HIGHWAY ENGINEERING NOTES

(As per syllabus given by MSBTE)

Course code CE3I – 22302
Chapter 02. Geometric Design of Highway
Learning Outcomes / Unit outcomes defined by MSBTE are
2a. Explain various functional terms related to geometrics of the given type of
highway with sketches.
2b. Describe the given types of roads curves and their necessity.
2c. Calculate SSD, Super elevation and widening of roads required for the given
road construction problem.
2d. Sketch the cross sections of roads in embankment and cutting for the given site
condition.
2.1 Camber – It is the transverse slope provide to the carriage way OR It is the
surface joining crown point to the road edge point. OR

The convexity provided to the surface of carriage way or the rise given to the
centre of carriage way above its edges on straight portion of a road is called
camber or cross fall.

The factors to be considered while providing camber for a road are as follows:

(1) Intensity of rainfall: The amount of road camber depends on the intensity of
rainfall in the locality.

(2) Road surfacing material: The amount of road camber also depends on the
permeability of the road surfacing material.

Purposes of providing camber –

1. To drain off rain water from road surface as quickly as possible.
2. To regulate traffic into different lanes.
3. To improve aesthetic appearance of road.
4. To avoid the percolation of water in road sub layers.

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IRC values of camber for different roads:-
1) Earth road : 3 to 4 %
2) Water Bound Macadam road : 2.5 to 3 %
3) Bituminous road : 2 to 3 %
4) Cement concrete road : up to 2 %

Types of Camber:

The road cambers can have four shapes as mentioned below:

a) Straight Camber
b) Parabolic/Elliptical Camber
c) Composite camber
d) Barrel Camber

a) Straight camber: Joining the crown of the road to its edges by straight lines
forms this camber. The straight camber can also be obtained by two straights
of different slopes. This shape is easy to construct the straight camber.
b) Parabolic or Elliptical camber: The camber is given a continuous curve of
parabolic or elliptical shape from the edge to crown.
c) Composite camber: This camber is a combination of parabolic or elliptical
and straight camber. Central portion of the road is formed by curve-
parabolic or elliptical and edges are straight lines. Curved camber is difficult
to construct for WBM road surface. Due to curved camber road cross-
section is rather flat and vehicles find this cross-section more convenient.
d) Barrel camber: This camber consists of a continuous curve that may be
either parabolic or elliptical.

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2.2 Kerb: - The boundaries between the pavement and shoulders and footpaths
are known as Kerb.
Road margin:- The various elements included in the road margin are shoulder,
drive way, frontage road, cycle track, footpath, guard rail.
Shoulders:- These are provided along the edge of pavement on the both sides to
provide lateral support. It is the portion of the roadway between the outer edge of
the pavement and inner edge of the side drain. As per IRC specifications, the
minimum width of shoulder shall not be less than 2.5m
Drive ways:- These connect the main highway with the service or fuel stations.
They should be located from intersection.

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Frontage roads:- these road are provided to given access to the properties along
the highway. These roads run parallel to the highways and be isolated by the
separator with approaches at the selected points.
Cycle track:- In urban areas if the cycling traffic is very high, then cycle tracks are
provided with minimum width not less than 2 m.
Footpath:- Footpaths are provided in urban areas if vehicular as well as pedestrian
traffic is very high.
Guard rail:-These are provided if the highway is constructed on embankment for
preventing the vehicles from running off the pavement.
Road carriageway: - The portion of roadway constructed for movement of
vehicular traffic is called carriageway.
Reaction time: - The time taken by the driver from the instant the object is visible
to the driver to the instant the brakes are effectively applied is known as reaction
time of the driver.
Passing sight distance:- The minimum distance open to the vision of the driver on
a two way road to enable him to overtake another vehicle ahead with safely against
the traffic from opposite direction is known as passing sight distance.
Right of way: - The area of the land acquired for construction and development of
a road along its alignment is known as right way.
Factors on which right of way depends are:-
1) The category of highway and width of roadway and road margins.
2) Height of embankment or depth of cutting.
3) Drainage system and its size.
4) Sight distance considerations on horizontal curves.
5) Reserve land for future widening.

Necessity of shoulder:
1) Shoulders are provided along the road edge to serve as an emergency lane for
vehicle compelled to be taken out of pavement or road way.
2) Shoulder also acts as service lanes for break down vehicles.
3) They provide lateral stability to the carriage way.
4) They serve as parking places for vehicles in case of emergency.
5) They provide the space for erecting road signals.

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2.3 Design Speed:-

Definition: The maximum safe speed of vehicles assumed for geometrical design
of a highway is known as design speed. The overall geometric design of any road
depends on design speed.
The following factors affect design speed:-
1. Class and condition of road surface.
2. Nature, intensity and type of traffic.
3. Type of curve along the road.
4. Sight distance required.
5. Nature of terrain.
6. Structure of the road.

a) Class and condition of road surface - If road is of higher class and good
condition, design speed is kept more and vice versa.
b) Traffic characteristics - If traffic intensity is more in a particular locality,
design speed should be minimum.

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c) Sight distance requirement – If sight distance requires is more, design speed is
kept lesser.
d) Nature of terrain - If the road has more steeper gradient on particular terrain,
design speed should be lesser.
e) Type of road curve – If alignment has more number of sharp curves, overall
design speed should be lesser.
f) Type of road sub-structure – If pavement is flexible type with weak sub layers,
design speed will be low for it.

2.4 Gradient

Gradient :– It is the rate of rise or fall of ground with respective to horizontal, is

known as Gradient OR It is the longitudinal slope provided along the length of
road, is known as Gradient.

Purpose/Significance of gradient in road alignment:-

The gradients to a road are of prime importance as it plays significant role as

explained follows:

i) Gradient are responsible to decide equal cutting and filling of earthwork

and hence to reduce material cost of road project.
ii) Gradient are beneficial to connect roads at different levels.

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 iii) Gradients play a vital role for effective drainage of rainwater from road
surface.
iv) Gradients are helpful to reduce maintenance cost of road surface by
avoiding wear and tear of road.
v) Gradients are useful to increase or decrease the design speed as per
requirement.

Factors affecting the gradients:-

a) The nature of traffic

b) The nature of ground
c) The road-railway intersections and bridge approaches
d) The type of road surface
e) The drainage required
f) The total height to be covered
g) The safety required.

Types of gradient –

(1) Ruling gradient: - The gradient usually adopted while making the alignment
of a road is called “Ruling Gradient”. This is such a gradient that all vehicles,
whether drawn by power or by animals, can traverse long lengths of the road
without undue consumption of fuel or much fatigue.

(2) Limiting gradient: - The gradient steeper than the ruling which may be used in
restricted road lengths where the later is not feasible is called “maximum or
limiting gradient”. This type of gradient may be used where the topography of a
place compels this course or where the adoption of greater gradients would add
enormously to the cost.

(3) Exceptional gradient: - The gradient steeper than the limiting which may be
used in short lengths of the road, only in extraordinary situations, is called
“Exceptional gradient”. This type of gradient is adopted only in very difficult
situations and for short lengths not exceeding 100 m at a stretch.

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(4) Average gradient: - The total rise or fall between any two points along the
alignment of a road divided by the horizontal distance between them is called
“average Gradient”.

(5) Floating gradient: - The gradient on which a motor vehicle, moving with a
constant speed, continues to descend with the same speed without any application
of power or brakes is called “floating gradient”.

(6) Minimum gradient: - The minimum desirable slope essential for effective
drainage of rain water from the road surface is called “minimum gradient”.

IRC Recommendations: -

Nature of area Ruling gradient Limiting gradient Exceptional gradient

Plain rolling area 3.3 % 5% 6%

Mountainous area 5% 6% 7%

Steep area 6% 7% 8%

Situations for providing following gradients:

i) Limiting gradient: It is provided where topography of the area does not

suit ruling gradient due to excessive cost.
ii) Exceptional gradient: It is provided under exceptional circumstances
and for very short length routes.
iii) Floating gradient: It is provided on highly steep sloping ground for
constant speed to vehicle without any tractive effort
iv) Average gradient: It is provided when ground has moderate variation
and ruling or floating gradient becomes unsuitable.

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2.5 Sight Distance:- Sight distance in the context of road is defined as clear
distance ahead of the driver of a vehicle over which he has a clear and un-
obstructed view.

Types of Sight Distance:

i) Stopping Sight Distance: SSD may be defined as the length of highway

required to bring a vehicle to stop at various design speeds when the eye of the
driver is 1200mm above the pavement and the object causing the stop is 150mm
above the pavement Or The driver of the vehicle should be able to see clearly at
least a certain portion of the road length to avoid collision or accident. This
absolute minimum length required for this purpose is known as Stopping Sight
Distance.

ii) Overtaking Sight Distance: OSD may be defined as the minimum distance
open to the vision of the driver of a vehicle intending to overtake the slow vehicle
ahead safely against the traffic in the opposite direction.

Overtaking Zones: It is the portion or minimum distance provided to view and

overtake slower vehicle against upcoming opposite vehicle.

It is provided on two lane two way for viewing upcoming speedy vehicle and pass
the slow moving vehicle safely without head on collision.

sketch of overtaking zone:

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The overtaking sight distance or passing sight distance is calculated by following
formula: OSD or PSD = d1+d2+d3

Where,

d1 = distance covered by overtaking vehicle during perception and reaction time of

driver

d2 = distance required for overtaking vehicle to move in adjoining lane and move
back in the original lane

d3 = distance travelled by opposite upcoming vehicle in adjoining lane

The total overtaking zone is decided adequate enough to ensure safety for
travelling above distances by moving vehicle on road.

Calculate the stopping sight distance for one way road having design speed 60
kmph and breaking efficiency of vehicle 75 %.

Given data: V = 60 kmph, f = 75% = 0.75 SSD=?

We know the formula of stopping sight distance for one way traffic on a single
lane road is

SSD = (0.278 v.t) + (V2/254.f)

Assume reaction time of driver, t = 2.5sec

SSD = (0.278X60X25) + (602/254X0.5)

= 41.7+28.34 SSD = 70.04 m

Calculate the stopping sight distance for two way traffic in a single lane road.
The design speed of the road is 60 kmph. Assume reaction time of the driver
as 2.5 seconds and coefficient of friction as 0.6.

Given data:

Design speed = 60 kmph

Total reaction time = 2.5 seconds
Coefficient of friction = 0.6

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Length of SSD = + 0.278 Vt

= + 0.278 x 60 x 2.5

= 65.32 m

In case of two way traffic in a single lane road,

length of SSD = 65.32 x 2

= 130.64 m.

2.6 Curves:- A curve is defined as the geometrical arc provided at the change in
alignment or gradient of the road.
Types of Curves:-
Horizontal Curve:- When a highway changes horizontal direction, making the
point where it changes direction, a point of intersection between two straight lines
is not feasible. The change in direction would be too abrupt for the safety of
modern high-speed vehicles. Therefore it is necessary to interpose a curve between
the straight lines. The straight lines of a road are called tangents because the lines
are tangent to the curves used to change direction. Horizontal curves are necessary
when a change in horizontal direction of travel is to be introduced.
Types of horizontal Curves are:-
1. Simple Curve- The simple curve is an arc of a circle. The radius of the
circle determines the sharpness or flatness of the curve.
2. Compound Curve- This curve normally consists of two simple curves
joined together and curving in the same direction.
3. Reverse Curve- A reverse curve consists of two simple curves joined
together, but curving in opposite direction. For safety reasons, the use of this
curve should be avoided when possible.
Vertical Curves:- In addition to horizontal curves that go to the right or left, roads
also have vertical curves that go up or down. Vertical curves at a crest or the top of
a hill are called summit curves, or over verticals. Vertical curves at the bottom of a
hill or dip are called sag curves.
Types of vertical Curves:-

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Summit Curve:- This Curve is provided where the intersection of two gradients
has the highest elevation.
Valley Curve:- This Curve is provided where the intersection of two gradients has
the lowest elevation.

The necessity of providing extra widening on horizontal curves: -

1) When a vehicle travels on horizontal curves, it occupies more width than that it
occupies on straight road. This reduces the capacity of the road in respect of
accommodating number of vehicles on horizontal curve. To compensate for this
effect the width of the road on horizontal curve is increased.
2) This also increases the visibility on the curves.
3) On curves, the vehicles occupy a greater width because the rear wheels follow
the inner path as compared to the front wheel.
4) On curves, drivers have difficulty in steering their vehicle to keep to the center
line of the road.
5) Drivers have psychological fear to drive close to the edge of the pavements on
curves.

2.8 Super-elevation- The inward inclination provided to the cross-section of road

at sharp curve, so that outer edge is raised with respective inner edge of road, is
called as super elevation.
Maximum and minimum values of super elevation:-
The maximum value of super elevation in plain and ruling terrains and in now
bound areas are 7% i.e. 1 in 15. However for hill roads it should be up to 10% i.e.
1 in 10.
Maximum Super elevation: IRC has recommended the following formula for
calculating the maximum super elevation: e = / (225 x R).
The super elevation obtained from the above formula should however be kept
limited to the following values:

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Minimum Super elevation: IRC has recommended the following formula for
calculating the minimum super elevation: e = / (225 x R).
The super elevation obtained by the above formula, if less than the road camber,
then the minimum super elevation to be provided on horizontal curve may be
limited to the camber of the surface.

Method of designing super elevation:-

Super elevation is designed for 75% of deign speed use to mixed traffic traffic
condition and limiting maximum super elevation to 1 in 15 or 6.7%.

Step-1
Super elevation for 75% of design speed is calculated by equation-

e= / (225 x R).

Step-2
If calculated value of „ e „ is less than 1 in 15 or 6.7%, then the value so obtained
is provided. If it exceeds 1 in 15, then limiting value of super elevation i.e. 1 in 15
is provided and further checking is done as below.

Step-3
For Maximum value of e= 0.067 (1 in15), value of coefficient of friction is
calculated by equation –
e+f = /(127 x R)

Step-4
If value of „f‟ so calculated is less than prescribed limit of 0.15, the super
elevation is safe for design speed, otherwise calculate limiting speed (Vr) by
following formula-
0.217 = / 127 x R

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Design a super-elevation for a National Highway with design speed 80 Kmph
and horizontal curve of radius 150 m. Consider co-efficient of friction f = 0.15.
By formula of super-elevation
e + f = /(127×R)
e + 0.15= / (127×150)
e + 0.15=0.335
e = 0.185 for 1 meter carriage way width of road

The super elevation required for 7 m wide road

e = 0.185 ×7
= 1.295 m or 129.5 cm
Calculate the design speed of a vehicle on a horizontal curve having radius of
100m with permissible super elevation of 7%. Consider coefficient of friction
0.18.
Given Data,
Radius (r) = 100m
Super elevation (e) = 7%
Coefficient of friction (f) = 0.18
Design speed (v) = ?
We know that
e + f = /127R
0.07 + 0.18 = / (127 × 100)
So, V = 56.43kmph.

The super elevation is provided to achieve the following objects.

1. To avoid skidding off vehicles at sharp horizontal turns.
2. To turn vehicles smoothly even at high speed at curves.
3. To minimize wear and tear of wheels and road surface in contact.
4. To avoid overturning of vehicles at corners by counteracting centrifugal force.

Factors on which super elevation depends :-

1. Road width: If width of road increases super elevation decreases and vice versa.
2. Radius of curve: If radius of curve increases super elevation decreases and vice
versa.

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3. Design speed: For higher design speed higher degree of super elevation is
required.
4. Friction between road surface and tyres: If friction between road surface and
tyres increases super elevation decreases.
5. Type of traffic: Depending upon type of traffic i.e. regular or mixed the super
elevation changes.

Method of providing super elevation:-

The different methods employed for attaining the super elevation are as follows:
i. Revolving pavement about the centre line.
ii. Revolving pavement about the inner edge.
iii. Revolving pavement about the outer edge.

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Civil Engineering Department, Government Polytechnic Nanded.
2.9 Cross sections of Highways in embankment and cutting:

Cross section of National Highway in Embankment

Cross section of National Highway in Cutting

Presented by:-
R. V. Adamwad S.P. Kulkarni
Lecturer Civil Eng Dept HOD (SS) Civil Eng Dept
Government Polytechnic Nanded Government Polytechnic Nanded
Civil Engineering Department, Government Polytechnic Nanded.