Chapter 8

TWO-DIMENSIONAL ISOPARAMETRIC FINITE ELEMENT SHAPE FUNCTIONS 8-1
CHAPTER 8
TWO-DIMENSIONAL ISOPARAMETRIC FINITE ELEMENT SHAPE FUNCTIONS
Basic rectangular and triangular shaped elements do not suffice when it comes to the real
or geometrically complex components and structures found in practical applications.
Reformulation of basic rectangular and triangular elements (Chapter 7 elements) provides
elements that have distorted shapes in the global XY coordinate system, e.g., either straight-sided
quadrilateral shaped elements or higher-order curve-sided elements, as shown below. These
reformulated elements are two-dimensional isoparametric elements.1,2 They more efficiently
approximate the geometry of complex shapes especially along curved sides where maximum
stresses usually occur. They also facilitate automated mesh generation. Greater accuracy is
therefore achieved through enhanced geometric fidelity offered by isoparametric elements.3
Typical two-dimensional isoparametric elements
The assumed displacement behavior functions for isoparametric elements are unchanged
from that of their basic, regularly shaped counterparts (Chapter 7). Isoparametric elements are
transformed or mapped elements. Transformation consists of using dimensionless natural
coordinate systems in which elements with basic shapes are geometrically mapped onto elements
with distorted shapes in the global XY coordinate system. The natural coordinates are denoted
ξ and η for rectangular-based elements and r and s for triangular-based elements. Coordinates
1
Taig, I. C. (1961). Structural Analysis by the Matrix Displacement Method, English Electric Aviation Report, No.
5017, 1961.
2
Irons, B. M. (1966). Engineering Application of Numerical Integration in Stiffness Method, JAIAA, 14, 2035-7,
1966.
3
Quadrilateral elements are preferred for cost-effectiveness and accuracy provided they are well shaped. Triangular
elements are recommended for difficult geometries, and for fill-in for awkward regions of quadrilateral meshes.
ξ and η range from -1 to 1, while r and s range from 0 to 1. These limits are especially suited
to the Gauss quadrature numerical integration procedure that accompanies isoparametric
elements. Moreover, these limits represent coordinates of points constituting an element side
(except r or s = 1 ). For example, every point on side 1-4 of the leftmost element shown has the
coordinate ξ = −1 , and so the side itself is denoted ξ = −1 . That the sides of elements may be so
identified is the hallmark of natural coordinate systems in FEM.
A transformation is required to define the mapping. It is convenient and consistent to use
shape functions for this transformation so that element geometry is approximated in the same
way as the element displacement field. This type of transformation was introduced in connection
with one-dimensional shape functions using the natural coordinate ξ (Section 5-5). Because of
this, integrals defining element matrices are expressed in natural coordinates. One consequence
is that most element stiffness matrices are no longer amenable to closed form integration.
Section 8-1. Definition of Isoparametric Elements. Isoparametric elements are
defined as those for which the same interpolation functions used for the element displacement
field are also used to interpolate element geometry. For example, recall that the displacement
interpolation functions for the four-node bilinear rectangular element are,
4 4
⌢ ⌢
u (ξ ,η ) = ∑ N i (ξ ,η ) ui and v (ξ ,η ) = ∑ N i (ξ ,η ) vi
i=1 i=1
where N i (ξ, η ) are the element's bilinear shape functions, expressed here in terms of natural
coordinates. When the geometry of this element is interpolated in the same way using the same
shape functions as follows, the element becomes a four-node bilinear quadrilateral element as
shown here.4
4 4
X (ξ ,η ) = ∑ N i (ξ ,η ) X i and Y (ξ ,η ) = ∑ N i (ξ ,η ) Yi
i=1 i=1
Bilinear quadrilateral element - isoparametric version of bilinear rectangular element
4
The word isoparametric means "of the same parameters."
In these equations, the coordinates of node 1 through node 4, i.e.,
( X ,Y ) through ( X
1 1 4 )
,Y4 , are the global cartesian coordinates of the four nodes of the
quadrilateral element shown above. They are effectively prescribed during the solution
processing phase when the elements of a finite element mesh are automatically generated. So
far, however, the bilinear shape functions N i have been defined only in terms of local cartesian
coordinates x and y (see Table 7-1). The above pair of geometric mapping equations is
employed in the sequel. It remains to derive the shape functions N i for various elements in
terms of natural coordinates ξ and η .
Section 8-2. Isoparametic Shape Functions for the Four-Node Bilinear Element.
The four-node bilinear quadrilateral or Q4 element is shown to the right in the sketch below. It’s
a mapped image in cartesian coordinate space of the 4-node bilinear, bi-unit square element
shown in natural coordinate space to the left. The former element is created by the analyst in the
global X-Y coordinate system during meshing of a part and correspondingly labeled a physical
element. The latter is its parent element in the local natural ξ − η coordinate system. Every
physical element in a finite element mesh of quadrilaterals is mapped from this parent element.
( )
The four node points shown with coordinates X i ,Yi define the physical element’s geometry,
which is a straight-sided quadrilateral. Its image in the natural coordinate space remains the bi-
unit square irrespective of the quadrilateral’s shape or size. The parent element is considered
devoid of physical geometry. It may also be depicted equivalently as a bi-unit rectangle in the
natural coordinate space.
Parent element Physical element

Mapping the bilinear quadrilateral or Q4 element
There exists a one-to-one mapping between each point in the parent and physical
elements so long as the physical element's geometry is not pathological.5 For example, any point
( 1,η ) on the ξ = 1 side of the parent element will map uniquely onto a cartesian point [X( 1,η ),
Y( 1,η )] on the 2-3 side of the physical element when the functions X( 1,η ) and Y( 1,η ) are linear
in η. That these are linear functions in η is shown shortly in the sequel. Consequently, the ξ = 1
side is mapped onto the 2-3 side so that a straight side is created between nodes 2 and 3 on the
physical element. Similarly, the other three sides are straight resulting in a quadrilateral element.
Shape functions for the four-node parent element are expressed in terms of natural
coordinates ξ and η. Shape functions for the basic rectangular element having length l and width
w and written in local cartesian coordinates x and y are first recalled, e.g.,
⎛ x⎞ ⎛ y⎞
( )
N 1 x, y = ⎜ 1 −
⎝ l ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝
1 −
w ⎟⎠
. Then they are transformed using the one-to-one mapping equation
between the cartesian and natural systems,

l
x (ξ ) = (ξ + 1)
2 Cartesian and natural coordinates for 1-D
linear element
This equation was introduced previously for
the one-dimensional element having length l
shown here again for convenience (see Section 5-5). However, now the corresponding
transformation equation for the y-coordinate is also required. It is,
w
y (η ) = (η + 1)
2
The following example demonstrates the transformation procedure for N 1 ξ ,η . ( )
===============================================================
( )
Example 8-1. Derive N 1 ξ ,η for the parent element using the transformation method.
( )
For node 1 the shape function N 1 ξ ,η becomes,
5 o
For example, included angles should be less than 180 in the physical element to avoid warnings of excessive
distortion (see also Section 8-7.1). "One-to-one" implies uniqueness.
⎛ x⎞ ⎛ y⎞
( )
N 1 x, y = ⎜ 1 − ⎟ ⎜ 1 − ⎟
⎝ l⎠⎝ w⎠
⎡ 1 ⎤⎡ 1 ⎤
( ) (
= ⎢1 − ξ + 1 ⎥ ⎢1 − η + 1 ⎥ )
⎣ 2 ⎦⎣ 2 ⎦
⎛ 1 1⎞ ⎛ 1 1⎞
= ⎜− ξ + ⎟ ⎜− η+ ⎟
⎝ 2 2⎠ ⎝ 2 2⎠
Basic 4-node rectangular element
or,
1
( )
N 1 ξ ,η =
4
(
1−ξ 1−η )( )
( )
As required, the shape function N 1 ξ ,η is zero at nodes
2, 3 and 4 where either ξ equals 1 or η equals 1 or both.
Further, at node 1 where ξ equals -1 and η equals -1, it

4-node parent element
is seen that N 1 equals 1 as required.
===============================================================
( )
One can also derive bilinear shape functions for the parent element, such as N 1 ξ ,η ,
using bivariate Lagrange interpolation. A bivariate product is formed from two, one-dimensional
linear functions one in ξ and one in η . This method builds upon experience with forming
bivariate products of two, one-dimensional shape functions in cartesian coordinates when
( )
deriving two-dimensional shape functions for basic elements, such as N 1 x, y (see Section 7-
1.2).
( ) ( )
The graph of z = N 1 ξ ,η may be sketched based upon the key properties of N 1 ξ ,η . It
( )
is shown here to facilitate the derivation of N 1 ξ ,η . The two, one-dimensional linear functions
indicated are obtained by the Lagrange interpolation method in the usual way. Their bivariate
( )
product z (ξ ) ⋅ z (η ) is the bilinear shape function N 1 ξ ,η as demonstrated in the following
example.
Graph of bilinear shape function N 1 ξ ,η ( )

===============================================================
( )
Example 8-2. Derive N 1 ξ ,η for the parent element using the bivariate Lagrange interpolation
method.
( )
N 1 ξ ,η is the bivariate product,
( ) ()
N 1 ξ ,η = N 1 ξ ⋅ N 1 η ()
() ()
where N 1 ξ and N 1 η are one-dimensional, linear functions.
()
N 1 ξ must equal zero at node 2 where ξ = 1 . Using Lagrange interpolation,
() (
N1 ξ = c 1 − ξ )
()
Also, N 1 ξ must equal unity at node 1 where ξ = −1 . Thus,
( ) ( )
N 1 −1 = c 1 + 1 = 1 ⇒ c = 1 2
1
∴ N (ξ ) = (1 − ξ )
1
2
()
Similarly, N 1 η must equal zero at node 4 where η = 1 . Using Lagrange
interpolation,
1
()
N1 η =
2
(
1−η )
Therefore, the shape function for corner node 1 of the parent element is,
1
( )
N 1 ξ ,η =
4
(1−ξ 1−η )( )
===============================================================
Shape functions for nodes 2, 3 and 4 can be generated similarly by either the
transformation method or the bivariate Lagrange interpolation method, as illustrated for N 1 in
Examples 8-1 and 8-2, respectively. The latter method is more convenient in later developments
for higher order elements.
The shape functions for the four-node bilinear quadrilateral element are listed in Table 8-
1. A compact formula for all four shape functions is:
1
N i (ξ , η ) =
4
(1 + ξ0 )(1 + η0 )
where,
ξ0 = ξiξ and η0 = ηiη (i = 1,2,3, 4 )
Table 8-1. Isoparametic shape functions for the 4-node bilinear or Q4 element.
================================================
1
( )
N 1 ξ ,η =
4
(1 − ξ ) (1 − η )
1
( )
N 2 ξ ,η =
4
(1 + ξ ) (1 − η )
1
( )
N 3 ξ ,η =
4
(1 + ξ ) (1 + η )
1
( )
N 4 ξ ,η =
4
(1 − ξ ) (1 + η )
================================================
Summarizing, the bilinear element’s displacement interpolation functions are

4 4
⌢ ⌢
u (ξ ,η ) = ∑ N i (ξ ,η ) ui and v (ξ ,η ) = ∑ N i (ξ ,η ) vi
i=1 i=1
and its geometric mapping equations are,

4 4
i=1 i=1
The latter two equations uniquely map points (ξ, η ) in the parent element domain onto
points ( X,Y ) in the physical element domain. Furthermore, any of the four straight sides of the
parent element uniquely map onto a corresponding straight side of the physical element. The
( )
straight line is defined by the global cartesian coordinates X i ,Yi of the two nodes subtending a
side, which are given when a finite element mesh is generated. For example, the coordinates X
and Y of an arbitrary point along the ξ = 1 side of the physical element vary linearly with η (in
the range -1 to 1) according to the cartesian coordinates established for nodes 2 and 3 as follows.
Observe first that N 1 = N 4 = 0 along the ξ = 1 side. Hence,
4
1 1
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
X 1,η = ∑ N i 1,η X i = N 2 1,η X 2 + N 3 1,η X 3 =
2
( ) (
1 − η X2 + 1 + η X3
2
)
i=1
4
1 1
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Y 1,η = ∑ N i 1,η Yi = N 2 1,η Y2 + N 3 1,η Y3 =
2
( ) (
1 − η Y2 + 1 + η Y3
2
)
i=1
( ) ( )
The functions X 1,η and Y 1,η are linear combinations of linear functions in η . Thus,
coordinates X and Y along the side ξ = 1 are linear functions of η .

These two linear functions may be simplified to reveal two linear parametric equations
describing a line expressed by Y as a function of X. Upon simplification the two parametric
equations are,
X (η ) = a − bη and Y (η ) = c − dη
where the coefficients are:
X2 + X3 X − X3 Y2 + Y3 Y −Y
a= , b= 2 and c = , d= 2 3
2 2 2 2
Eliminating η yields Y = Y(X),
Y2 − Y3 1
Y = mX + b0 where m = and b0 = ⎡Y2 + Y3 − ( X2 + X3 ) m ⎤⎦
X2 − X3 2⎣
Therefore, given the nodal coordinates (Xi ,Yi), i = 2 and 3, the locus of points
⎣ ( ) ( )
⎡ X 1,η ,Y 1,η ⎤ is the straight line Y = mX + b0 connecting nodes 2 and 3. The same
⎦
argument can be made for the other three sides, and thus the element's shape is indeed that of the
quadrilateral defined by the global coordinates of its four nodes. Furthermore, all coordinate
lines defined by either ξ or η equal to a constant (between -1 and 1), map onto straight lines on
the physical element.
=====================================================================
Example 8-4.
(a) Determine the equation of the line, Y = mX +b, passing through nodes 2 and 3 of a Q4
element using geometry alone, given the following nodal coordinate data:
Node i Xi Yi
i =2 4.50 1.00
i =3 5.50 6.00
ΔY 5
m= = = 5; from node 2: 1 = 5 ( 4.50 ) + b ⇒ b = −21.5 ⇒ Y = 5 X − 21.5 Ans.
ΔX 1
(b) Determine the same equation using only the result from the isoparametric mapping functions
X (ξ , η ) and Y (ξ , η ) that resulted in the equation Y(X) for side 2-3:
m=
(1.00 − 6.00 ) = 5.00 and b0 =
1
⎡1.00 + 6.00 − ( 4.50 + 5.50 ) × 5.00 ⎤⎦ = −21.5
( 4.50 − 5.50 ) 2⎣
Y = 5.00 X − 21.5 Ans.
(c) Determine the parametric equations and graph the X-Y curve that is side ξ = 1 of the element:
Evaluating the equations’ coefficients;
a=
4.50 + 5.50
= 5.00, b =
( 4.50 − 5.50 ) = −0.50
2 2
c=
1.00 + 6.00
= 3.50, d =
(1.00 − 6.00 ) = −2.50
2 2
Parametric equations are:
X (η ) = 5.00 + 0.50 η and Y (η ) = 3.50 + 2.50 η Ans.
E.g., ParametricPlot[{X, Y}, { η , -1, 1}];
===============================================================
===============================================================
Example 8-3. The center and centroid of the parent four-node bilinear element coincide,
( ) ( )
meaning ξavg , ηavg = ξ , η = (0,0) . Map this point to the physical bilinear quadrilateral
element.
Using the geometric mapping equations,
4
1
X ( 0,0 ) = ∑ N i ( 0,0 ) Xi =
4
( X1 + X2 + X3 + X4 ) = Xavg
i=1
4
1
Y ( 0,0 ) == ∑ N i ( 0,0 )Yi =
4
(Y1 + Y2 + Y3 + Y4 ) = Yavg
i=1
( )
The point Xavg ,Yavg is by definition the center of the physical, bilinear quadrilateral
element, but it does not in general coincide with the centroid ( X,Y ) .
However, every point in a well-formed quadrilateral element, low or high-order, has a

one-to- one mapping.
===============================================================
Section 8-3. Isoparametric Shape Functions for the Nine-Node Biquadratic
Element. Mapping of a nine-node biquadratic or Q9 element is illustrated in the sketch below.
Also called a nine-node lagrangian element, it is a higher order element. The four sides of the
physical element are quadratic curves each of which is uniquely defined by the cartesian
( )
coordinates X i ,Yi of the three nodes defining a side.

Mapping the biquadratic quadrilateral Q9 element
Bivariate Lagrange interpolation is used to derive shape functions in natural coordinates

for the parent element. Products are formed of two one-dimensional quadratic functions, one in
ξ and one in η, each constructed by Lagrange interpolation. This method was used to derive
( )
N 1 x, y for the basic nine-node rectangular element (see Example 7-2).
For a corner node such as node 3 with natural coordinates (1,1) , the graph of the shape
function N 3 (ξ ,η ) is sketched using its key criteria. The result is shown here. Facilitated by this
sketch, the expression for N 3 is derived as shown in the next example.
Graph of biquadratic shape function N 3 ξ ,η ( )
===============================================================
( )
Example 8-5. Derive the corner node shape function N 3 ξ ,η for the 9-node parent element.
N 3 is the bivariate product,
N 3 (ξ, η ) = N 3 (ξ ) ⋅ N 3 (η )
where N 3 (ξ ) and N 3 (η ) are one-dimensional quadratic functions.
N 3 (ξ ) must equal zero at nodes 4 and 7. Therefore, by Lagrange interpolation,
N 3 (ξ ) = c ξ (ξ + 1)
Also, N 3 (ξ ) must equal unity at node 3. Thus,

N 3 (1) = c (1) ( 2 ) = 1 ⇒ c = 1 2
1
and N 3 (ξ ) = ξ (ξ + 1)
2
1
Similarly, N 3 (η ) = η (η + 1) so that the corner node shape function N3 is,
2
1 1 1
( ) ( ) ( )
N 3 ξ ,η = ξ ξ + 1 ⋅ η η + 1 = ξη ξ + 1 η + 1
2 2 4
( )( )
===============================================================
For a midside node such as node 8 having natural coordinates ( −1,0 ) , the graph of
( )
z = N 8 ξ ,η may be sketched, as shown here, based on the key criteria for N8. Its expression is
derived in the next example, while referring to this graph.
Graph of biquadratic shape function N 8 ξ ,η ( )
===============================================================
Example 8-6. Derive the midside node shape function N 8 (ξ ,η ) for the 9-node parent element.
N 8 (ξ, η ) = N 8 (ξ ) ⋅ N 8 (η )
where N 8 (ξ ) and N 8 (η ) are one-dimensional quadratic functions.
N 8 (ξ ) must equal zero at nodes 6 and 9. Therefore, by Lagrange interpolation

N 8 (ξ ) = c ξ (ξ − 1)
Also, N 8 (ξ ) must be unity at node 8. Thus,
1
N 8 ( −1) = c ( −1) ( −2 ) = 1 ⇒ c =
2
1
N 8 (ξ ) = ξ (ξ − 1)
2
N 8 (η ) must equal zero at nodes 1 and 4. Therefore, by Lagrange interpolation,
N 8 (η ) = c (η + 1) (η − 1)
Also, N 8 (η ) must be unity at node 8. Thus,
N 8 ( 0 ) = c (1) ( −1) = 1 ⇒ c = −1
N 8 (η ) = (η + 1) (1 − η )
Therefore, the midside node shape function N8 is,
1
( ) ( )(
N 8 ξ ,η = ξ ξ − 1 1 + η 1 − η
2
)( )
1
( )(
= ξ ξ − 1 1 − η2
2
)
===============================================================
For the center node 9 having natural coordinates ( 0,0 ) , the graph of the surface
( )
z = N 9 ξ ,η is,
Graph of biquadratic shape function N 9 ξ ,η( )
( ) ()
N 9 ξ ,η = N 9 ξ ⋅ N 9 η ()
From Example 8-6,

N 9 (η ) = N 8 (η ) = (η + 1) (1 − η )
Similarly,
() (
N9 ξ = 1 + ξ 1 − ξ )( )
Therefore, the center node shape function N9 is,
( ) ( )(
N 9 ξ ,η = 1 + ξ 1 − ξ 1 + η 1 − η )( )( )
( )(
= 1 − ξ 2 1 − η2 )
The nine shape functions for this element are listed in Table 8-2. The corresponding
displacement interpolation and geometry mapping functions are,
9 9
⌢ ⌢
u ( ξ , η ) = ∑ N i ( ξ , η ) ui and v (ξ , η ) = ∑ N i (ξ , η ) vi
i=1 i=1
and,
9 9
i=1 i=1
Table 8-2. Isoparametic shape functions for the 9-node biquadratic or Q9 element.
===============================================
1
N 1 = ξη
4
(ξ − 1)(η − 1) 1
N5 = η
2
(1 − ξ )(η − 1)
2
1
N 2 = ξη
4
(ξ + 1)(η − 1) 1
N6 = ξ
2
(1 + ξ ) (1 − η )
2
1
N 3 = ξη
4
(ξ + 1)(η + 1) 1
N7 = η
2
(1 − ξ ) (1 + η )
2
1
N 4 = ξη
4
(ξ − 1)(η + 1) 1
N8 = ξ
2
(ξ − 1)(1 − η ) 2
( )(
N 9 = 1 − ξ 2 1 − η2 )
===============================================
Referring to the previous sketch of the physical element one can appreciate how a side of
the Q9 element may in fact be a quadratic curve as follows. For example, all shape functions
pertaining to side ξ = 1 are zero except N 2 , N 3 and N 6 . These three shape functions are
quadratic in η . It follows that the mapping functions X (1, η ) and Y (1, η ) are linear
combinations of quadratic functions in η ,
9
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
X 1,η = ∑ N i 1,η X i = N 2 1,η X 2 + N 3 1,η X 3 + N 6 1,η X 6 ( )
i=1
9
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Y 1,η = ∑ N i 1,η Yi = N 2 1,η Y2 + N 3 1,η Y3 + N 6 1,η Y6 ( )
i=1
Thus, coordinates X and Y are quadratic functions in η on side ξ = 1 .

These two quadratic functions may be simplified to reveal two parametric equations in
parameter η that describe the quadratic curve constituting side ξ = 1 ,
X (η ) = a1 + b1η + c1η 2 and Y (η ) = a2 + b2η + c2η 2

a1 = X6 a2 = Y6
1 1
b1 =
2
( X3 − X2 ) b2 =
2
(Y3 − Y2 )
1 1
c1 =
2
( X2 + X3 − X6 ) c2 = (Y2 + Y3 − Y6 )
2
While any quadratic curve can be described parametrically, in this case it cannot also be
expressed explicitly in terms of X and Y because eliminating η is intractable, where as in the
linear case it was straightforward. Nonetheless, it follows that given the points (Xi, Yi) for i = 2,
6, 3, the locus of points ⎡⎣ X (η ) ,Y (η ) ⎤⎦ is the quadratic curve connecting nodes, 2, 6, and 3. Of
course, this curved side degenerates to a straight line if the three nodes fall on a straight line.
Example 8-7. The quadratic curve that is side ξ = 1 of the Q9 element has the following global
cartesian coordinate values for nodes 2, 6, and 3.
Node i Xi Yi
i=2 2.875 1.00
i=6 3.00 2.00
i=3 2.75 3.00
(a) Determine the two parametric equations for side ξ = 1 of the element,
X (η ) = a1 + b1η + c1η 2 and Y (η ) = a2 + b2η + c2η 2

a1 = 3.00 a2 = 2.00
1 1
b1 = ( 2.75 − 2.875 ) = −0.0625 b2 = ( 3.00 − 1.00 ) = 1.00
2 2
1 1
c1 = ( 2.875 + 2.75 − 2 × 3.00 ) = −0.1875 c2 = (1.00 + 3.00 − 2 × 2.00 ) = 0
2 2
X (η ) = 3.00 − 0.0625η − 0.1875η 2 and Y (η ) = 2.00 + 1.00η
(b) Graph the X-Y curve that is side ξ = 1 of the element.

E.g., ParametricPlot[{X, Y}, { η , -1, 1}]:
===============================================================
Given the nodal coordinates Xi and Yi (i = 2,6,3), it follows that the locus of points
⎣ ( ) ( )
⎡ X 1,η ,Y 1,η ⎤ is the quadratic curve through nodes 2, 6, and 3. Of course, this curved side
⎦
degenerates to a straight line if the given nodes fall on a straight line.
Observe that internal node 9 plays no role in the mapping process, which always involves
only the three nodes on a side. Hence, the 9th term in the Q9’s two mapping equations may be
dropped. This mapping process is also used for the eight-node quadratic element discussed next.
Section 8-4. Isoparametic Shape Functions for the Eight-Node Quadratic Element.
Shape functions for the eight-node quadratic or Q8 element are derived here. The element's
⌢ ⌢
behavior functions u (ξ , η ) and v (ξ , η ) omit the two biquadratic terms α 9ξ 2η 2 and α 18ξ 2η 2 ,
respectively. This is indicated below in the Pascal triangle (see also Section 7-2.1).
Correspondingly, the element omits the internal or 9th node as indicated in the element’s
mapping sketch. Consequently, it is not a biquadratic element. Nonetheless, it proves accurate
despite the omission of the biquadratic terms. It is the high-order member of the so-called
serendipity family of quadrilateral elements (i.e., chance discovery elements). It contains all the
monomial terms required for quadratic ( n = 2 ) convergence, and so it is a quadratic element.6
The four-node bilinear lagrangian element in fact also qualifies as a member of the serendipity
family because it also has no internal nodes; it is the low-order member.
Pascal triangle - incomplete biquadratic polynomial terms

Mapping the quadratic quadrilateral or Q8 element
6
If quadrilateral and triangular elements may be said to differ in kind much like canines and felines, as suggested by
one our perceptive students, then perhaps the lagrangian family of quadrilaterals is to the serendipity family of
quadrilaterals, as retrievers are to wolves.
Although the nine-node element is more robust, retaining its quadratic convergence while
allowing more distortion,7 the eight-node element is particularly popular in practice. The nine-
node element is often omitted in element libraries of commercial finite element programs, largely
for historical reasons. The ninth or biquadratic terms are surplus terms, and internal nodes were
considered a data-handling nuisance early on in the development of elements (see also Section 9-
6).
Methods for constructing the shape functions for the eight-node quadratic element are
illustrated in the following. Derivations are not as systematic as those for elements in the
lagrangian family. For midside nodes they are indeed constructed using bivariate Lagrange
interpolation but in a way that is only similar to that illustrated for the nine-node element. A
completely different method, one based upon the idea of superposition, is used to construct shape
functions for corner nodes. There are other ways for constructing these shape functions, for
example the so-called serendipity method.8
8-4.1 Midside node shape functions. Shape functions for midside nodes are bivariate
products of one-dimensional linear and one-dimensional quadratic Lagrange interpolation shape
functions. Sketches of their graphs facilitate their construction. For example, sketches of shape
functions N 5 (ξ, η ) and N 8 (ξ, η ) would look like the following.
Deriving midside node shape functions N 5 and N 8 for the eight-node quadrilateral element
The bivariate products of these two shape functions are, respectively,

N 5 (ξ , η ) = N 5 (ξ ) ⋅ N 5 (η ) and N 8 (ξ , η ) = N 8 (ξ ) ⋅ N 8 (η )
7
Zienkiewicz, O. C. and R. L. Taylor, The Finite Element Method, Ch. 9, Vol. 1, Fifth Edition, Butterworths-
Heinemann, Inc., London, 2000, 689 Pages.
8
Hutton, David V., Fundamentals of Finite Element Analysis, p. 186, McGraw-Hill Co., Inc., New York, N. Y.,
2004, 494 Pages.
It is clear from its graph that the shape function N 5 (ξ, η ) , when evaluated along the line
η = −1 , must equal zero, unity, and zero, at nodes 1, 5 , and 2 , respectively. It must therefore be
quadratic in ξ . Further, the function N 5 (ξ, η ) must be linear in η along the line ξ = 0 so that it
may interpolate only two values, unity and zero, at nodes 5 and 7, respectively. These two, one-
dimensional Lagrange interpolation functions are, respectively,
N 5 (ξ ) = (1 − ξ 2 ) and
1
N 5 (η ) = (1 − η ) .
2
Similar reasoning applied to the derivation of N 8 (ξ, η ) results in the two, one-dimensional
Lagrange interpolation functions, one linear and the other quadratic, respectively,
N 8 (η ) = (1 − η 2 )
1
N 8 (ξ ) = (1 − ξ ) and
2
The bivariate products yield the following shape functions for midside nodes 5 and 8,
respectively,
N 5 (ξ ,η ) =
1
2
( )
1 − ξ 2 (1 − η ) and N 8 (ξ ,η ) =
1
2
(
(1 − ξ ) 1 − η 2 )
8-4.2 Corner node shape functions. Construction of the corner node shape functions
requires the additional idea of superposition of shape functions. Again, it is useful to start with a
sketch of the relevant shape function graphs. For example, the graph of the shape function
N 1 (ξ, η ) for node 1, must look like that shown in the rightmost sketch below.
1 ⎡ 1 ⎤ 1 1
N̂ 1 ( ξ , η ) = (1 − ξ ) (1 − η ) ⎢⎣ N̂ 1 (ξ , η ) − 2 N 5 (ξ , η ) ⎥⎦ N̂ 1 (ξ , η ) − 2 N 5 (ξ , η ) − 2 N 8 (ξ , η ) = N 1 (ξ , η )
4
Deriving corner node shape function N 1 for 8-node quadrilateral element by superposition
To construct this shape function, begin with the bilinear shape function for node 1,
( )
temporarily denoted here N̂ 1 ξ ,η , as shown in the left most sketch (also see Section 8-2).
Subtract one-half of the quadratic shape function N 5 (ξ, η ) to ensure interpolation of the value
zero at node 5, as illustrated in the middle sketch. Finally, also subtract one-half of N 8 (ξ, η ) to
ensure interpolation of the value zero at node 8, as illustrated in the right most sketch.
Therefore, by superposition, the shape function for corner node 1 is,
N 1 (ξ , η ) =
1
4
1
4
( ) 1
(1 − ξ ) (1 − η ) − 1 − ξ 2 (1 − η ) − (1 − ξ ) 1 − η 2
4
( )
1
This expression is simplified by factoring
4
( )( )
1 − ξ 1 − η from each of the three terms to yield,
1
N 1 (ξ ,η ) = (ξ − 1)(1 − η )(ξ + η + 1)
4
Shape functions for the eight-node element are listed in Table 8-3 for reference. Observe
that N 1 ( −1 2, −1 2 ) = 0 and N 1 ( 0,0 ) = −1 4 in contrast to the nine-node element (Table 8-2) in
which N 1 ( −1 2, −1 2 ) = 9 64 and N 1 ( 0,0 ) = 0 , respectively. This comparison indicates how

the two shape function graphs differ along the diagonal of the element and at its center.
Table 8-3. Isoparametic shape functions for the 8-node quadratic or Q8 element.
=================================================
N1 =
1
4
(ξ − 1)(1 − η )(ξ + η + 1) N5 =
1
2
(1 − ξ ) (1 − η )
2
1
N 2 = (1 + ξ ) (1 − η ) (ξ − η − 1)
4
N6 =
1
2
(1 + ξ ) (1 − η )
2
1
N 3 = (1 + ξ ) (1 + η ) (ξ + η − 1)
4
N7 =
1
2
(1 − ξ ) (1 + η )
2
1
N 4 = (ξ − 1) (1 + η ) (ξ − η + 1)
4
N8 =
1
2
(1 − ξ ) (1 − η )
2
================================================
The corresponding displacement interpolation functions are,
8 8
⌢ ⌢
u ( ξ , η ) = ∑ N i ( ξ , η ) ui and v (ξ , η ) = ∑ N i (ξ , η ) vi
i=1 i=1
And the geometry mapping functions are,

8 8
i=1 i=1
Section 8-5. Isoparametric Shape Functions for the Three-Node Linear Triangular
Element. As a practical matter there appears to be no good reason for an isoparametric version
of the basic 3-node, linear triangular element whose element shape functions were presented
earlier in terms of global XY coordinates (Table 7-3). Limited to straight sides, isoparametric
distortion has little meaning relative to its basic shape. Perhaps the same could be said of the
basic 4-node rectangular element (Section 7-1), but it maps onto a quadrilateral shape that is very
serviceable (Section 8-2). Nonetheless, the three-node linear triangular element can be useful,
and it is also instructive to include it within the framework of isoparametric triangular elements.

Mapping the linear triangular element
Two independent, natural coordinates are selected for the element and labeled r and s as
shown above. They vary from 0 to 1. Relationships between them and the three area
coordinates for basic triangular elements are given by inspection of the parent element sketch,
r = L2 and s = L3 ⇒ L1 = 1− L2 − L3 = 1− r − s
These relationships may be substituted into the shape functions for the basic 3-node triangular
element (Section 7-4.2) to yield shape functions for the subject 3-node parent element (see
Problem 8-2). The results are listed in Table 8-4.
The corresponding displacement interpolation functions are,
3 3
⌢ ⌢
u ( r, s ) = ∑ N i ( r, s ) ui and v ( r, s ) = ∑ N i ( r, s ) vi
i=1 i=1

3 3
X ( r, s ) = ∑ N i ( r, s ) Xi and Y ( r, s ) = ∑ N i ( r, s )Yi
i=1 i=1
Table 8-4. Isoparametric shape functions for 3-node linear triangular element.
=================================================
N1 = 1 − r − s
N2 = r
N3 = s
================================================
Section 8-6. Isoparametric Shape Functions for the Six-Node Quadratic Triangular
Element. The 6-node quadratic or curved triangular element shown in the sketch is a popular
element for conducting various types of stress analysis in the plane (e.g., see Tutorial T8).9 This
higher order triangular element has three additional nodes positioned at midside points.
Quadratic mapping functions interpolate points along a side among three node points, and
consequently the side is a quadratic curve.

Mapping the quadratic triangular element
9
Plane stress finite element analysis is presented in Chapter 9, plane strain and axisymmetric analysis are presented
in Chapter 11.
Relationships between area coordinates and natural coordinates r and s may be

substituted into the shape functions for the basic 6-node triangular element (Table 7-4) to yield
shape functions for the subject 6-node triangular element, as discussed in the previous section for
the 3-node triangular element. The Lagrange interpolation method is also applied in the
following to derive shape functions for corner and midside nodes of the subject element.
The shape function for corner node 1 must equal zero at all nodes except node 1. Using
Lagrange interpolation, a quadratic function that does this is cL1 ( L1 − 1 2 ) (see also Section 7-
5.2). Substituting for L1 yields,
N1 ( r, s ) = cL1 ( L1 − 1 2 ) = c (1 − r − s ) (1 2 − r − s )
The constant c is determined so that N1 is unity at node 1, where r = s = 0 ,
N1 ( 0, 0 ) = c(1) (1 2 ) = 1 ⇒ c = 2
Therefore, the shape function for node 1 is,
N1 ( r, s ) = 2 (1 − r − s ) (1 2 − r − s )
The shape function for corner node 2 must satisfy,
⎧⎪ 1 at node 2
N2 = ⎨
0 at all other nodes
⎩⎪
Inspection of the parent element sketch shows that the following quadratic function is zero at all
nodes except node 2,
N 2 ( r, s ) = cr ( r − 1 2 )
Also, N2 is unity at node 2 where r = 1 and s = 0. Therefore the constant is,
N 2 (1, 0 ) = c (1 2 ) = 1 ⇒ c = 2
Thus, the shape function for node 2 is,
N 2 ( r, s ) = 2r ( r − 1 2 )
The shape function for corner node 3 is obtained similarly.
The shape function for midside node 4 must satisfy,
⎧⎪ 1 at node 4
N4 = ⎨
⎪⎩ 0 at all other nodes
Inspection of the parent element sketch shows that the following quadratic function is zero at all
nodes except node 4,
N 4 ( r, s ) = cL1r = c (1 − r − s ) r
Also, N4 is unity at node 4 where r = 1/2 and s = 0, so that the constant c is,
N 4 (1 2, 0 ) = c (1 2 )1 2 = 1 ⇒ c = 4
Therefore, the shape function for node 4 is,
N 4 ( r, s ) = 4r (1 − r − s )
Shape functions for the other two midside nodes are obtained similarly.
The six shape functions for the subject element are listed in Table 8-5. It can be shown
6
that they satisfy the partition-of-unity property, ∑ N ( r, s ) = 1 .
i
i=1
Finally, the displacement interpolation functions for the subject element are,
6 6
⌢ ⌢
i=1 i=1

6 6
i=1 i=1
Table 8-5. Isoparametic shape functions for the 6-node quadratic triangular element.
=================================================
( )(
N1 = 2 1 − r − s 1 2 − r − s ) N 4 = 4r (1 − r − s )
N2 = 2r ( r − 1 2 ) N 5 = 4rs
N3 = 2s ( s − 1 2 ) N 6 = 4s (1 − r − s )
================================================
The mapping functions for X and Y along side s = 0 , for example, vary as a quadratic
function in r through nodes 1, 4, and 2. To appreciate this, recall that by definition shape
functions evaluated on side s = 0 are zero except N 1 , N 4 and N 2 . Also, these three nonzero
shape functions are quadratic in r when evaluated on side s = 0 . Mapping functions X ( r,0 ) and
Y ( r,0 ) are linear combinations of them and are therefore quadratic in r,
6
X ( r ,0 ) = ∑ N i ( r ,0 )X i = N 1 ( r ,0 ) X 1 + N 2 ( r ,0 ) X 2 + N 4 ( r ,0 ) X 4
i=1
6
Y ( r ,0 ) = ∑ N i ( r ,0 )Yi = N 1 ( r ,0 ) Y1 + N 2 ( r ,0 ) Y2 + N 4 ( r ,0 ) Y4
i=1
It follows that the curve connecting nodes 1-4-2 is a quadratic. Of course, the curve degenerates
to a straight line if these nodes fall on a straight line.
The corresponding parametric equations in parameter r show this more clearly. These
equations are obtained by rearranging the two mapping equations so that,
X ( r ) = a1 + b1r + c1r 2 and Y ( r ) = a2 + b2r + c2r 2
a1 = X1 a2 = Y1
b1 = ( −3X1 − X2 + 4X 4 ) b2 = ( −3Y1 − Y2 + 4Y4 )
c1 = 2 ( X1 + X2 − 2X 4 ) c2 = 2 (Y1 + Y2 − 2Y4 )
Given the node points (Xi, Yi), i = 1, 4, 2, the locus of points ⎡⎣ X ( r ) ,Y ( r ) ⎤⎦ is the quadratic,
parametric curve connecting nodes 1, 4, and 2.
=====================================================================
Example 8-8. The quadratic curve that is side s = 0 for the 6-node triangular element has the
following global cartesian coordinates for nodes 1, 4, and 2.
Node i Xi Yi
i=1 1.00 1.00
i=4 2.00 1.0625
i=2 3.00 1.500
(a) Determine the two parametric equations for side s = 0 of the element,
X ( r ) = a1 + b1r + c1r 2 and Y ( r ) = a2 + b2r + c2r 2
a1 = 1.00 a2 = 1.00
b1 = ( −3 × 1.00 − 3.00 + 4 × 2.00 ) = 2.00 b2 = ( −3 × 1.00 − 1.500 + 4 × 1.0625 ) = −0.250
c1 = 2 (1.00 + 3.00 − 2 × 2.00 ) = 0 c2 = 2 (1.00 + 1.500 − 2 × 1.0625 ) = 0.750

X ( r ) = 1.00 + 2.00r and Y ( r ) = 1.00 − 0.250r + 0.750r 2
(b) Graph the X-Y curve that is side s = 0 of the element.

E.g., ParametricPlot[{X, Y}, {r,0,1}]:
===============================================================
Section 8-7. Jacobian Matrix J for Transforming Derivatives in Natural and

Cartesian Coordinates. Evaluation of derivatives with respect to cartesian coordinates of
functions that are expressed in terms of natural coordinates is required in the formulation of
isoparametric finite elements. Derivatives with respect to natural coordinates are immediately
available, but a transformation is required to obtain derivatives with respect to cartesian
coordinates. A scalar version of this transformation was illustrated earlier in connection with
one-dimensional elements (see Section 5-5.4). The transformation is extended here to two-
dimensional isoparametric elements.
8-7.1 Jacobian matrix for isoparametric quadrilateral elements. It will become necessary
to evaluate the strain components of isoparametric elements such as the four-node quadrilateral
shown below. These components are required to formulate element strain energies and hence
element stiffness matrices.
Four-node bilinear quadrilateral element

The strain-displacement relation for the element’s X-component of strain is (see Section
1-1),
∂ ⌢
εx = ⎡u (ξ , η ) ⎤⎦
∂X ⎣
⌢
where u (ξ, η ) is the X-component of displacement at any point (ξ, η ) within the element or on
⌢
its boundaries. Displacement u is interpolated among the element's four nodal displacements ui
according to,
4
⌢
u (ξ ,η ) = ∑ N i (ξ ,η ) ui
i=1
( ) ( )
where the four element shape functions N 1 ξ ,η through N 4 ξ ,η are listed in Table 8-1.
⌢
Derivatives of u with respect to natural coordinates ξ and η are therefore immediately
available. However, they are not immediately available with respect to cartesian coordinates
X or Y as required by the strain-displacement equation.
( )
Cartesian coordinates of any point X ,Y in the four-node isoparametric element are
interpolated among the element's four nodal coordinates according to the element’s geometry
mapping equations,
4 4
i=1 i=1
Using these equations, derivatives of X and Y with respect to ξ or η are also immediately
available.
⌢
The required derivative ∂u ∂X may be attempted directly using the chain rule,
⌢ ⌢ ⌢
∂u ∂u ∂ξ ∂u ∂η
= +
∂X ∂ξ ∂X ∂η ∂X
Unfortunately, the derivatives ∂ξ ∂X and ∂η ∂X are not immediately available, so using the
chain rule in this manner does not provide the required derivative. Nonetheless, the following
tack using the chain rule does work.
⌢
Consider the following expansions of two derivatives of u (ξ, η ) using the chain rule,
⌢ ⌢ ⌢
∂u ∂u ∂X ∂u ∂Y
= +
∂ξ ∂X ∂ξ ∂Y ∂ξ
and,
⌢ ⌢ ⌢
∂u ∂u ∂X ∂u ∂Y
= +
∂η ∂X ∂η ∂Y ∂η
⌢
These equations transform derivatives of u with respect to cartesian coordinates X and Y into
⌢
derivatives of u with respect to natural coordinates ξ and η . In matrix form, this
transformation is,
⌢ ⌢
⎧ ∂u ∂ξ ⎫ ⎧ ∂u ∂X ⎫
⎨ ⌢ ⎬ = J⎨ ⌢ ⎬
⎩∂u ∂η ⎭ ⎩∂u ∂Y ⎭
where J (ξ, η ) is known as the jacobian matrix,
⎛ ∂X ∂ξ ∂Y ∂ξ ⎞
J=⎜
⎝ ∂X ∂η ∂Y ∂η ⎟⎠
⌢
This order-2 square matrix relates derivatives of u in the two coordinate systems. Since
the four entries in the matrix are derivatives that are immediately available, the jacobian matrix J
can be evaluated directly for any point (ξ, η ) in the element. For example, the J11 entry is,
∂X 4
∂N i 1
J 11 (ξ ,η ) ≡ =∑ X i = ⎡⎣ − (1 − η ) X 1 + (1 − η ) X 2 + (1 + η ) X 3 − (1 + η ) X 4 ⎤⎦
∂ξ i=1 ∂ξ 4
Once all four entries are evaluated, the transformation may be inverted to yield the required
⌢
derivative ∂u ∂X from the first of the two following equations,
⌢ ⌢ ⌢
⎧ ∂u ∂X ⎫ −1 ⎧
∂u ∂ξ ⎫ 1 ⎛ ∂Y ∂η −∂Y ∂ξ ⎞ ⎧ ∂u ∂ξ ⎫
⎨ ⌢ ⎬= J ⎨ ⌢ ⎬= ⎜ ⎟⎨ ⌢ ⎬
⎩∂u ∂Y ⎭ ⎩∂u ∂η ⎭ det J ⎝ −∂X ∂η ∂X ∂ξ ⎠ ⎩∂u ∂η ⎭
where,
∂X ∂Y ∂X ∂Y
det J = −
∂ξ ∂η ∂η ∂ξ
Thus, the subject derivative or strain component ε x for a four-node quadrilateral element may be
computed with the formula,
⌢ ⌢ ⌢
∂u 1 ⎛ ∂Y ∂u ∂Y ∂u ⎞
εx = = −
∂X det J ⎜⎝ ∂η ∂ξ ∂ξ ∂η ⎟⎠
All derivatives on the right hand side of this expression are immediately available, either from
the geometry mapping equations or the displacement interpolation equations for the element.
For example, from the geometry mapping equations,
∂X 1
= ⎡ − (1 − η ) X1 + (1 − η ) X2 + (1 + η ) X 3 − (1 + η ) X 4 ⎤⎦
∂ξ 4 ⎣
and from the displacement interpolation equations,
⌢
∂u 1
= ⎡ − (1 − η ) u1 + (1 − η ) u2 + (1 + η ) u3 − (1 + η ) u4 ⎤⎦
∂ξ 4 ⎣
The four-node isoparametric elements shown below have various amounts of distortion,
ranging from compact to inadmissible shapes. Various measures of element distortion exist
including the quantity det J, and they are monitored under program control.
When an isoparametric element's shape is not sufficiently compact or worse when it is
simply inadmissible, a warning message or fatal error message may be expected, respectively.
The former may occur, for example, when an included angle is greater than 180° , such as the
included angle at node 3 in the case of a poor shape. Of historical interest mainly, the
inadmissible case would occur because one-to-one mapping breaks down in instances where
nodes are accidentally transposed, as for nodes 3 and 4 in the right-most sketch.
Compact, non-compact, poor and inadmissible quadrilateral element shapes
The determinant of the jacobian matrix, det J, has important geometric implications. It is
related to the amount of geometric distortion in the shape of an isoparametric element. For
example, for regularly shaped quadrilateral elements det J is a constant (i.e., it does not vary over
the element; see Problem 8-8). Warning or error messages may be generated on monitoring the
value of det J at specific points within the element. Since this quantity appears in the
denominator of expressions for element strain components such as ε x , its value is a concern.
When det J approaches zero from above, a warning message is generated. When det J ≤ 0 , a
fatal error message is generated. These are reasonable interventions because strain generally
must not only remain bounded, but should also remain well behaved.
There are cases where the concept of a zero determinant, i.e., det J = 0 , in the element
strain expression is actually exploited. It is shown in the subject of linear elastic fracture
mechanics that the tip of a crack is subject to a singularity in strain (as well as in stress).
Coercing det J to be zero in specialized crack-tip element formulations is one of several
strategies for simulating this singularity behavior in strain. Use of such elements is invoked in
connection with finite element investigations of engineering components having crack-like flaws
(see Section 11-1.4).10
It has also been pointed out that an exception to the requirement for a well-behaved det J
could potentially exist in connection with degenerate elements. FEM codes provide for a
degenerate quadrilateral element, for example, when two corner nodes coalesce forming a
triangular element.11 So long as det J is not sampled at an element’s node points, and generally it
is not, no fatal error message is generated. Degenerate quadrilateral elements, i.e., triangles, are
thereby permitted (optionally) to promote quality mesh generation in finite element meshes
dominated by quadrilateral elements.
8-7.2 Jacobian matrix for isoparametric triangular elements. The role of the jacobian
matrix J(r,s) in triangular elements is
the same as in quadrilateral elements.
J(r,s) is used to transform derivatives
in the natural and cartesian coordinate
systems. Its role is illustrated in the
following for the 6-node element
shown.
Recall that the displacement 6-node quadratic triangular element
interpolation functions for the element are,
6 6
⌢ ⌢
i=1 i=1
and, the element’s geometry mapping functions are,

6 6
i=1 i=1
The element’s six shape functions N i ( r, s ) are listed in Table 8-5. Derivatives with respect to
local natural coordinates r and s are expressed in terms of derivatives with respect to global
cartesian coordinates X and Y as follows.
⌢ ⌢
⎧∂u ∂r ⎫ ⎧ ∂u ∂X ⎫ ⎛ ∂X ∂r ∂Y ∂r ⎞
⎨ ⌢ ⎬ = J⎨ ⌢ ⎬ where J = ⎜
⎩ ∂u ∂s ⎭ ⎩∂u ∂Y ⎭ ⎝ ∂X ∂s ∂Y ∂s ⎟⎠
The inverse transformation is necessary as before to obtain, for example, the strain
component ε x ,
10
Anderson, T. L. (1995). Fracture Mechanics, 2nd Ed., page 566, CRC Press LLC, Boca Raton, Florida, 688
pages, 1995.
11
Hughes, T. J. R. (1987). The Finite Element Method, page 164, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N. J., 803
pages, 1987.
⌢ ⌢
⎧ ∂u ∂X ⎫ −1 ⎧
∂u ∂r ⎫
⎨ ⌢ ⎬= J ⎨ ⌢ ⎬
⎩∂u ∂Y ⎭ ⎩ ∂u ∂s ⎭
where
1 ⎛ ∂Y ∂s − ∂Y ∂r ⎞ ∂X ∂Y ∂X ∂Y
J −1 = ⎜ ⎟ and det J = −
det J ⎝ − ∂X ∂s ∂X ∂r ⎠ ∂r ∂s ∂s ∂r
The subject strain component is obtained from the expression,
⌢ ⌢
∂ ⌢ 1 ⎛ ∂Y ∂u ∂Y ∂u ⎞
εx = ⎡u ( r, s ) ⎤⎦ = ⎜ − ⎟
∂X ⎣ det J ⎝ ∂s ∂r ∂r ∂s ⎠
All derivatives in this expression are available using the element’s equations for geometry
mapping and displacement interpolation. For example,
∂X
= ( 4r + 4s − 3) X1 + 0 ⋅ X2 + ( 4s − 1) X 3 − 4rX 4 + 4rX5 + 4 (1 − r − 2s ) X6
∂s
and,
⌢
∂u
= ( 4r + 4s − 3) u1 + 0 ⋅ u2 + ( 4s − 1) u3 − 4ru4 + 4ru5 + 4 (1 − r − 2s ) u6
∂s
Section 8-8. Gauss Quadrature for Two-Dimensional Isoparametric Elements. 12

Numerical integration goes hand-in-glove with isoparametric elements, and for the reasons given
earlier Gauss quadrature is the method of choice for evaluating element matrices (Section 5-8).
For example, the element stiffness matrix k ( ) , which will be defined for two- and three-
e
dimensional continuum elements in the sequel, is an integral over a parent element. For two-
dimensional, isoparametric elements having quadrilateral shapes, the integral will have the form,
1 1
∫ ∫ G (ξ ,η ) dξ dη
( e)
k =
−1 −1
Specific definitions for the integrand matrix G are addressed later.13 It is sufficient for now to
know that G is a symmetric array whose coefficients Gij (ξ, η ) are in general rational functions
(i.e., polynomial quotients) in the natural coordinates ξ and η. Numerical integration of each
function Gij occurs in natural coordinates over the parent element, which is a four-node bi-unit
square as shown below, of a four-node quadrilateral element. The integration is carried out using
Gauss quadrature, the result of which is the stiffness coefficient kij( ) for the physical element.
e
12
All elements in Abaqus are numerically integrated.
13
Definitions of the integrand matrix G are presented in Chapters 9-11 for various two- and three-
dimensional elements, respectively.

( e)
For a quadrilateral element kij is a double integral over the parent element
Specifically, the coefficient kij( ) is evaluated as follows using the two-dimensional Gauss
e
quadrature formula,
1 1 n n
kij( ) = ∫ ∫ Gij (ξ ,η ) dξ dη ≈ ∑ ∑ wl wmGij (ξl ,ηm ) ( i, j = 1...8 )
e
−1 −1 l=1 m=1
Values for Gauss point coordinates ξl and ηm and weights wl and wm are those which were
used in the one-dimensional formula previously discussed and illustrated (see Table 5-9 and
Example 5-3). The quadrature rule for the lower order, four-node, quadrilateral element in
element libraries of FEM computer programs is order n = 2 , and for the higher order eight- and
nine-node quadrilateral elements, it is order n = 3 . The default rule in computer programs is
often one order less, as in Abaqus/CAE, and it must be overridden to get these full integration
rules (see Section 9-4).
===============================================================
1 1
∫ ∫ ξ η dξ dη using Gauss quadrature

2 2
Example 8-9. Evaluate the two-dimensional integral
−1 −1
order n = 2 .
The two-dimensional Gauss quadrature formula is applied as follows,
1 1 2 2
∫ ∫ f (ξ ,η ) dξ dη ≈ ∑ ∑ w w f (ξ ,η )
−1 −1 l=1 m=1
l m l m
From Table 5-9,
ξ1 = η1 = − 1 3 ξ 2 = η2 = 1 3 w1 = w2 = 1
( )
Since, f ξ ,η = ξ 2η 2 ,
1
( ) ( ) (
f ξ1 ,η1 = f ξ1 ,η2 = f ξ2 ,η1 = f ξ2 ,η2 = ) ( ) 9
Thus,
1 1
4
∫ ∫ ξ η dξ dη = w w f (ξ ,η ) + w w f (ξ ,η ) + w w f (ξ ,η ) + w w f (ξ ,η ) = 9
2 2
1 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 2 1 2 1 2 2 2 2
−1 −1
This result is exact since the criterion for exact integration of polynomials using Gauss
quadrature is satisfied, i.e., k ≤ ( 2n − 1) . In this case, the integrand is a polynomial of degree
k = 2 , and order n = 2 quadrature is specified.
===============================================================
The positions of Gauss points (ξk , ηl ) used for evaluating the stiffness coefficient kij( ) for
e
orders n = 1, n = 2 and n = 3 rules are illustrated below for the low order quadrilateral element.
These positions are independent of whether the quadrilateral element is low or high order since
the parent element over which integration occurs is a bi-unit square irrespective of the order of
the element.
n = 1, a = 0 n = 2, a = 1 3 n = 3, a = 0.6
Gauss point locations for order n = 1, 2 and 3 quadrature rules for quadrilateral elements
Assuming order n = 2 quadrature is used, kij( ) is the sum of four terms from the double
e
summation as follows,
2 2
kij( ) ≈ ∑ ∑ wl wmGij (ξ l ,ηm )
e
l=1 m=1
2
≈ ∑ ⎡⎣ wl w1Gij (ξ l ,η1 ) + wl w2Gij (ξ l ,η2 ) ⎤⎦
l=1
≈ w1 w1Gij (ξ1 ,η1 ) + w1 w2Gij (ξ1 ,η2 )

+ w2 w1Gij (ξ 2 ,η1 ) + w2 w2Gij (ξ 2 ,η2 )
From Table 5-9,
w1 = w2 = 1.0 ξ1 = η1 = − 1 3 ξ 2 = η2 = 1 3
Therefore,
( )
kij( e) ≈ (1.0 × 1.0 ) Gij − 1 3, − 1 3 + (1.0 × 1.0 ) Gij − 1 3, 1 3( )
+ (1.0 × 1.0 ) Gij ( )
1 3, − 1 3 + (1.0 × 1.0 ) Gij ( 1 3, 1 3 )
For a four-node bilinear quadrilateral element, the four function evaluations shown are
performed for each entry kij( ) in the element's order-eight stiffness matrix ( i, j = 1, 2,…, 8 ) . That
e
is, this set of four evaluations is performed 36 times (allowing for symmetry, kij( ) = k (ji ) ). The
e e
computation is repeated for each bilinear element in the finite element model. The number of
evaluations for the function Gij (ξ ,η ) , even for the stiffness matrix of this lower order element, is
considerable, i.e.,
Gij : 4 × 36 × # of elements
Numerical integration of element stiffness matrices, and of other element matrices,
constitutes a significant portion of overall compute time in a typical finite element solution. In
some cases the evaluation count for Gij (ξ ,η ) can be reduced to 1 × 36 × # of elements by
integrating only at one Gauss point (n = 1), which is positioned at the center of the element (see
reduced integration; Section 9-4).
Numerical integration of isoparametric element matrices based on triangular shapes also
employs Gauss quadrature.14 15 Gauss point positions for various quadrature rules are illustrated
with the 6-node curved triangular element in the sketch below. Their coordinates ( rk , sk ) and
corresponding weighting factors wk are given in Table 8-6.
14
K.-J. Bathe (1982). Finite Element Procedures in Engineering Analysis, Table 5.4, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood
Cliffs, New Jersey, 1982.
15
G. R. Cowper (1973). Gaussian Quadrature Formulas for Triangles, Int. J. Num. Meth. in Eng., Vol. 7, 1973, pp.
405-408.
n =1; a =1/3 n =3; a =1/6 n =4; a =1/3, b =1/5

Gauss point locations for n =1-, 3- and 4-point rules for curved triangular elements
*
Table 8-6. Sample points and weight factors for Gauss quadrature rules for triangular elememts.
=========================================================================
1 1−s
1 n
kij = ∫ ∫ Gij ( r, s ) drds ≈ ∑ wk Gij ( rk , sk )
2 k =1
0 0
n rk sk wk 2n-1
1 r1 = 1 3 s1 = 1 3 w1 = 1 1
3 r1 = 1 6 s1 = 1 6 w1 = 1 3 5
r2 = 2 3 s2 = 1 6 w2 = 1 3
r3 = 1 6 s3 = 2 3 w3 = 1 3
4 r1 = 1 3 s1 = 1 3 w1 = −27 48 7
r2 = 3 5 s2 = 1 5 w2 = 25 48
r3 = 1 5 s3 = 1 5 w3 = 25 48
r4 = 1 5 s4 = 3 5 w4 = 25 48
===================================================================
* These data also apply to axisymmetric triangular elements (Chapter 1l).
Section 8-9. Convergence of Isoparametric Elements. All parent elements presented

are either rectangular or triangular. They share the behavior functions of basic elements
⌢
(Chapter 7). For example, the behavior function for the displacement component u can be
expressed in the both element coordinate systems as follows,
⌢ ⌢
u (ξ , η ) = u ( x, y ) = α 1 + α 2 x + α 3 y +...
The first three terms of the behavior function must be included as they alone are responsible for
an element’s completeness property (i.e., replication of rigid body displacement and constant
strain; see Section 5-6). The completeness property is a necessary condition for convergence of
an element to the exact solution in the limit of mesh refinement. Higher order terms relate to
improvement in accuracy and rate of convergence but are not material to whether or not an
element converges so they may be disregarded. Arguing mathematically in the following, the
conditions on isoparametric shape functions are sought such that isoparametric elements are
complete.
Re-writing the left-hand side in the above equation in terms of an element’s n
isoparametric shape functions,
∑ i=1 Ni (ξ ,η ) ui = α 1 + α 2 x + α 3 y + ...
n
Also, at node i the displacement ui is α 1 + α 2 xi + α 3 yi + ...

Upon substitution,
∑ i=1 Ni (ξ ,η )(α 1 + α 2 xi + α 3 yi + ...) = α 1 + α 2 x + α 3 y + ...

n
Three completeness conditions on isoparametric shape functions follow from the last
equation:
n n
(1) α 1 ∑ N i (ξ , η ) = α 1 ⇒ ∑ N i (ξ , η ) = 1
i=1 i=1
n n
(2) α 2 ∑ N i (ξ , η ) xi = α 2 x ⇒ ∑ Ni (ξ ,η ) xi = x
i=1 i=1
n n
(3) α 3 ∑ N i (ξ , η ) yi = α 3 y ⇒ ∑ Ni (ξ ,η ) yi = y
i=1 i=1
Isoparametric shape functions must satisfy these three conditions so that isoparametric elements
possess the completeness property necessary to convergence. Condition (1) is true since it is the
partition-of-unity property shared universally by an element’s shape functions. Conditions (2)
and (3) are also true; they are the two mapping equations in the formulation of isoparametric
elements. Thus isoparametric elements possess the completeness property. Although this
property is necessary it is not sufficient. Such elements must be conforming.
Isoparametric mapping also preserves displacement compatibility among and within
adjacent elements. Basic elements such as a parent element are displacement-based finite
elements and therefore satisfy compatibility explicitly. Under one-to-one mapping from a parent
element to adjacent physical elements no gaps or overlaps are created, and therefore
isoparametric elements are displacement-based and compatible elements. Since isoparametric
elements possess both the properties of completeness and compatibility they are conforming
elements, and as such converge monotonically from below to the exact solution in the limit of
mesh refinement (Section 5-6).
Section 8-10. /CAE Study – Comparison of Quadratic Isoparametric

Elements. Isoparametric elements provide substantial improvement in accuracy through
enhanced geometric fidelity when modeling structures and components having curved
surfaces and boundaries. It is of interest to see how well they perform in this regard. To
this end, this study focuses on the performance of arguably two of the most popular
elements, the 6-node curved triangular element and the 8-node curved quadrilateral
element. Both are quadratic elements. Two plane stress analyses of a curved cantilever
beam are conducted, one for each of these elements. The results from each analysis are
compared with the theoretical value for maximum deflection.
Objective. The objective is to compare the performance of two popular
isoparametric elements when used to model a curved
structure for which the exact solution is given from the
theory of elasticity.
Subject Structure. The subject structure is the
curved, cantilever beam shown. The curved beam has a
uniform rectangular cross-section and forms a quarter
of a circle. It is fixed at the lower end and loaded at the
top by a vertical concentrated force P applied at the
centroid of the beam cross-section. Arc distance s is
measured from the top of the beam normal to the radius r to the centroid. The horizontal
and vertical components of the tip deflection are obtained from slender beam theory, and
they are maximums for the beam,
Pr 3 π Pr 3
umax = and vmax = (slender beam theory criterion is L/h ≥ 10)
2EI 4EI
Specific parameter values for the system are:

Subject curved cantilever
Arc length, L = 1.00 m
Radius, r = 0.637 m
Depth, h = 0.1 m
Thickness, t = 0.01 m
Load, P = 20 kN
Young’s modulus, E = 200 GPa
A finite element model of the subject structure employing the triangular element is
indicated below. The midside nodes of this element are visible in the close-up view, affirming
the use of a quadratic element. In the formulation of either element, a quadratic curve is
assumed fitted among the three nodes on a side, enabling an incremental approximation of the
circular arc along the beam's surfaces (e.g., see Section 8-6). It’s important to note that the
number of active DOF in both the triangular and quadrilateral element models is the same, i.e.,
410 in this study.
Triangular element mesh for a curved cantilever beam
Results. FEM results are compared to the exact solutions for the maximum horizontal
and vertical displacement components given by the theory of elasticity. In this study, the exact
solutions were obtained by correcting the slender beam theory values umax and vmax for shear
deformation with the results denoted ue and ve. Corrections for shear deformation were required
since the ratio of outside to inside radii ro/ri equals 1.17 exceeding the criterion for curved
beams, which is 1.10 in this case.16 They are small, but important in the present study.
For the two quadratic
isoparametric elements
studied, the two graphs below
show the computed horizontal
and vertical displacement
components of nodes located
at radius r along the centerline
of the beam. These
components are denoted U1
16
Young, W.C. and R.G. Budynas (2002). Roark’s Formulas for Stress and Strain, 7th Ed., p. 276 and 282,
McGraw-Hill, New York, N.Y., 2002.
and U2, respectively. Further, they are normalized on the exact values ue and ve, respectively,
and plotted against normalized arc distance s/(πr/2).
More importantly, the tabulated data below compares the performance of the two
quadratic isoparametric elements against the exact values for maximum displacement at the tip
of the cantilever beam.
exact − FEM
Percent error at maximum deflection = × 100
exact
6-node curved 8-node curved 8-node curved
Exact values triangle quadrilateral quadrilateral* (CPS8R)
(CPS6) (CPS8)
ue = 1.558 cm (umax = 1.548) 0.1476% 0.1027% 0.0899%
ve = 2.441 cm (vmax = 2.43) 0.0451% 0.0041% -0.0164%
* Reduced integration was also employed for the 8-node element; hence the designation CPS8R (see Section 9-4).
Conclusions. Both the 6-node curved triangular element (type CPS6) and the 8-node
curved quadrilateral element (type CPS8) performed extremely well in the analysis of the curved
cantilever beam. Error in FEM values for tip deflection is well less that 1%, with the
quadrilateral element performing slightly better. These two quadratic isoparametric elements are
equally suited to engineering application, and this study attests to their popularity in practice.
TWO-DIMENSIONAL ISOPARAMETRIC FINITE ELEMENT SHAPE FUNCTIONS P8-1
PROBLEM SET 8
Problem 8-1
Derive the isoparametric shape functions
N i (ξ, η ) ( i = 1, 2, 3, 4 ) for a Q4 element such as the
one shown.
Problem 8-2
Derive the isoparametric shape functions N i ( r, s )
(i = 1, 2, 3) for a three-node linear triangular element such as
the one shown.
Problem 8-3
( )
Derive the isoparametric shape functions N i ξ ,η given in
Table 8-2 for the Q9 element.
Problem 8-4
The isoparametric shape functions for the Q8 element are
given in Table 8-3.
(a) Sketch the graphs of shape functions N 6 , N7 and N 3 .
(b) Derive the equations for the midside node shape functions N 6 and N7 .
(c) Derive the equations for the corner node shape function N 3 .
Problem 8-5
The six-node quadratic isoparametric triangular element with natural coordinates r and s
is shown below.
(a) Derive the shape function N 3 ( r, s ) by using
Lagrange interpolation, and by using N3 from Table 7-4.
(b) Derive the shape function N 5 ( r, s ) by using

Lagrange interpolation, and by using N5 from Table 7-4.
(c) Does stress vary linearly or is it constant throughout

the element? Explain why.
Problem 8-6
Show that the partition-of-unity property holds for the shape functions of the six-node
quadratic isoparametric triangular element shown above (see Table 8-4).
Problem 8-7 ⌢
Find the temperature T at the center of a Q8 element such as the one shown, when the
nodal temperatures are as given in the adjacent table.
Node Ti
i
°C
1 10
2 55
3 80
4 35
5 55
6 60
7 70
8 30
Problem 8-8
The quadratic curve that is side ξ = 1 of a Q8 Node i Xi Yi
element has the given global cartesian coordinate i=2 2.875 1.00
values for nodes 2, 6, and 3. i=6 3.00 2.00
i=3 2.75 3.00
(a) Determine the two parametric equations X (η ) and Y (η ) for side ξ = 1 of the
element,
(b) Graph the X-Y curve that is side ξ = 1 of the element, including its three nodes.
Problem 8-9
For regularly shaped quadrilateral elements, the jacobian matrix J is constant (i.e., for all
elements in the shape of a rectangle or parallelogram). Otherwise, it varies point-wise
over the element. Evaluate the jacobian matrix J , its determinant det J and its inverse
J −1 at the Gauss points for the four-node bilinear quadrilateral elements shown. For part
(d), evaluate only det J at the Gauss points. Assume that the order n =2 Gauss
quadrature rule applies.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Problem 8-10
( )
(a) Determine the function det J ξ ,η for the compact element in Problem 8-9(d).
(b) Determine the function det J (ξ ,η ) for a poorly shaped version of the element in
Problem 8-9(d), letting X3 = 1.25 instead of 2.25.
( )
(c) Evaluate det J ξk ,ηl at each of the four Gauss points associated with order n = 2
Gauss quadrature for both parts (a) and (b), and compare them in a table.
Problem 8-11
(a) Derive the ﬁnite element equations for an isoparametric elastic bar element with
generic nodal positions X1 , X2 , and X 3 . In particular, you should derive the jacobian
matrix J, the strain-displacement matrix B, the element stiffness matrix k( e) and the
consistent nodal force matrix fq( e) due to an arbitrary distributed axial load q(x). Leave
your answers in terms of X1 , X2 , and X 3 .
(b) A bar of length L is hanging vertically from a support as shown below. The bar has
mass density ρ such that its total mass is m = ρ L . The bar is linearly elastic with a
constant Young’s modulus E, and constant area A. Model the bar with a single
isoparametric ﬁnite element, as developed in part (a), with three nodes having positions
T T
x = ⎢⎣ X1 X2 X 3 ⎥⎦ = ⎢⎣ 0 L / 3 L ⎥⎦
Compute the consistent nodal forces for the element due to the distributed gravity load,
assemble the global stiffness matrix and force vector, and solve for the displacements of
nodes 2 and 3. Evaluate all integrals on the standard domain, −1 ≤ ξ ≤ 1 .
(c) Using the one-point quadrature rule, compute the element stiffness matrix k( e) .
(d) Using the two-point quadrature rule, compute the element stiffness matrix k( e) .
(e) What is the lowest-order Gaussian quadrature rule that would give an exact result for
the stiffness matrix k( e) of this bar element? Explain why this is so.
Problem 8-12
(a) Using order n Gauss quadrature, calculate the area A of a bi-unit square (i.e., A = 4 ),
∑
n
and show that the summation of the weight factors l =1
wl given in Table 5-9 equals 2.
(b) Using order n Gauss quadrature, calculate area A of a unit triangle (i.e., A = 1 2 ), and
∑
n
show that the summation of the weight factors k =1
wk given in Table 8-6 equals 1.
∑
n
(c) Explain how the summation in part (a) could be changed to l =1
wl = 1 , so that
weight factors in Table 5-9 could be changed to those in Table 8-6.
Problem 8-13
Using Abaqus/CAE and the eight-node quadratic quadrilateral element with reduced
integration (element type CPS8R):
(a) Increase the size of the lightening/access holes to reduce the weight of the subject
Vierendeel truss in Tutorial T8 and re-run the analysis. Document the new dimensions
and provide a plot of the deformed shape.
(b) Provide a plot of the von Mises stress ( σ e ) contours, and document the change in
maximum von Mises stress.
(c) Provide a plot of the computed bending stress ( σ x ) graphed along the centerline.
How does it compare with the linear distribution behavior of classic beams, and in this
respect, what does the FEM solution offer?
Problem 8-14
A flat steel plate with the profile shown below is subjected to two bolt loads totaling
P = 1.0 MN as shown. The sheet has a uniform thickness h = 16 mm , a modulus of
elasticity E = 200 GPa , and a Poisson ratio ν = 0.3 . All dimensions are in millimeters.
All radii are 25 mm . (Hint: Tutorial T9 shows how a coupling constraint may be easily
used to distribute a bolt load within a bolt hole. Also, why not exploit symmetry,
releasing the vertical DOF along the fixed edge?)
⌢
(a) Determine the axial displacement u and axial stress σ x in the sheet using
Abaqus/CAE. Provide contour plots of these quantities. (Hint: the Probe tool can be used
to obtain nodal values of axial displacement and stress.)
(b) This steel component is analyzed by a hand solution using a discrete spring model in
Problem 1-6. In two separate tables, compare the axial displacement and axial stress
results of this discrete spring model to the finite element results obtained in part (a).
What do you conclude about the relative engineering usefulness of the two methods of
analysis?
Problem 8-15
A slotted, tapered flat plate made from aluminum alloy ( E = 10 × 106 psi , ν = 0.33) is
fixed on the left edge and subjected to a bolt load P = 2,000lbs as shown in the
accompanying sketch. Component dimensions shown are given in the table in inches.
Further, the sheet is 0.25 in. thick, and all radii are 0.25 in. (Hint: Tutorial T9 shows how
a coupling constraint may be easily used to distribute a bolt load within a bolt hole. Also,
why not exploit symmetry, releasing the vertical DOF along the fixed edge?)
⌢
(a) Determine the axial displacement u and axial stress σ x in the sheet using
Abaqus/CAE. Provide contour plots of these quantities. (Hint: One can also use the
Query\Probe tool to obtain nodal values of axial displacement and axial stress.)
(b) This component is analyzed by a hand solution using a discrete spring model in
Problem 1-7. In two separate tables, compare the axial displacement and axial stress
results of this discrete spring model to the finite element results obtained in part (a).
What do you conclude about the relative engineering usefulness of the two methods of
analysis?
i Li wi
1 36 12
2 6 4
3 24 6
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TWO-DIMENSIONAL ISOPARAMETRIC FINITE ELEMENT SHAPE FUNCTIONS 8-1

Typical two-dimensional isoparametric elements

Bilinear quadrilateral element - isoparametric version of bilinear rectangular element

In these equations, the coordinates of node 1 through node 4, i.e.,

Parent element Physical element

between the cartesian and natural systems,

The following example demonstrates the transformation procedure for N 1 ξ ,η . ( )

2, 3 and 4 where either ξ equals 1 or η equals 1 or both.

Further, at node 1 where ξ equals -1 and η equals -1, it

Graph of bilinear shape function N 1 ξ ,η ( )

Summarizing, the bilinear element’s displacement interpolation functions are

and its geometric mapping equations are,

coordinates X and Y along the side ξ = 1 are linear functions of η .

E.g., ParametricPlot[{X, Y}, { η , -1, 1}];

However, every point in a well-formed quadrilateral element, low or high-order, has a

Parent element Physical element

Bivariate Lagrange interpolation is used to derive shape functions in natural coordinates

sketch, the expression for N 3 is derived as shown in the next example.

Graph of biquadratic shape function N 3 ξ ,η ( )

N 3 is the bivariate product,

where N 3 (ξ ) and N 3 (η ) are one-dimensional quadratic functions.

N 3 (ξ ) must equal zero at nodes 4 and 7. Therefore, by Lagrange interpolation,

Also, N 3 (ξ ) must equal unity at node 3. Thus,

derived in the next example, while referring to this graph.

Graph of biquadratic shape function N 8 ξ ,η ( )

N 8 is the bivariate product,

where N 8 (ξ ) and N 8 (η ) are one-dimensional quadratic functions.

N 8 (ξ ) must equal zero at nodes 6 and 9. Therefore, by Lagrange interpolation

Also, N 8 (ξ ) must be unity at node 8. Thus,

Also, N 8 (η ) must be unity at node 8. Thus,

Graph of biquadratic shape function N 9 ξ ,η( )

N 9 is the bivariate product,

From Example 8-6,

Thus, coordinates X and Y are quadratic functions in η on side ξ = 1 .

X (η ) = a1 + b1η + c1η 2 and Y (η ) = a2 + b2η + c2η 2

X (η ) = a1 + b1η + c1η 2 and Y (η ) = a2 + b2η + c2η 2

(b) Graph the X-Y curve that is side ξ = 1 of the element.

Pascal triangle - incomplete biquadratic polynomial terms

Parent element Physical element

The bivariate products of these two shape functions are, respectively,

which N 1 ( −1 2, −1 2 ) = 9 64 and N 1 ( 0,0 ) = 0 , respectively. This comparison indicates how

And the geometry mapping functions are,

Parent element Physical element

And the geometry mapping functions are,

Parent element Physical element

Relationships between area coordinates and natural coordinates r and s may be

And the geometry mapping functions are,

Parametric equations are:

(b) Graph the X-Y curve that is side s = 0 of the element.

Section 8-7. Jacobian Matrix J for Transforming Derivatives in Natural and

Four-node bilinear quadrilateral element

Compact, non-compact, poor and inadmissible quadrilateral element shapes

and, the element’s geometry mapping functions are,

Section 8-8. Gauss Quadrature for Two-Dimensional Isoparametric Elements. 12

Parent element Physical element

∫ ∫ ξ η dξ dη using Gauss quadrature

From Table 5-9,

≈ w1 w1Gij (ξ1 ,η1 ) + w1 w2Gij (ξ1 ,η2 )