0  V1 
s 1 1 0 R1 1 3
7
R1 R2 Ri 3 10kΩ
4 0 +
At node 0:
V1  V0 V0  AVd
vS 741 v0


 R2 R0 
 V1  V0  400 V0  2.106 V1  -
 Vd  V1
 V 2
 V1  0  Vs
So we have a set of equations:  3 3
 
R2 20kΩ i
 1  800.10 V1  401V0  0
6
R1 R0
1
10kΩ 50Ω 0
When Vs = 2V:
 V1  20.067 V Vd +
 V V V0
 1.9999
VS
2MΩ -
i  1 0  0.2mA +
 Vs
R2
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS – DC Circuits

5.3. Ideal Operational Amplifier

+ Ideal op amp  an amplifier with infinite open-loop gain (A = ∞),
infinite input resistance (Ri = ∞), and zero output resistance (RO = 0).
i1 = 0 -
+ Important characteristics of an ideal op amp: 3
+ i2 = 0 Vd 7
4
o Currents into both input terminals are zero V1 + +
+
V0
V2 =V1
i1  0 ; i2  0 - - -

GND

o Voltage across the input terminals is small

Vd  V2  V1 = 0 ; V1  V2
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS – DC Circuits

5.3. Ideal Operational Amplifier

+ Example 2: Considering 741 op amp as an ideal op amp.
Calculate the V0 /Vs a n d find i0 when vs =1V i2 = 0
V2 3
7
As an ideal op amp, we have: V2  VS i1 = 0 4
V1 i0

Since i1 = 0  R1 and R2 are in series VS 741

1
R2 0
V0 V V0 40kΩ +
V1  R1  0 V2  V1  Vs 
R1
20kΩ V0
R1  R2 9 9
5kΩ
-

V0 V0 9Vs 9Vs
KCL at node 0: i0    
R1  R2 20.103 R1  R2 20.103
So when vs = 1V:
 V0
 9
 Vs
i0  0.65mA
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS – DC Circuits

5.4. Inverting – Non-inverting Amplifier

i2 R2
5.4.1. Inverting Amplifier
R1 V1 3
+ Apply KCL at node 1
i1 1 7
V2 4 +
V V V V 
i1  i2  i 1  1 0  R2 Vi 741 V0
R1 R2   V0   Vi
Ideal op amp R1 -
V1  V2  0 

+ Note:
R2
Av    voltage gain depends only on the external elements
R1
connected to the op amp
+ +
R1 - R V
o Both the input signal and the feedback are applied at Vi +  f2 Vi 0
the inverting terminal of the op amp - R1 -

o Inverting amplifier is used in a current to voltage converter

 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS – DC Circuits

5.4. Inverting – Non-inverting Amplifier

5.4.1. Inverting Amplifier
R2
+ Example 3: Calculate the output voltage v0 and the
25kΩ
current through R1 and R2 if vi = 0.5V R1 3
10kΩ 7
R 25
For inverting amplifier: V0   2 Vi   .0.5  1.25V + V
4 +
R1 10 i 741 V0
-
Vi  0 0.5
The current though the R1 : iR1   4  50 A
R1 10

0  V0 1.25
The current though the R2 : iR 2    50 A
R2 25.103
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS – DC Circuits

5.4. Inverting – Non-inverting Amplifier

5.4.1. Inverting Amplifier
+ Example 4: Calculate the output voltage v0 of the given circuit R2

10kΩ
R1 3
7
4kΩ
6  V3 V3  V0  4 +
KCL at node 3:   6  V3
R1 R2   V0  V3  R2 6V 4V
V0
R1 -
V3  4 

64
 V0  4  10  1V
4
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS – DC Circuits

5.4. Inverting – Non-inverting Amplifier

5.4.2. Non-Inverting Amplifier i2
R2

+ Non-inverting amplifier  op amp circuit designed to provide a

R1 i1 3
positive voltage gain 7
4 +
o Input voltage Vi is applied directly at the non- inverting
V0
input terminal Vi

o R1 is connected between the ground and the inverting terminal

0  V3 V3  V0 
  V0 Vi Vi  R2 
R1 R2      V0  1  Vi
V3  Vi  R2 R1 R2  R1 
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS – DC Circuits

5.4. Inverting – Non-inverting Amplifier

5.4.2. Non-Inverting Amplifier
+ Note:
3
If R2 = 0 or R1 = ∞  the voltage gain becomes 1 4
7
+
 the circuit is call a voltage follower (or unity gain V0 = Vi
V
amplifier) -

+ Characteristic of voltage follower:

o Very high input impedance
3
o Useful as an intermediate – stage (or buffer) 7
4
amplifier to isolate one circuit from another Second
First stage stage
o Minimize interaction between the two stages
and eliminate inter-stage loading
Voltage follower used to isolate two
cascaded stages of a circuit
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS – DC Circuits

5.4. Inverting – Non-inverting Amplifier

R2
5.4.2. Non-Inverting Amplifier
10kΩ
R1 3
+ Example 5: Calculate the output voltage v0 of the given circuit 7
4kΩ 4 +
Using superposition: V0  V01  V02 6V 4V
V0
-
VO1 is due to the 6V voltage source VO2 is due to the 4V voltage source

Calculate VO1: Set the 4V voltage source to zero, the circuit becomes an inverting amplifier
R2 10
V01   Vi1   6  15V
R1 4
Calculate VO2: Set the 6V voltage source to zero, the circuit becomes an non-inverting amplifier
 R   10 
V02  1  2 Vi 2  1  4  14V
 R1   4
So we obtain the output voltage: V0  V01  V02  1V
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS – DC Circuits

5.4. Inverting – Non-inverting Amplifier

5.4.2. Non-Inverting Amplifier R2

+ Example 6: Calculate the output voltage v0 of the given circuit 5kΩ

R1 3
7
Apply KCL at node 3 and 4: R3 2kΩ 4 +
4kΩ
R4 V0
 VP Vi  VP 3V 8kΩ
 R  R  0  R3  R4
-
 4 3 V
 i  VP
 VN V0  VN R4
  0
R  R2
 1R R 2 V0  1 VP
 VN  VP  R1


R1  R2 R4 25 8
 V0  . Vi  . .3  7V
R1 R3  R4 2 48
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS – DC Circuits

5.5. Summing Amplifier

+ Summing amplifier  op amp circuit that combines several
inputs and produces an output that is the weighted sum of the
inputs
V1 R1
i1 Rf i
+ Summing amplifier  a variation of the inverting amplifier
V2 R2 i2 0
3
a 7
+ As an example, for the given circuit, apply KCL at node a: i3 i 4 +
V3 R3
0 V0
Va  V0 V1  Va V2  Va V3  Va -
i  i1  i2  i3    
Rf R1 R2 R3
Because of Va = V4 = 0 :
 Rf Rf Rf 
V0   V1  V2  V3 
 R1 R2 R3 
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS – DC Circuits

5.5. Summing Amplifier

R1 5kΩ Rf 10kΩ
+ Example 7: Calculate the output voltage v0 and i0 of the given
circuit 2V
R2 a 3
2,5kΩ 7
4
+
Apply the equation of summing amplifier to calculate V0 b i0
1V 2kΩ VO
-
 Rf Rf   10 10 
V0   V1  V2    .2  .1  8V
 R1 R2  5 2,5 

Calculate the current i0

V0 0  V0 8 8
i0  i f  iload  i0  iload  if    3
 3
 4.8mA
Rload Rf 2.10 10.10
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS – DC Circuits

5.6. Difference Amplifier

+ Difference (differential) amplifier  circuit that amplifies R2

the difference between two inputs but rejects any signals 0

R1 Va
common to the two inputs 3
7
0 4
 R 
R3
V1  Va Va  V0 R +
  V0  1  2 Va  2 V1
+ V1 Vb
KCL at node a: + R4
V0
R1 R2  R1  R1 V2
-

V2  Vb Vb  R4 
KCL at node b:   Vb   V2
R3 R4  R3  R4 
Output voltage:  R1 
1  
 R1  R2  R4  R2 R2  R2  R2

Va  Vb  0 
V  

 
V  V  V  V  V1
 R1  R3  R4  R1  R3 
2 1 0 2
R1 R1
1  
 R4 
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS – DC Circuits

5.6. Difference Amplifier

+ A difference amplifier must reject a signal common to R2

the two inputs: V0 = 0 when V1 = V2 0

R1 Va 3
7
R R 0 4
 1  3
R3
+
+ V1 Vb
R2 R4 + R4
V0
V2
+ So the output voltage of a difference amplifier: -

V0 
R2
V2  V1 
R1
+ If R2 = R1, and R3 = R4  the difference amplifier becomes a subtractor: V0  V2  V1
+ Remarks
o A difference amplifier  also known as a subtractor
o Difference amplifier  used in varios applications (instrumentation amplifier)
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS – DC Circuits

5.6. Difference Amplifier

+ Example 8: Design an op amp circuit with inputs V1 and V2 such that V0 = -5V1 + 3V2

Solution 1: Using only one op amp

3   R2
Rewrite: V0  5 V2  V1   R1   R  5 (1)
5  1    1
 1 
V0  2 
R R2  R
From the output voltage equation of a difference amplifier: V2  2 V1   1  
R1  R3  R1  5   3
1  
 R4   1  R3 5
6 
 R4
and from:
5  3  1  R3  2  R  R (2)
3 4
R3 5 R
1 4
R4
From (1) and (2), we can choose: R1  10k  R2  50k
R3  20k  R4  20k
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS – DC Circuits

5.6. Difference Amplifier

+ Example 8: Design an op amp circuit with inputs V1 and V2 such that V0 = -5V1 + 3V2

Solution 2: Using 2 op amp  one inverting amplifier and one 2-inputs inverting summer

Output voltage of the first stage:

3R1
3R 5R1
Va   1 V2  3V2 R1 3
5R1
R1 V2 7 3
4 Va 7
4 V0
Output voltage of the second stage: R1
V1

 5R 5R 
V0   1 V1  1 V2   5V1  3V2   5V1  3V2
 R1 5 R1 

In this case, we can choose: R1  10k

 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS – DC Circuits

5.6. Difference Amplifier

+ Example 9: Find the relationship between V0 and two inputs of an instrumentation amplifier

There are not current into A1, and A2, the current i flows through the 3 4
V
7 O1 R1 R2
resisters 3
A1

V01  V02  i 2 R3  R4 
R3
V1 0
Va
Va  Vb V V
3
R4 7
i Va  V1 , Vb  V2 i  1 2 0
i 4 A3
V0
R4 R4 Vb
R3

 R 
3

V01  V02  V1  V2 1  2 3 

7 R1
Therefore: 4
A2
VO2
 R4  R2

V2
In this case, we have the output voltage of the difference amplifier:

R2  R3 
V0 
R2
V02  V01   V0  1  2 V2  V1 

R1 R1  R4 
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS – DC Circuits

5.6. Difference Amplifier

+ Example 10: Find the current i0 of the given instrumentation
4
amplifier circuit 7 R2 40kΩ
3
20kΩ
8V R1 3
7
R1 4
i0 R3
20kΩ R2
R2
Vi   Vi    40 8.01  8  0.02V
3
V0  7 40kΩ 10kΩ
R1 20 4

V0 0.02 8,01V
i0   3
 2 A
R3 10.10
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS – DC Circuits

5.7. Cascaded op amp Circuit

+ Cascade connection: head-to-tail arrangement of two or more op amp circuits such that the output
of one is the input of the next
 Each op amp circuit in the string is called a stage
 Op amp circuits can be cascaded without changing their input-output relationship because of:
o Infinite input resistance
o Zero output resistance

+ In cascaded connection: The original input signal is increased by the gain of the individual stage

A  A1. A2 . A3
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS – DC Circuits

5.7. Cascaded op amp Circuit

+ Example 11: Find the voltage v0 and the current i0 of the 4
7 a 4
given circuit 3 7
3
+
The cascaded circuit consists of two non- inverting amplifiers R1 12kΩ i0
20mV R3 10kΩ
Output of the first stage: b VO
R2
3kΩ R4
 R1   12  4kΩ
Va  1  Vi  1  .20  100mV
 R2   3 -

Output of the second stage:

 R3   10 
V0  1  Va  1  .100  350mV
 R4   4
V0  Vb V0  Va 350  100
The current i0 flows through the resistor R3 : i0    3
 25A
R3 R3 10.10
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS – DC Circuits

5.7. Cascaded op amp Circuit

A R2 6kΩ
+ Example 12: Find the voltage v0 of the given circuit
R1 3
Circuit consists of two inverters A and B and a summer C V1=1V
7 R5 5kΩ C
2kΩ
4 a
R7 10kΩ
R 6
Va   2 V1   .1  3V
R1 2 R4 8kΩ
3
B 7
4 VO
R 8 R3
Vb   4 V2   .2  4V
3
V2=2V R6
4kΩ 7
R3 4 4 b 15kΩ

Output of the given circuit:

R R   10 10 
V0   7 Va  7 Vb    3  4   8.66V
 R5 R6   5 15 
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS – DC Circuits

5.7. Cascaded op amp Circuit

+ Example 13: Find V0 if V1 = 2V, V2 = 1.5V

R5 80kΩ

V21  V1  2V
3
V1 7 R1 30kΩ 3
4 7
4
VO
R 50
V22   2 V2   .1.5  5V R2 50kΩ 20kΩ
R3 15
R3 3

R  15kΩ 7
R  80 80 
V0   5 V21  5 V22    .2  .5   14.67V
4

 R1 R4   30 20 
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS – DC Circuits

5.8. Applications
+ Pratical applications of op amp circuits:

o Inverters, summers, integrators, differentiators, subtractors, logarithmic amplifiers

o Instrumentation amplifiers, calibration circuits

o DAC, voltage-to-curent converters, current-to-voltage converter

o Analog computers
o Filters, clippers, rectifier, regulators, level shifters
o Comparators, gyrators, oscillator
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS – DC Circuits

5.8. Applications
5.8.1. DAC – Digital to Analog Converter
+ Digital-to-analog converter (DAC):
 Transforms digital signals into analog form
 Can be realized by using the binary weighted ladder
o The bits are weights according to the magnitude of their V1 V2 V3 V4
place value Rf
R1 R2 R3 R4
o Their weights decrease value of Rf/Rn  each lesser bit
has half the weight of the next higher 3
MSB LSB 7
 Rf Rf Rf Rf  4 VO
V0   V1  V2  V3  V4 
 R1 R2 R3 R4 
Binary weighted ladder type
o V1, … V4 can assume only two voltage levels (0, 1) (binary
code)  DAC provides a single output that is proportional to the
inputs
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS – DC Circuits

5.8. Applications
5.8.1. DAC – Digital to Analog Converter
+ Example 14: Obtain the analog output for binary inputs
[0000], [0001], [0010], … [1111] V1 V2 V3 V4
Rf 10K
R1 R2 R3 R4
Inputs [B] Value [D] -V0 10K 20K 40K 80K
0000 0 0 3
MSB LSB 7
0001 1 0.125
 Rf Rf  4 VO
Rf Rf
0010 2 0.25 
V0   V1  V2  V3  V4 
0011 3 0.375  R1 R2 R3 R4 
0100 4 0.5
0101 5 0.625 V0  V1  0.5V2  0.25V3  0.125V4 
0110 6 0.75
0111 7 0.875
Each bit has a value of 0.125V  cannot represent a voltage between
1000 8 1.0
1V  1.125V (DAC resolution)
1001 9 1.125
…
1111 15 1.875
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS – DC Circuits

5.8. Applications
5.8.2. Instrumentation Amplifier (IA)
V1
+ Typical applications of IAs: isolation Inverted input 4
1 7 R R
amplifiers, thermocouple amplifiers, data Gain set 3
acquisition systems R 3
7 Output
RG 3
 2R  R 4
+ Output voltage of IAs: V0  1  V2  V1  V0
 RG  3
Gain set
 2R 
V2  V1 
7 R R
V0  1 
2
Non-inverted input 4

 RG 

Small differential signal voltages superimposed on larger common-

mode voltages
Since the common-mode voltages are equal, they cancel each other
Schematic diagram
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS – DC Circuits

5.8. Applications
5.8.2. Instrumentation Amplifier

+ Three main characteristics:

 Voltage gain is adjusted by one extern resistor RG
 Input impedance of both inputs is very high and does not vary as the gain is adjusted
 Output VO depends on the difference between the inputs V1 and V2, not on the voltage
common to them (common-mode voltage)
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS – DC Circuits

5.8. Applications
5.8.2. Instrumentation Amplifier
+ Precision Intrumentation amplifier AD624
CMRR: Common Mode Rejection Ratio
PSRR: Power Supply Rejection Ratio
TC: Temperature Change

Datasheet:
http://www.analog.com/static/imported-files/data_sheets/AD620.pdf

Price (100 - 499) Price (1000)

$4.82 $4.09
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS – DC Circuits

5.8. Applications
5.8.2. Instrumentation Amplifier
+ LT167 – Single resistor gain, programmable, precision intrumentation amplifier