Grade 12 Q2 General Chemistry 2 LAS

12
GENERAL
CHEMISTRY 2
QUARTER 2
LEARNING ACTIVITY SHEET

Sample Table of Contents
Page
Compentency Code
number
Predict the spontaneity of a process
based on entropy
STEM_GC11CTIVa-b-140 1 – 16
Explain the second law of
thermodynamics and its significance STEM_GC11CTIVa-b-142 17 – 27
Use Gibbs’ free energy to determine the
direction of a reaction STEM_GC11CTIVa-b-143 28 – 59
Explain chemical equilibrium in terms of
the reaction rates
of the forward and the reverse reaction STEM_GC11CEIVb-e-145 60 – 88
Calculate equilibrium constant and the
pressure or
89 – 96
concentration of reactants or products in
an equilibrium mixture STEM_GC11CEIVb-e-148
State the Le Chatelier’s principle and
apply it qualitatively
to describe the effect of changes in
pressure,
concentration and temperature on a
system at equilibrium STEM_GC11CEIVb-e-149 97 – 106
Define Bronsted acids and bases STEM_GC11ABIVf-g-153 107 – 111
Discuss the acid-base property of water 112 - 125
STEM_GC11ABIVf-g-154
Calculate ph from the concentration of
hydrogen ion or
hydroxide ions in aqueous solutions STEM_GC11ABIVf-g-156 126 – 140
Describe how a buffer solution maintains
its ph STEM_GC11ABIVf-g-160 141 – 153
Calculate the ph of a buffer solution
using the Henderson
Hasselbalch equation STEM_GC11ABIVf-g-161 154 – 172
Define oxidation and reduction reactions STEM_GC11ABIVf-g-169 173 – 180
Balance redox reactions using the
change in oxidation
number method STEM_GC11ABIVf-g-170 181 – 189
Identify the reaction occurring in the
different parts of the cell STEM_GC11ABIVf-g-172 190 – 204
Define reduction potential, oxidation
potential, and cell potential STEM_GC11ABIVf-g-176 205 – 217
Calculate the standard cell potential STEM_GC11ABIVf-g-178 218 – 233
Relate the value of the cell potential to
the feasibility of
using the cell to generate an electric
current STEM_GC11ABIVf-g-179 234 – 243
Describe the electrochemistry involved in
some common
batteries:
a. Leclanche dry cell
b. Button batteries
c. Fuel cells
d. Lead storage battery STEM_GC11ABIVf-g-180 244 – 256
Apply electrochemical principles to
explain corrosion STEM_GC11ABIVf-g-181 257 – 267
Explain the electrode reactions during
electrolysis STEM_GC11ABIVf-g-182 268 – 277
Describe the reactions in some
commercial electrolytic processes STEM_GC11ABIVf-g-183 278 - 287
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Learning Activity Sheet in EARTH SCIENCE
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GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2
Name: ____________________________ Date: _____________

Grade Level: _______________________ Score: ____________
Spontaneous Process and Entropy
Background Information for the Learners (BIL)
Chemical Thermodynamics is the study of the interrelation of heat and

work with chemical reactions or with physical changes of state within the
confines of the laws of thermodynamics.
Thermodynamics is a scientific discipline that deals with the
interconversion of heat and other forms of energy. It has traditionally recognized
three fundamental laws: First Law - Energy of the universe is constant. “Energy
can be converted from one form to another, but it can never be created nor
destroyed”; Second Law - Entropy of universe increases. “The entropy of the
universe increases in a spontaneous process and remains unchanged in the
equilibrium process”; and Third Law - At absolute zero, the entropy of a perfect
crystal is 0. “The entropy of the perfect crystalline substance is zero at the
absolute zero of temperature (T = 0, K = -273.150C).”
Spontaneous process as stated in the second law is a physical or
chemical change that occurs by itself. A process that takes place without energy
from an external source. It is the time-evolution of a system which releases free
energy and it moves to a lower, more thermodynamically stable energy state.
If heat flows into surroundings (exothermic) the random motion of the
molecules in the surroundings increases. Thus, the entropy of the surroundings
increases. Entropy is a thermodynamic quantity that is a measure of
randomness and disorder. It measures how spread out or dispersed the energy
of a system is among the different possible ways that system can contain
energy. It tells whether a process or chemical reaction can occur. The
connection between entropy and the spontaneity of a reaction is expressed by
the second law of thermodynamics.
The change in entropy for a given amount of heat absorbed also
depends on temperature. If the temperature of the surroundings is high, the
molecules are already quite energetic. Therefore, the absorption of heat from
an exothermic process in the system will have relatively little impact on the
motion of the molecules and the resulting increase in entropy of the
surroundings will be small. However, if the temperature of the surroundings is
1
Practice Personal Hygiene protocols at all times.
low, than the addition of the same amount of heat will cause a more drastic
increase in molecular motion and hence a larger increase in entropy.
Consider the phase changes illustrated bellow. Raising the temperature
of a substance will result in more extensive vibrations of the particles in solids
and more rapid translations of the particles in liquids and gases. At higher
temperatures, the distribution of kinetic energies among the atoms or molecules
of the substance is also broader (more dispersed) than at lower temperatures.
Thus, the entropy for any substance increases with temperature.
Source: https://openstax.org/resources/f3f96b7f897d7cd062c326b3e451634f6c3d5a20
The entropy of a substance increases (ΔS > 0) as it transforms from a

relatively ordered solid, to a less-ordered liquid, and then to a still less-ordered
gas. The entropy decreases (ΔS < 0) as the substance transforms from a gas
to a liquid and then to a solid.
Consider the illustration bellow.
Source: https://encrypted-
tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn%3AANd9GcSU3fNtyjImEWHO5JmAuogCgNibjoAR2urP5w&
usqp=CAU
What did you observe? Water is always flows downward on its own.
But never goes upward automatically.
Learning Competency:
Predict the spontaneity of a process based on entropy.
(STEM_CG11CT-IVa-b-140)
2
Activity 1. COMPARE ME!
Compare the pictures in each set.
A.
Rock rolled uphill and downhill. (Image Source: https://encrypted-

tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn%3AANd9GcRJCzeHyDYohm4N7wb00whumoo-Ii-
Zmejfrg&usqp=CAU
1. What can you say about the pictures? ________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________
______
2. How do you compare the pictures? __________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
______
3. Which one is more spontaneous? Why? _____________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
______
B.
Uphill and Downhill Skiing. (Image Source: https://encrypted-

tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn%3AANd9GcS7dY8nkQP2SnYSrusdCuA3qS0oJ6Sq8lACdA&
usqp=CAU
1. What can you say about the pictures? ________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________
3
2. How do you compare the pictures? __________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
3. Which one is more spontaneous? Why? _____________________________

_____________________________________________________________________
Activity 2. I’M EVERYWHERE!

A spontaneous process is one that takes place without energy from an
external source. For a chemical reaction to be spontaneous, it should proceed
as written (from left to right), without an input of energy.
An endothermic process absorbs heat from the surroundings and has a
positive value, whereas an exothermic process release heat to its surroundings
and has a negative value.
Examples of reactions
1. Combustion of methane
CH4 + 2O2 → 6CO2 + 2H2O ∆H0 = -890.4 kJ/mol
2. Acid-base neutralization
H+(aq) + OH-(aq) → H2O(l) ∆H0 = -56.2 kJ/mol
*Both of these reactions are very exothermic and are not reversible.
3. Solid to liquid phase transition of water
H2O(s) → H2O(l) ∆H0 = 6.01 kJ/mol
4. Dissolution of ammonium nitrate in water
NH4NO3(s) → NH4+(aq) + NO3-(aq) ∆H0 = 6.01 kJ/mol
*Ice melting above 00C and ammonium nitrate dissolving in water are both
spontaneous process yet endothermic.
Exercise:
Directions: Classify the given situations below whether the process is
spontaneous or non-spontaneous.
______ 1. Rusting of iron in moist air ______ 6. Drying of leaves
______ 2. Decaying of radioisotopes ______ 7. Dissolving of salt
______ 3. Oxidation of gold ______ 8. Radioactive atom splits up
______ 4. Spoilage of food ______ 9. Dissolution of sand in
water
______ 5. Burning of chlorine ______ 10. Fireworks
4
Activity 3. I’M A PART OF YOU!
Entropy, S, is the thermodynamic quantity that is a measure of how
spread out or dispersed the energy of a system is among the different possible
ways that system can contain energy. It is a quantity that is generally used to
describe the course of a process, that is, whether it is a spontaneous process
and has a probability of occuring in a definite direction, or a non-spontaneous
process and will not proceed in the defined direction, but in the reverse
direction.
Most processes are accompanied by entropy change. The following are
processes that lead to an increase in entropy of the system
Process Order → Disorder
Melting Solid → Liquid
Vaporization Liquid → Vapor
Dissolving Solute → Solution
Heating System at T1 → System at T2 (T2 > T1)
Entropy change examples:

1. Gas in balloon spreads out into room and deflates but never a balloon
spontaneously filled with air.
►The molecules of gas at a high pressure always spread to lower
pressure regions.
2. Hot coffee in a room gets cooler and the heat spreads out into the room,
but never a cold cup of coffee being spontaneously warmed up.
►Heats always goes from high temperature into cooler regions.
The spreading out of more concentrated molecules and the spreading

out of more concentrated energy are changes from more order to more random.
Exercise:
FACT OR BLUFF!
Directions: Write Fact on the blank if the condition illustrates entropy and
write Bluff if does not illustrates entropy.
_____________1. Oxidation of nitrogen
_____________2. Sublimation of mothballs
_____________3. Reduction of silicon
_____________4. Lighting of candles
_____________5. Flow of water up hill
5
_____________6. Digestion of food
_____________7. Boiling water for tea
_____________8. Flow of heat from a cold body to a hot body
_____________9. Diffusion of LPG
_____________10. Making popcorn
Activity 4. WORD SEARCH

Directions: Search and encircle the important terms being described in the
sentences below. Words can be forward, backward, vertical, horizontal, or
diagonal.
1. The scientific discipline that deals with the interconversion of heat and
other forms of energy.
2. A process of a physical or chemical change that occurs by itself.
3. The measure of randomness and disorder.
4. Process that gives off heat to the surroundings.
5. Process that absorbs heat from the surroundings.
6. The value of the product during endothermic process.
7. The value of the product during exothermic process.
8. The change of phase from solid to liquid.
9. The change of phase from liquid to gas.
10. The change of phase from solid to gas.
6
Activity 5. CORRECT ME IF I’M WRONG!
Directions: Write TRUE if the statement is correct but if it’s false, change the
underlined word or group of words to make the whole statement true.
____________1. If heat flows into the surroundings, the random motion of the
molecules in the surroundings decreases.
____________2. In a chemical reaction, the heat change is positive if the heat
product is lower than the heat reactant.
____________3. The heat change is negative if the heat product is greater than
the heat reactant.
____________4. Spontaneous process is reversible reaction.
____________5. Entropy changes occur when gas molecules inside the LPG
tank escape and spread out into room.
7
____________6. Heat flows from hotter objects to a colder one is a
spontaneous process.
____________7. Burning of fuel is an example of endothermic reaction.
____________8. Coffee granules dissolve faster in hot water than in cold water.
____________9. Melting of ice cream left on top of a table is an example of
exothermic reaction.
____________10. For a chemical reaction to be spontaneous, it should
proceed without an input of energy.
SUM UP!
1. What characterize a spontaneous process? ____________________

________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
______
2. How does spontaneity apply to a chemical reaction? ______________

_______________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
3. How do entropy changes occur? _____________________________

________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
4. How is hot object in an open area gets cooler? ___________________

_______________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
8
Reflection:
1. I learned that_____________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
2. I enjoyed most on_________________________________________

________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
3. I want to learn more on_____________________________________

________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
9
References
Commission on Higher Education. (2016). General Chemistry 2 (Teaching
Guide for Senior High School). Quezon City: Commission on Higher
Education.
https://www.teacherph.com/general-chemistry-2-teaching-guide/
Jessie A. Key. Introductory Chemistry-1st Canadian Edition. Chapter 18.

Chemical Thermodynamics.
https://opentextbc.ca/introductorychemistry/chapter/entropy-and-the-second-
law-of-thermodynamics-2/
10
ANSWER KEY
Activity 1:
1. Pictures at the left is rock rolling and a ski sliding down a hill while at the
right is a rock pushing and a ski sliding up a hill.
2. The rock and ski at the left rolling and skiing down a hill occurs without
any intervention while rock and ski at the right need to apply force to
make the rock roll and ski up the hill.
3. Pictures at the left is more spontaneous because it moves without any
outside intervension. The speed at which is occurs governed by kinetics.
Activity 2:
1. Spontaneous 6. Spontaneous
2. Spontaneous 7. Spontaneous
3. N0n-spontaneous 8. Spontaneous
4. Spontaneous 9. Non-spontaneous
5. N0n-spontaneous 10. Spontaneous
Activity 3:
1. Bluff 6. Fact
2. Fact 7. Fact
3. Bluff 8. Bluff
4. Fact 9. Fact
5. Bluff 10. Fact
Activity 4:
1. Thermodynamics 6. Positive
2. Spontaneous 7. Negative
3. Entropy 8. Melting
4. Exothermic 9. Vaporization
5. Endothermic 10. Sublimation
Activity 5:
1. Increase 6. TRUE
2. Negative 7. Exothermic
3. Lower 8. TRUE
4. Irreversible 9. Endothermic
5. TRUE 10. TRUE
11
Sum Up:
1. Spontaneous processes are characterized by a decrease in the system’s
free energy, they do not need to be driven by an outside source of
energy. It is characterized by an increase in entropy.
2. In a chemical reaction, heat change of reaction is equal to heat of
product minus the heat of reactant. If it is exothermic, then heat change
of reaction is equal to negative. The heat product must be lower than
the heat reactant.
3. Increasing the temperature will increase the entropy. Change in volume
will lead to change in entropy. The larger the volume, the higher the
entropy.
(1) Prepared by:
MIRAFLOR T. GARMA
Cordova National High School
12
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2
Name: ________________________________ Date: ________

Grade Level: ___________________________ Score: _______

THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
Chemical Thermodynamics is the study of the interrelation of heat and
work with chemical reactions or with physical changes of state within the
confines of the laws of thermodynamics.
Thermodynamics is a scientific discipline that deals with the
interconversion of heat and other forms of energy. It has traditionally recognized
three fundamental laws: First Law - Energy of the universe is constant. “Energy
can be converted from one form to another, but it can never be created nor
destroyed”; Second Law - Entropy of universe increases. “The entropy of the
universe increases in a spontaneous process and remains unchanged in the
equilibrium process”; and Third Law - At absolute zero, the entropy of a perfect
crystal is 0. “The entropy of the perfect crystalline substance is zero at the
absolute zero of temperature (T = 0, K = -273.150C).”
The Second Law of Thermodynamics deals with entropy, the quantity
that measures how spread out or dispersed the energy of a system is among
the different possible ways that system can contain energy. It tells whether a
process or chemical reaction can occur. The connection between entropy and
the spontaneity of a reaction is expressed by the second law of
thermodynamics. This law says that when energy changes from one form to
another form, or matter moves freely, entropy (disorder) in a close system
increases. Differences in temperature, pressure and density tend to even out
horizontally after a while.
The change in entropy for a given amount of heat absorbed also
depends on temperature. If the temperature of the surroundings is high, the
molecules are already quite energetic. Therefore, the absorption of heat from
an exothermic process in the system will have relatively little impact on the
motion of the molecules and the resulting increase in entropy of the
surroundings will be small. However, if the temperature of the surroundings is
low, then the addition of the same amount of heat will cause a more drastic
increase in molecular motion and hence a larger increase in entropy.
The significance of this law is that, it tells us about the direction of heat
transfer and what process are impossible even if they satisfy the first law.
13
Examples are: engine can’t have an efficiency of 100%, a fridge can’t work
without a power supply. Another example is a human body. We eat food (high
temperature reservoir). The coffee eventually cools down showing that the heat
only flows from high temperature to low temperature without the aid of any
external agent. A cold object in contact with a hot one never gets colder,
transferring heat to the hot object and making it hotter furthermore. Mechanical
energy, such as kinetic energy, can be completely converted to thermal energy
by friction, but the reverse is impossible.
Because the universe is made up of the system and the surroundings,
the entropy change in the universe (∆Suniv) for any process is the sum of the
entropy changes in the system (∆Ssys) and in the surroundings (∆Ssur).
∆Suniv = ∆Ssys + ∆Ssur > 0 Process is spontaneous
∆Suniv = ∆Ssys + ∆Ssur = 0 Process tends not to occur,
equilibrium is attained
∆Suniv = ∆Ssys + ∆Ssur < 0 Reverse process occurs
spontaneously
Explain the second law of thermodynamics and its significance.

(STEM_GC11CT-IVa-b-142)
Activity 1. IT’S GETTING HOTTER IN HERE!
Directions: Calculating Entropy Changes in the system: Standard Entropy of

Reaction, ∆S0rxn . Data needed in calculating the entropy change:
1. Suppose that the system is represented by the following reactions:
aA + bB → cC + dD
2. The standard entropy of reactions ∆S0rxn is given by the difference in
standard entropies between the products and the reactants.
∆S0 = ∑nS0 (products) - ∑nS0 (reactants)
3. • Where m and n are the stoichiometric coefficients in the reaction.
∆S0rxn = [cS0(C) + dS0(D)] - [aS0(A) + bS0(B)]
14
Note: Standard entropy values: J/K mol; 1atm; 250C
Selected Thermodynamic Values (at 250C)*
Species ∆Hf° S° ∆Gf°

(kJ/mol) (J/K·mol) (kJ/mol)
C(s) 0 5.7 0
CO2(g) -393.509 213.6 -394.359
H2(g) 0 130.6 0
PbO(s,) -217.32 69.54 -187.89
NO(g) 90.25 210.6 86.55
NO2(g) 33.18 240.5 51.31
SO2(s) -296.83 248.5 -300.194
SO3(g) -395.72 256.2 -371.06
H2SO4(l) -813.989 156.904 -690.003
H2O(l) -285.83 69.91 -237.129
Pb(s) 0 64.89 0
I(s) 0 116.7 0
*Taken from "The NBS Tables of Chemical Thermodynamic Properties" (1982)
and "CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics", 1st Student Edition (1988)
From the standard entropy values in the Thermodynamic Data table, calculate
∆S0 for the following reaction.
Study Me!
H2(g) + I2(s) → 2HI(g)
Step 1. Write the standard entropy below each formula
H2(g) + I2(s) → 2HI(g)
From the table, S0(J/K.mol) 130.6 116.7 206.3
Step 2. Using the equation for the standard entropy of reaction
∆S0 = ∑nS0 (products) - ∑nS0 (reactants)
= [(2) S0 HI] - [(1) S0 H2 + (1) S0 I2]
Step 3. Substitute the entropy values.
= [(2) (206.3)] - [(1) (130.6) + (1) (116.7)]
= [412.6] - [247.3]
∆S0 = +165.3 J/K-mol
15
SOLVE ME!
1. Determine S for the reaction:
SO3(g) + H2O(l) → H2SO4(l)
Given: S0(J/K.mol): 256.2 69.9 156.9
2. Calculate S for the reaction

SO2(s) + NO2 → SO3(g) + NO(g)
Given: S0(J/K.mol) 248.5 240.5 256.2 210.6
3. Calculate S at 250C for the reduction of a given these absolute

entropies:
2PbO(s) + C(s) → 2Pb(s) + CO2(g)
0
Given: S (J/K.mol) 69.54 5.7 64.89 213.6
16
Activity 2. PREDICT ME!
General rules in predicting entropy change of the system:

1. If the reaction produces more gas molecules than it consumes, ∆S0 is
positive.
2. If the total number of gas molecules diminishes, ∆S0 is negative.
3. If there is no net change in the total number of gas molecules, ∆S0 may
be positive or negative, but will be relatively small numerically.
POSITIVE NEGATIVE
Increase in number of gas molecules Decrease in number of gas molecules
Increase in entropy Decrease in entropy
Solid converted to liquid Gas converted to solid
Solid converted to gas Gas converted to liquid
Liquid converted to gas Liquid converted to solid
Directions: Predict whether the entropy change of the system in each of the
following is positive or negative.
Chemical Reaction Positive/ Reason

Negative
1.O2(g) → 2O(g)
2. N2(g, 10atm) → N2(g, 1atm)
3.6CO2(g) + 6H2O(g) →
C6H12O6(g) + 6O2(g)
4.2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(l)
5.NH4Cl(s) →
NH3(g) + HCl(g)
17
Activity 3. CROSSWORD PUZZLE
Directions: Solve the crossword using the clues.
18
Activity 4. FACT OR BLUFF
Directions: Write Fact on the blank if the statement is correct and Bluff if the
statement is incorrect.
____________1. The second law of thermodynamics deals with entropy.
____________2. The entropy of the universe decreases in a spontaneous

process.
____________3. When the entropy change in the universe is greater than

zero, the process is spontaneous.
____________4. When the entropy change in the universe is less than zero,
the process is spontaneous.
____________5. When the entropy change in the universe is equal to zero,

the process is equilibrium.
____________6. The second law of thermodynamics tells us that heat always

flows from a body at a higher temperature to a body at the lower temperature
____________7. If the reaction produces more gas molecules than it

consumes, the entropy change is positive.
____________8. If there is no net change in the total number of gas

molecules, the entropy change is negative.
____________9. If the total number of gas molecules diminishes, the entropy

change is either negative or positive.
____________10. Digestion of food is a spontaneous process.
Activity 5: RESEARCH TIME!
Directions: Explain how second law of thermodynamics applies in the

following.
1. Eating food
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
2. Hot cup coffee in a table

________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
19
SUM UP!
1. What is the second law of thermodynamics?

________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
2. What does second law of thermodynamics tells about the entropy of

spontaneous processes and processes at equilibrium?
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
______________________________________
3. When is an entropy change positive or negative?

________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________
4. Why is the second law of thermodynamics very important to daily life?

________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________
Reflection
1. I learned that_____________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________
2. I enjoyed most on_________________________________________

________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
______________________________________________
3. I want to learn more on_____________________________________

________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________
20
References:
Commission on Higher Education. (2016). General Chemistry 2 (Teaching

Guide for Senior High School). Quezon City: Commission on Higher
Education.
https://www.teacherph.com/general-chemistry-2-teaching-guide/
"The NBS Tables of Chemical Thermodynamic Properties" (1982) and "CRC

Handbook of Chemistry and Physics", 1st Student Edition (1988)
https://www2.chem.wisc.edu/deptfiles/genchem/netorial/modules/thermodyna
mics/table.htm
Jessie A. Key. Introductory Chemistry-1st Canadian Edition. Chapter 18.

Chemical Thermodynamics.
https://opentextbc.ca/introductorychemistry/chapter/entropy-and-the-second-
law-of-thermodynamics-2/
21
ANSWER KEY
Activity 1:
1. -169.2 J/K·mol
2. -22.2 J/K·mol
3. +198.8 J/K·mol
Activity 2:
Chemical Reaction Positive/Negative Reason
1.O2(g) → 2O(g) Positive Increase in number of gas

molecules.
2. N2(g, 10atm) → N2(g, Positive Decrease in pressure of the
1atm) system will increase
entropy.
3.6CO2(g) + 6H2O(g) → Negative Decrease in number of gas
C6H12O6(g) + 6O2(g) particles.
4.2H2(g) + O2(g) → Negative Net decrease in number of
2H2O(l) molecules and gases are
converted to solids.
5.NH4Cl(s) → Positive A solid is converted to two
NH3(g) + HCl(g) gaseous products.
Activity 3:
1. Product 6. Reactant
2. Exothermic 7. Temperature
3. Endothermic 8. Negative
4. Pressure 9. Thermodynamics
5. Positive 10. Entropy
Activity 4:
1. Fact 6. Fact
2. Bluff 7. Fact
3. Fact 8. Bluff
4. Bluff 9. Bluff
5. Fact 10. Fact
Activity 5:
1. We eat food (high temperature reservoir). The chemical energy of food
is utilized by body to maintain its temperature and to do work. When we
do some work our body warms up and rejects heat into the environment
(low temperature reservoir). Even if we are not doing work our body still
rejects a lot of heat to environment due to metabolism.
22
2. When a hot cup of coffee left on a table the coffee will eventually cool
down showing that heat only flows from high temperature to low
temperature without the aid of any external agent.
Sum Up:
1. The Second Law of Thermodynamics is the Entropy of universe
increases, “states that the entropy of the universe increases in a
spontaneous process and remains unchanged in an equilibrium process.
2. When the entropy change in the universe is greater than zero, the
process is spontaneous; if it is less than zero, reverse process occurs
spontaneously; and when it is equal to zero, process tends not to occur,
equilibrium is attained.
3. If the reaction produces more gas molecules than it consumes, ∆S0 is
positive; If the total no of gas molecules diminishes, ∆S0 is negative; and
If there is no net change in the total no of gas molecules, ∆S 0 may be
positive or negative, but will be relatively small numerically.
4. The second law of thermodynamics plays the most important role in
making our life easier, i.e. heat transfer from one medium to another.
Prepared by:
(2) MIRAFLOR T. GARMA

Cordova National High School
23
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2
Name: __________________________ Grade Level: ____________

Date: ___________________________ Score:__________________

GIBBS’ FREE ENERGY
According to the second law of thermodynamics, a spontaneous
reaction increases the entropy of the universe: that is ∆𝑆𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑣 > 0. In
determining the direction of the ∆𝑆𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑣 , calculation of ∆𝑆𝑠𝑦𝑠 and ∆𝑆𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟 are both
necessary. The mathematical expression is given by
∆𝑆𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑣 = [∆𝑆𝑠𝑦𝑠 + ∆𝑆𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟 ] > 0 eq. 1
−∆𝐻𝑠𝑦𝑠
Since ∆𝑆𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟 = , we have
𝑇
−∆𝐻𝑠𝑦𝑠
∆𝑆𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑣 = [∆𝑆𝑠𝑦𝑠 + ] >0 eq. 2
𝑇
Multiplying both sides of the equation by T gives

𝑇∆𝑆𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑣 = [−∆𝐻𝑠𝑦𝑠 + 𝑇∆𝑆𝑠𝑦𝑠 ] > 0 eq. 3
The equation expressing only the properties ∆𝐻𝑠𝑦𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇∆𝑆𝑠𝑦𝑠 can now be used
as a criterion in determining if a spontaneous reaction occurs.
For convenience, multiply both sides of the equation in equation 3 by -1 and
change the > sign with <:
−𝑇∆𝑆𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑣 = [∆𝐻𝑠𝑦𝑠 − 𝑇∆𝑆𝑠𝑦𝑠 ] < 0 eq. 4
Equation 4 says that as a reaction proceeds at a constant pressure and
temperature, the reactants forms products and if the changes in H and S of the
system is less than zero, the process is spontaneous.
The relationship between H and S was introduced by the American
Physicist J. Willard Gibbs. He introduced another thermodynamic quantity
known as the Gibb’s free energy (G) or simply free energy. The mathematical
relationship is given by
𝐺 = 𝐻 − 𝑇𝑆 eq. 5
24
where G is the free energy, H is the enthalpy, T is the temperature and S is the
entropy. All quantities pertain to the system only.
The change in free energy (∆𝐺) of a system for a constant-temperature
process is given by
∆𝐺 = ∆𝐻 − 𝑇∆𝑆 eq. 6
For a chemical reaction, we expand the equation and it becomes
𝑜
∆𝐺𝑟𝑥𝑛 = ∑ 𝑛∆𝐻 0 (𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠) − ∑ 𝑚∆𝑆 0 (𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠) eq. 7
where
0 0
∆𝐻 0 = ∑ 𝑛∆𝐻 (𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠) − ∑ 𝑚𝐻 (𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠) eq. 8
𝑓 𝑓
and
0 0
∆𝑆 0 = ∑ 𝑛∆𝑆 (𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠) − ∑ 𝑚𝑆 (𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠) eq. 9
𝑓 𝑓
In this context, free energy is the energy available to do work. The conditions
for spontaneity and equilibrium at constant temperature and pressure in terms
of ∆𝐺 are as follows:
• ∆𝐺 < 0, the reaction is spontaneous in the forward direction
• ∆𝐺 > 0, the reaction is non-spontaneous (spontaneous in the
opposite direction)
• ∆𝐺 = 0, the system is at equilibrium
EXAMPLES
1. For farmers, the reaction between nitrogen gas and hydrogen gas is
very important because the resulting product is ammonia which is
very essential in plant production such as corn and play. What is the
free-energy change, ∆𝐺, for the following reaction at 250C?
N2(g) + H2(g) → NH3(g)
Solution
• Write the balanced chemical equation and placed below each
formula the values of ∆𝐻and ∆𝑆. Use Table 1 to locate for the
needed values.
N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g)
∆𝐻 0 0 -46.3kJ/mol
∆𝑆 191.5J/K•mol 131 J/K 193.0 J/K
•mol •mol
25
• Use equation 8 and 9 to compute for the ∆𝐻 0 and ∆𝑆 0
𝑘𝐽
∆𝐻 0 = ∑[2 ∗ −46.3 ]
𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
− ∑ [(0 ) + (3 ∗ 0 )] = −92.6
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝐽
∆𝑆 0 = ∑[2 ∗ 193.0 ]
𝐾 • 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝐽 𝐽
− ∑ [(191.5 ) + (3 ∗ 131 )]
𝐾 • 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐾 • 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝐽
= −198.5
• Use equation 6 to compute for the free energy
𝑘𝐽 𝐽
∆𝐺 = (−92.6 ) − [(298𝐾) ∗ (−198.5 )]
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐾 • 𝑚𝑜𝑙
= −33.45𝑘𝐽
• Determine the spontaneity of the reaction
∆𝐺 = −33.45𝑘𝐽 which is lesser than 0. This means that the
reaction is spontaneous in the forward direction.
2. Methane is one of the components of LPG. So every time you cook
your food in your gas stoves, you are burning methane. Calculate ∆𝐺
for the following reaction at 250C.
CH4(g) + O2(g) → CO2(g) + H2O(g)
Solution
formula the values of ∆𝐻and ∆𝑆. Use Table 1 to locate for the
needed values.
CH4(g + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
∆𝐻 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
-74.85𝑚𝑜𝑙 0 𝑚𝑜𝑙 -393.5𝑚𝑜𝑙 -241.8𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝐽 𝐽 𝐽 𝐽
∆𝑆 186.2𝐾•𝑚𝑜𝑙 205.0𝐾•𝑚𝑜𝑙 213.6𝐾•𝑚𝑜𝑙 188.7𝐾•𝑚𝑜𝑙
• Use equation 8 and 9 to compute for the ∆𝐻 0 and ∆𝑆 0
26
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
∆𝐻 0 = ∑ [(2 ∗ −241.8 ) + (−393.5 )]
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
− ∑ [(−74.85 ) + (2 ∗ 0 )]
𝑘𝐽
= −802.25
𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝐽 𝐽
∆𝑆 0 = ∑ [(2 ∗ 188.7 ) + (213.6 )]
𝐽 𝐽
− ∑ [(186.2 ) + (2 ∗ 205.0 )]
𝐽 𝑘𝐽
= −5.2 = 0.0052
• Use equation 6 to compute for the free energy
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
∆𝐺 = (−802.25 ) − [(298𝐾) ∗ (0.0052 )]
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐾 • 𝑚𝑜𝑙
= −803.8𝑘𝐽
∆𝐺 = −803.8𝑘𝐽 which is lesser than 0. This means that the
STANDRAD FREE ENERGY CHANGE

𝑜
The standard-free energy of reaction (∆𝐺𝑟𝑥𝑛 ) is the free-energy
change for a reaction when it occurs under standard-state conditions, when
reactants in their standard states are converted to products in their standard
states. The standard states are as follows: for pure liquids and solids, 1 atm
pressure; for gases, 1 atm partial pressure; for solutions, 1 M concentrations.
𝑜
The temperature of interest is 250C or 298 K. To calculate for ∆𝐺𝑟𝑥𝑛 , we start
with the equation
aA + bB → cC + dD
The standard free-energy change for this reaction is given by
𝑜
∆𝐺𝑟𝑥𝑛 = [𝑐∆𝐺𝑓𝑜 (𝐶) + 𝑑∆𝐺𝑓𝑜 (𝐷)] − [𝑎∆𝐺𝑓𝑜 (𝐴) + 𝑏∆𝐺𝑓𝑜 (𝐵)] eq. 10
or in general
𝑜
∆𝐺𝑟𝑥𝑛 = ∑ 𝑛∆𝐺𝑓𝑜 (𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠) − ∑ 𝑚∆𝐺𝑓𝑜 (𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠) eq. 11
27
where m and n are stoichiometric coefficients. 𝑮𝒐𝒇 is the standard free-energy
of formation of a compound. It is the free-energy change that occurs when 1
mole of the compound is synthesized from its elements in their standard states.
EXAMPLES
3. Calculate the standard free-energy changes for the following
reactions at 250C.
a. CH4(g) + O2(g) → CO2(g) + H2O(g)
b. MgO(s) → Mg(s) + O2(g)
a. Solution
formula the values of ∆𝐺. Use Table 1 to locate for the needed
values.
CH4(g + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
∆𝐺 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽 -
-50.8𝑚𝑜𝑙 0 𝑚𝑜𝑙 -394.4𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑘𝐽
237.2𝑚𝑜𝑙
• Use equation 10 or 11 to compute for the free energy
𝑜
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
∆𝐺𝑟𝑥𝑛 = ∑ [(2 ∗ −237.2 ) + (−394.4 )]
− ∑ [(−50.8 ) + (0 )] = − 818.0
𝑘𝐽
∆𝐺 = −818.0 𝑚𝑜𝑙 which is lesser than 0. This means that the

b. Solution
values.
2MgO(s) → 2Mg(s) + O2(g)
28
∆𝐺 -569.6 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
0 𝑚𝑜𝑙 0 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑘𝐽
𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑜
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
∆𝐺𝑟𝑥𝑛 = ∑ [(2 ∗ 0 ) + (0 )]
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
− ∑ [(2 ∗ −569.6 )] = 1139.2
𝑘𝐽
∆𝐺 = 1139.2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 which is greater than 0. This means that the
reaction is non-spontaneous.
4. Calculate the standard free-energy changes for the following
reactions at 250C:
a. H2(g) + Br(l) → HBr(g)
b. C2H6(g) + O2(g) → CO2(g) + H2O
a. Solution
values.
H2(g) + Br2(l) → 2HBr(g)
∆𝐺 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽 -
0 𝑚𝑜𝑙 0𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑘𝐽
53.2𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑜
∆𝐺𝑟𝑥𝑛 = ∑[(2 ∗ −53.2 )] − ∑ [(0 ) + (0 )] =
𝑘𝐽
− 106.4
𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑘𝐽
∆𝐺 = −106.4 𝑚𝑜𝑙 which is lesser than 0. This means that the
29
b. Solution
values.
2C2H6(g) + 7O2(g) → 4CO2(g) + 6H2O(l)
∆𝐺 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
-32.89𝑚𝑜𝑙 0 𝑚𝑜𝑙 -394.4𝑚𝑜𝑙 -237.2𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑜
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
∆𝐺𝑟𝑥𝑛 = ∑ [(6 ∗ −237.2 ) + (4 ∗ −394.4 )]
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
− ∑ [(2 ∗ −32.89 ) + (7 ∗ 0 )] =
𝑘𝐽
− 2935.02
𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑘𝐽
∆𝐺 = −2935.02 𝑚𝑜𝑙 which is lesser than 0. This means that
the reaction is spontaneous in the forward direction.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE SIGN OF G

∆𝐻 𝑇∆𝑆 ∆𝐺 Significance
+ + X At high temperature, reactions proceeds
spontaneously while at low temperature,
the reaction is spontaneous in the reverse
direction
+ - + ∆𝐺 is always positive. Reaction proceeds
spontaneously in the reverse direction at
all temperatures.
- + - ∆𝐺 is always positive. Reaction proceeds
spontaneously direction at all temperatures
- - X At high temperatures, reaction proceeds
spontaneously in the reverse direction and
at low temperatures, the reaction proceeds
spontaneously
30
TEMPERATURE AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Calcium oxide (CaO), also called quicklime is used in the production of
steel, calcium metal, paper, water treatment and pollution control. It is produced
by the decomposition of limestone (CaCO3) at a very high temperature.
CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)
The reaction is reversible, where CaCO3 decomposes to CaO and CO2’ and
CaO and CO2 combines to form CaCO3. CO2 should constantly be removed
from the kiln to shift the equilibrium from left to right so that CaCO 3 will form.
The main issue in the decomposition of CaCO3 is at what temperature
will the reaction become spontaneous (the temperature at which the reactions
begins to favour products), thus using the standard quantities at 250C as a start.
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
∆𝐻 0 = ∑ [(−635.6 ) + (−393.5 )]
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
− ∑ [(−1206.9 )] = 177.8
𝐽 𝐽
∆𝑆 0 = ∑ [(39.8 ) + (213.6 )]
𝐽 𝐽 𝑘𝐽
− ∑ [(92.9 )] = 160.5 = 0.1605
𝐾 • 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐾 • 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐾 • 𝑚𝑜𝑙
∆𝐺 0 = (177.8 ) − [(298𝐾) ∗ (0.1605 )] = 130.0
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐾 • 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑘𝐽
∆𝐺 0 is 130.0𝑚𝑜𝑙 which is greater than zero, the reaction is non-spontaneous at
250C. in order to make a favoured reaction, ∆𝐺 0 must become negative. To

make this possible, find the temperature at which ∆𝐺 0 will become zero.
∆𝐺 0 = ∆𝐻 0 -T∆𝑆 0
0 = ∆𝐻 0 - T∆𝑆 0
𝑘𝐽 1000𝐽
∆𝐻 0 (177.8 )∗( )
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 1𝑘𝐽
T= ∆𝑆0 = 𝐽 = 1108𝐾 𝑜𝑟 8350 𝐶
160.5
𝐾•𝑚𝑜𝑙
Temperatures higher than 8350C, ∆𝐺 0 becomes negative. The reaction now for
the decomposition of calcium oxide will be spontaneous. For example, at
8380C,
∆𝐺 0 = ∆𝐻 0 -T∆𝑆 0
∆𝐺 0 = (177.8 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ) − [(1111𝐾) ∗ (0.1605 𝐾•𝑚𝑜𝑙 )] = -0.52𝑚𝑜𝑙
31
EXAMPLES
5. The decomposition of ammonium chloride is given by the reaction
NH4Cl(s) → NH3(g) + HCl(g)
Is the reaction spontaneous at 250C? How about at 6500C? At what
temperature will the reaction start to become spontaneous?
a. Solution
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
∆𝐻 0 = ∑ [(−46.3 ) + (−92.3 )] — [−315.39 ]] = 176.79
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝐽 𝐽
∆𝑆 0 = ∑ [(193 ) + (187 )]
𝐽 𝐽
− ∑ [(94.56 )] = 285.44 = 0.28544
∆𝐺 0 = (176.79 ) − [(298𝐾) ∗ (0.28544 )] = 90.94
The computed ∆𝐺 0 is 90.94 which is greater than zero. Therefore, the
reaction will not occur at 250C.
b. Solution
∆𝐻 0 = ∑ [(−46.3 ) + (−92.3 )] — [−315.39 ]] = 176.79
𝐽 𝐽
∆𝑆 0 = ∑ [(193 ) + (187 )]
𝐽 𝐽
− ∑ [(94.56 )] = 285.44 = 0.28544
∆𝐺 0 = (176.79 ) − [(923𝐾) ∗ (0.28544 )] = −86.67
The computed ∆𝐺 0 is -86.67 which is lesser than zero. Therefore, the
reaction will occur at 6500C.
c. Solution
∆𝐺 0 = ∆𝐻 0 -T∆𝑆 0
0 = ∆𝐻 0 - T∆𝑆 0
𝑘𝐽
∆𝐻 0 (176.79 )
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
T= ∆𝑆0 = 𝑘𝐽 = 619.36𝐾 𝑜𝑟 346.360C.
0.28544
𝐾•𝑚𝑜𝑙
The reaction will start to occur at a temperature higher than 346.360C.
32
Use Gibbs’ free energy to determine the direction of a reaction

(STEM_GC11CT-IVa-b-143)
Activity 1: PROBLEM SETS

A. Directions: On the basis of ∆𝐺 0 for each of the following reactions,
decide whether the reaction is spontaneous or non-spontaneous.
Justify your answer.
1. SO2(g) + 2H2S(g) → 3S(s) + H2O(g) ∆𝐺 0 = −91 𝑘𝐽
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
2. 2H2O2(aq) → O2(g) + 2H2O(l) ∆𝐺 0 = −211 𝑘𝐽
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
_________________________________
3. I2(s) + Br2(l) → 2IBr(g) ∆𝐺 0 = 7.5 𝑘𝐽
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
_________________________________
4. NH4Cl(s) → NH3(g) + HCl(g) ∆𝐺 0 = 92 𝑘𝐽
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
_________________________________
5. 2NO(g) → N2(g) + O2(g) ∆𝐺 0 = −173 𝑘𝐽
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
33
1
6. 2NO(g) + 3H2O(g)→ 2NH3(g) + 2O2(g) ∆𝐺 0 = 479 𝑘𝐽
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
_________________________________
7. 2HBr(g) → H2(g) + Br2(g) ∆𝐺 0 = 110 𝑘𝐽
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
_________________________________
8. H2(g) + I2(g)→ 2HI(g) ∆𝐺 0 = 2.6 𝑘𝐽
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
_________________________________
B. Directions: Compute for the ∆𝐺 0 of the given reactions at 250C using

the quantities ∆𝐻 0 and ∆𝑆 0 . Show your complete solution. Determine
whether the reaction is spontaneous or non-spontaneous.
1. N2(g) + O2(g) → NO(g)
2. H2O(l) → H2O(g)
3. C2H2(g) + O2(g) → CO2(g) + H2O(l)
4. SO2(g) + O2(g) → SO3(g)
34
5. KClO4(s) → KClO3(s) + O2(g)
6. MgCO3(s) → MgO(s) + CO2(g)
7. Al(s) + ZnO(s) → Al2O3(s) + Zn(s)
8. H2(g) + CuO(g) → Cu(s) + H2O(g)
9. S(rhombic) + O2(g) → SO2(g)
10. H2(g) → 2H(g)
Activity 2: STANDARD FREE ENERGY CHANGE

𝑜
Directions: Compute for the ∆𝐺𝑟𝑥𝑛 of the given reactions at 250C using
∆𝐺𝑓𝑜 . Show your complete solution. Determine whether the reaction is
1. C2H5OH(l) + O2(g) → CO2(g) + H2O(l)
2. NaHCO3(s) → Na2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(g)
35
3. CH3OH(l) + O2(g) → CO2(g) + H2O(l)
4. Ca(s) + HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + H2(g)
5. CS2(l) + O2(g) → CO2(g) + SO2(g)
6. Pb(s) + O2(g) → PbO(s)
7. Al2O3(s) + Fe(s) → Fe2CO3(s) + Al(s)
8. Li(s) + H2O(l) → Li+(aq) + OH-(aq) + H2(g)
9. HCOOH(l) → CO2(g) + H2(g)
10. HCN(g) + H2(g) → CH3NH2(g)
Activity 3: FACROS AFFECTING THE SIGN OF G

Directions: From the values of ∆𝐻 0 and ∆𝑆 0 , predict which of the
following reactions would be spontaneous at 250C.
𝑘𝐽 𝐽
1. Reaction A: ∆𝐻 = 10.5 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 and ∆𝑆 = 10.5 𝐾•𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
_____________________
36
𝑘𝐽 𝐽
2. Reaction B: ∆𝐻 = 1.8 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 and ∆𝑆 = 10.5 𝐾•𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
_____________________
𝑘𝐽 𝐽
3. Reaction C: ∆𝐻 = −126 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 and ∆𝑆 = 84 𝐾•𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
_____________________
𝑘𝐽 𝐽
4. Reaction D: ∆𝐻 = −11.7 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 and ∆𝑆 = −105 𝐾•𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
_____________________
5. C(diamond) → C(graphite)
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
_____________________
6. FeO(s) + CO(g) Fe(s) +CO2(g)
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
_____________________
7. H2(g) + CO2(g) H2O(g) + CO(g)
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
_____________________
8. H2(g) + I2(g) 2HI(g)
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
_____________________
9. N2O4(g) 2NO2(g)
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
_____________________
37
10. 2O3(g) → 3O2(g)
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
_____________________
Activity 4: TEMPERATURE AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Directions: For the chemical reactions that are non-spontaneous in Problem

Set 3, determine at what temperature will the reaction occur spontaneously?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________.
Reflection
1. I learned that
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___________________________________________________________
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2. I enjoyed most on _____________________________________________

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3. I want to learn more on _______________________________________

____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
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38
References
Chang, R. (2010). Chemistry (10th ed., pp. 814-835). McGraw-Hill, Inc., USA.
Ebbing, D.D & Gammon, S.D. (2017). General Chemistry (9th ed., 745-769).
Houghton Mifflin Company, USA.
39
ANSWER KEY
ACTIVITY 1: GIBBS’ FREE ENERGY

A. Direction: On the basis of ∆𝐺 0 for each of the following reactions, decide
whether the reaction is spontaneous or non-spontaneous. Justify your
answer.
1. SO2(g) + 2H2S(g) → 3S(s) + H2O(g) ∆𝐺 0 = −91 𝑘𝐽
Since the computed ∆𝐺 0 𝑖𝑠 − 91 𝑘𝐽 which is lesser than zero, the
2. 2H2O2(aq) → O2(g) + 2H2O(l) ∆𝐺 0 = −211 𝑘𝐽
3. I2(s) + Br2(l) → 2IBr(g) ∆𝐺 0 = 7.5 𝑘𝐽
Since the computed ∆𝐺 0 𝑖𝑠 7.5 𝑘𝐽 which is greater than zero, the reaction
is non-spontaneous. It is spontaneous in the opposite direction.
4. NH4Cl(s) → NH3(g) + HCl(g) ∆𝐺 0 = 92 𝑘𝐽
Since the computed ∆𝐺 0 𝑖𝑠 92 𝑘𝐽 which is greater than zero, the reaction
5. 2NO(g) → N2(g) + O2(g) ∆𝐺 0 = −173 𝑘𝐽
1
6. 2NO(g) + 3H2O(g)→ 2NH3(g) + 2O2(g) ∆𝐺 0 = 479 𝑘𝐽
Since the computed ∆𝐺 0 𝑖𝑠 479 𝑘𝐽 which is greater than zero, the

reaction is non-spontaneous. It is spontaneous in the opposite direction.
7. 2HBr(g) → H2(g) + Br2(g) ∆𝐺 0 = 110 𝑘𝐽
Since the computed ∆𝐺 0 𝑖𝑠 110 𝑘𝐽 which is greater than zero, the
reaction is non-spontaneous. It is spontaneous in the opposite direction.
8. H2(g) + I2(g)→ 2HI(g) ∆𝐺 0 = 2.6 𝑘𝐽
Since the computed ∆𝐺 0 𝑖𝑠 2.6 𝑘𝐽 which is greater than zero, the reaction
B. Direction: Compute for the ∆𝐺 0 of the given reactions at 250C using the
quantities ∆𝐻 0 and ∆𝑆 0 . Show your complete solution. Determine whether
40
the reaction is spontaneous or non-spontaneous.
1. N2(g) + O2(g) → 2NO(g)

∆𝐻 0 = ∑ [2 ∗ 90.4 ] − ∑ [(0 ) + (0 )] = 180.8
𝐽
∆𝑆 0 = ∑ [2 ∗ 210.6 ]
𝐽 𝐽 𝐽
− ∑ [(191.5 ) + (205 )] = 24.7
𝑘𝐽
= 0.0247
∆𝐺 0 = (180.8 ) − [(298𝐾) ∗ (0.0247 )] = 173.44
𝑘𝐽
Since the computed ∆𝐺 0 is 173.44𝑚𝑜𝑙 which is greater than zero, the reaction
is non-spontaneous. It is spontaneous in the opposite direction
2. H2O(l) → H2O(g)
∆𝐻 0 = ∑ [−241.8 ] — [−285.8 ] = 44
𝐽 𝐽 𝐽 𝑘𝐽
∆𝑆 0 = ∑ [188.7 ] − ∑ [69.9 ] = 118.8 = 0.1188
𝐾 • 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐾 • 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐾 • 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐾 • 𝑚𝑜𝑙
∆𝐺 0 = (44 ) − [(298𝐾) ∗ (0.1188 )] = 8.6
𝑘𝐽
Since the computed ∆𝐺 0 is 8.6𝑚𝑜𝑙 which is greater than zero, the reaction is non-
spontaneous. It is spontaneous in the opposite direction.
41
3. 2C2H2(g) + 5O2(g) → 4CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
𝑘𝐽
∆𝐻 0 = ∑ [((4) ∗ (−393.5 ))
𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
+ ((2) ∗ (−285.8 )) ] — [((2) ∗ (226.6 ))
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
+ ((5) ∗ (0 ))] = −2598.8
𝐽 𝐽
∆𝑆 0 = ∑ [((4) ∗ (213.6 )) + ((2) ∗ (69.9 ))]
𝐽 𝐽
− ∑ [((2) ∗ (200.8 )) + ((5) ∗ (205 ))]
𝐽 𝑘𝐽
= −432.4 = −0.4324
∆𝐺 0 = (−2598.8 ) − [(298𝐾) ∗ (−0.4324 )] = −2469.94
𝑘𝐽
Since the computed ∆𝐺 0 is -2469.94𝑚𝑜𝑙 which is lesser than zero, the reaction is
spontaneous.
4. 2SO2(g) + O2(g) → 2SO3(g)

∆𝐻 0 = ∑ [((2) ∗ (−395.2 )) ] — [((2) ∗ (−296.4 )) + (0 )]
𝑘𝐽
= −197.6
𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝐽
∆𝑆 0 = ∑ [((2) ∗ (256.2 ))]
𝐽 𝐽 𝐽
− ∑ [((2) ∗ (248.5 )) + (205 )] = −189.6
𝑘𝐽
= −0.1896
∆𝐺 0 = (−197.6 ) − [(298𝐾) ∗ (−0.1896 )] = −141.1
𝑘𝐽
spontaneous.
42
5. 2KClO4(s) → 2KClO3(s) + O2(g)
∆𝐻 0 = ∑ [((2) ∗ (−391.20 )) + (0 )] — [((2) ∗ (−433.46 )) ]
𝑘𝐽
= 84.52
𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝐽 𝐽
∆𝑆 0 = ∑ [((2) ∗ (142.97 )) + (205 )]
𝐽 𝐽 𝑘𝐽
− ∑ [((2) ∗ (151.9 ))] = 187.14 = 0.18714
∆𝐺 0 = (84.52 ) − [(298𝐾) ∗ (0.18714 )] = 28.75
𝑘𝐽
spontaneous.
6. MgCO3(s) → MgO(s) + CO2(g)

∆𝐻 0 = ∑ [(−601.8 ) + (−393.5 )] — [(−1112.9 ) ] = 117.6
𝐽 𝐽
∆𝑆 0 = ∑ [(26.78 ) + (213.6 )]
𝐽 𝐽 𝑘𝐽
− ∑ [(65.69 )] = 174.69 = 0.17469
∆𝐺 0 = (117.6 ) − [(298𝐾) ∗ (0.17469 )] = 65.54
𝑘𝐽
spontaneous.
7. 2Al(s) + 3ZnO(s) → Al2O3(s) +3 Zn(s)

∆𝐻 0 = ∑ [(−1669.8 ) + ((3) ∗ (0 ))] — [((2) ∗ (0 ))
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
+ ((3) ∗ (−348.0 )) ] = −625.8
43
𝐽 𝐽
∆𝑆 0 = ∑ [(50.99 ) + ((3) ∗ (41.6 ))]
𝐽 𝐽
− ∑ [((2) ∗ (42.7 )) + ((3) ∗ (43.9 ))]
𝐽 𝑘𝐽
= −41.31 = −0.04131
∆𝐺 0 = (−625.8 ) − [(298𝐾) ∗ (−0.04131 )] = −638.11
𝑘𝐽
spontaneous.
8. H2(g) + CuO(g) → Cu(s) + H2O(g)

∆𝐻 0 = ∑ [(0 ) + (−241.8 )] — [(0 ) + (−155.2 )]
𝑘𝐽
= −86.6
𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝐽 𝐽
∆𝑆 0 = ∑ [(33.3 ) + (188.7 )]
𝐽 𝐽 𝐽
− ∑ [(131 ) + (43.5 )] = 47.5
𝑘𝐽
= 0.0475
∆𝐺 0 = (−86.6 ) − [(298𝐾) ∗ (0.0475 )] = −100.76
𝑘𝐽
spontaneous.
9. S(rhombic) + O2(g) → SO2(g)

∆𝐻 0 = ∑ [(−296.4 )] — [(0 ) + (0 ) ] = −296.4
44
𝐽
∆𝑆 0 = ∑ [(248.5 )]
𝐽 𝐽 𝐽
− ∑ [(31.8 ) + (205 )] = 11.7
𝑘𝐽
= 0.0117
∆𝐺 0 = (−296.4 ) − [(298𝐾) ∗ (0.0117 )] = −299.89
𝑘𝐽
Since the computed ∆𝐺 0 is -299.89𝑚𝑜𝑙 which is lesser than zero, the
reaction is spontaneous.
10. H2(g) → 2H(g)
∆𝐻 0 = ∑ [((2) ∗ (218.2 ))] — [(0 ) ] = 436.4
𝐽
∆𝑆 0 = ∑ [((2) ∗ (114.6 ))]
𝐽 𝐽 𝑘𝐽
− ∑ [(131 )] = 98.2 = 0.0982
∆𝐺 0 = (436.4 ) − [(298𝐾) ∗ (0.0982 )] = 407.14
𝑘𝐽
Since the computed ∆𝐺 0 is 407𝑚𝑜𝑙 which is greater than zero, the
reaction is non-spontaneous.
ACTIVITY 2: STANDRAD FREE ENERGY CHANGE

𝑜
Direction: Compute for the ∆𝐺𝑟𝑥𝑛 of the given reactions at 250C using ∆𝐺𝑓𝑜 .
Show your complete solution. Determine whether the reaction is
1. C2H5OH(l) + 3O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(l)
𝑜
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
∆𝐺𝑟𝑥𝑛 = ∑ [(2 ∗ −394.4 ) + (3 ∗ −237.2 )]
− ∑ [(−174 ) + (3 ∗ 0 )] = − 1326.4
Spontaneous reaction
45
2. 2NaHCO3(s) → Na2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(g)
𝑜
∆𝐺𝑟𝑥𝑛 = ∑ [(−1047.67 ) + (−394.4 ) + (−228.6 )]
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
− ∑ [(2 ∗ −851.86 )] = − 26.95
3. 2CH3OH(l) + 3O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + 4H2O(l)
𝑜
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
∆𝐺𝑟𝑥𝑛 = ∑ [(2 ∗ −394.4 ) + (4 ∗ −237.2 )]
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
− ∑ [(2 ∗ −166.3 ) + (3 ∗ 0 )] =
𝑘𝐽
− 1405
𝑚𝑜𝑙
4. Ca(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + H2(g)
𝑜
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
∆𝐺𝑟𝑥𝑛 = ∑ [(−750.19 ) + (0 )]
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
− ∑ [(0 ) + (2 ∗ −95.27 )] =
𝑘𝐽
− 559.65
𝑚𝑜𝑙
5. CS2(l) + 3O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2SO2(g)
𝑜
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
∆𝐺𝑟𝑥𝑛 = ∑ [(−394.4 ) + (2 ∗ −300.4 )]
− ∑ [(63.6 ) + (3 ∗ 0 )] = − 1058.8
6. 2Pb(s) + O2(g) → 2PbO(s)
𝑜
∆𝐺𝑟𝑥𝑛 = ∑ [(2 ∗ −188.49 )] − ∑ [(2 ∗ 0 ) + (0 )] =
𝑘𝐽
− 376.98
𝑚𝑜𝑙
46
7. Al2O3(s) + 2Fe(s) → Fe2O3(s) + 2Al(s)
𝑜
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
∆𝐺𝑟𝑥𝑛 = ∑ [(−741.0 ) + (0 )]
− ∑ [(−1576.4 ) + (2 ∗ 0 )] = 835.4
Non-spontaneous reaction
1
8. Li(s) + H2O(l) → Li+(aq) + OH-(aq) + 2H2(g)
𝑜
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽 1 𝑘𝐽
∆𝐺𝑟𝑥𝑛 = ∑ [(−293.8 ) + (−157.30 )+ ( ∗0 )]
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙
− ∑ [(0 ) + (−237.2 )] = − 213.9
9. HCOOH(l) → CO2(g) + H2(g)
𝑜
∆𝐺𝑟𝑥𝑛 = ∑ [(−394.4 ) + (0 )] − ∑ [(−346 )] =
𝑘𝐽
− 48.4
𝑚𝑜𝑙
10. C12H12O11(s) + 4.5O2(g) → 12CO2(g) + 6H2O(l)
𝑜
𝑘𝐽
∆𝐺𝑟𝑥𝑛 = ∑ [(12 ∗ −394.4 )
𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
+ (6 ∗ −237.2 )] — [(−1544.3 ) + (4.5
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
∗0 ) ] = −4611.7
47
ACTIVITY 3: FACTORS AFFECTING THE SIGN OF G
Direction: From the values of ∆𝐻 0 and ∆𝑆 0 , predict which of the following
reactions would be spontaneous at 250C.
𝑘𝐽 𝐽
1. Reaction A: ∆𝐻 = 10.5 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 and ∆𝑆 = 30 𝐾•𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
∆𝐻 is positive and ∆𝑆 is also positive. The direction of spontaneity of the

reaction is dependent on temperature.
𝑘𝐽 1000𝐽
∆𝐻 0 (10.5 )∗( )
T= ∆𝑆0 = 𝐽 = 350 𝐾 𝑜𝑟 770 𝐶
30
𝐾•𝑚𝑜𝑙
The reaction is not spontaneous at 250C.

𝑘𝐽 𝐽
2. Reaction B: ∆𝐻 = 1.8 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 and ∆𝑆 = −113 𝐾•𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
∆𝐻 is positive and ∆𝑆 is negative. The reaction is non-spontaneous at

250C because at this case, ∆𝐺 is always positive.
𝑘𝐽 1000𝐽
∆𝐻 0 (1.8 )∗( )
T= ∆𝑆0 = 𝐽 = −15.93 𝐾 𝑜𝑟−288.930 𝐶
−113
𝐾•𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑘𝐽 𝐽
3. Reaction C: ∆𝐻 = −126 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 and ∆𝑆 = 84 𝐾•𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
∆𝐻 is negative and ∆𝑆 is positive. The reaction is spontaneous at 250C

because at this case, ∆𝐺 is always negative.
𝑘𝐽 𝐽
4. Reaction D: ∆𝐻 = −11.7 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 and ∆𝑆 = −105 𝐾•𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
∆𝐻 is negative and ∆𝑆 is also negative. The direction of spontaneity of

the reaction is dependent on temperature.
𝑘𝐽 1000𝐽
∆𝐻 0 (−11.7 )∗( )
T= ∆𝑆0 = 𝐽 = 111.43 𝐾 𝑜𝑟−161.570 𝐶
−105
𝐾•𝑚𝑜𝑙
The reaction is non-spontaneous at 250C.

5. C(diamond) → C(graphite)
𝑘𝐽 𝐽
∆𝐻 = −1.90 𝑚𝑜𝑙 which is negative and ∆𝑆 = 3.29 𝐾•𝑚𝑜𝑙 which is positive.
The reaction is spontaneous at 250C because at this case, ∆𝐺 is always

negative.
6. FeO(s) + CO(g) Fe(s) +CO2(g)
𝑘𝐽 𝐽
∆𝐻 = −11 𝑚𝑜𝑙 which is negative and ∆𝑆 = −17.9 𝐾•𝑚𝑜𝑙 which is also
negative. The direction of spontaneity of the reaction is dependent on

temperature.
48
𝑘𝐽 1000𝐽
∆𝐻 0 (−11 )∗( )
T= ∆𝑆0 = 𝐽 = 614.52𝐾 𝑜𝑟 341.530 𝐶
−17.9
𝐾•𝑚𝑜𝑙

7. H2(g) + CO2(g) H2O(g) + CO(g)
𝑘𝐽 𝐽
∆𝐻 = 41.2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 which is positive and ∆𝑆 = 42 𝐾•𝑚𝑜𝑙which is also positive.
The direction of spontaneity of the reaction is dependent on

temperature.
𝑘𝐽 1000𝐽
∆𝐻 0 (41.2 )∗( )
T= ∆𝑆0 = 𝐽 = 980.95𝐾 𝑜𝑟 707.950 𝐶
42
𝐾•𝑚𝑜𝑙

8. H2(g) + I2(g) 2HI(g)
𝑘𝐽 𝐽
∆𝐻 = 51.8 𝑚𝑜𝑙 which is positive and ∆𝑆 = 164.3 𝐾•𝑚𝑜𝑙which is also
positive. The direction of spontaneity of the reaction is dependent on

temperature.
𝑘𝐽 1000𝐽
∆𝐻 0 (51.8 )∗( )
T= ∆𝑆0 = 𝐽 = 315.28𝐾 𝑜𝑟 42.280 𝐶
164.3
𝐾•𝑚𝑜𝑙

9. N2O4(g) 2NO2(g)
𝑘𝐽 𝐽
∆𝐻 = 58.04 𝑚𝑜𝑙 which is positive and ∆𝑆 = 176.62 𝐾•𝑚𝑜𝑙which is also
positive. The direction of spontaneity of the reaction is dependent on

temperature.
𝑘𝐽 1000𝐽
∆𝐻 0 (58.04 )∗( )
T= ∆𝑆0 = 𝐽 = 328.62𝐾 𝑜𝑟 55.620 𝐶
176.62
𝐾•𝑚𝑜𝑙

10. 2O3(g) 3O2(g)
𝑘𝐽 𝐽
∆𝐻 = −284.4 𝑚𝑜𝑙 which is negative and ∆𝑆 = 139.8 𝐾•𝑚𝑜𝑙which is
positive. The reaction is spontaneous at 250C because at this case, ∆𝐺

is always negative.
49
ACTIVITY 4: TEMPERATURE AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Direction: For the chemical reactions that are non-spontaneous in Problem
Set 3, determine at what temperature will the reaction occur spontaneously?
Item 1. The reaction will occur spontaneously at a temperature higher than
770C.
Item 2. The reaction will occur spontaneously at a temperature equal to -
15.930C or lower.
Item 4. The reaction will occur spontaneously at a temperature lower than
−161.570 𝐶
Item 6. The reaction will occur spontaneously at a temperature lower than
341.530 𝐶
Item 7. The reaction will occur spontaneously at a temperature higher than
707.950 𝐶
Item 8. The reaction will occur spontaneously at a temperature equal to
42.280C or higher.
Item 9. The reaction will occur spontaneously at a temperature equal to
55.620C or higher.
50
Table 1. THERMODYNAMIC DATA AT 1 ATM AND 250C
51
52
53
54
Prepared by:
GRACE ANN M. CALIBOSO - AGCAOILI
David M. Puzon Memorial National High School
55
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2
Name: _____________________________________ Grade Level: _______

Date: _______________________________________ Score:____________

CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM AND REACTION RATE
BACKGROUND INFORMATION FOR THE LEARNERS (BIL)

Few chemical reactions proceed in only one direction. Most do not
proceed in only one direction and proceed essentially to completion. This type
of reaction is called reversible reaction. At first, the reaction proceeds in the
formation of products. As soon as some of the products are formed, the reverse
process occurs and reactant molecules are formed from the product molecules.
Reversible reactions use a double headed arrow indicating that forward and
backward reactions occur concurrently. The general form of a reversible
reaction is
𝑎𝐴 + 𝑏𝐵 𝑐𝐶 + 𝑑𝐷
where the lower cases letters represent stoichiometric coefficients of the
reactants and products.
To be in equilibrium is to be in a state of balance. In a reversible reaction,
physical equilibrium and chemical equilibrium occurs.
Equilibrium between two phases of the same substance is called
physical equilibrium because the changes that occur are physical processes.
Consider the scenario during a hot summer day when you buy some
solidified water (ice) then you put it in a glass jar. After some time, the ice will
turn to liquid because of the very hot temperature. The vaporization of water in
a closed container at a given temperature is an example.
H2O(l) H2O(g)
Chemical equilibrium occurs when the rates of the forward and reverse
reactions are equal and the concentrations of the reactants and products
remain constant. Chemical equilibrium is a dynamic process. It is dynamic
because 1) when the reactants start to form the products, the product would
then start to reform the reactants. The two opposing processes happen at
56
different rates but a certain point in the reaction will be reached where the rates
of the forward and backward reactions are the same (Figure 1) and 2) the
concentrations of the reactants and products remain becomes constant (Figure
2)
Figure 1. Changes in the rate of the

forward and backward reactions in a
reversible reaction
Chang, R. (2010). Chemistry (10th ed., pp. 617.

McGraw-Hill, Inc., USA.
Figure 2. Changes in the amount of

reactants and products in a reversible
reaction

Consider the dissociation of N2O4, a colourless gas use in rocket engines

that dissociates to form brown NO2. The frozen N2O4 is left to vaporize as it is
warmed above its boiling point (2120C) in a sealed container, the gas turns
darker as the colourless N2O4 gas dissociates into brown NO2. The gas inside
will cease to become darker because the system reaches equilibrium. The
reaction is represented by
57
N2O4(g) 2NO2(g)
Figure 3. A reversible reaction between N2O4 and NO2 molecules.
Chang, R. (2010). Chemistry (10th ed., pp. 616. McGraw-Hill, Inc., USA.
Forward reaction: N2O4(g) → 2NO2(g) Ratef = kf [N2O4]

Reverse reaction: 2NO2(g) → N2O4(g) Rater = kr [NO2]2
At equilibrium, the rate at which NO2 forms in the forward reaction equals the
rate at which N2O4 forms in the reverse reaction (Figure 4).
kf [N2O4] = kr [NO2]2
Rearranging the equation gives
𝑘𝑓 [𝑁𝑂2 ]2
𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = = eq. 1
𝑘𝑟 [𝑁2 𝑂4 ]
From equation 1, it can be seen that the quotient of two rate constant is another
constant. This is known as the equilibrium constant.

Figure 4. Change in the concentrations of NO2 and N2O4 with time in three
situations. (a) Initially only NO2 is present. (b) Initially only N2O4 is present. (c)
Initially, a mixture of NO2 and N2O4 is present.
58
The important things to keep in mind in a reversible reaction are:
• At equilibrium, the concentrations of reactants and products no
longer change with time.
• For equilibrium to occur, neither reactants nor products can escape
from the system.
• At equilibrium, a particular ratio of concentration terms equals a
constant.
EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT, Kc
In 1864, Guldberg and Waage postulated the Law of Mass Action
which expresses for any reaction, the relationship between the concentrations
of the reactants and products present at equilibrium. The general equilibrium
equation is given by
where A, B, C and D are the chemical species. According to the law of mass
action, the equilibrium condition is given by
[𝐶]𝑐 [𝐷]𝑑 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠
𝐾𝑐 = [𝐴]𝑎[𝐵]𝑏
𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠
This relationship is the equilibrium-constant expression for the reaction. The
K c is the equilibrium constant, which is the numerical value obtained when [ ]
is substituted by the molar concentrations of the chemical species. K c is also
referred to as K eq . The equilibrium-constant expression depends only on the
stoichiometry of the reaction, not on its mechanism.
Reactions with reacting species that are in the same phase are known
to be homogenous equilibrium. Consider the following reactions.
N2O4 (g) 2NO2 (g)
Both are in the gas phase
[𝑁𝑂2 ]2
𝐾𝑐 =
[𝑁2 𝑂4 ]
59
HF (aq) +C2O42- (aq) 2F-(aq) + H2C2O4 (aq)
All are in the aqueous phase
[𝐻]2 [𝐻2 𝐶2 𝑂4]

𝐾𝑐 =
[𝐻𝐹][𝐶2 𝑂2 2− ]
For equilibrium reactions where the products and the reactants are in
different phase, heterogeneous equilibrium, pure solids and pure liquids are
excluded in writing equilibrium constant expressions. This is because the mass
of a pure solid substance is doubled; its volume is also doubled. Consider the
following examples.
CO2 (g) + H2 (g) CO (g) + H2O (l)
[𝐶𝑂]
𝐾𝑐 = [𝐶𝑂
2 ][𝐻2 ] Pure liquid
SnO2 (s) + 2 CO (g) Sn2 (s) + 2CO2 (g)

[𝐶𝑂2 ]2
𝐾𝑐 =
Pure solid [𝐶𝑂]2 Pure solid
PbCl2 (s) Pb2+ (aq) + 2Cl- (aq)

Pure solid 𝐾𝑐 = [𝑃𝑏 2+ ][𝐶𝑙 − ]2
EXAMPLES:
1. Write the equilibrium constant Kc for the following reversible reactions at

equilibrium.
a. HF (aq) + H2O (l) H3O+ (aq) + F- (aq)
b. 2NO (g) + O2 (g) 2NO2 (g)
c. CH3COOH (aq) + C2H5OH (aq) CH3COOC2H5 (aq) + H2O (l)
a. Solution
[𝐻3 𝑂 + ][𝐹− ]
𝐾𝑐 = [𝐻𝐹]
60
b. Solution
[𝑁𝑂 ]2
𝐾𝑐 = [𝑁𝑂]22[𝑂
2]
c. Solution
[𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐶2 𝐻5 ]
𝐾𝑐 = [𝐶𝐻
3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻] [𝐶2 𝐻5 𝑂𝐻]
2. Write the equilibrium constant Kc for the decomposition of nitrogen

pentoxide.
2N2O5 (g) 4NO2 (g) + O2 (g
Solution
[𝑁𝑂2 ]4 [[𝑂2 ]
𝐾𝑐 = [𝑁2 𝑂5 ]2
COMPUTATION FOR THE EQULIBRIUM CONSTANT, Kc

𝐾𝑐 = [𝐴]𝑎[𝐵]𝑏
The equlibrium constant (Kc or Keq) is defined by a quotient having the
product as the numerator and the reactant as the denominator. The magnitude
of the equlibrium tells whether an equlibrium reaction favors the products or
reactants. That is (Figure 5):
• If Kc is much greater than 1 (Kc ≫ 1), the equilibrium will lie to the
right and favours the products.
• If Kc is much lesser than 1 (Kc ≪ 1), the equilibrium will lie to the
left and favours the reactants.
Figure 5. (a) At equilibrium, there are more products than reactants, and the
equilibrium is said to lie to the right. (b) There are more reactants than the
products and the equilibrium is said to lie to the left.
61
EXAMPLES
1. Gaseous hydrogen iodide is placed in a closed container at 4250C, where it

partially decomposes to hydrogen and iodine. At equilibrium, it is found that
[HI] = 3.53 * 10-3 M, [H2] = 4.79 * 10-4 M and [I2] = 4.79 * 10-4 M. What is the
value of Kc at this temperature? At what side will the equilibrium lie? The
chemical reaction is given by:
2HI H2 (g) + I2 (g)
Solution
[𝐻2 ] [𝐼2 ] [4.79∗10−4 ] [4.79∗10 −4 ]
𝐾𝑐 = = = 0.0184
[𝐻𝐼]2 [3.53∗10−3 ]2
Since the computed Kc is lesser than 1, the equilibrium will lie to

the left and it favors the reactant.
2. Carbonyl chloride (phosgene) was used in WWI as a poisonous gas. At
740C, [CO] = 1.2 * 10-2 M, [Cl2] = 0.054 M, and [COCl2] = 0. 14 M. Calculate
Kc and determine at what side will the equilibrium lie. The chemical reaction
is given by:
CO (g) + Cl2 (g) COCl2
Solution
[𝐶𝑂𝐶𝑙 ] [0.14]
𝐾𝑐 = [𝐶𝑂][𝐻2 ] = [1.2 ∗ 10−3] [0.054] = 2165.49
2
Since the computed Kc is greater than 1, the equilibrium will lie to

the right and it favours the product.
SUMMARY OF GUIDELINES FOR WRITING EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT

EXPRESSION, KC
1. The concentrations of the reacting species in the condensed phase
𝑚𝑜𝑙
are expressed in ; in the gaseous phase, the concentrations can
𝐿
𝑚𝑜𝑙
be expressed in .
𝐿
62
2. The concentrations of pure solids, pure liquids (in heterogeneous
equilibria), and solvents (in homogenous equilibria) do not appear in
the equilibrium constant expressions.
3. The equilibrium constant Kc is a dimensionless quantity.
4. In quoting a value for the equilibrium constant, always apply the
balanced equation and the temperature.
REACTION QUOTIENT AND THE DIRECTION OF A REACTION

The direction of a reaction is determined using the reaction quotient
Qc. A reaction quotient is a number obtained by substituting reactant and
product concentrations at any point during a reaction into an equilibrium-
constant expression. The general reaction is given by
where A, B, C and D are the chemical species and lower case letters are the
stoichiometric coefficients of the reactants and the products. The reaction
quotient in terms of molar concentrations is given by
𝑄𝑐 = [𝐴]𝑎[𝐵]𝑏
To determine the direction in which the net reaction will proceed to achieve
equilibrium, Kc and Qc are used. The three possible cases (Figure 6) are as
follows:
• Qc < Kc The ratio of initial concentrations of products to reactants is
too small. To reach equilibrium, reactants must be converted
to products. The system proceeds from left to right
(consuming reactants, forming products) to reach equilibrium.
• Qc = Kc The initial concentrations are equilibrium concentrations. The
system is at equilibrium.
• Qc > Kc The ratio of initial concentrations of products to reactants is
too large. To reach equilibrium, products must be converted
to reactants. The system proceeds from right to left
(consuming products, forming reactants) to reach equilibrium.
63
Figure 6. The direction of reversible reaction to reach equilibrium depends on the relative
magnitudes of Qc and Kc.
EXAMPLES:
1. At the start of a reaction, there are 0.249 mol N2, 3.21 * 10-2 mol H2 and 6.42
* 10-4 mol NH3 in a 3.50-L reaction vessel. If the equilibrium constant (Kc) for
the reaction is 1.2 at this temperature, decide whether the system is at
equilibrium. If it is not, predict which way the net reaction will proceed. The
reaction is given by
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3 (g)
Solution
▪ Compute for the initial concentration of the reacting species
0.249 𝑚𝑜𝑙
[N2] = = 0.0711 𝑀
3.50 𝐿
3.21 ∗ 10−2 𝑚𝑜𝑙
[N2] = = 9.17 ∗ 10−3 M
3.50 𝐿
6.42 ∗ 10−4 𝑚𝑜𝑙
[NH3] = = 1.83 ∗ 10−4 M
3.50 𝐿
▪ Compute for Qc
[𝑁𝐻3 ]2 [1.83∗10−4 ]2
Qc = [𝑁 3
= [0.0711][[9.17∗10−4]3 = 0.56
2 ][𝐻2 ]
▪ Decision
Qc = 0.56 > 1.2, the system is not in equilibrium. The net
result will be an increase in the concentration of NH3 and
a decrease in the concentrations of N2 and H2. The net
reaction will proceed from left to right until equilibrium is
reached.
64
2. The Kc for the formation of nitrosyl chloride, an orange-yellow compound,
from nitric oxide and molecular chlorine is 6.5 * 104. In a certain experiment,
2.0 * 10-2 mole of NO, 2.0 * 10-3 mole of Cl2, and 6.8 moles of NOCl are
mixed in 2.0-L flask. In which direction will the system proceed to reach
equilibrium? The reaction is given by
2NO (g) + Cl2 (g) 2NOCl (g)
Solution
▪ Comput for the initial concentration of the reacting species
2.0 ∗ 10−2 𝑚𝑜𝑙
[NO] = = 0.01 𝑀
2.0 𝐿
8.3 ∗ 10−3 𝑚𝑜𝑙
[Cl2] = = 0.00415 M
2.0 𝐿
6.8 𝑚𝑜𝑙
[NOCl] = = 3.4 M
2.0 𝐿
▪ Compute for Qc
[𝑁𝑂𝐶𝑙]2 [3.4]2
Qc = [𝑁𝑂]2[𝐶𝑙 ] = [0.01] 0.00415]2 = 6.71 * 107
2
▪ Decision
▪ Qc = 6.71 * 107 > 6.5 * 104, the system is not in equilibrium.
The net result will be a decrease in the concentration of NOCl
and an increase in the concentrations of NO and Cl2. The net
reaction will proceed from right to left until equilibrium is
reached.
Explain chemical equilibrium in terms of the reaction rates of the forward and
reverse reaction (STEM_GC11CT-IVa-b-145)
65
Activity 1: PROBLEM SETS
A. Directions: Read carefully each of the following items. Choose the letter
that correspond to the best answer and write it on the answer sheet.
1. Which of the following is TRUE for a chemical reaction at equilibrium?
a. only the forward reaction stops
b. only the reverse reaction stops
c. both the forward and reverse reactions stops
d. the rate constant for the forward and backward reactions are equal
e. the rates of the forward and backward reactions are equal
2. Which of the following is TRUE regarding the concentration of products,
for a chemical reaction that is already at equilibrium assuming no
disruptions to the equilibrium?
a. The concentrations of products will not change because there are
no more reactants.
b. The concentrations of products will not change because the
limiting reagent is gone.
c. The concentrations of products will not change because the
forward and reverse rates are equal
d. The concentrations of products will change continually because
of reversibility.
3. Which of the following are equal for a chemical system at equilibrium? If
all are equal, answer e.
a. The concentrations of reactants and products are equal
b. The rate constant for the forward and reverse reactions are equal
c. The time that a particular atom or molecule spends as a reactant
and product are equal
d. The rate of the forward and reverse reaction
e. All of the above are equal
66
4. A chemical equilibrium may be established by starting a reaction with
____________________.
a. reactants only
b. products only
c. equal quantities of reactants and products
d. any quantities of reactants and products
e. all of the above
5. An equilibrium that strongly favors products has ______________.
a. a value of K≪ 1 d. a value of Q ≪ 1
b. a value of K ≫ 1 e. K = Q
c. a value of Q ≫ 1
6. The equilibrium constant for the acid ionization of mercaptoethanol is
1.91 * 10-10. The reaction is given by
HSCH2CH2OH (aq) H+(aq) + SCH2CH2OH- (aq)
Which of the following statements is true regarding this equilibrium?
I. The reaction is product favored.
II. The reaction is reactant favored
III. Equilibrium lies far to the right
IV. Equilibrium lies far to the left
a. I and III d. II and IV
b. I and IV e. None are true
c. II and III
7. The equilibrium constant for the formation of hydrogen iodide from iodine
is 45 at a certain temperature.
H2 (g) + I2 (g) 2HI
Which of the following statements is true regarding this equilibrium?
I. The reaction is product favored.
II. The reaction is reactant favored
III. Equilibrium lies far to the right
IV. Equilibrium lies far to the left
a. I and III d. II and IV
b. I and IV e. None are true
c. II and III
67
8. If the reaction quotient Qc has a smaller value than the related
equilibrium constant Kc, ______________________.
a. the reaction is at equilibrium
b. the reaction is not at equilibrium, and will make more products at
the expense of the reactants
c. the reaction is not at equilibrium, and will make more reactants at
the expense of the products
d. the value of Kc will decrease until it is equal to Q
e. the reaction favors the products
9. If the reaction quotient Qc has a smaller value than the related
equilibrium constant Kc, ______________________.
a. the reaction is at equilibrium
b. the reaction is not at equilibrium, and will make more products at
the expense of the reactants
c. the reaction is not at equilibrium, and will make more reactants at
the expense of the products
d. the value of Kc will decrease until it is equal to Q
e. the reaction favors the products
10. If the equilibrium is established by initially adding 0.10 mol each of A
and B to a 1L container, then which of the following must be true once
the mixture achieves equilibrium?
A + 2B 2C Kc = 320
a. [A] = [B] d. [A] > [B]
b. [A] = [B] = [C] e. [A] < [B]
c. [B] = 2[C]
11. Which of the following is the correct equilibrium expression for the
following reaction:
man + woman couple
[𝑚𝑎𝑛][𝑤𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑛] [𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑒]
a. Kc= d. [𝑚𝑎𝑛][𝑤𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑛]
[𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑒]
[𝑚𝑎𝑛]+ [𝑤𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑛]
b. Kc= e. Kc = [couple] – [man] –
[𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑒]
[woman]
c. Kc = [man] [woman] [couple]
68
12. Which of the following is the correct equilibrium expression for the
following reaction assuming homogeneity:
fool (money)10 fool + 10money
a. Kc= [fool(money)10] [fool] [money]
[𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑙][𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑦]10
b. Kc = [𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑙(𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑦)
10 ]
c. Kc = [fool(money)10] [fool] [money]

[𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑙(𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑦)10 ]10
d. Kc = [𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑙][𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑦]
e. Kc = [fool] + 10[money] – [fool(money)10]

13. For the following hypothetical equilibrium, what is the value of the
equilibrium constant if the concentrations at equilibrium are shown as
A(g) + 2B(g) 2C(g)
when A = 4.5 * 10-5M; B = 2.2 * 10-2M; and C = 2.2 * 10-3M
a. 0. 22 d. 2.3 * 108
b. 9.9 e. 9.5 * 103
c. 4.3 * 105
14. For the following hypothetical equilibrium, what is the value of the
equilibrium constant if the concentrations at equilibrium are shown as
A(aq) + 2B(aq) 2C(aq) + D(aq)
when A = 4.5 * 10-5M; B = 2.2 * 10-2M; C=2.2 * 10-3M; and
D = 1.2 * 10-2M
a. 52 d. 65
b. 32 e. 49
c. 67
15. All of the following are NOT seen in a equilibrium-constant expression
EXCEPT _______ of the reacting species
a. amount d. state
b. molar concentration e. molal concentration
c. phase
69
B. Directions: Evaluate the following expressions. Write HM if the equilibrium
is homogenous and write HT if it is heterogeneous.
1. 3NO(g) N2O (g) + NO2 (g)
2. CH4 (g) + 2H2S (g) CS2 (g) + 4H2 (g)
3. Ni(CO)4 (g) Ni (s) + 4CO (g)
4. HF (aq) H+(aq) + F-(aq)
5. 2Ag (s) + Zn2+(aq) Ag +(aq) + Zn (s)
6. 2C2H4 (g) + 2H2O (g) 2C2H6 (g) + O2 (g)
7. C (s) + 2H2 (g) CH4 (g)
8. 4HCl (aq) + O2 (g) 2H2O (l) + 2Cl2 (g)
9. C (s) + O2 (g) 2CO (g)
10. 2HgO (s) 2Hg (l) + O2 (g)
Activity 2: EQUILIBRIUM-CONSTANT EXPRESSION, KC

A. Directions: Write the equilibrium constant for the following reactions.
1. NaHCO3 (s) Na2CO3 (s) + CO2 (g) + H2O (g)
2. CaSO4 (s) CaO (s) + SO2 (g) + O2 (g)
3. CO2 (g) CO (g) + O2 (g)
4. O2 (g) O3 (g)
5. HCOOH (aq) H+(aq) + HCOO- (aq)
6. HgO (s) Hg (l) + O2 (g)
7. NO2 (g) + H2 (g) NH3 (g) + H2O (l)
8. ZnS (s) + O2 (g) ZnO (s) + SO2 (g)
9. C (s) + CO2 (g) CO (g)
10. C6H5COOH (aq) C6H5COO- (aq) + H+(aq)
11. NH4CO2NH2 (s) NH3 (g) + CO2 (g)
12. Br2 (g) Br (g)
13. N2O3 (g) NO2 (g) + NO (g)
14. H2S (g) H2 (g) + S2 (g)
15. NO (g) + H2 (g) N2 (g) + H2O (g)
16. HCl (g) + O2 (g) Cl2 (g) + H2O (g)
17. NOBr (g) NO (g) + Br2 (g)
70
18. Na2CO3 (s) + SO2 (g) + O2 (g) Na2SO4 (s) + CO2 (g)
19. PbI2 (s) Pb 2+ (aq) + I- (g)
20. Fe 3+ (aq) + OH- (aq) Fe(OH)3 (s)
B. Directions: Write the balanced reaction for the given equilibrium-

constant expressions. All the reacting species are in the gas phase.
[𝐶𝑂2 ]2 [𝐻2 𝑂]4
1. Kc = [𝐶3 𝐻8 ][𝑂2 ]5
[𝐻2 𝑂]2 [𝑆𝑂2 ]2

2. Kc = [𝐻2 𝑆] [𝑂2 ]3
[𝑁𝑂2 ]4 [𝑂2 ]
3. Kc = [𝑁2 𝑂5 ]2
[𝑁𝐻3 ]4 [𝑂2 ]5
4. Kc =
[𝑁𝑂]4 [𝐻2 𝑂]6
[𝑍𝑛(𝑁𝐻 )2+ ]
3
5. Kc = [𝑍𝑛2+][𝑁𝐻 2
3]
Activity 3: CALCULATING EQUILIBRIUM-CONSTANT, KC

Directions: Read and solve the following problems. Show your complete
solution. Final answer must be rounded-off in two decimal places.
1. Consider the equilibrium at 7000C:
2H2 (g) + S2 (g) 2H2S (g)
Analysis shows that there are 2.5 moles of H2; 1.35 * 10-5 mole S2;
and 8.70 moles H2S present in a 12.0 – L flask. Calculate the
equilibrium constant for the reaction. At what side will the equilibrium
lie?
2. A reaction vessel contains NH3, N2 and H2 at equilibrium at 890.760C.
The equilibrium concentrations are [NH3] = 0.25 M; [N2] = 0. 11 M;
and [H2] = 1.91 M. Calculate the equilibrium constant for the reaction.
At what side will the equilibrium lie?
1 3
N2 (g) + 2H2 (g) NH3 (g)
2
3. Consider the following reaction at 16000C:

Br2 (g) 2Br (g)
71
when 1.05 moles of Br2 are put in a 0.980-L flask, 1.20 percent of the
Br2 undergoes dissociation. Calculate the equilibrium constant for the
reaction. At what side will the equilibrium lie?
4. Methanol is manufactured industrially by the reaction
CO (g) + 2H2 (g) CH3OH (g)
A gaseous mixture at 500K is 0.020 M CH3OH; 0.10 M CO; and 0.10
M H2. Calculate the equilibrium constant for the reaction if the
temperature is 300K. At what side will the equilibrium lie?
5. Pure phosgene gas was placed in a 435-mL container with a
temperature of 767K. The phosgene gas dissociates to CO and Cl 2.
It was found out that the concentrations of the reacting species at that
temperature are [COCl2] = 1.6 M; [CO] = 1.3 M; [Cl2] = 0.06 M. What
is the equilibrium constant for the reaction? At what side will the
equilibrium lie? The reaction is given by
COCl2 (g) CO (g) + Cl2 (g)
6. In a 1767.3-mL sealed container was a mixture of 0.13 mole Na2CO3;
1.21 moles SO2; 0.53 mole O2; 1.93 moles Na2SO4; and 0.07 mole
CO2 at 670C. What is the equilibrium constant for the reaction at
450K? At what side will the equilibrium lie? The reaction is given by
1
Na2CO3 (s) + SO2 (g) + 2O2 (g) Na2SO4 (s) + CO2 (g)
7. Ammonium carbanate decomposes as follows

NH4CO2NH2 (s) 2NH3 (g) + CO2 (g)
If the mixture is placed in a sealed steel 7.69-dm3 vessel and the
amount of the reacting species are [NH4CO2NH2] = 0.45 mole; [NH3]
= 0.21 mole; [CO2] = 1.32 moles, what is the equilibrium constant for
the reaction? At what side will the equilibrium lie?
8. Consider the reaction of carbon and hydrogen gas to form methane.
Experiment shows that at 3630C, there are 4.0 moles C; 0.4 mole H2;
and 1.3 moles CH4 in a 10 dm3. What is the equilibrium constant for
the reaction? At what side will the equilibrium lie? The reaction is
given by
C (s) + 2H2 (g) CH4 (g)
72
9. At 657K, the following reaction occurs in a 1.25-L sealed container.
CH4 (g) + 2H2S (g) CS2 (g) + 4H2 (g)
It was found out that the mixture contains 1.25 moles CH4; 0.89 mole
H2S; 2.41 moles CS2; and 0.2 mole H2. What is the equilibrium
constant for the reaction at that temperature? At what side will the
equilibrium lie?
10. At 5650C, the following reaction happens
2HgO (s) 2Hg (l) + O2 (g)
If the reaction mixture is placed in a 2354.21-mL sealed steel tank
container and it contains [HgO] = 1.2 M; [Hg] = 2.3 M; and [O2] = 0.21
M. What is equilibrium constant for the reaction at that temperature?
At what side will the equilibrium lie?
Activity 4: CALCULATING REACTION QUOTIENT, QC

Directions: Read and solve the following problems. Show your complete
solution. Final answer must be rounded-off in two decimal places.
1. A 50-L reaction vessel contains 1.0 moles N2; 3.0 moles H2 and 0.5 mole
NH3. Will more NH3 be formed or it will dissociate when the mixture goes
to equilibrium at 4000C. the equation is given by
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3 (g)
Calculate for the reaction quotient of the reaction. At what side will the
equilibrium shift if the equilibrium constant of the reaction is 0.50 at
4000C?
2. A 10-L vessel contains 0.0015 mole CO2; 1.0 mole C; and 0.10 mole CO.
If a small amount of carbon is added to this vessel and the temperature
is reached to 10000C, will more carbon monoxide form? What is the
reaction quotient of the reaction. At what side will the equilibrium shift if
the equilibrium constant of the reaction is 1.17 at that temperature? The
reaction is given by
C (s) + CO2 (g) 2CO (g)
3. The following equilibrium process has been studied at 4580C.
1
Na2CO3 (s) + SO2 (g) + 2O2 (g) Na2SO4 (s) + CO2 (g)
73
In one experiment, the amount of the reacting species at equilibrium are
found to be [Na2CO3] = 0.645 mole; [SO2] = 0.65 mole; [O2] = 0.67 mole;
[Na2SO4] = 1.3 moles; and [CO2] = 0.015 mole. Assuming that the
volume of the gas in the container is 988 mL at 4980C, what is the
reaction quotient of the reaction? At what side will the equilibrium shift if
the equilibrium constant of the reaction is 1.3 at that temperature?
4. The equilibrium concentration for the reaction between hydrochloric acid
and oxygen gas to form liquid water and chlorine gas is given by
4HCl (g) + O2 (g) 2Cl2 (g) + 2H2O (l)
At 7600C, the concentration of the reacting species are [HCl] = 1.79 M;
[O2] = 0.14 M; [H2O] = 0.45 M; and [Cl2] = 3.45 M. Calculate the reaction
quotient of the reaction if it is contained in a 675-mL container and Kc is
5.22. At what side will the equilibrium shift?
5. At the start of the reaction, there are 0.167 mole C2H4; 0.394 mole H2O;
1.17 mole C2H6 and 0.23 mole O2 in a 7963- mL tank at 9800C. If the
equilibrium constant for this reaction at 5000C is 2.67, what is the
reaction quotient? Predict at which direction side the net reaction will
proceed. The reaction is given by
2C2H4 (g) + 2H2O (g) 2C2H6 (g) + O2 (g)
6. A mixture of 0.16 mole hydrogen gas and 1.3 moles sulfur gas to form
0.46 mole dihydrogen sulfide is placed in a 54.36-mL steel container.
Assuming that the equilibrium constant of the reaction at 706.45K is
0.76, in what direction will the system proceed? The reaction is
2H2 (g) + S2 (g) 2H2S (g)
7. The equilibrium constant for the formation of calcium sulphate from the
reaction of calcium oxide, sulphur dioxide and oxygen gas is 2.67 at
790C. In a certain experiment, 0.10 mole CaO; 1.2 moles SO2; 0.12 mole
O2; and 1.8 moles CaSO4 are mixed in a 3.45-L container. In which
direction will the system proceed? The reaction is
2CaO (s) + 2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) 2CaSO4 (s)
8. At 12800C, the Kc for the reaction
2ZnS (s) + 3O2 (g) 2ZnO (s) + 2SO2 (g)
is 1.68. if the reacting species is placed in a 3.21-L sealed container and
the concentrations are as follows: [ZnS] = 1.2 M; [O 2] = 0.17 M; [ZnO] =
74
1.2 M; and [SO2] = 3.1 M, what will be the reaction quotient of the
reaction? To which direction will the system proceed?
9. The reaction
2NOBr (g) 2NO (g) + Br2 (g)
has a Kc of 0.018 at 670C. The reacting species are placed in a 1700-
cm3 sealed container with amounts [NOBr] = 3.94 moles; [NO] = 1.34
moles; and [Br2] = 1.67 moles. What will be the value of Qc? To which
direction will the system proceed?
10. A mixture of 1.12 moles NO2; 0.2 moles H2; 0.16 mole NH3 and 0.04
mole H2O is placed in a 473.0-cm3 steel container. Calculate Qc
assuming that Kc of the reaction is 1.29 at 980K. To which direction will
the system proceed? The reaction is given by
2NO2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3 (g) + H2O (l)
Reflection
1. I learned that ___________________________________________

___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________
2. I enjoyed most on _________________________________________

____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
3. I want to learn more on __________________________________________

____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
75
References
Brown, T.L. et al. Chemistry: The Central Science (12th ed., pp. 610-649).
Pearson Prentice Hall. USA
Chang, R. (2010). Chemistry (10th ed., pp. 614-657). McGraw-Hill, Inc.,
USA.
Ebbing, D.D & Gammon, S.D. (2017). General Chemistry (9th ed., 580-622).
Houghton Mifflin Company, USA.
76
ANSWER KEY
ACTIVITY 1
A. Multiple Choice
1. e
2. c
3. d
4. e
5. b
6. d
7. a
8. b
9. c
10. d
11. d
12. b
13. c
14. e
15. b
B. Homogenous or Heterogeneous
1. HM
2. HM
3. HT
4. HM
5. HT
6. HM
7. HT
8. HT
9. HT
10. HT
77
ACTIVITY 2
A. Writing the equilibrium constant
1. 2NaHCO3 (s) Na2CO3 (s) + CO2 (g) + H2O (g)
Kc = [𝐶𝑂2 ][𝐻2 𝑂]
2. 2CaSO4 (s) 2CaO (s) + 2SO2 (g) + O2 (g)
KC = [𝑆𝑂2 ]2 [𝑂2]
3. 2CO2 (g) 2CO (g) + O2 (g)
[𝐶𝑂]2 [𝑂2 ]
KC = [𝐶𝑂2 ]2
4. 3O2 (g) 2O3 (g)

[𝑂 ]2
KC = [𝑂3]3
2
5. HCOOH (aq) H+(aq) + HCOO- (aq)

[𝐻 + ][[𝐻𝐶𝑂𝑂− ]
KC = [𝐻𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻]
6. 2HgO (s) 2Hg (l) + O2 (g)

KC = [𝑂2 ]
7. 2NO2 (g) + 7H2 (g) 2NH3 (g) + 4H2O (l)
[𝑁𝐻3 ]2
KC = [𝑁𝑂 2 [𝐻 ]7
2] 2
8. 2ZnS (s) + 3O2 (g) 2ZnO (s) + 2SO2 (g)

[𝑆𝑂2 ]2
KC = [𝑂2 ]3
9. C (s) + CO2 (g) 2CO (g)

[𝐶𝑂]2
KC = [𝐶𝑂
2]
10. C6H5COOH (aq) C6H5COO- (aq) + H+(aq)

[𝐶6 𝐻5 𝐶𝑂𝑂− ][𝐻 + ]
KC = [𝐶6 𝐻5 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻]
11. NH4CO2NH2 (s) 2NH3 (g) + CO2 (g)

KC = [𝑁𝐻3 ]2 [𝐶𝑂2 ]
12. Br2 (g) 2Br (g)
[𝐵𝑟]2
KC = [𝐵𝑟2 ]
13. N2O3 (g) NO2 (g) + NO (g)

[𝑁𝑂2 ][𝑁𝑂]
KC = [𝑁2 𝑂3 ]
78
14. 2H2S (g) 2H2 (g) + S2 (g)
[𝐻2 ]2 [𝑆2 ]
KC = [𝐻2 𝑆]
15. 2NO (g) + 2H2 (g) N2 (g) + 2H2O (g)

[𝑁 ][𝐻 𝑂]2
2 2
KC = [𝑁𝑂] 2 [𝐻 2
2]
1
16. 2HCl (g) + 2O2 (g) Cl2 (g) + H2O (g)
[𝐶𝑙2 ][𝐻2 𝑂]
KC = 1
[𝐻𝐶𝑙]2 [𝑂2 ]2
17. NOBr (g) 2NO (g) + Br2 (g)

[𝑁𝑂]2 [𝐵𝑟2 ]
KC = [𝑁𝑂𝐵𝑟]
1
18. Na2CO3 (s) + SO2 (g) + 2O2 (g) Na2SO4 (s) + CO2 (g)
[𝐶02 ]
KC = 1
[𝑆𝑂2 ][𝑂2 ]2
19. PbI2 (s) Pb 2+ (aq) + 2I- (g)

KC = [𝑃𝑏 2+ ][𝐼 − ]
20. Fe 3+ (aq) + OH- (aq) Fe(OH)3 (s)
1
KC =[𝐹𝑒 3+][𝑂𝐻 −]
B. Writing the balanced reaction from Kc

[𝐶𝑂2 ]2 [𝐻2 𝑂]4
1. Kc = [𝐶3 𝐻8 ][𝑂2 ]5
C3H8 (g) + 5O2 (g) 2CO2 (g) + 4H2O (g)

[𝐻2 𝑂]2 [𝑆𝑂2 ]2
2. Kc = [𝐻2 𝑆] [𝑂2 ]3
H2S (g) + 3O2 (g) 2H2O (g) + 2SO2 (g)

[𝑁𝑂2 ]4 [𝑂2 ]
3. Kc = [𝑁2 𝑂5 ]2
2N2O5 (g) 4NO2 (g) + O2 (g)

[𝑁𝐻 ]4 [𝑂2 ]5
4. Kc = [𝑁𝑂]34 [𝐻 6
2 𝑂]
4NO (g) + 6H2O (g) 4NH3 (g) + 5O2 (g)

[𝑍𝑛(𝑁𝐻 )2+ ]
3
5. Kc = [𝑍𝑛2+][𝑁𝐻 2
3]
Zn2+ (g) + 2NH3 (g) Zn(NH3)2+ (g)
79
ACTIVITY 3
1. H2 = 2.5 moles = 0.21 M
S2 = 1.35 * 10-5 moles = 1.125 * 10-6 M
H2S = 8.70 moles = 0. 73 M
[0.73]2
𝐾𝑐 = 1.07 ∗ 107
[0.21]2 [1.125 ∗ 10−6 ]
Kc ≫ 1, the equilibrium will lie to the right and favours the product
2. [NH3] = 0.25 M
[N2] = 0. 11 M
[H2] = 1.91 M
[0.25]
𝐾𝑐 = 1 3 = 0.29
[0.11]2 [1.91]2
Kc ≪ 1, the equilibrium will lie to the left and favours the reactant
3. Br2 = 1.05 moles = 1.07 M
Br = 1.05 moles * 1.20% = 0.0126 mole = 0.01 M
[0.01]2
𝐾𝑐 = = 9.35 ∗ 10−5
[1.07]
4. CH3OH = 0.020 M
CO = 0.10 M
H2 = 0.10
[0.020]
𝐾𝑐 = = 20
[0.10][0.10]2
5. [COCl2] = 1.6 M
[CO] = 1.3 M
[Cl2] = 0.06 M
[1.3][0.06]
𝐾𝑐 = = 0.05
[1.6]
6. Na2CO3 = 0.13 mole = 0.07 M
SO2 = 1.21 moles = 0.68 M
O2 = 0.53 mole = 0.30
Na2SO4 = 1.93 moles = 1.09
80
CO2 = 0.07 mole = 0.04
[0.04]
𝐾𝑐 = 1 = 0.11
[0.68][0.30]2
7. [NH4CO2NH2] = 0.45 mole = 0.06 M
[NH3] = 0.21 mole = 0.03 M
[CO2] = 1.32 moles = 0.17 M
𝐾𝑐 = [0.03]2 [0.17] = 1.53 ∗ 10−4
8. C = 4.0 moles = 0.4 M
H2 = 0.4 mole = 0.04 M
CH4= 1.3 moles = 0.13 M
[0.13]
𝐾𝑐 = = 81.25
[0.04]2
9. CH4 = 1.25 moles = 1 M
H2S = 0.89 mole = 0. 71 M
CS2 = 2.41 moles = 1.93 M
H2 = 0.2 mole = 0. 16 M
[1.93][0.16]4
𝐾𝑐 = = 2.51 ∗ 10−3
[1][0.71]2
10. [HgO] = 1.2 M
[Hg] = 2.3 M
[O2] = 0.21 M
𝐾𝑐 = [0.21] = 0.21
81
ACTIVITY 4
1. N2 = 1.0 moles = 0.02 M
H2= 3.0 moles = 0.06
NH3 = 0.5 mole = 0.01
Kc = 0.50
[0.01]2
𝑄𝑐 = = 23.15
[0.02][0.06]3
Qc > Kc, the system is not in equilibrium. To attain equilibrium,
products must be converted to reactants.
2. CO2 = 0.0015 mole = 0.00015 M
C = 1.0 mole = 0.1 M
CO = 0.10 mole = 0.01
Kc = 1.17
[0.01]2
𝑄𝑐 = = 0.67
[0.00015]
Qc < Kc, the system is not in equilibrium. To attain equilibrium,
reactants must be converted to products.
3. [Na2CO3] = 0.645 mole = 0.65 M
[SO2] = 0.65 mole = 0.66 M
[O2] = 0.67 mole = 0.68 M
[Na2SO4] = 1.3 moles = 1.32 M
[CO2] = 0.015 mole = 0.02
Kc = 1.3
[0.02]
𝑄𝑐 = 1 = 0.04
[0.66][0.68]2
4. [HCl] = 1.79 M
[O2] = 0.14 M
[H2O] = 0.45 M
[Cl2] = 3.45 M
Kc = 5.22
[3.45]2
𝑄𝑐 = = 8.28
[1.79]4 [0.14]
82
5. C2H4 = 0.167 mole = 0.21 M
H2O = 0.394 mole = 0.49 M
C2H6 = 1.17 mole = 1.47
O2 = 0.23 mole = 0.29 M
Kc = 2.67
[1.47]2 [0.29]
𝑄𝑐 = = 59.18
[0.21]2 [0.49]2
6. S2 = 1.3 moles = 23.91 M
H2 = 0.16 mole = 2.94 M
H2S = 0.46 mole = 8.46 M
Kc = 0.76
[8.46]2
𝑄𝑐 = = 0.35
[2.94]2 [23.91]
7. CaO = 0.10 mole = 0.03 M
SO2 = 1.2 moles = 0.35 M
O2 = 0.12 mole = 0.03 M
CaSO4 = 1.8 moles = 0.52 M
KC = 2.67
1
𝑄𝑐 = = 272.11
[0.35]2 [0.03]
8. [ZnS] = 1.2 M
[O2] = 0.17 M
[ZnO] = 1.2 M
[SO2] = 3.1 M
KC = 1.68
83
[3.1]2
𝑄𝑐 = = 332.53
[0.17]2
9. [NOBr] = 3.94 moles = 2.32 M
[NO] = 1.34 moles = 0.79 M
[Br2] = 1.67 moles = 0.98 M
KC = 0.018
[0.79]2 [0.98]
𝑄𝑐 = = 0.11
[2.32]2

10. NH3 = 0.16 mole = 0.34 M
H2O = 0.04 mole = 0.08 M
NO2 = 1.12 moles = 2.37 M
H2 = 0.2 moles = 0.42 M
Kc = 1.29
[0.34]2
𝑄𝑐 = = 0.28
[2.37]2 [0.42]3
Prepared by:
GRACE ANN M. CALIBOSO - AGCAOILI
David M. Puzon Memorial National High School
84
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2
Name: ____________________________ Grade Level: _________
Date: _____________________________ Score: ______________

CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
In a chemical reaction, chemical equilibrium is the state in which both

reactants and products are present in concentrations which have no further
tendency to change with time, so that there is no observable change in the
properties of the system. Usually, this state results when the forward reaction
proceeds at the same rate as the reverse reaction. The reaction rates of the
forward and backward reactions are generally not zero, but equal. Thus, there
are no net changes in the concentrations of the reactant(s) and product(s).
Such a state is known as dynamic equilibrium.
Historical Introduction
The concept of chemical equilibrium was developed and found that

some chemical reactions are reversible. For any reaction mixture to exist at
equilibrium, the rates of the forward and backward (reverse) reactions are
equal. In the following chemical equation with arrows pointing both ways to
indicate equilibrium,[5] A and B are reactant chemical species, S and T are
product species, and α, β, σ, and τ are the stoichiometric coefficients of the
respective reactants and products:
αA+βB⇌σS+τT
The equilibrium concentration position of a reaction is said to lie "far to the

right" if, at equilibrium, nearly all the reactants are consumed. Conversely the
equilibrium position is said to be "far to the left" if hardly any product is formed
from the reactants.
Guldberg and Waage (1865), building on Berthollet's ideas, proposed the law
of mass action:
Forward reaction rate =k+ Aα Bβ

backward reaction rate = K_Sϭ Tϯ
where A, B, S and T are active masses and k+ and k− are rate constants.
Since at equilibrium forward and backward rates are equal:
K+ {A}α {B}β = K_{S}ϭ {T}t
85
and the ratio of the rate constants is also a constant, now known as
an equilibrium constant.
Kc= Kt = {S}ϭ {T}t

k {A}ϭ {B}β
By convention the products form the numerator. However, the law of

mass action is valid only for concerted one-step reactions that proceed through
a single transition state and is not valid in general because rate equations do
not, in general, follow the stoichiometry of the reaction as Guldberg and Waage
had proposed (see, for example, nucleophilic aliphatic substitution by SN1 or
reaction of hydrogen and bromine to form hydrogen bromide). Equality of
forward and backward reaction rates, however, is a necessary condition for
chemical equilibrium, though it is not sufficient to explain why equilibrium
occurs.
Despite the failure of this derivation, the equilibrium constant for a

reaction is indeed a constant, independent of the activities of the various
species involved, though it does depend on temperature as observed by
the van 't Hoff equation. Adding a catalyst will affect both the forward reaction
and the reverse reaction in the same way and will not have an effect on the
equilibrium constant. The catalyst will speed up both reactions thereby
increasing the speed at which equilibrium is reached.
Although the macroscopic equilibrium concentrations are constant in

time, reactions do occur at the molecular level. For example, in the case
of acetic acid dissolved in water and forming acetate and hydronium ions,
CH3CO2H + H2O ⇌ CH3CO−2 + H3O+
a proton may hop from one molecule of acetic acid on to a water molecule and
then on to an acetate anion to form another molecule of acetic acid and leaving
the number of acetic acid molecules unchanged. This is an example of dynamic
equilibrium.
Equilibria, like the rest of thermodynamics, are statistical phenomena,

averages of microscopic behavior.
A French chemist, Henri Le Chatelier studied the changes made in the

system that affect its equilibrium. He found out that “ if a system at equilibrium
is subjected in to a stress, the stress is displaced in a direction so as to relieve
the stress. This is called Le Chatelier’s principle.
Studies revealed that different chemical reactions behave differently. In

the same manner that equilibrium is reached at different points for different
chemical reactions. Equilibrium constant will determine when a given chemical
reaction reaches its equilibrium point. It is expressed in terms of the
86
concentrations of the products divided by the concentrations of the reactants.
Each concentration is raised to an exponent equal to the coefficient of the
substance in the balanced chemical equation. Mathematically, for a chemical
reaction,
aA(g) + bB(g) == cC(g) + dD(g)
Keq = ([C]c) ([D]d)
([A]a) ([B]b)
Where K eq is the equilibrium constant
[C] & [D] are the concentrations of the products
[A] & [B] are the concentrations of the reactants
a b,c,d are the coefficients of the respective products in the balanced

chemical
equation.
Illustrative example:
HC2H3O2 = H+ + C2H3O2
Initial 0.1 molar 0 0
At equilibrium 0.10-0.01(0.1) 0.01(0.01) 0.01(0.01)
0.099 0.001 0.001
0.001 0.001
The concentration of the substance and the ions at equilibrium are

obtained as shown because only 1.0% of the solution was ionized and the rest
was unionized.
Using the dissociation process, express the Keq of the system.

Keq = [H+] [Ac-]
[HAc]
= (0.01) (0.1) (0.01) (0.1)
(0.099)
= 1.01 x 10-5
Calculate the Equilibrium constant and the pressure and concentration of

reactants or products in an equilibrium mixture (STEM_11CE-IVb-e-148)
87
Activity I. LET’S TEST YOUR UNDERSTADING!
Directions: Give the equilibrium constant expression of the following reactions:
1. 2HCl(g) = H2(g) + Cl(g)

2. 4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) = 2Fe2O3(s)
3. 2NaCl(s) = 2Na(s) + Cl2(g)
4. 2KClO3 = 2KCl(s) = 3O2(g)
5. H2(g) + Cl2(g) = 2HCl(g)
SOLUBILITY PRODUCT CONSTANT
Assuming that Lead (II) Chloride, PbCl2 is placed in a beaker with water.
The crystals will star to dissolve and as the amount of lead ions and chloride
ions increases in the solution, the possibility of ions returning to the solid state
will also increase. The rate at which the crystals dissolve to form ions and the
rate at which the ions return to solid state is known as solubility equilibrium.
If we try to determine the solubility product of lead (II) chloride given its
dissociation process, we have:
PbCl2(aq) = Pb+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq)
Note that [PbCl2] is not part of the solubility product expression since the
undissociated PbCl2, is not actually in the solution. The solubility equilibrium is
attained when the rate at which ions leave the solid state is equal to the rate at
which ions return to the solid state. The rate of formation of ions is dependent
on the area of a solids. The greater the surface area of the solid used, the
greater is the rate of formation of ions.
Illustrative example:
1. Write the solubility product expression for the dissociation of sodium

chloride and silver nitrate.
a. NaCl(s) = Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
Ksp = [Na+]{Cl-]
b. AgNO3(s) = Ag+(aq) + NO3-(aq)
Ksp = + -
[Ag ] [NO3 ]
Activity 2: SOLUBILITY PRODUCT EXPRESSION .
DIRECTION: Give the solubility product expression of the following reactions:

1. MgSO4(s) = Mg+(s) + SO4-(aq)
2. AgCl(s) = Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
3. CaCl2(s) = +
Ca (aq) + 2Cl(aq)
4. MgI2(s) = Mg+(aq) + 2I(aq)
88
Activity 3: CALCULATION OF EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT
Problem #1
A mixture of SO2, O2 and SO3 at 1000K contains the following partial

pressures:
PSO2 = 0.41 atm, PO2 = 0.16 atm, PSO3 =057 atm. Which way can the
reaction
2SO2(g) + O2(g) ↔ 2SO3 (g) go to reach equilibrium? K =
3.40
Problem #2
For the reaction
I2 (g) ↔ 2I(g)
-10
At 500 K, K = 2.3 x 10 . A mixture kept at 500K contains I2 at a
partial pressure of 1.0 atm and I at partial pressure of 1.0 x 10-5 atm.
Which way must the reaction go to reach equilibrium?
Problem #3
An equilibrium mixture at 1000K contains N2O4(g) and NO2(g) at the

following partial pressures PN2O4 = 2.3 x 10-7 atm, PNO2 = 0.41 atm.
Calculate K for the reaction N2O4(g) ↔ 2NO2(g)
Reflection:
1. I learned that ________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
2. I enjoyed most on _____________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
3. I want to learn more on _________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
89
References:
Frank Brescia, John Arents, Herbert Meislich, amos Turk, Fundamentals of

Chemistry 4th Edition
Ma. Christina Padolina, PhD, Laboratory Manual and Workbook in Chemistry
Marasinghe, B.Dr. 2010. Upper Secondary Chemistry. A textbook of chemistry
for Grades 11 &12.
Bettelheim, Brown, Campbell, Farrell, Introduction to General, Organic and
Biochemistry, 8th Edition
Sackheim, George I, Lehman, Dennis D., Chemistry for Health Sciences, 8 th
Edition
90
ANSWER KEY
ACTIVITY 1
1. [H2] [Cl]
[HCl]
2.
[Fe2O3]2
[Fe]4 [O2]3
3. [Na]2 [Cl2]
[NaCl]2
4. [KCl]2 [O2]3
[KClO3]2
5. [HCl]2
[H2] [Cl2]
ACTIVITY 2
1. [Mg2] [SO4-2]
2. [Ag+] [Cl-]
3. [Ca+2] [Cl2-]
4. [Mg2] [I2-]
ACTIVITY 3
Problem #1
Answer: We calculate the reaction quotient and then compare it with K:
Q = P2SO3/ P2SO2PO2
= 0.572/0.412 x 0.16
= 12.1
Since Q is greater than K (12.1>3.40), the partial pressure of the product
(SO3)
is too large relative to the partial pressures of the reactants (SO2 and O2). To
reach equilibrium, the reaction must go from right to left.
2SO2(g) + O2(g) ← 2SO3(g)
91
Problem #2
Answer: We first calculate the reaction quotient for the given reaction and the
given mixture:
Q= P2I/PI2 = (1.0 x 10-5)2/ 1.0 = 1.0 x 10-10
We see that Q is less than K (1.0 x 10-10 < 2.3 x 10-10). Therefore the partial
pressure of I is too small and the partial pressure of I2 is too large. The reaction
can go from left to right.
I2 → 2I
Problem#3
Answer: At equilibrium
K = P2NO3/PN2O4
We substitute the given equilibrium pressure:
K=(0.41)2/ 2.3 x 10-7 = 7.3 x 105
This large equilibrium constant indicates that the equilibrium favors the product
NO2 in this case. Most N2O4 molecules are spilt up into NO2 molecules at 1000K
Prepared by:
5 DOLORES ARAGON-LIBAN
Magalalag National High School
92
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2
Name: _______________________ Grade Level: __________________

Date: ________________________ Score: __________________

FACTORS THAT AFFECT CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
Le Châtelier’s Principle states that if an external stress is applied to a

system at equilibrium, the system adjusts in such a way that the stress is
partially offset as the system reaches a new equilibrium position.
Stress - means a change in concentration, pressure, volume, or temperature

that removes the system from the equilibrium state. We will use Le Châtelier’s
principle to assess the effects of such changes.
The Effect of Changes in Concentration
Adding or removing a product or reactant disturbs equilibrium.

a. Stress of an added reactant or product is relieved by reaction in the
direction that consumes the added substance. Adding reactant, the
reaction shifts to the right (toward the product). Adding product, the
reaction shifts to the left (toward reactant)
b. Stress of removing a reactant or product is relieved by reaction in the
direction that replenishes the removed substance. Removing reactant
will shift the reaction towards the reactant. Removing a product will shift
the reaction towards the product.
Changes in the value of Q (reaction quotient) disturbs an equilibrium.

a. Keq > Q – reaction shifts to the product
b. Keq < Q – reaction shifts to the reactant
To show you how to predict the changes in concentration on a system at

equilibrium.
Let us consider the synthesis of ammonia.
𝑁2(𝑔) + 3𝐻2(𝑔) ⇌ 2𝑁𝐻3(𝑔)
93
Given the concentration of each of the molecule we have as follows;
[N2] =0.399 M [H2] = 1.197 M [NH3] = 0.202 M
What if we are going to add 1.0 mol/L of N2, we can answer it by calculating the
Q.
For the system which is no longer at equilibrium
[𝑁𝐻3 ]0 2 (0.202)2
𝑄= = = 1.70 × 10−2
[𝑁2 ]0 [𝐻2 ]0 3 (1.399)(1.197)3
Using the first set of equilibrium concentrations, we are to calculate for the value
of K.
[ NH 3 ] 2 ( 0 . 202 ) 2 −2
K = = = 5 . 96 x 10
[ N 2 ][ H 2 ] 3 ( 0 . 399 )( 1 . 197 ) 3
Therefore, we can conclude that since the Q is less than the value of K because
of the added N2 the system will shift to the right to restore equilibrium.
According to Le Châtelier’s Principle the system will shift to a direction that

consumes Nitrogen.
The Effect of a Change in Pressure
There are three ways to change the pressure of a reaction system involving
gaseous components:
1. Add or remove a gaseous reactant or product.
2. Add an inert gas (one not involved in the reaction).
3. Change the volume of the container.
Changes in pressure and volume affects the number of moles in the

gaseous reactants and gaseous products. Increase in pressure due to
decrease in volume results in a reaction in the direction of fewer number of
moles. Decrease in pressure due to increase in volume results in a reaction in
the direction of greater number of moles.
94
Example 1: in the production of ammonia, 𝑁2(𝑔) + 3𝐻2(𝑔) ⇌ 2𝑁𝐻3(𝑔) .
Increasing the pressure will shift the reaction towards the product because
there is fewer number of moles (2) in the product than in the reactant
(1+3=4moles)
Note:
- When an inert gas is added, there is no effect on the equilibrium position.
-The addition of an inert gas increases the total pressure but has no effect on
the concentrations or partial pressures of the reactants or products.
The Effect of a Change in Temperature
A change in concentration, pressure, or volume may alter the equilibrium

position, that is, the relative amounts of reactants and products, but it does not
change the value of the equilibrium constant.
- Only a change in temperature can alter the equilibrium constant.
To see why, let us consider the reaction
N 2O4 ( g )  2 NO2 ( g )
The forward reaction is endothermic (absorbs heat, ΔH° > 0):
heat + N 2O4 ( g )  2 NO2 ( g ) ΔH˚ = 58.0 kJ/mol
So the reverse reaction is exothermic (releases heat, ΔH° < 0):
2 NO2 ( g ) → N 2 O4 ( g ) + heat ΔH˚ = - 58.0 kJ/mol
- In summary, a temperature increase favors an endothermic reaction, and a

temperature decrease favors an exothermic reaction.
Using Le Châtelier’s Principle
For each of the following reactions, predict how the value of K changes as the
temperature is increased.
95
a.N 2 ( g ) + O2 ( g )  2 NO( g ) H  = 181 k J
b.2 SO2 ( g ) + O2 ( g )  2 SO3( g ) H  = −198 k J
SOLUTION
a. This is an endothermic reaction, as indicated by the positive value for ΔH˚.
Energy
can be viewed as a reactant, and K increases (the equilibrium shifts to the
right) as the temperature is increased.
b. This is an exothermic reaction (energy can be regarded as a product). As
the temperature is increased, the value of K decreases (the equilibrium shifts
to the left).
The Effect of a Catalyst
A catalyst enhances the rate of a reaction by lowering the reaction’s activation

energy.
A catalyst lowers the activation energy of the forward reaction and the reverse
reaction to the same extent. However, they do not affect the amount reactants
and products in equilibrium.
State the Le Châtelier’s Principle and apply it qualitatively to describe the effect
of changes in pressure, concentration and temperature on a system at
Equilibrium. (STEM_GC11CEIVb-e-149)
Activity 1. PREDICT ME
Directions: Predict the direction of the following chemical equations given in

each items.
1) For the reaction below, which change would cause the equilibrium to shift
to the right?
CH4(g) + 2H2S(g) ↔ CS2(g) + 4H2(g)
(a) Decrease the concentration of dihydrogen sulfide.
(b) Increase the pressure on the system.
(c) Increase the temperature of the system.
(d) Increase the concentration of carbon disulfide.
(e) Decrease the concentration of methane.
96
2) What would happen to the position of the equilibrium when the following
changes are made to the equilibrium system below? 2SO3(g) ↔ 2SO2(g) + O2(g)
(a) Sulfur dioxide is added to the system.
(b) Sulfur trioxide is removed from the system.
(c) Oxygen is added to the system.
3) What would happen to the position of the equilibrium when the following
changes are made to the reaction below? 2HgO(s) ↔ Hg(l) + O2(g)
(a) HgO is added to the system.
(b) The pressure on the system increases.
4) When the volume of container the following mixture of gases is increased,

what will be the effect on the equilibrium position? 4HCl(g) + O2(g) ↔ 2H2O(g) +
2Cl2(g)
5) Predict the effect of decreasing the volume of the container for each
equilibrium.
(a) 2H2O(g) + N2(g) ↔ 2H2(g) + 2NO(g)
(b) SiO2(s) + 4HF(g) ↔ SiF4(g) + 2H2O(g)
(c) CO(g) + H2(g) ↔ C(s) + H2O(g)
Activity 2: EQUILIBRIUM SHIFT
Directions: Fill in the blank, Give the direction of the chemical equation below.
1. Given the equilibrium equation: PCl5(g) ⇌ PCl3(g) + Cl2(g)

a) If the [PCl5] is increased, the equilibrium will shift to the ________
b) If the [PCl5] is decreased, the equilibrium will shift to the ________
c) If the [PCl3] is increased, the equilibrium will shift to the ________
d) If the [PCl3] is decreased, the equilibrium will shift to the ________
e) If the [Cl2] is increased, the equilibrium will shift to the ________
f) If the [Cl2] is decreased, the equilibrium will shift to the ________
2. Given the reaction at equilibrium: A(g) ⇌ B(g) ∆H = + 32.5 kJ C(g)

a) If the temperature was increased, which way would this equilibrium
shift: _____________
b) If the temperature was decreased, which way would this equilibrium
shift: ______________
3. Given the reaction: X(g) + Y(g) → W(g) + Z(g) ∆H = -75 kJ

a) Rewrite this as a thermochemical reaction (exothermic-heat term on right)
____________
b) If the temperature was increased, which way would this equilibrium shift:
____________
c) If the temperature was decreased, which way would this equilibrium shift:
______
97
4. Given the equilibrium equation: N2O4(g) ⇌ 2O2(g) + N2(g)
a) If the total pressure of this system is increased, the equilibrium will shift
_____
b) If the total pressure of this system is decreased, the equilibrium will shift
_____
c) If the total volume of this system is increased, it means the same as
decreasing the pressure so the equilibrium will shift to the ______
d) If the total volume of this system is decreased, it means the same as
increasing the pressure so the equilibrium will shift to the______
5) Given the equilibrium equation: X + Y + heat Z ⇌ XY

a) Increasing the temperature will cause the equilibrium to shift _______
Activity 3: APPLY ME
Directions: Apply Le Châtelier’s Principle to predict the following problems.
1. Consider the following equilibrium system involving SO2, Cl2, and SO2Cl2
(sulfuryl dichloride):
SO2(g) + Cl2(g) ↔ SO2Cl2(g)
Predict how the equilibrium position would change if
(a) Cl2 gas were added to the system;
(b) SO2Cl2 were removed from the system;
(c) SO2 were removed from the system. The temperature remains constant.
2. Consider the following equilibrium systems:

(a) A ↔2B ΔH° = 20.0 kJ/mol
(b) A + B ↔ C ΔH° = - 5.4 kJ/mol
(c) A ↔ B ΔH° = 0.0 kJ/mol
Predict the change in the equilibrium constant Kc that would occur in each
case if the temperature of the reacting system were raised.
3. What effect does an increase in pressure have on each of the following

systems at equilibrium? The temperature is kept constant and, in each case,
the reactants are in a cylinder fitted with a movable piston.
(a) A(s) ↔ 2B(s)
(b) 2A(l) ↔ B(l)
(c) A(s) ↔ B(g)
(d) A(g) ↔ B(g)
(e) A(g) ↔ 2B(g)
98
Reflection:
1. I learned that _________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
2. I enjoyed most on ____________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
3. I want to learn more on ________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
99
References:
INTERNET
http://www.boundless.com/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Chatelier’s_principle
http://mmsphyschem.com/lechatP.pdf
http://ths.sps.lane.edu/chemweb/unit11/problems/eq/
BOOKS
CHANG RAYMOND 2010, General Chemistry. Americas New York

Publications., 10th edition.
S. S. Zumdhal and S. A. Zumdhal 2010, Chemistry. Brooks/Cole Center
Learning.,United States Publications. , 9th edition.
PETRUCCI et al, 2010., General Chemistry(Principles ans Modern
Applications)., 9th edition.
D. D. DeCoste et al., Chemistry, Centgage Learning. United State Publications.
100
ANSWER KEY
ACTIVITY 1
1) c, increase the temperature of the system because a decrease in

temperature favors the exothermic reaction.
2) a) Shifts left to counteract the increased concentration of SO2(g).

b) Shifts left to counteract the decrease in concentration of SO3(g).
c) Shifts left to counteract the increase in concentration of O2(g).
3) a) No shift because pure liquids and solids have no effect on the equilibrium
position.
b) Heterogeneous equilibrium, therefore increased pressure has no effect
on the system.
4) Shifts left to increase the number of gas molecules. The increased in volume
results to decreased in pressure. Therefore the reaction shifts to the left in the
direction of greater number of moles of gases.
5) a) Shifts left to produce fewer number of gas molecules.
b) Shifts right to produce fewer number of moles of gas.
c) Shifts right to produce fewer number of moles of gas.
ACTIVITY 2
1. a. Right
b. Left
c. Left
d. Right
e. Left
f. Right
2. a. Right (toward product)

b. Left (towards reactant)
3. a. W(g) + Z(g) → X(g) + Y(g) ΔH˚ = +75 kJ

b. Left (reactant)
c. Right (product)
4. a. Left
b. Right
c. Right
d. Left
5. a. Right
101
ACTIVITY 3
1. According to Le Chateliers principle a system at equilibrium will react to an

external stress in such a way that the stress is involve. Hence,
a. The system will consume the added reactant Cl2 so it will shift to the right
b. The system will replace the removed SO2Cl2 so it will shift to the right
c. The system will replaces the moved reactant SO2 so it will shift to the left
2. a.ΔH˚ is positive, so the direction will shift to the right as the temperature
increases.
b.ΔH˚ is negative so the direction favors the reactant side and heat is in the
product side.
c. ΔH˚ is equal to zero it has no effect on the equilibrium.
3. a. since no gas on the equation, there will be no effect on the equilibrium.

b. no gas involve in the reactant (heterogeneous equilibrium) that is why
there’s no effect on the equilibrium.
c. since no gas in the reaction, increasing the pressure will shift
d. since there is equal number of moles of reactants and products, increased
in pressure has no effect on the system.
e. increased in pressure will shift the reaction equilibrium to the left.
Prepared by:
WILLIAM E. ERRO
Itawes National Agricultural and Technical School - Main Campus
102
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2
Name: ______________________ Grade Level: ____________________
Date: ________________________ Score: ____________________

FACTORS THAT AFFECT CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
The Bronsted - Lowry Theory is an acid- base theory proposed by Johannes
Nicolaus Bronsted and Thomas Martyn Lowry in 1923. this theory states that
any compound that can transfer a proton to any other compound is an acid and
the compound that accept proton is a base. A proton is a nuclear particle with
a unit positive electrical charge.This substance can function an acid with the
presence of a base. Likewise, the base can function with presence of an acid.
In addition, an acidic substance loses a proton it forms base and this is called
conjugate base of an acid and when a substance gains proton it is called
conjugate acid of the base
Bronsted - Lowry Definition of Terms:

Acids - a substance that is capable of donating Hydrogen ion H+ (proton).
Bases - it is a substance that is capable of accepting Hydrogen ion H+
Conjugate acid-base pair - is defined as an acid and its conjugate base or a
base and its conjugate acid.
Amphoteric - species that can act as acids or bases (Ex. water).
Conjugate Base - species that remains after an acid donates a Hydrogen ion
(H+).
Conjugate Acid - an species that forms after a base accepts the Hydrogen ion
(H+).
Acid ionization or Dissociation Equation:
HA( a q) + H 2 O( l ) → A − ( a q ) + H 3O + ( a q)
acid base conjugate base conjugate acid
103
Base ionization or Dissociation Equation
+ −
B( a q) + H 2 O( l ) → BH ( a q) + OH ( a q)
base acid conjugate acid conjugate base
Example 1:
HCl + H 2O → H 3O + + Cl −
- The chloride ion (Cl-) is conjugate base formed from the acid HCl, and the
Hydronium ion (H3O+) is the conjugate acid of the base water (H2).
Define Bronsted Acids and Bases. (STEM_GC11ABIVf-g-153 )
Activity 1: CLASSIFY ME
1. Classify the following as Brønsted acids, bases or both.
a. H2O
b. OH-
c. NH3
d. NH4+
e. NH2-
f. CO32-
Activity 2: TRY ME
2. What is the conjugate base of the following:
a. HClO4
b. NH4+
c. H2O
d. HCO3-
104
Activity 3: UNDERSTAND ME
3. What is the conjugate acid of the following bases?
a. CN-
b. SO42-
c. H2O
d. HCO3-
Activity 4. FILL ME
Fill in the Blank: Identify the acid-base conjugate pair:
1. C5H5N(aq) + H2O(aq) ⇌ C5H5NH+(aq) + OH-(aq)
_______ _______ ________ _________
2. HPO42-(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ H2PO4-(aq) + OH-
_______ _______ ________ _________
3. CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ CH3COOH2+(aq) + OH-(aq)
_______ _______ ________ _________
4. HS- (aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ S2-(aq) + H3O+(aq)
_______ _______ ________ _________
5. CH3OH(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ CH3O-(aq) + H3O+(aq)
_______ _______ ________ _________
Reflection:
1. I learned that ________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________.
2. I enjoyed most on _____________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
105
References
BOOKS
CHANG RAYMOND 2010, General Chemistry. Americas New York
Publications., 10th edition.
T. S. Zumdhal and S. A. Zumdhal 2010, Chemistry. Brooks/Cole Center
Learning.,United States Publications. , 9th edition.
PETRUCCI et al, 2010., General Chemistry(Principles ans Modern
Applications)., 9th edition.
E. D. DeCoste et al., Chemistry, Centgage Learning. United State Publications.
INTERNET
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Br%C3%B8nsted%E2%80%93Lowry_acid%E2%
80%93base_theory
106
ANSWER KEY
ACTIVITY 1
1. a.both b.both c.both d.acid e.both f.base
ACTIVITY 2
2. a. ClO4- b. NH3 c. OH- d. CO32-
ACTIVITY 3
3. a. HCN b. HSO4- c. H3O+ d. H2CO3
ACTIVITY 4
1. Acid - H2O
Base - C5H5N
Conjugate Acid - C5H5NH+
Conjugate Base - OH-
2. Acid - H2O
Base - HPO42-
Conjugate Acid - H2PO4
Conjugate Base - OH-
3. Acid - H2O
Base - CH3COOH
Conjugate Acid - CH3COOH
Conjugate Base - CH3COOH2+
4. Acid - HS-
Base - H2O
Conjugate Acid - H3O+
Conjugate Base - S2-
5. Acid - CH3OH
Base - H2O
Conjugate Acid - H3O+
Conjugate Base - CH3O-
Prepared by:
William A. Erro
Itawes National Agricultural and Technical School - Main Campus
107
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2
Name: ____________________________ Grade Level: _________

Date: _____________________________ Score: ______________

ACID-BASE PROPERTY OF WATER
Water has so many unique properties which makes it an exceptional

solvent and makes it essential for life on Earth. One of its unique properties is
its ability to act as either an acid or as a base in a solution. Water can be a
proton donor (an acid) or a proton acceptor (a base). Therefore, water
molecules exhibit amphiprotic property even in trace amounts.
Water accepts a Water donates a

H3O+ proton, acts as a H2O OH-
proton, acts as
base an acid
What does amphiprotic mean?

Think of a hammer. A hammer can be
used to drive nails into a wood, also it
can be used to remove nails from the
wood. It serves a dual purpose just like
amphoteric substances.
https://www.distrelec.biz/Web/WebShopImages/l
andscape_large/2-/01/30110722-01.jpg
Water, just like hammer, can
accept and donate a proton.
Note: The term amphoteric is a general term for substances that can react both
as an acid and a base. On the other hand, amphiprotic (protic refers to
hydrogen ion) is a more specific term used to describe a substance which can
both donate and accept hydrogen ions (protons). All amphiprotic substances
are amphoteric but not all amphoteric substances are amphiprotic. For
example, ZnO acts as a Lewis acid, which can accept an electron pair from OH-
but cannot donate a proton.
108
How does this happen? For example, the reaction of a strong acid like
hydrochloric acid (HCl) and water leads to the formation of chlorine and
hydronium (H3 O+ ) ions.
𝐻𝐶𝑙 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐻3 𝑂+ + 𝐶𝑙
In this case, water acts as a base because it accepts a proton which leads to
the formation of hydronium ion (H3 O+ ). On the other hand, the reaction between
a base like ammonia (NH3 ) and water leads to the formation of ammonium
(NH4+ ) and hydroxide (OH − ) ions.
𝑁𝐻3 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝑁𝐻4+ + 𝑂𝐻 −
Water acts as an acid because it donates a proton which leads to the formation
of hydroxide ion (OH − ).
Auto-ionization of Water
Some substances undergo reactions without the addition of another
substance. This is just one of the unique properties of water. Under standard
conditions, experiments on the electrical conductivity of water have shown that
water ionizes on a very small extent. The auto-ionization (self-ionization) of
water refers to the reaction in which a water molecule donates one of its protons
(H atom) to a neighbouring water molecule, either in pure water or in aqueous
solution. The result is the formation of a hydroxide ion (OH-) and a hydronium
ion (H3O+). The auto-ionization of water molecules is shown as (also called
autoprotolysis of water):
In chemical reaction equation,
equation (1)
We often use the simplified form of the reaction:

equation (2)
109
Among the above equations, it does not make any difference which
equation is used to explain the ionization of water. Even though, equation (1) is
more appropriate, the equation (2) offers a more simple view of the ionization
which then will be used on the next discussion.
Note that this process is readily reversible. Because water is a weak acid
and a weak base, the hydronium and hydroxide ions exist in very, very small
concentrations relative to that of non-ionized water. Just how small are these
concentrations? Let's find out by examining the equilibrium constant for this
reaction (also called the auto-ionization constant), which has the special
symbol, Kw
The Ion Product of Water

In the study of acid-base reactions, the hydrogen ion concentration is the
key because its value indicates the acidity or basicity of the solution. Because
only a very small fraction of water molecules are ionized, the concentration of
water, [H2O], remains virtually unchanged. Therefore, the equilibrium constant
(Kc) for the auto-ionization of water, using equation (1), is
𝐾𝑐 = [𝐻3 𝑂 + ][𝑂𝐻 − ] equation (3)
where: Kc = equilibrium constant
[𝐻3 𝑂+ ] = concentration of hydronium ion
[𝑂𝐻 − ] = concentration of hydroxide ion
Since we can use H+ and H3O+ interchangeably to represent the hydrated
proton, the equilibrium constant can also be expressed as
𝐾𝑐 = [𝐻 + ][𝑂𝐻 − ] equation (4)
To indicate that the equilibrium constant refers to the auto-ionization of water,
we replace Kc by Kw
𝐾𝑤 = [𝐻3 𝑂+ ][𝑂𝐻 − ] = [𝐻 + ][𝑂𝐻 − ] equation (5)
where Kw is called the ion-product constant of water, which is the product of
the molar concentrations of 𝐻 + and 𝑂𝐻 − ions at a particular temperature.
110
In pure water at 250 C, the concentrations of 𝐻 + and 𝑂𝐻 − are equal.
Pure water or any other aqueous solution in which this ratio holds is said to be
neutral.
[𝐻 + ]= 1.0 x 10-7 M
[𝑂𝐻 − ] = 1.0 x 10-7 M
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝑀 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
Substituting these in equation (4), we have

𝐾𝑤 = [𝐻 + ][𝑂𝐻 − ] = (1.0 x 10-7) (1.0 x10-7) = 1.0 x 10-14
Whether we have pure water or an aqueous solution of dissolved species, the
following relation always holds at 25°C.
𝐾𝑤 = [𝐻 + ][𝑂𝐻 − ] = 1.0𝑥 10−14 equation (6)
This equation is very useful in calculating either H+ ion concentration knowing
OH- concentration or OH- ion concentration knowing H+ concentration through
the following equations:
𝐾𝑤 1.0 𝑥 10−14
[𝐻+ ] = = equation (7)
[𝑂𝐻 − ] [𝑂𝐻 − ]
𝐾𝑤 1.0 𝑥 10−14
[𝑂𝐻− ] = = equation (8)
[𝐻 + ] [𝐻 + ]
A neutral solution is an aqueous solution in which the concentrations

of H3O+ ions and OH- ions are equal just like pure water at 25°C.
An acidic solution is a solution in which the concentration of hydrogen
ions is greater than the concentration of hydroxide ions. For example,
hydrogen chloride ionizes to produce H+ and Cl− ions upon dissolving in water.
A basic solution is a solution in which the concentration of hydroxide

ions is greater than the concentration of hydrogen ions. Solid potassium
hydroxide dissociates in water to yield potassium ions and hydroxide ions.
111
The relationship between [H+] and [OH-] is inversely proportional. The increase
in concentration of the OH− ions causes a decrease in the concentration of the
H+ ions and the ion-product of [H+][OH−] remains constant.
Solution General Condition At 25°C
acidic [𝐻3 𝑂+ ] > [𝑂𝐻 − ] [𝐻3 𝑂 + ] > 1.0 𝑥 10−7 [𝑂𝐻 − ] < 1.0 𝑥 10−7
neutral [𝐻3 𝑂 + ] = [𝑂𝐻 − ] [𝐻3 𝑂 + ] = 1.0 𝑥 10−7 [𝑂𝐻 − ] = 1.0 𝑥 10−7
basic [𝐻3 𝑂+ ] < [𝑂𝐻 − ] [𝐻3 𝑂+ ] < 1.0 𝑥 10−7 [𝑂𝐻 − ] > 1.0 𝑥 10−7
Table showing the relationship between [H+] and [OH-] ions.
Sample Problem 1: Using Kw for an Aqueous Solution

The concentration of OH- ions in a certain household ammonia cleaning
solution is 0.0025 M. Calculate the concentration of H+ ions.
Solution:
In this problem, we are given the concentration of the OH- ions which is 0.0025
M and are asked to calculate the [H+]. The relationship between [H+] and [OH-
] in an aqueous solution is given by the ion-product equation,
𝐾𝑤 = [𝐻 + ][𝑂𝐻 − ] = 1.0 𝑥 10−14 , rearranging this equation

𝐾𝑤 1.0 𝑥 10−14 1.0 𝑥 10−14
[𝐻 + ] = = = = 4.0 𝑥 10−12 𝑀
[𝑂𝐻 − ] [𝑂𝐻 − ] 0.0025
Because [H+] < [OH-], the solution is basic.
Sample Problem 2. Calculating the [OH-] from a given [H+]

Sufficient acidic solute is added to a quantity of water to produce a solution
with [H+] = 4.0 x 10-3 M. What is the [OH-] in this solution?
Solution:
In this problem, we are given the concentration of the H+ ions which is 4.0 x
10-3 M and are asked to calculate the [OH-]. The relationship between [H+] and
[OH-] in an aqueous solution is given by the ion-product equation,
112
𝐾𝑤 = [𝐻 + ][𝑂𝐻 − ] = 1.0 𝑥 10−14 , rearranging this equation
𝐾𝑤 1.0 𝑥 10−14 1.0 𝑥 10−14
[𝑂𝐻 − ] = = = = 2.5 𝑥 10−12 𝑀
[𝐻 + ] [𝐻 + ] 4.0 𝑥 10−3
Because [H+] > [OH-], the solution is acidic.
Discuss the acid-base property of water. (STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-154)
Activity 1: WHO AM I?
Directions: Answer the following questions briefly.
1. What do we mean when we say that water is amphiprotic? (a) Can we also
describe water as amphoteric? Why?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
2. Give at least two (2) things that we use in our daily activities which is
amphiprotic in nature and explain why.
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
B. In the following reactions, identify if water is playing the role of an acid, a

base, or neither.
1. 𝑆 2− + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐻𝑆 − + 𝑂𝐻 − ____________
2. 𝐻𝐶𝑙𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐶𝑙𝑂2− + 𝐻3 𝑂+ ____________
3. 𝐶𝑢2+ + 6 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐶𝑢(𝐻2 𝑂)2+
6 ____________
4. 𝑂𝐶𝑙 − + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐻𝑂𝐶𝑙 + 𝑂𝐻 − ____________
5. 𝐻𝑆𝑂4− + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝑆𝑂42− + 𝐻3 𝑂+ ____________
113
Activity 2: DRILL YOUR BRAIN!
A. Directions. Draw a graph showing the relationship of [OH-] and [H+] on the
following situation. Explain the relationship.
[𝐻3 𝑂 + ] Neutral [𝐻3 𝑂 + ] Acidic [𝐻3 𝑂 + ] Basic
[𝑂𝐻 − ] [𝑂𝐻 − ] [𝑂𝐻 − ]
Solution Solution Solution
10-14 10-14 10-14 10-14 10-14 10-14
10-13 10-13 10-13 10-13 10-13 10-13
10-12 10-12 10-12 10-12 10-12 10-12
10-11 10-11 10-11 10-11 10-11 10-11
10-10 10-10 10-10 10-10 10-10 10-10
10-9 10-9 10-9 10-9 10-9 10-9
10-8 10-8 10-8 10-8 10-8 10-8
10-7 10-7 10-7 10-7 10-7 10-7
10-6 10-6 10-6 10-6 10-6 10-6
10-5 10-5 10-5 10-5 10-5 10-5
10-4 10-4 10-4 10-4 10-4 10-4
10-3 10-3 10-3 10-3 10-3 10-3
10-2 10-2 10-2 10-2 10-2 10-2
10-1 10-1 10-1 10-1 10-1 10-1
100 100 100 100 100 100
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
B. Calculate the molar H+ ion concentration of a solution if the OH- ion

concentration is
a. vinegar, 1.0 x 10-11 M
b. ammonia, 5.6 x 10-3 M
c. NaOH solution, 2.5 x 10-2 M
C. Calculate the molar OH- ion concentration of a solution if the H+ ion

concentration is
a. coffee, 1.0 x 10-5 M
b. lemon juice, 2.5 x 10-2 M
c. cleanser, 5.0 x 10-10 M
114
Activity 3: HOW WELL DO YOU KNOW?
A. Answer the following briefly.
1. Write the chemical equation showing the ionization of water.
________________________________________________________
2. Write the equilibrium constant expression for this equation.
________________________________________________________
3. What is the relationship between [H3O+] and [OH-] in pure water at 25°C?
________________________________________________________
4. How can the relationship between [H3O+] and [OH-] be used to define or
identify if the solution is basic or acidic?
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
5. If a base is added to pure water, why does the [H3O+] decrease?
_____________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
B. Solve for the following problems. Tell whether the solution is basic or
acidic.
1. Sufficient acidic solute is added to a quantity of water to produce a
solution with [H+] = 5.7 x 10-6 M. What is the [OH-] in this solution?
2. The concentration of OH- ions in a particular household ammonia
cleaning solution is 0.075M. What is the H+ ion concentration?
C. Selected information about five solutions, each at 25°C, is given in the

following table. Complete the table by filling in the missing information.
[H+] [OH-] Acidic or Basic
2.2 x 10-2 M
3.3 x 10-3 M
7.7 x 10-2 M
6.3 x 10-8 M
4.2 x 10-6 M

115
Activity 4: OPERATION: Crossword Puzzle
Directions. Complete the crossword by filling in the boxes to form a word that
fits each clue.

116
Reflection:
1. I learned that ____________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
2. I enjoyed most on ________________________________________

_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
3. I want to learn more on ____________________________________

_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

117
References:
Books
Stoker, H. Stephen.2010. Exploring General, Organic and Biological Chemistry.
CENGAGE Learning. Philippine Edition.
Teaching Guide for Senior High School. General Chemistry 2. 2016. Commission
on Higher Education.
Timberlake, Karen C. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and
Biological Chemistry.12th ed.
Whitten, Kenneth W et.al. 2004. General Chemistry. Brooks/Cole. 7th ed.
Online Sources
Acid-Base Properties of Water (n.d.). Retrieved June 15, 2020 from
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/introchem/chapter/acid-base-properties-of-
water/
Acids and Bases. (n.d). Retrieved June 15, 2020 from
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/chemistry/acids-and-bases-topic/acids-
and-bases/a/water-autoionization-and-kw
Ionization of Acids and Bases (n.d.). Retrieved June 15, 2020 from
https://www.ck12.org/book/cbse-chemistry-book-class-11/section/8.12/
The Acid-Base Properties of Water and Ion Product (n.d.). Retrieved June 15,
2020 from
https://faculty.ncc.edu/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=xZ3v05k1gPc%3D&tabid=1896

118
ANSWER KEY
Activity 1. Who Am I?
A. 1. Water is said to be amphiprotic, that is, H2O molecules can both
donate and accept protons. Yes. Water also exhibits amphoterism because it
can either act as an acid or a base in a reaction.
2. Answer varies. Some of which are:
a. Pencil. It is used to write and can also be used to erase.
b. Screwdriver. It is used to drive/tighten or remove screws.
B. In the following reactions, identify if water is playing the role of an acid, a
base, or neither.
1. 𝑆 2− + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐻𝑆 − + 𝑂𝐻 − ___acid_____
2. 𝐻𝐶𝑙𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐶𝑙𝑂2− + 𝐻3 𝑂+ ___base____
3. 𝐶𝑢2+ + 6 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐶𝑢(𝐻2 𝑂)2+
6 ___neither__
4. 𝑂𝐶𝑙 − + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐻𝑂𝐶𝑙 + 𝑂𝐻 − ___acid____
5. 𝐻𝑆𝑂4− + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝑆𝑂42− + 𝐻3 𝑂+ ___base__ _
Activity 2: Drill it!

A. Draw a graph showing the relationship of [OH-] and [H+] on the following
situation. Explain the relationship.
[𝐻3 𝑂 + ] Neutral + Acidic [𝐻3 𝑂 + ] Basic
[𝑂𝐻 − ] [𝐻3 𝑂 ] [𝑂𝐻 − ] [𝑂𝐻 − ]
Solution Solution Solution
10-14 10-14 10-14 10-14 10-14 10-14
10-13 10-13 10-13 10-13 10-13 10-13
10-12 10-12 10-12 10-12 10-12 10-12
10-11 10-11 10-11 10-11 10-11 10-11
10-10 10-10 10-10 10-10 10-10 10-10
10-9 10-9 10-9 10-9 10-9 10-9
10-8 10-8 10-8 10-8 10-8 10-8
10-7 10-7 10-7 10-7 10-7 10-7
10-6 10-6 10-6 10-6 10-6 10-6
10-5 10-5 10-5 10-5 10-5 10-5
10-4 10-4 10-4 10-4 10-4 10-4
10-3 10-3 10-3 10-3 10-3 10-3
10-2 10-2 10-2 10-2 10-2 10-2
10-1 10-1 10-1 10-1 10-1 10-1
100 100 100 100 100 100

119
The relationship between [𝐻3 𝑂+ ] and [𝑂𝐻 − ] in aqueous solution is an inverse
proportion; when [𝐻3 𝑂+ ] is increased, [𝑂𝐻 − ] decreases, and vice versa.
B. Calculate the molar H+ ion concentration of a solution if the OH- ion

concentration is
a. vinegar, 1.0 x 10-11 M [H+] =1.0 x 10-3 M
b. ammonia, 5.6 x 10-3 M [H+] =1.8 x 10-12 M
c. NaOH solution, 2.5 x 10-2 M [H+] =4.0 x 10-13 M
C. Calculate the molar OH- ion concentration of a solution if the H+ ion

concentration is
a. coffee, 1.0 x 10-5 M [OH-] = 1.0 x10-9 M
b. lemon juice, 2.5 x 10-2 M [OH-] = 4.0 x10-13 M
c. cleanser, 5.0 x 10-10 M [OH-] = 2.0 x10-5 M
Activity 3: How well do you know?

A. Answer the following briefly.
1. Write the chemical equation showing the ionization of water.
𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝐻2 𝑂 ↔ 𝐻3 𝑂+ + 𝑂𝐻 −
2. Write the equilibrium constant expression for this equation.
𝐾𝑤 = [𝑂𝐻 − ][𝐻3 𝑂+ ] = 1.0 𝑥 10−14
3. What is the relationship between [H3O+] and [OH-] in pure water at 25°C?
The formation of H3O+ ion by ionization of pure water is always
accompanied by the formation of an OH- ion, thus [H3O+] is always equal to
[OH-] which is equal to 1.0 x 10-7 M.
[𝑂𝐻 − ] = [𝐻3 𝑂+ ] = 1.0 𝑥 10−7
4. How can the relationship between [H3O+] and [OH-] be used to define or
identify if the solution is basic or acidic?
If [𝐻3 𝑂+ ] > [𝑂𝐻 − ], then the solution is acidic
If [𝐻3 𝑂+ ] < [𝑂𝐻 − ], then the solution is basic

120
5. If a base is added to pure water, why does the [H3O+] decrease?
The relationship between [H+] and [OH-] is inversely proportional. The
increase in concentration of the OH− ions causes a decrease in the
concentration of the H+ ions and the ion-product of [H+][OH−] remains constant.
B. Solve for the following problems. Tell whether the solution is basic or acidic.
1. 1.8 𝑥 10−9 𝑀, acidic
2. 1.3 𝑥 10−13 𝑀, basic
C. Selected information about four solutions, each at 25°C, is given in the

following table. Complete the table by filling in the missing information.
[H+] [OH-] Acidic or Basic
2.2 x 10-2 M 4.5 x 10-13 M Acidic
3.0 x 10-12 M 3.3 x 10-3 M Basic
1.3 x 10-13 M 7.7 x 10-2 M Basic
6.3 x 10-8 M 1.6 x 10-7 M Basic
4.2 x 10-6 M 2.4 x10-9 M Acidic
Activity 4: Operation: Crossword Puzzle

1.Hydroxide ion
2.Autoionization
3.Amphoteric
4.Neutral
5.Acid
6.Molarity
7.Basic
8.Amphiprotic
9.Base
10. Acidic
Prepared by:
Rosemarie C. Fernandez
Itawes National High School

121
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2
Name: ____________________________ Grade Level: _________

Date: _____________________________ Score: ______________

pH: A MEASURE OF ACIDITY
Personnel working in food processing,

medicine, agriculture, spa and pool
maintenance, soap manufacturing, and
wine making measure the [H3O+] and
[OH-] of solutions. The proper level of
acidity is necessary to evaluate the
functioning of the lungs and kidneys, to https://images.wisegeek.com/chemist-with-vials.jpg
control bacterial growth in foods, and to prevent the growth of pests in food
crops.
In aqueous solution, an acid is defined as any species that increases
the concentration of H+ ions, while a base increases the concentration of OH-
ions. Typical concentrations of these ions in solution can be very small, and
they also span a wide range. Let’s take a look on the concentration of H+ ions
of pure water at 25°C and to the acid present in our stomach. We have learned
from our previous lesson that pure water has a value of 1.0 x 10-7 M of H+ and
the acid in our stomach has 1.0 x10-1 M. This means that the [H+] of acid in our
stomach is 6 orders of magnitude larger than in pure water.
We have also learned how to quantify the concentration of H+ ions from
the given concentration of OH- ions or vice-versa using the ion-product
constant of water, Kw. Now we are going to learn the relationship between
these concentrations and the so-called, pH.

122
The pH Concept
Because the concentrations of H+ and OH- ions in aqueous solutions
are frequently very small numbers and therefore inconvenient to work with,
Soren Sorensen† in 1909 proposed a more practical measure called pH. The
pH scale is a scale of small numbers that is used to specify molar hydronium
ion concentration in an aqueous solution.
https://www.sciencenewsforstudents.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/860_SS_pH.png
Figure 1: pH of some common substances. On the pH scale, values below 7.0 are acidic, a
value of 7.0 is neutral, and values above 7.0 are basic.
Timberlake, Karen C. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry.12th ed.
https://www.sciencenewsforstudents.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/860_SS_pH.png
Figure 2: The pH of a solution can be determined using (a) pH meter, (b) pH paper, (c)
indicators that changes in color in response to pH values.

123
Relating pH and [H3O+]
We can calculate the pH of a solution knowing the concentrations of H+
or OH- ions in that solution. The calculation of pH scale values involves the use
of logarithms. The pH is the negative logarithm of an aqueous solution’s molar
hydronium ion concentration. Expressed mathematically, the definition of pH
is
𝑝𝐻 = −𝑙𝑜𝑔[𝐻3 𝑂+ ] or 𝑝𝐻 = −𝑙𝑜𝑔[𝐻 + ] equation (1)
The negative logarithm gives us a positive number for pH, which
otherwise would be negative due to the small value of [H+]. Like the equilibrium
constant, the pH of a solution is a dimensionless quantity.
Because pH is simply a way to express hydrogen ion concentration,
acidic and basic solutions at 25°C can be distinguished by their pH values, as
follows:
Notice that pH increases as [H+] decreases.

Sometimes we may be given the pH value of a solution and asked to
calculate the H+ ion concentration. In that case, we need to take the antilog of
equation (1) as follows:
[𝐻3 𝑂+ ] = 10−𝑝𝐻 or [𝐻 + ] = 10−𝑝𝐻 equation (2)
Integral pH Values
For any hydronium ion concentration expressed in exponential notation

in which the coefficient is 1.0, the pH is given directly by the negative of the
exponent value of the power of 10:
[𝐻3 𝑂+ ] = 1.0 𝑥 10−𝑥 equation (3)
𝑝𝐻 = 𝑥 equation (4)

124
Thus, if the hydronium ion concentration is 1.0 x 10-9, then the pH will be
9.00. This simple relationship between pH and hydronium ion concentration is
valid only when the coefficient in the exponential notation expression for the
hydronium ion concentration is 1.0.
Sample problem 1. Calculating pH from [H3O+] and [OH-]

Calculate the pH for each of the following solutions.
a. [H3O+] = 1.0 x 10-6 M
b. [OH-] = 1.0 x10-6 M
Solution:
a. Because the coefficient in the exponential expression for the molar
hydronium ion concentration is 1.0, the pH can be obtained from the
relationships (equations 3 and 4)
[𝐻3 𝑂 + ] = 1.0 𝑥 10−𝑥 = 1.0 𝑥 10−6

𝑝𝐻 = 𝑥 = 6
The power of 10 is -6 in this case, so the pH will be 6.00.
b. The given value is the concentration of OH- ions. Before we could
compute for the pH, we have to find first the concentration of H3O+ ions using
the ion product of water,
Kw = [H3O+] [OH-] = 1.0 x 10-14, rearranging we have
1.0 𝑥 10−14
[𝐻3 𝑂 + ] = = 1.0 x 10-8, applying now equations 3 and 4
1.0 𝑥 10−6
[𝐻3 𝑂 + ] = 1.0 𝑥 10−𝑥 = 1.0 𝑥 10−8
𝑝𝐻 = 𝑥 = 8
The power of 10 is -8, in this case, the pH will be 8.00.
Non-integral pH Values
If the coefficient in the exponential expression for the molar hydronium
ion concentration is not 1.0, then the pH will have a non-integral value; that is,
it will not be a whole number. For example, consider the following non-integral
pH values.

125
Note: The easiest way to obtain non-integral pH values such as these involves
using an electronic calculator that allows for the input of exponential numbers
and that has a base-10 logarithm key (LOG). In using such an electronic
calculator, you can obtain logarithm values simply by pressing the LOG key
after having entered the number whose log is desired. For pH, you must
remember that after obtaining the log value, you must change signs because
of the negative sign in the defining equation for pH.
Sample Problem 2. Calculating pH from [H3O+]

Aspirin, which is acetylsalicylic acid, was the first non-steroidal anti-
inflammatory drug used to alleviate pain and fever. If a solution of aspirin has
a [H3O+] = 1.7 x 10-3 M, what is the pH of the solution?
Solution: What is known is the [H3O+] = 1.7 x 10-3 M and we are asked to
compute for the pH of the solution of aspirin. We know that to get the value of
pH, we use equation (1),
𝑝𝐻 = −𝑙𝑜𝑔[𝐻3 𝑂+ ], substituting from the given

𝑝𝐻 = −𝑙𝑜𝑔[1.7 𝑥 10−3 ] = 2.77
Sample Problem 3. Calculating [H3O+] from pH

Determine the [H3O+] for solutions having a pH=8.25.
Solution: We are given the value of pH=8.25 and we are asked to compute for
the concentration of H3O+. For this, we are going to use equation (2)
[𝐻3 𝑂 + ] = 10−𝑝𝐻 , substituting

[𝐻3 𝑂 + ] = 10−8.25 = 5.6 𝑥 10−9 𝑀
Relating pOH and [OH-]
A pOH scale analogous to the pH scale can be devised using the
negative logarithm of the hydroxide ion concentration of a solution. Thus, we
define pOH as
𝑝𝑂𝐻 = −𝑙𝑜𝑔 [𝑂𝐻 − ] equation (5)

126
If we are given the pOH value of a solution and asked to calculate the
OH- ion concentration, we can take the antilog of equation (5)
[𝑂𝐻 − ] = 10−𝑝𝑂𝐻 equation (6)
Relating pH and pOH
Now consider again the ion-product constant for water at 25°C:
Kw = [H+] [OH-] = 1.0 x 10-14
Taking the negative logarithm of both sides and from the definitions of pH and
pOH, we obtain
-log [H+] + -log [OH-] = -log 1.0 x 10-14
pH + pOH = 14.00 equation (7)
This provides us with another way to express the relationship between the
H+ ion concentration and the OH- ion concentration.
Sample Problem 6. Calculating [OH-] from pOH

In a NaOH solution [OH-] is 2.9 x 10-4 M. Calculate the pH of the solution.
Solution: Solving this problem takes two steps. First, we need to calculate pOH
using equation (5). Next, we use equation (7) to calculate the pH of the solution.
First, we use equation (5),
𝑝𝑂𝐻 = −𝑙𝑜𝑔 [𝑂𝐻 − ] = − log(2.9 𝑥 10−4 ) = 3.54
Then we use equation (7),
pH + pOH = 14
pH = 14 - pOH = 14 - 3.54 = 10.46
The answer shows that the solution is basic
Note: We can also use the ion-product constant of water, Kw= [H+][OH-] to
calculate [H+], and then we can calculate the pH from the [H+].

127
Calculate pH from the concentration of hydrogen ions or hydroxide ions in
aqueous solutions. (STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-156)
Activity 1. BRAINS OUT!

Directions: Read and analyze each problem carefully. Identify the known
variables and solve for the unknown following the steps in solving a problem.
1. The OH- ion concentration of a blood sample is 2.5 x 10-7 M. What is
the pH of the blood?
2. The pH of an unknown solution is 5.68. What is the [OH-] and pOH of
the solution?
3. Upon investigating the pH of different ponds, you found out that a
certain pond measures 4.2 which is below the recommended pH of 6.5.
a. What are the [H3O+] and [OH-] of the pond?
b. What are the [H3O+] and [OH-] of the pond that has a pH of 6.5?
4. Calculate pH from the following hydrogen ion concentration (M).
Identify each as an acidic pH or a basic pH.
Hydrogen Ion Concentration pH Basic/Acidic

1. 0.0015
2. 5.0 x 10-9
3. 1.0
4. 1.0 x 10-12
5. 0.0001
6. 1.0 x 10-4
7. 1.0 x 10-8
8. 5.63 x 10-9
9. 3.67 x 10-6
10. 3.25 x 10-4
5. You decided to test the pH of your brand-new swimming pool. The

instruction manual advises to keep it between 7.2-7.6. Shockingly, you
found out that the pH of your pool is 8.3! What kind of chemical should you
add?

128
Activity 2: FILL ME UP!
Directions: Complete the table showing the relationship between pH, pOH
and the concentration of the hydronium ions and hydroxide ions.
[𝐻3 𝑂+ ] 𝑝𝐻 [𝑂𝐻 − ] 𝑝𝑂𝐻
1 𝑥 100
1 𝑥 10−1
1 𝑥 10−2
1 𝑥 10−3
1 𝑥 10−4
1 𝑥 10−5
1 𝑥 10−6
1 𝑥 10−7
1 𝑥 10−8
1 𝑥 10−9
1 𝑥 10−10
1 𝑥 10−11
1 𝑥 10−12
1 𝑥 10−13
1 𝑥 10−14
Q1. From the completed table, what relationship of pH and hydronium ion
concentration can be established?
________________________________________________________
Q2. From the completed table, what relationship of pH and hydroxide ion
________________________________________________________
Q3. What is the relationship of hydroxide and hydronium ion

concentrations? How about the pH and pOH?
________________________________________________________

129
Q4. How can you use the pH scale in differentiating acidic, neutral and
basic solutions?
________________________________________________________
Activity 3: pH matters! 1 PIC, 4 SENTENCES

Directions: The pictures below illustrate the different effects of pH in our
environment. Using four (4) sentences, describe how pH affects our daily life.
1. Human Survival
Commons.wikimedia.org
2. Animal Survival
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
https://rain-acid.weebly.com/consequences.html
3. Plant Survival
____________________________
____________________________
____________________________
____________________________
https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-
school/science/acid-rain-and-water

130
4. Soil Acidity
____________________________
____________________________
____________________________
____________________________
https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-
school/science/acid-rain-and-water
Activity 4: SHOW ME WHAT YOU’VE GOT!

Directions: Investigate and analyze the given situation. Provide an explanation
for your answer.
Hair stylists recommend slightly acidic and near neutral shampoo for
smoother hair. You find 5 brands that you like. The first has a pH of 3.6, the
second is 13, the third is 8.2, the fourth is 6.8 and the fifth is 9.7. Which one
should you buy? Explain why it is better.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________.
Reflection:
1. I learned that ____________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
2. I enjoyed most on _________________________________

_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
3. I want to learn more on _____________________________

_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

131
References:
Books
Stoker, H. Stephen. 2010. Exploring General, Organic and Biological
Chemistry. CENGAGE Learning. Philippine Edition.
Teaching Guide for Senior High School. General Chemistry 2. 2016.
Commission on Higher Education
Timberlake, Karen C. Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and
Biological Chemistry.12th ed.
Whitten, Kenneth W et.al. 2004. General Chemistry. Brooks/Cole. 7th ed.
Online Sources
Acid-Base Properties of Water (n.d.). Retrieved June 15, 2020 from
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/introchem/chapter/acid-base-properties-of-
water/
Ionization of Acids and Bases (n.d.). Retrieved June 15, 2020 from
https://www.ck12.org/book/cbse-chemistry-book-class-11/section/8.12/

132
ANSWER KEY
Activity 1. BRAINS OUT!
1. The OH- ion concentration of a blood sample is 2.5 x 10-7 M. What is the pH
of the blood?
since [OH-] is given, we have to compute first for the [H3O+]
using this equation,
[𝐻3 𝑂+ ][𝑂𝐻 − ] = 1.0 𝑥 10−14
+]
1.0 𝑥 10−14 1.0 𝑥 10−14
[𝐻3 𝑂 = = −7 = 4.0 𝑥 10−8 𝑀
[𝑂𝐻 − ] 2.5 𝑥 10
Then we can compute now for the pH
𝑝𝐻 = −𝑙𝑜𝑔[𝐻3 𝑂+ ] = − log(4.0 𝑥 10−8 ) = 7.4
2. The pH of an unknown solution is 5.68. What is the [OH-] and pOH of the
solution?
𝑝𝐻 + 𝑝𝑂𝐻 = 14
𝑝𝑂𝐻 = 14 − 𝑝𝐻 = 14 − 5.68 = 8.32
[𝑂𝐻 − ] = 10−𝑝𝑂𝐻 = 10−8.32 = 4.79 𝑥 10−9 𝑀

3. Upon investigating the pH of different ponds, you found out that a certain
pond measures 4.2 which is below the recommended pH of 6.5.
a. What are the [H3O+] and [OH-] of the pond?
[𝐻3 𝑂+ ] = 10−𝑝𝐻 = 10−4.2 = 6.3 𝑥 10−5 𝑀

𝑝𝐻 + 𝑝𝑂𝐻 = 14
𝑝𝑂𝐻 = 14 − 𝑝𝐻 = 14 − 4.2 = 9.8
[𝑂𝐻 − ] = 10−𝑝𝑂𝐻 = 10−9.8 = 1.6 𝑥 10−10 𝑀

b. What are the [H3O+] and [OH-] of the pond that has a pH of 6.5?
[𝐻3 𝑂+ ] = 10−𝑝𝐻 = 10−6.5 = 3.2 𝑥 10−7 𝑀

𝑝𝐻 + 𝑝𝑂𝐻 = 14
𝑝𝑂𝐻 = 14 − 𝑝𝐻 = 14 − 6.5 = 7.5
[𝑂𝐻 − ] = 10−𝑝𝑂𝐻 = 10−7.5 = 3.2 𝑥 10−8 𝑀

133
4. Calculate pH from the following hydrogen ion concentration (M). Identify
each as an acidic pH or a basic pH.
Hydrogen Ion Concentration pH Basic/Acidic
1. 0.0015 2.82 acidic
2. 5.0 x 10-9 8.30 Basic
3. 1.0 0 Acidic
4. 1.0 x 10-12 12 Basic
5. 0.0001 3 Acidic
6. 1.0 x 10-4 4 Acidic
7. 1.0 x 10-8 8 Basic
8. 5.63 x 10-9 8.25 Basic
9. 3.67 x 10-6 5.44 Acidic
10. 3.25 x 10-4 3.49 acidic
5.. You decide to test the pH of your brand new swimming pool. The instruction
manual advises to keep it between 7.2-7.6. Shockingly, you found out that the
pH of your pool is 8.3! What kind of chemical should you add?
Add an acidic solution to the pool.
Activity 2: FILL ME UP!

Directions: Read and analyze each problem carefully. Identify the known
variables and solve for the unknown following the steps in solving a problem.
[𝐻3 𝑂 + ] 𝑝𝐻 [𝑂𝐻 − ] 𝑝𝑂𝐻
1 𝑥 100 0 1 𝑥 10−14 14
1 𝑥 10−1 1 1 𝑥 10−12 13
1 𝑥 10−2 2 1 𝑥 10−11 12
1 𝑥 10−3 3 1 𝑥 10−10 11
1 𝑥 10−4 4 1 𝑥 10−9 10
1 𝑥 10−5 5 1 𝑥 10−9 9
−8
1 𝑥 10−6 6 1 𝑥 10 8
1 𝑥 10−7 7 1 𝑥 10−7 7
−8 −6
1 𝑥 10 8 1 𝑥 10 6
1 𝑥 10−9 9 1 𝑥 10−5 5
1 𝑥 10−10 10 1 𝑥 10−4 4
1 𝑥 10−11 11 1 𝑥 10−3 3
1 𝑥 10−12 12 1 𝑥 10−2 2
−13 −1
1 𝑥 10 13 1 𝑥 10 1
1 𝑥 10−14 14 1 𝑥 100 0

134
Q1. From the completed table, what relationship of pH and hydronium ion
As the concentration of hydronium ion increases, the pH value

decreases.
Q2. From the completed table, what relationship of pH and hydroxide ion
As the concentration of hydroxide ion increases, the pH value increases.

Q3. What is the relationship of hydroxide and hydronium ion
concentrations? How about the pH and pOH?
Hydronium and hydroxide ion concentrations are inversely proportional,
that is, as hydronium ion concentration increases, the hydroxide ion
concentration decreases. Same applies with pH and pOH.
Q4. How can you use the pH scale in differentiating acidic, neutral and
basic solutions?
Activity 3: pH matters! 1 PIC, 4 SENTENCES

Directions: The pictures below illustrate the different effects of pH in our
environment. Using four (4) sentences, describe how pH affects our daily life.
ANSWERS MAY VARY.

1. Human Survival
Human body works within the pH range of 7.0 to 7.8. Living organisms
can survive only in a narrow range of pH. Large amount of acids are being
released in the stomach every time you eat. It helps in the digestion of food
without harming the stomach. Tooth decay starts when the pH of the mouth is
lower than 5.5. Tooth enamel, made up of calcium phosphate, is corroded when
the pH in the mouth is below 5.5.

135
2. Animal Survival
When pH of rain water is less than 5.6, it is called acid rain. The effects
of acid rain include damage to the limestone and marble in statues and
buildings; weakening of the exposed metal on bridges and cars; damage to
bodies of water, wildlife, plants, forests and crops; and the contamination of the
drinking water supply. When acid rain flows into the rivers, it lowers the pH of
the river water. Aquatic life cannot survive in acidic water.
3. Plants Survival
Acid rain has indirect effects on plants. It weakens the trees by damaging
their leaves, limiting the nutrients available to them, or poisoning them with toxic
substances slowly released from the soil. Trees affected by acid rain do not
grow as quickly as usual, their leaves and needles turn brown and fall off when
they should be green and healthy
4. Soil Acidity
Plants require a specific pH range for their healthy growth. Soil pH
should be maintained at >5.5. Acidic soil prevents or limits root development.
Plants grown in acidic soil cannot absorb water and nutrients, are stunted, and
exhibit nutrient deficiency symptoms (especially those for phosphorus).
Activity 4: SHOW ME WHAT YOU’VE GOT!

Directions: Investigate and analyze the given situation. Provide an explanation
for your answer.
Hair stylists recommend slightly acidic and near neutral shampoo for
smoother hair. You find 5 brands that you like. The first has a pH of 3.6,
the second is 13, the third is 8.2, the fourth is 6.8 and the fifth is 9.7.
Which one should you buy? Explain why it is better.
The fourth brand that has a pH of 6.8. It is close to being neutral
(pH=7), but is below pH 7 making it slightly acidic.
Prepared by:
Rosemarie C. Fernandez
Itawes National High School

136
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2
Name: ____________________________ Grade Level: _________
Date: _____________________________ Score: ______________
BUFFERS
A buffer is a solution that can resist pH change upon the addition of an

acidic or basic component. It can neutralize small amounts of added acid or
base, thus maintaining the pH of the solution relatively stable. This is important
for processes and/or reactions which require specific and stable pH ranges.
Buffer solutions have a working pH range and capacity which dictate how much
acid/base can be neutralized before pH changes, and the amount by which it
will change. Buffer solutions are used as a means of keeping pH at a nearly
constant value in a wide variety of chemical applications. For example, blood in
the human body is a buffer solution.
Human blood has narrow limits in which its pH must be maintained. The
pH range is between 7.35 to 7.45. A pH outside this range results in many
diseases, including cancer. Many foods cause acidity. There are substances in
the body that neutralize acids or bases when the pH of the blood is increased
or decreased. For this reason, the pH of the blood is controlled.
What is a buffer composed of?
To effectively maintain a pH range, a buffer must consist of a weak

conjugate acid-base pair, meaning either a. a weak acid and its conjugate base,
or b. a weak base and its conjugate acid. The use of one or the other will simply
depend upon the desired pH when preparing the buffer. For example, the
following could function as buffers when together in solution:
• Acetic acid (weak organic acid w/ formula CH3COOH) and a salt

containing its conjugate base, the acetate anion (CH3COO-), such as
sodium acetate (CH3COONa)
• Pyridine (weak base w/ formula C5H5N) and a salt containing its
conjugate acid, the pyridinium cation (C5H5NH+), such as Pyridinium
Chloride.
• Ammonia (weak base w/ formula NH3) and a salt containing its conjugate
acid, the ammonium cation, such as Ammonium Hydroxide (NH4OH)

137
How does a buffer work?
A buffer is able to resist pH change because the two components
(conjugate acid and conjugate base) are both present in appreciable amounts
at equilibrium and are able to neutralize small amounts of other acids and bases
(in the form of H3O+ and OH-) when the are added to the solution. To clarify
this effect, we can consider the simple example of a Hydrofluoric Acid (HF) and
Sodium Fluoride (NaF) buffer. Hydrofluoric acid is a weak acid due to the strong
attraction between the relatively small F- ion and solvated protons (H3O+),
which does not allow it to dissociate completely in water. Therefore, if we obtain
HF in an aqueous solution, we establish the following equilibrium with only slight
dissociation (Ka(HF) = 6.6x10-4, strongly favors reactants):
HF(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ F−(aq) + H3O+(aq) (1)
We can then add and dissolve sodium fluoride into the solution and mix
the two until we reach the desired volume and pH at which we want to buffer.
When Sodium Fluoride dissolves in water, the reaction goes to completion, thus
we obtain:
NaF(aq) + H2O(l) → Na+ (aq) + F−(aq) (2)
Since Na+ is the conjugate of a strong base, it will have no effect on the
pH or reactivity of the buffer. The addition of NaF to the solution will, however,
increase the concentration of F- in the buffer solution, and, consequently, by Le
Châtelier’s Principle, lead to slightly less dissociation of the HF in the previous
equilibrium, as well. The presence of significant amounts of both the conjugate
acid,HF, and the conjugate base, F-, allows the solution to function as a buffer.
This buffering action can be seen in the titration curve of a buffer solution.
As we can see, over the working range of the buffer. pH changes very
little with the addition of acid or base. Once the buffering capacity is exceeded
the rate of pH change quickly jumps. This occurs because the conjugate acid

138
or base has been depleted through neutralization. This principle implies that a
larger amount of conjugate acid or base will have a greater buffering capacity.
If acid were added:
F−(aq) + H3O+(aq) ⇌ HF(aq) + H2O(l)
In this reaction, the conjugate base, F-, will neutralize the added acid,
H3O+, and this reaction goes to completion, because the reaction of F- with
H3O+ has an equilibrium constant much greater than one. (In fact, the
equilibrium constant the reaction as written is just the inverse of the Ka for HF:
1/Ka(HF) = 1/(6.6x10-4) = 1.5x10+3.) So long as there is more F- than H3O+,
almost all of the H3O+ will be consumed and the equilibrium will shift to the
right, slightly increasing the concentration of HF and slightly decreasing the
concentration of F-, but resulting in hardly any change in the amount of H3O+
present once equilibrium is re-established.
If base were added:

HF(aq) + OH−(aq) ⇌ F−(aq) + H2O(l) (4)
In this reaction, the conjugate acid, HF, will neutralize added amounts of
base, OH-, and the equilibrium will again shift to the right, slightly increasing the
concentration of F- in the solution and decreasing the amount of HF slightly.
Again, since most of the OH- is neutralized, little pH change will occur.
These two reactions can continue to alternate back and forth with little pH
change.
How can a buffer maintain the pH of a substance even if small amounts
of acids or bases are added into the substance? If an acid is added to the
substance, the conjugate base of the buffer neutralizes the acid added. If a
base is added to the substance, the conjugate acid of the buffer neutralizes the
base added. For a buffer solution made up of HCH3COO and NaCH3COO, the
conjugate acid is HCH3COO and the conjugate base is CH3COO-, If HCl is
added into the solution containing the acetic acid – acetate buffer, the HCl
reacts with the conjugate base of the buffer, CH3COO-. HCl is strong acid and
is completely ionized.
HCl → H+ + Cl--
The H+ reacts with the CH3COO-1, the conjugate base of the buffer
forming acetic acid.
H+ + CH3COO-1 → HCH3COO

139
If NaOH is added into the solution containing the acetic acid – acetate
buffer, the NaOH reacts with conjugate acid of the buffer, HCH3COO. NaOH is
a strong acid and is completely ionized.
NaOH → Na+ + OH-1
OH- + HCH3COO → HOH + CH3COO-
The OH reacts with the HCH3COO, the conjugate acid of the buffer
forming H2O and CH3COO-.
This explains why a buffer is able to maintain its pH.
Describe how a buffer solution maintain its pH (STEM_GC11ABIVf-g-160)
Part A
Directions: Choose the best buffer solution.
You need a buffer with pH 4.5 and have four acids and their sodium salt
available. Which acid should you use to get the best buffer?
Your acids:
• Chloroacetic acid
• Benzoic acid
• Propanoic acid
• Hypochlorous acid
1. Which acid should you use to get the best buffer?

______________________________________________________________
_____
2. What is the pKa of the acid?
______________________________________________________________
_____

140
3. Why do they give the most efficient buffer solution?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
Part B
Directions: Identify what is being described below. Use the jumbled words as
your basis.
1. A buffer that is made up of a weak acid plus its conjugate base.
CDAI EFBFRU
2. It can neutralize small amounts of added acid or base, thus maintaining
the pH of the solution relatively stable.
RBEFUF
3. Buffer range is the pH range where a buffer effectively __________
added acids and bases, while maintaining a relatively constant pH.
NTSLUEZAERI
4. A buffer made of weak base and its conjugate acid.
BSAE EFBFRU
5. A buffer is a solution of _____________ and conjugate base used to
resist pH change with added solute.
WAKE DCIA
Activity 2: MIND POWER

Directions: Answer the following questions briefly but substantially.
1. How does a mixture of a weak acid and its conjugate base help buffer a
solution against pH changes?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
__________________________________________

141
2. What happens if a strong base is added to a buffer?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
__________________________________________
3. What happens if a strong acid is added to a buffer?

______________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
4. Why pH does not change very much when a small amount of a strong acid
or a strong base are added to a buffer?
______________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________
5. How can a buffer maintain the pH of a substance even if small amounts of
acids or bases are added into the substance?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
6. What is pH?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________
7. What is buffer?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________
8. Why are buffer solutions important in foods?
______________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________

142
9. State two (2) ways in which buffers play a crucial role in the pharmaceutical
industry.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
Activity 3: GUESS ME!

PART A
Directions: Identify whether the following solutions is a weak acid or weak
base. Write your answer beside each item.
1. CH3COOH ________________ ___
2. HF ___________________
3. NH3 ___________________
4. CH3NH2 ___________________
5. H2CO3 ___________________
6. HCOOH ___________________
7. (CH3CH2)2NH ___________________
8. HCN ___________________
9. NaHCO3 ___________________
10. H3PO4 ___________________
PART B
Directions: Match the weak acid/base to its conjugate base/acid.
Column A Column B
1. HC6H7O7 (citric acid) A. NH3
2. NH4 B. CO32-
3. HCO3- C. C6H7O7-
4. CH3COOH D. HPO42-
5. H2PO4- E. CH3COO-

143
Reflection:
1. I learned that ________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
__________
2. I enjoyed most on _____________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
__________

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
__________

144
References:
General Chemistry 2 Textbook by Ayson, Marissa F, et.al
General Chemistry 2 Teaching Guide
http://chemcollective.org/activities/tutorials/buffers/buffers2
https://tll.mit.edu/help/buffers
https://ocw.mit.edu/resources/res-tll-004-stem-concept-videos-fall-
2013/videos/structure-function-properties/buffers/
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry
_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemi
stry)/Acids_and_Bases/Buffers/Introduction_to_Buffers

145
ANSWER KEY:
Part A
Directions: Choose the best buffer solution.
You need a buffer with pH 4.5 and have four acids and their sodium salt
available. Which acid should you use to get the best buffer?
Your acids:
• Chloroacetic acid
• Benzoic acid
• Propanoic acid
• Hypochlorous acid
1. Which acid should you use to get the best buffer?

➢ Benzoic acid
➢ Propanoic acid
2. What is the pKa of the acid?

➢ Benzoic acid – 4.20
➢ Propanoic acid – 4.87
3. Why do they give the most efficient buffer solution?

➢ They give the most efficient buffer solution because their pKas is closest
to the pH of 4.5
Part B
Directions: Identify what is being described below. Use the jumbled words as
your basis.
1. A buffer that is made up of a weak acid plus its conjugate base.
ACID BUFFER
2. It can neutralize small amounts of added acid or base, thus maintaining
the pH of the solution relatively stable.
BUFFER
3. Buffer range is the pH range where a buffer effectively __________
added acids and bases, while maintaining a relatively constant pH.
NEUTRALIZERS

146
4. A buffer made of weak base and its conjugate acid.
BASE BUFFER
5. A buffer is a solution of _____________ and conjugate base used to
resist pH change with added solute.
WEAK ACID
Activity 2: MIND POWER
1. How does a mixture of a weak acid and its conjugate base help buffer a
solution against pH changes?
➢ If we mix a weak acid (HA) with its conjugate base (A -), both the acid
and base components remain present in the solution. This is because
they do not undergo any reactions that significantly alter their
concentrations. The acid and conjugate base may react with one
another, HA + A- → A- + HA, but when they do so, they simply trade
places and the concentrations [HA] and [A-] do not change. In addition,
HA and A- only rarely react with water.
2. What happens if a strong base is added to a buffer?

➢ If a strong base is added to a buffer, the weak acid will give up its H+ in
order to transform the base (OH-) into water (H2O) and the conjugate
base: HA + OH- → A- + H2O. Since the added OH- is consumed by this
reaction, the pH will change only slightly.
3. What happens if a strong acid is added to a buffer?

➢ If a strong acid is added to a buffer, the weak base will react with the H+
from the strong acid to form the weak acid HA: H+ + a- → HA. The H+
gets absorbed by the A- instead of reacting with water to form H3O+ (H+),
so the pH changes only slightly.
4. Why pH does not change very much when a small amount of a strong acid
or a strong base are added to a buffer?
➢ The pH does not change very much because [A]/[HA] does not change
very much. This is true as long as the amount of strong acid or strong
base added is small compared to the amount of conjugate acid or
conjugate base in the buffer. If you add much strong acid or base, you
will exceed the buffering capacity.

147
5. How can a buffer maintain the pH of a substance even if small amounts of
acids or bases are added into the substance?
➢ If an acid is added to the substance, the conjugate base of the buffer
neutralizes the acid added. If a base is added to the substance, the
conjugate acid of the buffer neutralizes the base added.
6. What is pH?
➢ pH is a measure of the concentration of H+ [H3O+] ions in a solution. Only
the concentration of H+ and OH- molecules determine the pH.
7. What is buffer?
➢ Solutions that control the pH of a substance when small amounts of
acids or bases are added into the substance
➢ Buffer is made up of a weak acid plus its conjugate base (an acid buffer),
or it can also be a weak base plus its conjugate acid (a base buffer)
8. Why are buffer solutions important in foods?
➢ Buffering solutions in foods olay an important role in maintain specific
pH values for optimum activity of enzymes, protein stability, and
functionality. pH also modify the color and flavor of foods and it is a
critical factor in the preservation of many processed foods. Overall pH
control is a major factor in maintaining the physical, chemical, and
microbiological stability of foods.
9. State two (2) ways in which buffers play a crucial role in the pharmaceutical
industry.
➢ Buffers adjust the pH of aqueous solutions for applications that require
predictable stability and best clinical outcomes. It control the pH of a
solution to minimize drug degradation to improve the efficacy and
delivery

148
Activity 3: GUESS ME!
PART A
Directions: Identify whether the following solutions is a weak acid or weak
base. Write your answer beside each item.
1. CH3COOH weak acid
2. HF weak acid
3. NH3 weak base
4. CH3NH2 weak base
5. H2CO3 weak acid
6. HCOOH weak acid
7. (CH3CH2)2NH weak base
8. HCN weak acid
9. NaHCO3 weak base
10. H3PO4 weak acid
PART B
Directions: Match the weak acid/base to its conjugate base/acid. Write your
answer before each number.
Column A Column B
C 1. HC6H7O7 (citric acid) A. NH3
A 2. NH4 B. CO32-
B 3. HCO3- C. C6H7O7-
E 4. CH3COOH D. HPO42-
D 5. H2PO4- E. CH3COO-
Prepared by:
JOVELYN Q. BANGAYAN
Aparri School of Arts and Trades

149
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2
Name: ____________________________ Grade Level: _________
Date: _____________________________ Score: ______________
BUFFER SOLUTIONS: HENDERSON HASSELBALCH EQUATION
The Henderson-Hasselbalch equation is the equation commonly used in

chemistry and biology to determine the pH of a solution.
• This equation shows a relationship between the pH or pOH of the solution,
the pKa or pKb, and the concentration of the chemical species involved.
• This equation was developed independently by the American biological
chemist L. J. Henderson and the Swedish physiologist K. A. Hasselbalch
to determine the pH of the bicarbonate buffer system in blood.
• This type of kinetic analysis has enabled us for nearly a century to relate
theoretically the changes of the acidic intensity of dilute solutions to a
quantity of acid or base added or subtracted.
• This equation can be considered as the backbone of acid-base physiology.
• This equation is commonly used to determine the amount of acid and
conjugate base required to prepare a buffer of the desired pH.
The Henderson–Hasselbalch equation mathematically connects the

measurable pH of a solution with the pKa (which is equal to -log Ka) of the acid.
The equation is also useful for estimating the pH of a buffer solution and finding
the equilibrium pH in an acid-base reaction. The equation can be derived from
the formula of pKa for a weak acid or buffer. The balanced equation for an acid
dissociation is:
HA ⇌ H+ + A−
The acid dissociation constant is:
Ka
After taking the log of the entire equation and rearranging it, the result is:

150
This equation can be rewritten as:
[𝐴−]
-pKa = -pH + log ([𝐻𝐴])
Distributing the negative sign gives the final version of the Henderson-
Hasselbalch equation:
pH = pKa
In an alternate application, the equation can be used to determine the

amount of acid and conjugate base needed to make a buffer of a certain pH.
With a given pH and known pKa, the solution of the Henderson-Hasselbalch
equation gives the logarithm of a ratio which can be solved by performing the
antilogarithm of pH/pKa:
EXAMPLE:
What is the pH of a buffer solution consisting of 0.0350 M NH 3 and
0.0500 M NH4+ (Ka for NH4+ is 5.6 x 10-10)? The equation for the reaction
is:
NH4+ ⇌ H+ + NH3
Assuming that the change in concentrations is negligible in order for the
system to reach equilibrium, the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation will be:
[NH3]
pH = pKa + log [NH4]
pH
pH = 9.095
Calculating Changes in a Buffer Solution
The changed pH of a buffer solution in response to the addition of an

acid or a base can be calculated.
If the concentrations of a solution of a weak acid and its conjugate base

are reasonably high, then the solution is resistant to changes in hydrogen ion
concentration. These solutions are known as buffers. It is possible to calculate
how the pH of the solution will change in response to the addition of an acid or
a base to a buffer solution.

151
EXAMPLE:
A solution is 0.050 M in acetic acid (HC2H3O2) and 0.050 M NaC2H3O2.

Calculate the change in pH when 0.001 mole of hydrochloric acid (HCl)
is added to a liter of solution, assuming that the volume increase upon
adding the HCl is negligible. Compare this to the pH if the same amount
of HCl is added to a liter of pure water.
Step 1:
HC2H3O2(aq) ⇋ H+(aq) + C2H3O2-(aq)
Recall that sodium acetate, NaC2H3O2, dissociates into its component
ions, Na+ and C2H3O2– (the acetate ion) upon dissolution in water. Therefore,
the solution will contain both acetic acid and acetate ions.
Before adding HCl, the acetic acid equilibrium constant is:
Ka = [H+] [C2H3O2-] = [x (0.050)
[HC2H3O2] (0.050)
(assuming that x is small compared to 0.050 M in the equilibrium
concentrations) Therefore:
X = [H+] = Ka =
1.76×10−5 M pH = pKa =
4.75
In this example, ignoring the x in the [C2H3O2–] and [HC2H3O2] terms was
justified because the value is small compared to 0.050.
Step 2:
The added protons from HCl combine with the acetate ions to form more
acetic acid:
C2H3O2− + H+ (from HCl) → HC2H3O2
Since all of the H+ will be consumed, the new concentrations will be
[HC2H3O2] = 0.051M and [C2H3O2-] = 0.049M before the new equilibrium is to
be established. Then, we consider the equilibrium concentrations for the
dissociation of acetic acid, as in Step 1:
HC2H3O2(aq) ⇋ H+(aq) +
C2H3O2−(aq) we have,
[ 𝑥 (0.049)]
Ka = (0.051)

152
X M
pH = −log([H+]) = 4.74
In the presence of the acetic acid-acetate buffer system, the pH only
drops from 4.75 to 4.74 upon addition of 0.001 mol of strong acid HCl, a
difference of only 0.01 pH unit.
Step 3:
Adding 0.001 M HCl to pure water, the pH is:
pH = −log([H+]) = 3.00
In the absence of HC2H3O2 and C2H3O2–, the same concentration of HCl
would produce a pH of 3.00.
Buffers Containing a Base and Conjugate Acid
An alkaline buffer can be made from a mixture of the base and its
conjugate acid, but the formulas for determining pH take a different form.
A base is a substance that decreases the hydrogen ion (H+)

concentration of a solution. In the more generalized Bronsted-Lowry definition,
the hydroxide ion (OH) is the base because it is the substance that combines
with the proton. Ammonia and some organic nitrogen compounds can combine
with protons in solution and act as Brønsted-Lowry bases. These compounds
are generally weaker bases than the hydroxide ion because they have less
attraction for protons. For example, when ammonia competes with OH – for
protons in an aqueous solution, it is only partially successful. It can combine
with only a portion of the H+ ions, so it will have a measurable equilibrium
constant. Reactions with weak bases result in a relatively low pH compared to
strong bases. Bases range from a pH of greater than 7 (7 is neutral like pure
water) to 14 (though some bases are greater than 14).
An alkaline buffer can be made from a mixture of a base and its

conjugate acid, similar to the way in which weak acids and their conjugate bases
can be used to make a buffer.
Calculating the pH of a Base
The pH of bases is usually calculated using the OH– concentration to find

the pOH first. This is done because the H+ concentration is not a part of the
reaction, while the OH– concentration is. The formula for pOH is:
pOH = −log([OH−])

153
By multiplying a conjugate acid (such as NH4+) and a conjugate base
(such as NH3) the following is given:
Ka × Kb = [H3O+][NH3] × [NH4+][OH−]
[NH4+] [NH3]
Ka × Kb = [H3O+] [OH−]
= Kw log(Ka) + log(Kb) =
log(Kw) pKa + pKb = pKw
= 14.00
The pH can be calculated using the formula:
pH = 14 − pOH
Weak bases exist in chemical equilibrium much in the same way as weak
acids do. A base dissociation constant (Kb) indicates the strength of the base.
For example, when ammonia is put in water, the following equilibrium is set up:
NH3 + H2O ⇌ NH4+ + OH−
Kb = [NH4+][OH−]
[NH3]
Bases that have a large Kb will ionize more completely, meaning they are
stronger bases. NaOH (sodium hydroxide) is a stronger base than
(CH3CH2)2NH (diethylamine) which is a stronger base than NH3 (ammonia). As
the bases get weaker, the Kb values get smaller.
For a buffer made up of a weak base and its conjugate acid, the equation
for determining the pH of the buffer will be:
pOH = pKb + log
EXAMPLE:
Calculate the pH of a buffer solution consisting of 0.051 M NH3 and 0.037

M NH4+. The Kb for NH3 = 1.8 x 10-5.
NH3 + H2O ⇌ NH4+ + OH−
Kb = [NH4+] [OH−]

154
[NH3]
Assuming the change (x) is negligible to 0.051 M and 0.037 M solutions:
Kb =
1.8 x 10-5 = [0.037][x]

[0.051]
x = [OH–] = 2.48 x 10-5
pOH = 4.61
pH = 14 – 4.61
= 9.39
Calculate the pH of a buffer solution using the Henderson Hasselbalch equation

(STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-161)
Activity 1: YOU COMPLETE ME!
Directions: Fill in the blanks with words that correspond to the

statements below. Choose the word in the word bank.
Weak acid buffer solution alkaline buffer Conjugate base base
1. The Henderson–Hasselbalch equation is useful for estimating the pH of a

_____________ and finding the equilibrium pH in an acid-base reaction.
2. The Henderson–Hasselbalch equation can be used to determine the

amount of acid and _________________needed to make a buffer of a
certain pH.

155
3. If the concentrations of a solution of a ____________ and its conjugate
base are reasonably high, then the solution is resistant to changes in
hydrogen ion concentration.
4. A ______________ is a substance that decreases the hydrogen ion (H+)
concentration of a solution.
5. An alkaline buffer can be made from a mixture of a __________ and its

conjugate acid, similar to the way in which weak acids and their conjugate
bases can be used to make a buffer.
Activity 2: GIVE ME THE SOLUTION!
Directions: Calculate the following problems below. Show your complete

solution.
1. What is the pH of the solution containing 0.20 M NH3 and 0.15 M NH4Cl?
2. Calculate the pH of a buffer solution formed by dissolving 0.350 mole
HCH3COO and 0.550 mole of NaCH3COO in 0.950 L solution. Ka
HCH3COO = 1.8 x 10-5. The buffer in the solution is acid buffer made up of :
HCH3COO- - NaCH3COO-
Weak acid salt of the weak
acid
CA CB
3. Determine the pH of the following combination of solutions:
A. 8 mL of 0.04 M HCl
5 mL of 0.8 M ammonia
pKa of ammonium = 9.26
B. 6 mL of 0.25 ammonium
Activity 3: CHANGES IN ME!

Directions: Calculate the changes in pH of the following problems below.
1. A formic acid buffer is prepared with 0.010 M each of formic acid (HCOOH)
and Sodium formate (NaCOOH). The K a for formic acid is 1.8 x 10-4. What

156
is the pH of the solution? What is the pH if 0.0020 M of solid sodium
hydroxide (NaOH) is added to a liter of buffer? What would be the pH of
the sodium hydroxide solution without the buffer? What would the pH have
been after adding sodium hydroxide if the buffer concentrations had been
0.10 M instead of 0.010 M?
2. A. Calculate the pH of a 0.500 L buffer solution composed of 0.700 M formic
acid (HCOOH, Ka = 1.77 x 10¯4) and 0.500 M sodium formate (HCOONa).
B. Calculate the pH after adding 50.0 mL of a 1.00 M NaOH solution.
Activity 4: CALCULATE THE UNKNOWN!
Directions: Read and analyze the following questions and compute for is
unknown in the given problem.
1. Calculate the pH of a buffer made up of 0.544M CH3NH2 and 0.678M
CH3NH3+Cl-. Ka of CH3NH2 is 1.8 x 10-5. The buffer is made up of CH3NH2
(weak base) and CH3NH3+Cl- (salt or conjugate acid)
2. Calculate the pH of buffer made of 0.500M NH3 and 0.456M NH4Cl,
pKb NH3 = 4.74.
3. Calculate the pH of a buffer solution consisting of 0.960M NH3 and 0.608M
NH4+. The Kb for NH3 = 1.8 x 10-5. The reaction is:
NH3 + H2O ⇌ NH4+ + OH−

157
Reflection:
1. I learned that ________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
2. I enjoyed most on ____________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

158
References:

Hill, Petrucci. General Chemistry: An integrated approach,

second edition. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1999.
Santos, Gil Nonato S., Danac, Alfonso C., O-Chemistry III, 2009
Mortimer Charles E., Chemistry 6th Edition
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry
_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemi
stry)/Acids_and_Bases/Buffers/Henderson-Hasselbalch_Approximation
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-chemistry/chapter/buffer-
solutions/

159
ANSWER KEY
ACTIVITY 1: YOU COMPLETE ME!
Directions: Fill in the blanks with words that corresponds to the statements
below. Choose the word in the word bank.
Weak acid buffer solution
alkaline buffer Conjugate base
base
1. The Henderson–Hasselbalch equation is useful for estimating the pH of a

buffer solution and finding the equilibrium pH in an acid-base reaction.
2. The Henderson–Hasselbalch equation can be used to determine the
amount of acid and conjugate base needed to make a buffer of a certain
pH.
3. If the concentrations of a solution of a weak acid and its conjugate base
are reasonably high, then the solution is resistant to changes in hydrogen
ion concentration.
4. An alkaline buffer is a substance that decreases the hydrogen ion (H+)
concentration of a solution.
5. An alkaline buffer can be made from a mixture of a base and its conjugate
acid, similar to the way in which weak acids and their conjugate bases can
be used to make a buffer.
Activity 2: GIVE ME THE SOLUTION!

Directions: Calculate the following problems below. Show your complete
solution.
1. What is the pH of the solution containing 0.20 M NH3 and 0.15 M NH4Cl?
Given: [NH3] = 0.20 (conjugate base)
[NH4Cl]= 0.15 (weak acid)
pKa = 9.25 (for NH4+, from the table)
Equation: pH = pKa + log [B-]

[HB]
pH = 9.25 + log 0.20

0.15

160
pH = 9.37
2. Calculate the pH of a buffer solution formed by dissolving 0.350 mole

HCH3COO and 0.550 mole of NaCH3COO in 0.950 L solution. Ka
HCH3COO = 1.8 x 10-5. The buffer in the solution is acid buffer made up
of
HCH3COO- -
NaCH3COO-
Weak acid salt of the weak acid
CA CB
Given:
Concentration of HCH3COO = 0.350 mole
Concentration of NaCH3COO = 0.550 mole
Volume = 0.950 L
Solution:
CH3COO = 0.350 mole = 0.368 M
0.950 L
NaCH3COO = 0.550 mole = 0.579 M

0.950 L
pH = pKa + log [CB]

[CA]
pKa = -logKa = -log(1.8 x 10-5) = 4.74
pH = 4.74 + log (0.579 M)

(0.368 M)
pH = 4.74 + 0.1968
pH = 4.94
3. Determine the pH of the following combination of solutions:

A. 8 mL of 0.04 M HCl
5 mL of 0.8 M
ammonia

161
The first reaction that has to happen is the creation of NH+4, ammonium.
H+ + NH3 → NH4+
We need to determine how many moles of hydrogen ions that we have

from the HCl, that is equal to the amount of NH+4 that is formed.
moles = 0.04 moles x 1L x 8mL = 3.2x10−4 moles

L 1000 mL
We need to determine the total amount of moles of ammonia, and then
how many are remaining.
Total moles = 0.8 moles x 1L x 5mL = 0.004 moles

L 1000 mL
Remaining moles = 0.004 moles − 3.2x10−4 moles = 0.00368 moles
Now we can use the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation to solve for the pH
pKa = pH + log base = 9.26 + log 3.2x10−4 =

8.2 acid 0.00368
B. 6 mL of 0.25 M ammonium

The relevant chemical reaction here is:
NH4+ + H2O NH3 + H3O+
First we need to determine how many moles we have of NH4+ and NH3.
Moles ammonium = 0.25 mole x 1L x 6mL = 0.0015 moles

L 1000 mL
Moles ammonia = 0.34 moles x 1L x 5mL = 0.0017 moles

L 1000 mL
Now we can use the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation to solve for the pH
pH = pKa + log base = 9.26 + log 0.00170 = 9.31

acid 0.0015

162
Activity 3: CHANGES IN ME!
Directions: Calculate the changes in pH of the following problems below.
1. A formic acid buffer is prepared with 0.010 M each of formic acid (HCOOH)
and Sodium formate (NaCOOH). The K a for formic acid is 1.8 x 10-4. What
is the pH of the solution? What is the pH if 0.0020 M of solid sodium
hydroxide (NaOH) is added to a liter of buffer? What would be the pH of the
sodium hydroxide solution without the buffer? What would the pH have been
after adding sodium hydroxide if the buffer concentrations had been 0.10 M
instead of 0.010 M?
Step 1:
Solving for the buffer pH:
HCOOH ⇋ H+ + HCOO−
Assuming x is negligible, the Ka expression looks like:
Ka = x(0.010)
(0.010)
1.8 x 10-4 = x =
[H+] pH = -log
[H+] = 3.74
Buffer: pH =
3.74 STEP 2:
Solving for the buffer pH after 0.0020 M NaOH has been added:
OH− + HCOOH → H2O + HCOO−
The concentration of HCOOH would change from 0.010 M to 0.0080 M and

the concentration of HCOO– would change from 0.010 M to 0.0120 M.
Ka = x(0.0120)
(0.0080)

163
After adding NaOH, solving for x = [H+] and then calculating the pH = 3.92.
The pH went up from 3.74 to 3.92 upon addition of 0.002 M of NaOH.
Step 3:
Solving for the pH of a 0.0020 M solution of NaOH:
pOH = -log
(0.0020) pOH
= 2.70 pH =
14 – pOH pH
= 11.30
Without buffer: pH =
11.30
Step 4:
Solving for the pH of the buffer solution if 0.1000 M solutions of the weak
acid and its conjugate base had been used and the same amount of NaOH
had been added:
The concentration of HCOOH would change from 0.1000 M to 0.0980 M
and the concentration of HCOO– would change from 0.1000 M to 0.1020
M.
Ka = x(0.1020)
(0.0980)
pH if 0.1000 M concentrations had been used = 3.77

This shows the dramatic effect of the formic acid-formate buffer in
keeping the solution acidic in spite of the added base. It also shows the
importance of using high buffer component concentrations so that the
buffering capacity of the solution is not exceeded.
2. A. Calculate the pH of a 0.500 L buffer solution composed of 0.700 M formic
acid (HCOOH, Ka = 1.77 x 10¯4) and 0.500 M sodium formate (HCOONa).
We can use the given molarities in the Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation:
pH = pKa + log [base /
acid] pH = 3.752 + log

164
[0.5 / 0.7] pH = 3.752 +
(−0.146) pH = 3.606
B. Calculate the pH after adding 50.0 mL of a 1.00 M NaOH solution.

Step 1:
We need to determine the moles of formic acid and sodium formate
after the NaOH was added. We first calculate the amounts before the
addition of the
NaOH:
HCOOH ---> (0.700mol/L)(0.500L) = 0.350 mol
HCOONa ---> (0.500 mol/L) (0.500 L) = 0.250 mol
Step 2:
Now, determine the moles of NaOH:
NaOH ---> (1.00 mol/L) (0.0500 L) = 0.0500 mol
Step 3:
NaOH reacts in a 1:1 molar ratio with HCOOH:
HCOOH ---> 0.350 mol − 0.0500 mol = 0.300 mol

HCOONa ---> 0.250 mol + 0.0500 mol = 0.300 mol
Step 4:
Calculate the new pH:
pH = 3.752 + log [0.300 /
0.300] pH = 3.752 + log 1
pH = 3.752

165
Directions: Read and analyze the following questions and compute for is
unknown in the given problem.
1. Calculate the pH of a buffer made up of 0.544M CH3NH2 and 0.678M
CH3NH3+Cl-. Ka of CH3NH2 is 1.8 x 10-5. The buffer is made up of CH3NH2 (weak
base) and CH3NH3+Cl- (salt or conjugate acid)
Given: Concentration of CH3NH2 = [CB] = 0.544M
Concentration of CH3NH3+Cl- = [CA] = 0.678M

Solution: pOH = pKb + log [CA]
[CB]
= 4.74 + log 0.678M
0.544M
= 4.74 + 0.0956
= 4.8356
pOH = 14 – 4.8356
= 9.1644
2. Calculate the pH of buffer made of 0.500M NH3 and 0.456M NH4Cl, pKb
NH3 = 4.74.
Given: Concentration of NH3 = [CB] = 0.500M
Concentration of NH4Cl- = [CA] = 0.456M

Solution: pOH = pKb + log [CA]
[CB]
= 4.74 + log 0.456M
0.500M
= 4.74 + (- 0.040)
= 4.34
pOH = 14 – 4.34
= 9.66

166
3. Calculate the pH of a buffer solution consisting of 0.960M NH 3 and 0.608M
NH4+. The Kb for NH3 = 1.8 x 10-5. The reaction is:
NH3 + H2O ⇌ NH4+ + OH−
Kb = [NH4+] [OH−]
[NH3]
Assuming the change (x) is negligible to 0.051 M and 0.037 M solutions:

Kb =
1.8 x 10-5 = [0.608][x]

[0.960]
x = [OH–] = 2.84 x 10-5
pOH = 4.55
pH = 14 – 4.55 = 9.45

167
APPENDIX: Table of acids with Ka and pKa values.
Prepared by:
JOVELYN Q. BANGAYAN

168
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2
Name: ____________________________ Grade Level: _________
Date: _____________________________ Score: ______________
OXIDATION-REDUCTION REACTIONS
Background Information for the Learners
Variety of oxidation-reduction reactions affect us amazingly every day.

Our society runs on batteries – in our calculators, laptop computers, cars, toys,
radios, mobile phones, and more. There are some other encounters that seems
to be a puzzle that we observe but don’t have dare to care.
Some questions like, why does an apple turn brown whenever sliced?
Why does an eggplant change in color when sliced? Why do we paint iron
railings, roofs, window grills, and others?
Apples and eggplants immediately turns brown after slicing due to

exposure to air. We paint iron railings, galvanized iron of roofs, window grills
and other materials made of iron to combat corrosion. We electroplate jewelry
and computer chips with very thin coatings of gold or silver. We bleach our
clothes and develop our photographs in solution using chemical reactions that
involve electron transfer. Medical experts test for glucose in urine or alcohol in
the breath with reactions that show vivid color changes. Plants turn energy into
chemical compounds through series of reactions called photosynthesis. These
reactions all involve the transfer of electrons between substances in a chemical
process called oxidation-reduction or redox reaction. Redox reaction is also
responsible for providing energy for our body to move, think and stay alive.
Oxidation Number
The oxidation number of an atom (sometimes called its oxidation state)

represents the number of electrons gained, lost, or unequally shared by an
atom. Oxidation numbers can be zero, positive, or negative. An oxidation
number of zero means the atom has the same number of electrons assigned to
it as there are in the free neutral atom. A positive oxidation number means the
atom has fewer electrons assigned to it than in the neutral atom, and a negative
oxidation number means the atom has more electrons assigned to it that in the
neutral atom.
The oxidation number of an atom that lost or gained electrons to form an
ion is the same as the positive or negative charge of the ion. The table below
shows the oxidation numbers of common ions.

169
Ion Oxidation In the ionic compound NaCl, the
Number oxidation numbers are clearly +1 for Na+ ion
H + +1 and -1 for Cl- ion. The Na+ ion has one less
Na + +1 electron than the neutral Na atom, and the
K+ +1 Cl- ion has one more electron than the
Li + +1 neutral Cl atom.
Ag+ +1 Assigning correct oxidation numbers
Cu 2+ +2
to elements is essential in balancing
Ca2+ +2
Ba 2+ +2 oxidation-reduction equations. Oxidation
Fe 2+ +2
numbers have variety of uses in chemistry –
Mg2+ +2
Zn 2+ +2 from writing formulas to predicting properties
Al3+ +3 of compounds and assisting in the balancing
Fe 3+ +3
Cl- -1 of oxidation-reduction reactions in which
Br - -1 electrons are transferred.
F - -1
I- -1
S 2- -2 To correctly assign oxidation
O2- -2
numbers, the rules are summarized below.
Table 1: Common Ions and their
respective oxidation numbers.
Rules in assigning Oxidation Numbers

1. All elements in their free state (uncombined with other elements) have
an oxidation number of zero. (e.g. Na, Cu, Mg, H2, O2, Cl2, N2)
2. H is +1, except in metal hydrides, where it is -1 (e.g. NaH, CaH2).
3. O is -2, except in peroxides, where it is -1, and in OF2, where it is +2.
4. The metallic element in an ionic compound has a positive oxidation
number.
5. In covalent compounds, the negative oxidation number is assigned to
the most electronegative atom.
6. The algebraic sum of the oxidation numbers of the elements in a
compound is zero.
7. The algebraic sum of the oxidation numbers of the elements in a
polyatomic ion is equal to the charge of the ion.

170
Steps in finding the Oxidation Number of an element within a compound.
1. Write the oxidation number of each known atom below the atom in the
formula.
2. Multiply each oxidation number by the number of atoms of that element
in the compound.
3. Write the expression indicating the sum of all oxidation numbers in the
compound. Remember: The sum of the oxidation numbers in a
compound is zero and equal to the charge for polyatomic ion.
OXIDATION NUMBER IN COMPOUNDS

Example
Determine the oxidation number of Sulfur in Sulfuric Acid:
H2SO4
Step 1: +1 -2
Step 2: 2(+1) = +2 4(-2) = -8
Step 3: +2 + S + (-8) = 0
Step 4: S = +6
The Oxidation number of Sulfur in Sulfuric acid is +6
OXIDATION NUMBER IN POLYATOMIC IONS
Example
Determine the oxidation number for Carbon in the Oxalate ion:
C2O42-
Step 1: -2
Step 2: 4(-2) = -8
Step 3: 2C + (-8) = -2
Step 4: 2C = +6
C = +3
The oxidation number of Carbon in Oxalate ion is +3.
OXIDATION – REDUCTION
Oxidation – reduction, also known as redox, is a chemical process in
which oxidation number of an element is changed. The process may involve
the complete transfer of electrons to form ionic bonds or only a partial transfer
shifts of electrons to form covalent bonds.

171
Oxidation occurs whenever the oxidation number of an element
increases as a result of losing electrons. Conversely, Reduction occurs
whenever the oxidation numbers of an element decreases as a result of
gaining electrons. For example, a change in oxidation number from +2 to +3
or -1 to 0 is oxidation; a change in oxidation number from +5 to +2 or from -2 to
-4 is reduction. Oxidation and reduction occur simultaneously in a chemical
reaction.
In the given chemical reaction wherein oxidation numbers are written

above the elements, Magnesium changes oxidation number from 0 to + 2, while
H changes oxidation number from +1 to 0. Magnesium loss electrons causing
an increase in its oxidation number, magnesium has been oxidized. On the
other hand, Hydrogen gains electrons causing a decrease in its oxidation
number, hydrogen has been reduced. The substance being oxidized is called
reducing agent while the substance being reduced is oxidizing agent.
To summarize:
LEO – Losing Electron is Oxidation
Increase in Oxidation Number
GER – Gaining Electron is Reduction
Decrease in Oxidation Number
Reducing agent – the substance being oxidized. Source: Tro, Nivaldo (2011), Introductory Chemistry (4th ed.).
Oxidizing agent – the substance being reduced.
Learning Competency
The learner will be able to define Oxidation and Reduction Reactions
(STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-169).

172
Activity 1: FIND THE CORRECT NUMBER
Directions: Assign the correct oxidation number of the individual atom in the
compound or ion below.
1. S in S8 6. S in SO42-
2. Cl in CaCl2 7. S in Na2SO4
3. I in IO3- 8. As in K3AsO4
4. C in HCO3- 9. Cr in Cr2O72-
5. S in Fe2(SO4)3 10. N in NH4+
Activity 2: EXAMINE ME
Directions: Examine the given chemical reactions and answer the given
questions in each item.
1. Label the following as oxidation or reduction.
_______a. Conversion of Br- to Br2
_______b. Conversion of Fe2+ to Fe3+
_______c. Change in oxidation number in a negative direction.
2. In the balanced equation: I2 + 5Cl2 + 6H2O → 2HIO3 + 10HCl
_______a. What element was reduced?
_______b. What element was oxidized?
_______c. What substance is the oxidizing agent?
_______d. What substance is the reducing agent?
3. The equation below shows the corrosion of Iron when exposed to
oxygen: 4Fe + 3O2 → 2Fe2O3
______a. What element was reduced?
______b. What element was oxidized?
______c. What substance is the oxidizing agent?
______d. What substance is the reducing agent?
4. Burning of methane is common among households that uses gas stove.
The reaction below shows the combustion of methane: CH4 + 2O2 →
CO2 + 2H2O
______a. What element was reduced?
______b. What element was oxidized?
______c. What substance is the oxidizing agent?
______d. What substance is the reducing agent?

173
Activity 3: LEOGER
Directions: Read carefully the given statements. Determine whether oxidation
or reduction is described. Write your answer on the space provided.
________1. An element changes oxidation number +5 to +2.
________2. Oxygen attained oxidation number of 0 from -2.
________3. Hydrogen have an initial oxidation of +1 and later had 0 after the
reaction.
________4. An element losses 2 electrons after a reaction.
________5. Chlorine reaches -1 charge after gaining an electron.
________6. An element undergoes change of oxidation number from +3 to 0.
________7. Copper changes from +2 to 0.
________8. From Cl2 having 0 as oxidation number, Cl later had -1 after
combining with Na.
________9. Lithium from its free state to LiCl.
________10. Carbon in CH4 before combustion and Carbon in CO2 after
combustion.
Reflection:
1.I learned that ________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
2.I enjoyed most on ____________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
3.I want to learn more on __________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

174
Referenes
Hein, M., Best, L. R., et.al,(2005), Introduction to general, organic and
biochemistry(8th ed.).Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons
Tro, Nivaldo (2011), Introductory Chemistry (4th ed.).USA:Pearson Prentice
Hall
Chang, Raymond,.(2010) General Chemistry(10th ed) NY: McGraw Hill
Modern Chemistry Study Guide/Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston
Zumdahl,.Zumdahl,. Chemistry (7th ed) © USA: Houghton Mifflin Company
https://images.app.goo.gl/RUzePYrgQXmi8K9dA

175
ANSWER KEY
Activity 1: FIND THE CORRECT NUMBER
1. S = 0
2. Cl = -1
3. I = +5
4. C = +4
5. S = +6
6. S = +6
7. S = +6
8. As = +5
9. Cr = +6
10. N = -3
Activity 2: EXAMINE ME
1. (a) oxidation (b) oxidation (c) reduction
2. (a) Cl (b) I (c) Cl2 (d) I2
3. (a) O (b) Fe (c) O2 (d) Fe
4. (a) O (b) C (c) O2 (d) CH4
Activity 3: LEOGER
1. Reduction
2. Reduction
3. Reduction
4. Oxidation
5. Reduction
6. Reduction
7. Reduction
8. Reduction
9. Oxidation
10. Oxidation
Prepared by:
CLETO D. ABBIDO
Don Severino Pagalilauan National High School

176
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2
Name: ____________________________ Grade Level: _________
Date: _____________________________ Score: ______________
BALANCING REDOX REACTIONS
Background Information for the Learners
In previous lessons, we learned how to balance chemical equations

using inspection. Many redox reactions can be balanced readily through
inspection, or by the trial and error.
In this lesson we will be dealing with more systematic way of balancing
complex reactions such as oxidation-reduction reactions.
How to balance Oxidation – Reduction reactions?
One systematic method for balancing oxidation – reduction equations is
based on the transfer of electrons between the oxidizing and reducing agents.
Consider the equation:
0 0 + -
Na + Cl2 → NaCl
Above each element is the oxidation number of each in the reaction. In
this reaction, sodium metal loses one electron per atom when it changes to
sodium ion. At the same time, chlorine gains one electron per atom. Because
chlorine is a diatomic, two electrons per molecule are needed to form a chloride
ion from each atom. These electrons are furnished by two sodium atoms.
Stepwise, the reaction may be written as two half-reactions, the oxidation half-
reaction and the reduction half reaction:
2 Na0 → 2Na+ + 2e- oxidation half-reaction
Cl20 + 2e- → 2Cl- reduction half-reaction
Cl20 + 2 Na0 → 2Na+Cl-
When the two half-reactions, each containing the same number of
electrons, are added together algebraically, the electrons cancel out. In this
reaction there are no excess electrons; the two electrons lost by the two sodium
atoms were utilized by chlorine. In all redox reactions the loss of electrons by
the reducing agent must equal the gain of electrons by the oxidizing agent. Here
sodium is oxidized and chlorine is reduced. Chlorine is the oxidizing agent;
odium is the reducing agent.

177
In the following examples, we use the change in oxidation number
method, a system for balancing more complicated redox reactions.
Change in oxidation method
Rule Example 1
1. Assign oxidation states to all 0 +2 +3 0

atoms and identify the Al(s) + Cu2+(aq) → Al3+(aq) + Cu(s)
substances being oxidized and
reduced. Oxidation
Reduction
2. Separate the overall reaction Oxidation: Al(s) → Al3+(aq)
into two half-reactions, one for Reduction: Cu2+(aq) → Cu(s)
oxidation and one for reduction.
3. Balance each half reaction,

with respect to mass in the
following order: All atoms other than O and H are
a. Balance all elements other balanced, so proceed to other
than H and O elements.
No O, proceed to the next step.
No H, proceed to the next step

b. Balance O by adding H2O
c. Balance H by adding H+
4. Balance each half-reaction
with respect to charge by Al(s) → Al3+(aq) + 3e-
adding electrons to the right 2e- + Cu2+(aq) → Cu(s)
side of the oxidation half-
reaction and the left side of the
reduction half-reaction. (The
sum of the charges on both
sides of each equation should
then be equal.)
5. Make the number of electrons 2 (Al(s) → Al3+(aq) + 3e-)
in both half-reactions equal by 3 (2e- + Cu2+(aq) → Cu(s))
multiplying one or both half-
reactions by a small whole
number.
6. Add the two half-reactions 2Al(s) → 2Al3+(aq) + 6e-
together, canceling electrons 6e- + 3Cu2+(aq) → 3Cu(s)
and other species as necessary. 2Al(s) + 3Cu2+(aq) → 2Al3+(aq) + 3Cu(s)
7. Verify that the reaction is Reactants Products

balanced with respect to both 2 Al 2 Al
mass and charge. 3 Cu 3 Cu
+6 charge +6 charge

178
Balancing Redox reaction in Acidic Solution
Rule Example 2
1. Assign oxidation states to -1 +6 -2 +3 0

all atoms and identify the I-(aq) + Cr2O72-(aq) → Cr3+ (aq) + I2(s)
substances being oxidized
and reduced. Oxidation
Reduction
2. Separate the overall Oxidation: I-(aq) → I2(s)

reaction into two half- Reduction: Cr2O72-(aq) → Cr3+ (aq)
reactions, one for oxidation
and one for reduction.
3. Balance each half
reaction, 2I-(aq) → I2(s)
a. Balance all elements other Cr2O72-(aq) → 2Cr3+ (aq)
than H and O 2I-(aq) → I2(s)
Cr2O72-(aq) → 2Cr3+ (aq) + 7H2O
2I-(aq) → I2(s)
b. Balance O by adding H2O 14H+(aq) + Cr2O72-(aq) → 2Cr3+ (aq) + 7H2O
c. Balance H by adding H+
4. Balance each half-reaction 2I-(aq) → I2(s) + 2e-
with respect to charge by 6e- + 14H+(aq) + Cr2O72-(aq) → 2Cr3+ (aq) +
adding electrons to the right 7H2O
side of the oxidation half-
reaction and the left side of
the reduction half-reaction.
(The sum of the charges on
both sides of each equation
should then be equal.)
5. Make the number of 3 (2I-(aq) → I2(s) + 2e-)
electrons in both half- 6e- + 14H+(aq) + Cr2O72-(aq) → 2Cr3+ (aq) +
reactions equal by 7H2O
multiplying one or both half-
reactions by a small whole
number.
6. Add the two half-reactions 6I-(aq) → 3I2(s) + 6e-
together, canceling electrons 6e- + 14H+(aq) + Cr2O72-(aq) → 2Cr3+ (aq) +
and other species as 7H2O
necessary. 6I-(aq) + 14H+(aq) + Cr2O72-(aq) → 3I2(s) +
2Cr3+ (aq) + 7H2O

179
7. Verify that the reaction is Reactants Products
balanced with respect to 6I 6I
both 14 H 14 H
mass and charge. 2 Cr 2 Cr
7O 7O
+6 charge +6 charge
Balancing Redox Reaction in Basic Solution

Rule Example 3
1. Assign oxidation +2 -3 +7 -2 +4 -3 -2 +4 -2
states to all atoms CN-(aq) + MnO4-(aq) → CNO-(aq) + MnO2(s)
and identify the
substances being Oxidation
oxidized and Reduction
reduced.
2. Separate the Oxidation: CN-(aq) → CNO-(aq)
overall reaction Reduction: MnO4-(aq) → MnO2(s)
into two half-
reactions, one for
oxidation and one
for reduction.
3. Balance each
half reaction, with
respect to mass in All atoms other than O and H are balanced, so proceed
the following to other elements.
order:
a. Balance all CN-(aq) + H2O(l)→ CNO-(aq)
elements other MnO4-(aq) → MnO2(s) + 2H2O
than H and O
CN-(aq) + H2O(l)→ CNO-(aq) + 2H+(aq)
MnO4-(aq) + 4H+(aq) → MnO2(s) + 2H2O(l)
b. Balance O by
adding H2O CN-(aq) + H2O(l) + 2OH-(aq)→ CNO-(aq) + 2H+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)
2H O
MnO4-(aq) + 4H+(aq) + 4OH-(aq)→ MnO2(s) + 2H22O(l)(l) +
c. Balance H by 4OH-(aq) 4H2O(l)
adding H+ Therefore:
CN-(aq) + H2O(l) + 2OH-(aq)→ CNO-(aq) + 2H2O(l)
MnO4-(aq) + 4H2O(l) → MnO2(s) + 2H2O(l) + 4OH-(aq)
d. Neutralize H+ by
adding OH-. Add CN-(aq) + H2O(l) + 2OH-(aq)→ CNO-(aq) + 2H2O(l)
the same number MnO4-(aq) + 2 4H2O(l) → MnO2(s) + 2H2O(l) + 4OH-(aq)
of OH- to each
side of the
equation (to
preserve mass
balance).

180
e. Cancel any water
molecule that
occur on both
sides of the half
reaction
4. Balance each CN-(aq) + 2OH-(aq)→ CNO-(aq) + H2O(l) + 2e-
half-reaction with 3e- + MnO4-(aq) + 2H2O(l) → MnO2(s) + 4OH-(aq)
respect to charge
by adding
electrons to the
right side of the
oxidation half-
reaction and the
left side of the
reduction half-
reaction. (The sum
of the charges on
both sides of each
equation should
then be equal.)
5. Make the number 3 (CN-(aq) + 2OH-(aq)→ CNO-(aq) + H2O(l) + 2e-)
of electrons in 2 (3e- + MnO4-(aq) + 2H2O(l) → MnO2(s) + 4OH-(aq))
both half-
reactions equal.
6. Add the two half- 3CN-(aq) + 6OH-(aq)→ 3CNO-(aq) + 3H2O(l) + 6e-
reactions 6e- + 2MnO4-(aq) + 4H2O(l) → 2MnO2(s) + 2 8OH-(aq)
together, 3CN-(aq) + 2MnO4-(aq) + H2O(l) → 3CNO-(aq) + 2MnO2(s) +
canceling 2 OH-(aq)
electrons
and other species
as necessary.
7. Verify that the Reactants Products
reaction is 3C 3C
balanced with 3N 3N
respect to both 2 Mn 2 Mn
mass and 9O 9O
charge. 2H 2H
-5 charge -5 charge

181
Learning Competency
The learners would be able to Balance Redox reactions using the
change in oxidation number method. (STEM_GC11ABIVf-g-170)
Activity 1: INSPECT AND BALANCE

Directions: Inspect very well the given chemical reactions and balance the
reaction. If the reaction is already balanced, just write the word balance
beside the equation. This will serve as your review in balancing chemical
reactions.
1. ___Na3PO4 +__KOH → __NaOH + K3PO4
2. ___MgF2 + ___Li2CO3 → ___MgCO3 + LiF
3. ___P4 + ___O2 → ___P2O3
4. ___AgNO3 + ___Cu → ___Cu(NO3)2 + ___Ag
5. ___CF4 +___Br2 → ___CBr + ___F2
6. ___GaF3 + ___Cs → ___CsF + ___Ga
7. ___N2 + ___H2 → ___NH3
8. ___Al + ___HCl → ___H2 + ___AlCl3
9. ___N2 + ___F2 → ___NF3
10. ___NaF + ___Br2 → ___NaBr + ___F2
Activity 2: BALANCING REDOX REACTIONS

Directions: Inspect the given reactions very carefully, follow the given step-
by-step procedure to balance the equation.
1. I2(g) + Cl2(g) + H2O(l) → HIO3(aq) + HCl(aq)
2. Sn(s) + HNO3(aq) → SnO2(s) + NO2(l) + H2O(l)
3. Al(s) + Ag+(aq) → Al3+ + Ag(s)
4. K(s) + Cr3+(aq) → Cr(s) + K+(aq)
5. Zn(s) + Sn2+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + Sn(s)
6. H+(aq) + Cr(s) → H2(g) + Cr3+(aq) (acidic solution)
7. Cu(s) + NO3-(aq) → Cu2+ (aq) + NO2(g) (acidic solution)
8. H2O2(aq) + ClO2(aq) → ClO2-(aq) + O2(g) (basic solution)
9. NO2-(aq) + Al(s) → NH3(g) + AlO2-(aq) (basic solution)
10. Al(s) + MnO4-(aq) → MnO2(s) + Al(OH)4-(aq) (basic solution)

182
Reflection
1. I learned that ____________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
2. I enjoyed most on ________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
3. I want to learn more on ____________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

183
References:
Hein, M., Best, L. R., et.al,(2005), Introduction to general, organic and
biochemistry(8th ed.).Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons
Tro, Nivaldo (2011), Introductory Chemistry (4th ed.).USA:Pearson Prentice
Hall
Chang, Raymond,.(2010) General Chemistry(10th ed) NY: McGraw Hill
Modern Chemistry Study Guide/Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston
Zumdahl,.Zumdahl,. Chemistry (7th ed) © USA: Houghton Mifflin Company

184
ANSWER KEY
ACTIVITY 1: INSPECT AND BALANCE
1. ___Na3PO4 +_3_KOH → _3_NaOH + ___K3PO4
2. ___MgF2 + ___Li2CO3 → ___MgCO3 + 2 LiF
3. ___P4 + _3_O2 → _2_P2O3
4. _2__AgNO3 + ___Cu → ___Cu(NO3)2 + _2_Ag
5. _2_CF4 +___Br2 → _2_CBr + _4_F2
6. ___GaF3 + _3_Cs → __3_CsF + ___Ga
7. ___N2 + _3_H2 → __2_NH3
8. _2_Al + _6_HCl → _3_H2 + _2_AlCl3
9. ___N2 + _3_F2 → _2_NF3
10. _2_NaF + ___Br2 → _2_NaBr + ___F2
ACTIVITY 2: BALANCING REDOX REACTIONS

1. I2(g) + Cl2(g) + H2O(l) → HIO3(aq) + HCl(aq)
Ans: I2(g) + 5Cl2(g) + 6H2O(l) → 2HIO3(aq) + 10HCl(aq)
2. Sn(s) + HNO3(aq) → SnO2(s) + NO2(l) + H2O(l)
Ans: Sn(s) + 4HNO3(aq) → SnO2(s) + 4NO2(l) + 2H2O(l)
3. Al(s) + Ag+(aq) → Al3+ + Ag(s)
Ans: Al(s) + 3Ag+(aq) → Al3+ + 3Ag(s)
4. K(s) + Cr3+(aq) → Cr(s) + K+(aq)
Ans: 3K(s) + Cr3+(aq) → Cr(s) + 3K+(aq)
5. Zn(s) + Sn2+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + Sn(s)
Ans: 2Zn(s) + Sn2+(aq) → 2Zn2+(aq) + Sn(s)
6. H+(aq) + Cr(s) → H2(g) + Cr3+(aq) (acidic solution)
Ans: 6H (aq) + 2Cr(s) → 3H2(g) + 2Cr (aq)
+ 3+
7. Cu(s) + NO3-(aq) → Cu2+ (aq) + NO2(g) (acidic solution)

Ans: Cu(s) + 4H + 2NO3 (aq) → Cu (aq) + 2NO2(g) + 2H2O
+ - 2+
8. H2O2(aq) + ClO2(aq) → ClO2-(aq) + O2(g) (basic solution)

Ans: H2O2(aq) + 2ClO2(aq) + OH → 2ClO2 (aq) + O2(g) + 2H2O
- -
9. NO2-(aq) + Al(s) → NH3(g) + AlO2-(aq) (basic solution)

-
Ans: NO2-(aq) + 2Al(s) + OH + H2O→ NH3(g) + 2AlO2-(aq)
10. Al(s) + MnO4-(aq) → MnO2(s) + Al(OH)4-(aq) (basic solution)
Ans: Al(s) + MnO4-(aq) + 2H2O→ MnO2(s) + Al(OH)4-(aq)
CLETO D. ABBIDO
Don Severino Pagalilauan National High School

185
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2
Name ________________________ Grade Level: ____________

Date: _________________________ Score: _________________

ELECTROCHEMICAL CELL
When life gives you lemons, generate electricity! How? Understanding the
basic principle of transfer of electrons and electro-chemical reactions will show
us how electricity is produced in lemons. The juice of lemon is acidic in nature
and works as a powerful electrolyte. The lemon itself serves as a reservoir for
transfer of electrons to and from the electrodes. When the two electrodes,
copper and zinc, are suspended in the acidic lemon juice, the atomic structure
of the atoms of both the electrodes starts breaking, resulting in production of
individual electrons.
https://www.brighthubengineering.com/commercial-electrical-
applications/64675-why-does-lemon-conducts-electricity/
Refer on the links below to watch video lessons.

https://betterlesson.com/lesson/598318/when-life-gives-you-lemons-make-a-battery
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GhbuhT1GDpI
Ever wondered what are the contents of battery? The branch of chemistry
which studies the relationship between chemical change and electricity is called
electrochemistry.
All chemical reactions are fundamentally electrical in nature since electrons
are involved (in various ways) in all types of chemical bonding.
Electrochemistry, however, is primarily the study of oxidation-reduction
phenomena. It deals with the study of production of electricity from energy

186
released during spontaneous chemical reactions and the use of electrical
energy to bring about non-spontaneous chemical transformations.
The relationships between chemical change and electrical energy have
theoretical as well as practical importance. Chemical reactions can be used to
produce electrical energy (in cells that are either called voltaic or galvanic cells).
Electrical energy can be used to bring about chemical transformations (in
electrolytic cells). In addition, the study of electrochemical processes leads to
an understanding, as well as to the systematization, of oxidation-reduction
phenomena that take place outside cells.
Electrochemical Cell
An electrochemical cell typically consists of
■ Two electronic conductors (also called electrodes)
■ An ionic conductor (called an electrolyte)
■ the electron conductor used to link the electrodes is often a metal wire, such
as
copper wiring.
https://www.google.com/search?q=electrochemical+cell+images&tbm=isch&source=iu&ictx=1&fir=t-
es5h0gSLZPlM%252CdRnTq9ASXzkomM%252C_&vet=1&usg=AI4_-
kRgb15xsswliMbguEPEEDdpyGB5mA&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi_zrX2tqbqAhUZPnAKHZbMDtoQ9QEwBnoECAoQMA&biw=1508&bih=687#imgrc=lYAUY4ZowQT
HjM
Electolytic cell: electrochemical cell in Galvanic cell: electrochemical cell in

which a non-spontaneous reactions is which electricity is produced as a result
driven by an external source of current. of a spontaneous reaction (e.g.,
batteries, fuel cells, electric fish)

187
https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-difference-between-electrolytic-and-galvanic-cell
Galvanic (Voltaic) Cells

The operation of a galvanic (or voltaic cell is opposite to that of an
electrolytic cell. In galvanic cell,electrical energy is produced by a chemical
redox reaction, instead of a chemical reaction being produced by electricity.
The classic example of a redox reaction for a galvanic cell is the reaction
between aqueous solutions of zinc (Zn) and copper (Cu).
Zn(s) + Cu++ (aq) Zn++ (aq) + Cu(s)
In this cell, the zinc is oxidized, and the copper is reduced. Initially, this
produces a flow of electrons across a wire connected to two separate electrode
solutions, but the zinc solution becomes positively charged from losing
electrons and the copper solution becomes negatively charged from gaining
electrons giving them, that flow stops. No more negatively charged electrons
want to flow toward the negatively charged copper solution.
Identify the reaction occurring in the different parts of the cell.
(STEM_GC11ABIVf-g-172)

188
Activity 1. WHAT IS IT?
Directions. Study the figure below to answer the following questions:
https://www.google.com/search?source=univ&tbm=isch&q=electrochemical+cells+illustration&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj
ErvGP-5vqAhWXF4gKHWjvAaoQsAR6BAgKEAE&biw=1508&bih=647#imgrc=xz3bVuBmXTygMM
1. What is being oxidized? __________________________
2. What is being reduced?__________________________
3. What is the anode?__________________________
4. What is the cathode?__________________________
5. Write the electrochemical cell reaction. __________________________
______________________________________________

189
Salt Bridge
Figure 1. Salt Bridge

https://www.google.com/search?source=univ&tbm=isch&q=electrochemical+cells+illustration&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj
ErvGP-5vqAhWXF4gKHWjvAaoQsAR6BAgKEAE&biw=1508&bih=647#imgrc=Ca8tFhFcfihKzM
The salt bridge is usually a U shaped tube filled with a concentrated salt
solution. The solution in this tube provides a way for ions to travel between the
two electrode solutions so that they can remain electrically neutral in charge.
This enables the continuous flow of electrons. Use the link to better understand
the concept of salt bridge. https://youtu.be/C26pH8kC_Wk
Electrolytic Cells
Electrolysis is used to drive an oxidation-reduction reaction in a direction in
which it does not occur spontaneously. The concept of reversing the direction
of the spontaneous reaction in a galvanic cell through the input of electricity is
at the heart of the idea of electrolysis. Electrolytic cells, like galvanic cells, are
composed of two half-cells--one is a reduction half-cell, the other is an oxidation
half-cell. Though the direction of electron flow in electrolytic cells may be
reversed from the direction of spontaneous electron flow in galvanic cells, the
definition of both cathode and anode remain the same--reduction takes place
at the cathode and oxidation occurs at the anode.

190
https://www.google.com/search?q=electrochemical+cell+diagram&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwjigsqS-5vqAhUOBJQKHe-WD7cQ2-
cCegQIABAA&oq=electrochemical+cell&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQARgBMgIIADICCAAyAggAMgIIADICCAAyAggAMgIIADICCAAyAggAMgIIAFCy-
awBWOGKrQFg3aKtAWgAcAB4AIABlAKIAZcTkgEFMC40LjeYAQCgAQGqAQtnd3Mtd2l6LWltZw&sclient=img&ei=phH0XuKXHY6I0ATvrb64
Cw&bih=647&biw=1508#imgrc=d1cfNzM1GclDnM
When comparing a galvanic cell to its electrolytic counterpart, occurs on

the right-hand half cell. Because the directions of both half-reactions have been
reversed, the sign, but not the magnitude of the potential has been reversed.
Note that copper is spontaneously plated onto copper cathode in the galvanic
cell whereas it requires a voltage greater than 0.78V from the battery to plate
iron on its cathode in the electrolytic cell.
Anode and Cathode

The electrode at which electrons are lost is known as the anode, and the
one at which electrons are gained is the cathode.
■ At the anode:
*Oxidation, or loss of electrons, is the process which occurs at the anode.
*Negative ions from the electrolyte are discharged if they are halide ions such
as I- , Br- , and Cl-.

191
*SO42- and NO3- ions are not discharged. Instead, OH- ions from water are
discharged and O2 gas is produced.
■ At the cathode:
*Reduction, or gain of electrons, occurs at the cathode.
*Positive ions from the electrolyte are discharged if they are H+ ions or ions
less reactive metals such as Cu2+ , Pb2+ or Ag+.
*Positive ions of reactive metals such as Na+ , K+ and Ca2+ are not discharged
in the presence of water. Instead, H+ ions from water are discharged and H2
gas is produced.
Oxidation-Reduction Reaction
At each electrode, an electrochemical reaction occurs. This reaction is
called a half cell reaction (since there are two electrodes in a typical cell at
which reactions
occur) The overall chemical reaction of the cell is given by combining the two
individual half cell reactions
There are two fundamental types of half cell reactions:

■ Oxidation reactions
■ Reduction reactions
■ A reaction is classified as oxidation or reduction depending on the direction
of
electron transfer
Oxidation
■ Involves the loss of an electron
■ Involves the transfer of electrons from the species to the electrode
The term oxidation was originally used to describe reactions in which an
element combines with oxygen.
R = O + ne

192
The reaction between magnesium metal and oxygen to form
magnesium oxide involves the oxidation of magnesium.
Reduction
■ Involves the gain of an electron
■ Involves the transfer of electrons from the electrode to the species
O + ne = R
The term reduction comes from the Latin stem meaning "to lead back." Anything
that that leads back to magnesium metal therefore involves reduction.
The reaction between magnesium oxide and carbon at 2000C

to form magnesium metal and carbon monoxide is an example of the reduction
of magnesium oxide to magnesium metal.
After electrons were discovered, chemists became convinced that oxidation-

reduction reactions involved the transfer of electrons from one atom to another.
From this perspective, the reaction between magnesium and oxygen is written
as follows.
2 Mg + O2 2 [Mg2+][O2-]
In the course of this reaction, each magnesium atom loses two electrons to form
an Mg2+ ion.
Mg Mg2+ + 2 e-
And, each O2 molecule gains four electrons to form a pair of O2- ions.
O2 + 4 e - 2 O2-
Because electrons are neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction,

oxidation and reduction are linked. It is impossible to have one without the
other, as shown in the figure below.

193
Example 3: Reaction Between Zinc and Copper
This is a type of metal displacement reaction in which copper metal is obtained

when zinc displaces the Cu2+ion in the copper sulfate solution as shown in the
reaction below.
Zn (s) + CuSO4 (aq) → ZnSO4 (aq) + Cu (s)
The oxidation half-reaction can be written as: Zn → Zn2+ + 2e–
The reduction half-reaction can be written as: Cu2+ + 2e– → Cu
Example 3: Reaction between Iron and Hydrogen Peroxide
Fe2+ is oxidized to Fe3+ by hydrogen peroxide when an acid is present. This

reaction is provided below.
2Fe2+ + H2O2 + 2H+ → 2Fe3+ + 2H2O
Oxidation half-reaction: Fe2+ → Fe3+ + e–
Reduction half-reaction: H2O2 + 2e– → 2 OH–
Thus, the hydroxide ion formed from the reduction of hydrogen peroxide
combines with the proton donated by the acidic medium to form water.

194
Activity 2. FIND THE SPECIE!
Directions. Identify the species being oxidized and reduced in each of the
following reactions:
a. Cr+ + Sn4+ Cr3+ + Sn2+
_____________________________, __________________________
b. 3 Hg2+ + 2 Fe (s) 3 Hg2 + 2 Fe3+
_______________________________, __________________________
c. 2 As (s) + 3 Cl2 (g) 2 AsCl3
_______________________________, ____________________________
d. 2 H2O(l) + Al(s) + MnO4 –(aq) → Al(OH)4 –(aq) + MnO2(s)
____________________________________, ____________________________________
e. H2+F2 2HF
___________________________, _______________________________
Activity 3. MINI-ME!
Directions. What would you use in order for the following reactions to occur,
an oxidizing agent or reducing agent.
a. ClO3- ClO2 _____________________
b. SO42- S2- _____________________
c. Mn2+ MnO2 ____________________
d. Zn ZnCl2 ____________________
e. I CIO3 _____________________

195
Activity 4. TELL ME THE TRUTH
Directions. For each of the following reactions, write TRUE or FALSE. “This is
an oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction”.
________ 1. Na2SiO3(aq) + 2HCl(aq) SiO2 (s)+ 2NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)
________ 2. FeCl3 (aq) + HCl (aq) HFeCl4 (aq)
________ 3. 2H2CrO4(aq) H2Cr2O7 (aq) + H2O (l)
________ 4. 2H2SO4 (s) + Fe(s) H2SO3(aq) + FeSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
________5. 3Cl2(aq)+ 6NaOH(aq) NaClO3(aq) + 5NaCl(aq) + 3H2O(l)
Activity 5 . COMPLETE ME
Directions. Given the redox reaction:
3S(s) + 2KClO3(s) 3SO2(g) + 2KCl (s)
A. Identify and underline element atoms of reactants that undergo change in

oxidation number.
B. Determine the reactants that undergo reduction-oxidation, include their

product, and calculate its oxidation number change.
C. Determine the reactant that behaves as oxidant and reductant.

196
REFLECTION:
1. I learned that _____________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
2. I enjoyed most on _________________________________________
________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________.
3. I want to learn more on _____________________________________
__________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________.

197
References
https://byjus.com/jee/redox-reactions/
https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-oxidation-definition-process-
examples.html
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C26pH8kC_Wk&feature=youtu.be
https://www.slideshare.net/RawatDAGreatt/electrochemical-cells-40157826
https://www.google.com/search?biw=1366&bih=631&ei=YvvYXtiHFMismAWq
nK6oDA&q=what+are+the+reactions+occurring+in+the+different+parts+of+th
e+cell&oq=what+are+the+reactions+occurring+in+the+different+parts+of+the
+cell&gs_lcp=CgZwc3ktYWIQAzoECAAQRzoECAAQDToICAAQCBANEB46
BAgAEEM6BggAEAgQHjoECCEQClCEeFjjiANgj64DaAtwAXgAgAGvA4gB4c
oBkgELMC4yLjg3LjEwLjOYAQCgAQGqAQdnd3Mtd2l6&sclient=psy-
ab&ved=0ahUKEwjYwMSOpujpAhVIFqYKHSqOC8UQ4dUDCAs&uact=5
https://www.bing.com/images/search?view=detailV2&ccid=ngYhnheQ&id=69
DFBAF338EEC80ADC7B410A20DEBB8E7D290F17&thid=OIP.ngYhnheQBls
RNqXjmTmhhgAAAA&mediaurl=http%3a%2f%2fwww.shodor.org%2funchem-
old%2fadvanced%2fredox%2fex9.gif&exph=307&expw=445&q=electrochemic
al+cell+reaction+image&simid=608015176720647115&ck=49A9094180D104
255014C9BC1B88BE8F&selectedIndex=55&ajaxhist=0
https://chemed.chem.purdue.edu/genchem/topicreview/bp/ch9/redox.php
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/chemistry/oxidation-reduction/redox-
oxidation-reduction/a/oxidation-reduction-redox-reactions
https://youtu.be/C26pH8kC_Wk
https://betterlesson.com/lesson/resource/2881704/lemon-lesson-mp4

198
ANSWER KEY
Activity 1.
1. Zn
2. Cu
3. Zn
4. Cu
5. Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)
Activity 2
a. Cr+ + Sn4+ Cr3+ + Sn2+

Cr+: oxidized, Sn4+: reduced
b. 3 Hg2+ + 2 Fe (s) 3 Hg2 + 2 Fe3+

2+
Hg : reduced, Fe: oxidized
c. 2 As (s) + 3 Cl2 (g) 2 AsCl3

As: oxidized, Cl2: reduced
d. 2 H2O(l) + Al(s) + MnO4 –(aq) → Al(OH)4 –(aq) + MnO2(s)
MnO4-(aq): oxidized, Al: reduced
e. H2+F2 2HF
H2: Oxidized, F2: Reduced
Activity 3
a. ClO3- ClO2 reducing agent
b. SO42- S2- reducing agent
c. Mn2+ MnO2 oxidizing agent
d. Zn ZnCl2 oxidizing agent

e. I- CIO3 reducing agent

199
Activity 4
1. TRUE
2. FALSE
3. FALSE
4. TRUE
5. TRUE
Activity 5
A. 3S(s) + 2KClO3(s) 3SO2(g) + 2KCl (s)
0 (+5) (+4) (-1)
B. S: Oxidation number of S increases from 0 to +4
Cl: Oxidation of element Cl element atom in KClO3 decreases from +5 to -1
C. Oxidant - S; Reductant - KClO
Prepared by:
IVON A. ADDATU
TUAO VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL SCHOOL PATA ANNEX

200
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2
Name: ____________________________ Grade Level: _________
Date: _____________________________ Score: ______________
REDUCTION POTENTIAL, OXIDATION POTENTIAL AND CELL

POTENTIAL
Reduction potential also called as redox potential, oxidation/reduction

potential, or Eh, that measures the tendency of a chemical species to obtain
electrons and thereby be reduced. Reduction potential is measured in volts (V)
or millivolts (mV). Each kind or species has its own intrinsic reduction potential.
The more positive the potential is, the greater the species’ affinity for electrons,
or the more the species tends to be reduced.
Source: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/introchem/chapter/standard-reduction-potentials/
Oxidation-reduction in a galvanic cell

In this galvanic cell, zinc reduces copper cations. The reaction yields
zinc cations and neutral copper metal.
The standard reduction potential (E0) is measured under standard
conditions:
• 25 °C
• 1 M concentration for each ion participating in the reaction
• Partial pressure of 1 atm for each gas that is part of the reaction
• Metals in their pure states

201
Standard Reduction Potential
The standard reduction potential is well-defined relative to a standard
hydrogen electrode (SHE) reference electrode, which results a potential of 0.00
volts. The given values below in parentheses are standard reduction potentials
for half-reactions measured at 25 °C, 1 atmosphere, and with a pH of 7 in
aqueous solution.
• CH3COOH + 2H+ + 2e– → CH3CHO + H2O (-0.58)
• 2H+ + 2 e– → H2 (0.0)
• O2 + 2H+ + 2e– → H2O2 (+0.7)
• O2 + 4H+ + 4e– → 2H2O (+1.64)
Since the reduction potential measures the central tendency for a
species to undergo reduction, comparing standard reduction potential for two
processes can be useful for determining how a reaction will proceed.
It is written in the form of a reduction half reaction. An example can be
seen below where "A" is a generic element and C is the charge. Standard
Reduction Potential
AC-+ + Ce- → A
For example, copper's Standard Reduction Potential of EO = +0.340V) is
for this reaction:
Cu2+ + 2e− → Cu
Standard reduction or oxidation potentials can be determined using a
SHE (standard hydrogen electrode).
Figure (1) - Standard Hydrogen Electrode
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Analytical_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_(Analytical_Chemistry)/Electro
chemistry/Voltaic_Cells/The_Cell_Potential

202
Standard Oxidation potentials
The energy change, measured in volts, need to add or
remove electrons to or from an element or compound. The reference reaction
is the deletion or removal of electrons from hydrogen in a standard hydrogen
half-cell (i.e. H2(gas) at 1 atm pressure delivered to a 1.0 M solution of
H+ ions at 25°C, into which a platinum electrode has been inserted): H 2 →
2H+ + 2e−, This energy change is given the value of zero. The oxidation
potential of other species is determined relatively by measuring the potential
difference between a half-cell containing an aqueous solution of the oxidized
and reduced forms of the test substance, and the standard hydrogen half-cell.
Cell Potential
The cell potential, Ecell, is the measure of the potential difference
between two half cells in an electrochemical cell. The potential difference is
caused by the ability of electrons to flow from one half cell to the other. Electrons
are able to move between electrodes because the chemical reaction is a redox
reaction. A redox reaction occurs when a certain substance is oxidized, while
another is reduced. During oxidation, the substance loses one or more
electrons, and thus becomes positively charged. Conversely, during reduction,
the substance gains electrons and becomes negatively charged. This relates
to the measurement of the cell potential because the difference between the
potential for the reducing agent to become oxidized and the oxidizing agent to
become reduced will determine the cell potential. The cell potential (Ecell) is
measured in voltage (V), which allows us to give a certain value to the cell
potential.
How are Standard Reduction Potentials Applied

Standard reduction potentials are used to determine the standard cell
potential. The standard reduction cell potential and the standard oxidation cell
potential can be combined to determine the overall Cell Potentials of a galvanic
cell. The equations that relate these three potentials are shown below:
Eocell = Eoreduction of reaction at cathode + Eooxidation of reaction at anode
or alternatively

203
Eocell = Eoreduction of reaction at cathode – Eoreduction of reaction at anode
For example:
2Ag+ (aq) + Cu(s) Cu2+ (aq) + 2Ag(s)
2e- + 2Ag+ (aq) 2Ag(s) Reduction (Cathode)
Cu(s) Cu2+ (aq) + 2e- Oxidation (Anode)
Ag+ must have a greater tendency to react than Cu2+, because Ag+ is
reduced. This means that the reduction potential for Ag+, E0Ag+, must be larger
than the standard reduction potential for Cu2+, E0Cu2+.
Therefore: E0cell = E0Ag+ + E0Cu or E0cell = E0Ag+ - E0Cu
To calculate the standard cell potential of a galvanic cell:

• When calculating E0 for a reaction never multiply the half-cell voltage (E0
value) by the coefficients in the equation
• When reversing an equation from the table change the sign on the E0
value
eg. Cu2+ (aq) + 2e- Cu(s) E0Cu2+ = +0.34

Cu(s) Cu2+ (aq) + 2e- E0Cu = -0.34
Steps: 1. Obtain the E0 values from the Standard Reduction Potential Table
2. Identify the 2 half-reactions from the equation
3. Change the sign of the E0 value for any half reaction that is reversed
4. Add the two half reactions to get the overall equation and add the two
E0 values to find the standard cell potential (cell voltage) for the
electrochemical cell
Example 1:
Calculate the standard cell potential, Eocell for a silver-copper galvanic cell given
the following reaction:
2Ag+ (aq) + Cu(s) Cu2+ (aq) + 2Ag(s)
Step 1: 2e- + 2Ag+ (aq) 2Ag(s) E0 = +0.80
Cu2+ (aq) + 2e- Cu(s) E0 = +0.34
Steps 2&3: 2e- + 2Ag+ (aq) 2Ag(s) E0 = +0.80 Reduction (cathode)
Cu(s) Cu2+ (aq) + 2e- E0 = -0.34 Oxidation (anode)
______________________________________
Step 4: 2Ag+ (aq) + Cu(s) Cu2+ (aq) + 2Ag(s) Eocell = +0.46

204
Predicting Spontaneity
1. A spontaneous reaction only occurs when the oxidizing agent is above the
reducing agent in the Table of Reduction Potentials.
2. For any functioning galvanic cell, the measured cell potential has a positive
value.
Eocell = positive, the reaction will occur and is spontaneous
Eocell = negative, the reaction will not occur and is not spontaneous
The Activity Series

When solving for the standard cell potential, the species oxidized, and
the species reduced must be identified. This can be done using an activity
series. Below is a table of standard reduction potentials.
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Analytical_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_(Analytical_Chemistry)/Electro
chemistry/Voltaic_Cells/The_Cell_Potential
• Define reduction potential, oxidation potential and cell potential
(STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-176)

205
Activity 1: GIVE ME THE SOLUTION
Directions: Solve the standard cell potential of the following problem.
1. Calculate the standard cell potential produced by a galvanic cell consisting
of a sodium electrode in contact with a solution of Na+ ions and a copper
electrode in contact with a solution of Cu2+ ions. Which is anode and which is
the cathode?
Na+(aq) + e- ⇌ Na(s) E° = -2.71 V (must be flipped)
Cu2+(aq) + 2e- ⇌ Cu(s) E° = 0.34 V
2. What is the voltage produced by a voltaic cell consisting of a calcium
electrode in contact with a solution of Cu2+ ions. Which is anode and which is
the cathode?
Ca2+(aq) + 2e- ⇌ Ca(s) E° = -2.87 V (must be flipped)
Cu2+(aq) + 2e- ⇌ Cu(s) E° = 0.34 V
3. Calculate the standard cell potential produced by a galvanic cell consisting
of a nickel electrode in contact with a solution of Ni2+ ions and a silver electrode
in contact with a solution of Ag+ ions. Which is anode and which is the cathode?
Ni2+(aq) + 2e- ⇌ Ni(s) E° = -0.26 V (must be flipped)
Ag+(aq) + e- ⇌ Ag(s) E° = 0.80 V
4. What is the voltage produced by a galvanic ell consisting of an aluminum
electrode in contact with a solution of Al3+ ions and an iron electrode in contact
with a solution of Fe2+ ions. Which is anode and which is the cathode?
Al3+(aq) + 3e- ⇌ Al(s) E° = -1.66 V (must be flipped)
Fe2+(aq) + 2e- ⇌ Fe(s) E° = -0.44 V
5. A voltaic cell is constructed using electrodes based on the following half
reactions:
Mg2+(aq) + 2e- Mg(s)
Cu2+(aq) + 2e- Cu(s)
a) Which is the anode and which is the cathode in this cell?
ANODE: ________ CATHODE: _________
b) What is the standard cell potential?
Mg2+ (aq) + 2e- ⇌ Mg(s) E° = -2.37 V (must be flipped)
Cu2+ (aq) + 2e- ⇌ Cu(s) E° = 0.34 V

206
Activity 2: SPONTANEOUS OR NON-SPONTANEOUS
Directions: Use half-reaction potentials to predict whether the following

reactions are spontaneous or non-spontaneous in aqueous solutions.
1. Ce4+(aq) + Fe2+(aq) Ce3+(aq) + Fe3+(aq)
ANODE: Fe2+ (aq) ⇌ Fe3+ (aq)+ e- E° = -0.77 V
CATHODE: Ce4+ (aq) + e- ⇌ Ce3+ (aq) E° = 1.61 V
2. Cr2+(aq) + Cu2+(aq) Cr3+(aq) + Cu+(aq)
ANODE: Cr2+(aq) ⇌ Cr3+(aq)+ e- E° = 0.41 V
CATHODE: Cu2+(aq) + e- ⇌ Cu+(aq) E° = 0.15 V
3. 2 H+(aq) + 2 Br-(aq) H2(g) + Br2(aq)
ANODE: 2 Br-(aq)⇌ Br2 (l) + 2e- E° = -1.07 V
CATHODE: 2 H+ (aq) + 2e- ⇌ H2(g) E° = 0.00 V
4. 2 H2S(g) + O2(g) 2 H2O(l) + 2 S(s)
ANODE: H2S(g ⇌ 2 S(s) + 2H+(aq) + 2e- E° = -0.14 V
CATHODE: O2(g) + 4H+(aq) + 4e- ⇌ 2 H2O(l) E° = 1.23 V
5. Ca2+(aq) + 2 I-(aq) Ca(s) + I2(aq)
ANODE: 2 I-(aq)⇌ I2 (aq) + 2e- E° = 0.54 V
CATHODE: Ca2+(aq) + 2e- ⇌ Ca(s) E° = -2.87 V
Activity 3: TRUE OR FALSE

Directions: Label the following statements as True or False. If the statement
is false, underline a word or group of word and change it to make it true.
_____ 1. Hydrogen has oxidation potentials of 0.

_____ 2. The standard oxidation potential is not much like the standard
reduction potential.
_____ 3. The standard reduction cell potential and the standard oxidation cell
potential can never be combined.
_____ 4. The cell potential is the measure of the potential difference between
two half cells in an electrochemical cell.
_____ 5. Reduction potential is measured in volts or millivolts.

207
Activity 4: THINK ABOUT IT!
Directions: Explain briefly the following questions below.
1. What does the standard reduction potential measure?

_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
2. The standard reduction potential of Fe3+ is +0.77V. What is its standard
oxidation potential?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
3. What are the differences between the standard reduction potential and
standard oxidation potential, and how are the two related?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
4. Explain how standard reduction potentials or standard oxidation potentials
are applied.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
5. What conditions must be met for a potential to be standard?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
6. Based on the activity series, which species will be oxidized and reduced:
Zn2+ or H+.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
7. When standard reduction potentials are measured, what are the potentials
relative to?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
8. Explain how the activity series is used.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
9. How is a standard reduction potential measured?

208
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
10. Draw and label a SHE.
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
Reflection:
1. I learned that _________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
2. I enjoyed most on ______________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

209
References:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reduction_potential
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/introchem/chapter/standard-reduction-
potentials/
https://www.encyclopedia.com/science/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-
press-releases/oxidation-potential
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Analytical_Chemistry/Supplemental_
Modules_(Analytical_Chemistry)/Electrochemistry/Voltaic_Cells/The_Cell_Pot
ential
Modules_(Analytical_Chemistry)/Electrochemistry/Redox_Chemistry/Standard
_Reduction_Potential#:~:text=The%20activity%20series%20is%20a,more%2
0likely%20to%20be%20oxidized.
https://www.cliffsnotes.com/studyguides/chemistry/chemistry/electrochemistry
/quiz-electrode-potential

210
ANSWER KEY
Activity 1: GIVE ME THE SOLUTION

1. ANODE: Na(s) ⇌ Na+(aq) + e- E° = 2.71 V
CATHODE: Cu2+(aq) + 2e- ⇌ Cu(s) E° = 0.34 V
E° = 3.05 V
2. ANODE: Ca(s) ⇌ Ca+(aq) + e- E° = 2.87 V
CATHODE: Cu2+(aq) (aq) + 2e- ⇌ Cu(s) E° = 0.34 V
E° = 3.21 V
3. ANODE: Ni(s) ⇌ Ni2+(aq) + 2e- E° = 0.26 V
CATHODE: Ag+(aq) + e- ⇌ Ag(s) E° = 0.80 V
E° = 1.06 V
4. ANODE: Al(s) ⇌ Al3+ (aq) + 3e- E° = 1.66 V
CATHODE: Fe2+(aq) + 2e- ⇌ Fe(s) E° = -0.44 V
E° = 1.22 V
5. a. ANODE: Mg CATHODE: Cu
b. ANODE: Mg(s) ⇌ Mg2+ (aq) + 2e- E° = 2.37 V
CATHODE: Cu2+ (aq) + 2e- ⇌ Cu(s) E° = 0.34 V
E° = 2.71 V
Activity 2: SPONTANEOUS OR NON-SPONTANEOUS
1. E° = -2.38 V
E° is negative, therefore the cell is non-spontaneous.
2. E° = 0.56 V
E° is positive, therefore the cell is spontaneous.
3. E° = -1.07 V
4. E° = 1.09 V
E° is positive, therefore the cell is spontaneous.
5. E° = -2.33 V

211
Activity 3: TRUE OR FALSE
1. True
2. much like
3. can be combined
4. True
5. True
Activity 4: THINK ABOUT IT!
1. Standard reduction potential measures the tendency for a given chemical

species to be reduced.
2. The standard oxidation potential and standard reduction potential are
always opposite in sign for the same species. The oxidation potential is -
0.77V.
3. The standard oxidation potential measures the tendency for a given chemical
species to be oxidized as opposed to be reduced. For the same chemical
species the standard reduction potential and standard oxidation potential are
opposite in sign.
4. Standard reduction and oxidation potentials can be applied to solve for the
standard cell potential of two different non hydrogen species. Examples can be
seen in Cell Potentials.
5. The cell must be at 298K, 1atm, and all solutions must be at 1M.
6. H+ is farther up on the activity series then Zn2+ so H+ is reduced while Zn2+ is
oxidized.
7. Standard reduction potentials are measured with relativity to hydrogen which
has be universally set to have a potential of zero.
8. The activity series is a list of standard reduction potentials in descending
order of the tendency for chemical species to be reduced. Species at the top
are more likely to be reduced while species at the bottom are more likely to be
oxidized.
9. A standard reduction potential is measured using a galvanic cell which
contains a SHE on one side and an unknown chemical half cell on the other

212
side. The amount of charge that passes between the cells is measured using a
voltmeter.
10.
Prepared by:
SHAROLYN T. GALURA
Licerio Antiporda Sr. National High School-Dalaya Annex

213
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2
Name: ____________________________ Grade Level: _________
Date: _____________________________ Score: ______________
STANDARD REDUCTION POTENTIAL

Reduction potential is a measure of the tendency of a chemical species
to be reduced or to gain electrons while, oxidation potential is the tendency of
a chemical species to be oxidized or to give up electrons. In order to compare
the potential of one – half cell with another, it is necessary to measure all cell
potentials under standard condition. This is due to the fact that several factors
affect potential such as the nature of reaction in each half – cell, concentration
of reactants and products in solution, pressure of gaseous substances, and
temperature. Hence, measurement is done under these standard conditions:
● solids and liquids are present in their standard states
● solution concentration is 1M
● temperature is 25oC or 298oK
● pressure is 1 atm or 1 bar
A cell potential measured under these conditions is called standard
potential. Standard reduction potential, denoted EO red, is the reduction
potential measured at standard conditions, and the units is volt, V. The
superscript o indicates standard conditions. For the same chemical species, the
standard reduction potential has the same magnitude as the standard oxidation
potential, but opposite in sign. For example, the standard reduction potential at
25oC, listed in the table is:
Zn+2 (aq, 1M) + 2e- → Zn (s) Eo red = -0.762 V
To obtain the standard oxidation potential, consider the reverse reaction
and change the sign.
Zn (s) → Zn+2 (aq, 1M) + 2e- Eo ox = +0.762 V
Therefore:
Eo oxidation = - Eoreduction

214
The cell potential is the difference between two electrode potentials. The
potential difference between the two electrodes of a galvanic cell provides the
driving force that pushes the electrons to the external circuit. When the cell
potentials are measured under standard conditions, they are called standard
cell potentials, denoted Eo cell. Since Eo cell is measured in volts, it may also
be called cell voltage or cell emf. Note, however, that cell voltage has a
magnitude but no sign.
The cell potential, Eo is given by the standard reduction potential of the
cathode reaction, Eo red (cathode) minus the standard reduction potential at the
anode, Eo red (anode).
Eocell = Eo red (cathode) - Eo red (anode)
Eocell can also be obtained by using the equation,
Eocell = Eo red (cathode) + Eo ox (anode)
Another way of finding the Eocell, using the cell notation as basis, is the
following formula:
Eocell = Eo (right) - Eo (left)
For example, in the galvanic cell represented by the cell notation,
Zn(s)│Zn+2ǁFe+3, Fe+2(aq)│Pt(s)
Where Zn is the anode and Fe is the cathode. E ocell is, therefore,

obtained by using the equation.
Eocell = Eo red (Fe+3 , Fe+2/Pt) - Eo red (Zn/Zn+2)

215
Standard Hydrogen Electrode
Every galvanic cell involves two half – cells. One cannot measure
individual half – cell potential directly since potential is only evident when it is
connected to a second electrode. It is, therefore, necessary to have another
electrode against which the potential of other electrodes can be measured. The
standard electrode usually adopted as reference point is the hydrogen
electrode. This electrode consists of platinum metal surrounded by hydrogen
gas in equilibrium with the solution of H+1 ions. The half – cell reaction is
represented by the following cell notation:
Pt│H2(g)(1atm)│H+1(aq), 1M
Fig. 1: Diagram of a Standard Hydrogen Electrode

Source:http://www.mikeblaber.org/oldwine/chm1046/notes/Electro/CellEMF/C
ellEMF.htm
The reference half – reaction is the reduction of H+1(aq) to H2(g) under

stadards conditions. It is assigned a standard reduction potential value of zero
volt.
2H+1(aq) + 2e- → H2(g) Eo = 0.0 V
This value serves as the basis in calculating standard cell potentials

using different electrodes as shown below.

216
Fig. 2 A Galvanic cell using a SHE and Standard Cu/Cu+2 Electrode
Source: http://kec.edu.np/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/Electrochemical-cells-
shrawan.pdf
For this particular galvanic cell, note that Cu is the cathode and the cell
voltage is +0.34 V. The cell notation for this cell is:
Pt│H2(g)(1 atm)│H+1(aq), 1MǁCu+2(aq),1M│Cu(s)
Using the defined standard reduction potential of H+1 which is zero volt
and equation 1.1, the standard reduction potential of Cu +2/Cu half – reaction
can be determined.
Eocell = Eo(cathode) - Eo(anode)
+ 0.34 V = Eo(cathode) - 0 V
Eo(cathode) = + 0.34 V + 0 V
Eo(cathode) = +0.34 V
Therefore, a standard reduction potential of +0.34 V can be assigned to
the reduction of Cu+2 to Cu.
Cu+2(aq, 1M) + 2e- → Cu(s) Eo (reduction) = + 0.34 V
The standard reduction potentials for other half-reactions are also
determined in the same fashion the standard reduction potential of Cu+2/Cu
half-reaction was obtained. These standard reduction potentials as shown in
Table 1.1 can be combined to calculate the emf or standard potentials of other
cell.

217
Table 1: Standard Reduction Potentials at 250C.
Standard Reduction Potentials (25oC)
Half-Cell Reactions Eo
F2(g) + 2e-1 ---------> 2F-1(aq) +2.87
O3(g) + 2H+1(aq) + 2e-1 ---------> O2(g) + H2O(l) +2.08
S2O82-(aq) + 2e-1 ---------> 2 SO42-(aq) +2.05
Co3+(aq) + e-1 ---------> Co2+(aq) +1.82
H2O2(aq) + 2 H+1(aq) + 2e-1 ---------> 2 H2O(l) +1.77
MnO4-1(aq) + 4 H+1(aq) + 3e-1 ---------> MnO2(s) + 2 H2O(l) +1.695
PbO2(s) + SO42-(aq) + 4 H+1(aq) + 2e-1 ---------> PbSO4(s) + 2 H2O(l) +1.69
2 HOCl(aq) + 2 H+1(aq) + 2e-1 ---------> Cl2(g) + 2 H2O(l) +1.63
Mn3+(aq) + e-1 ---------> Mn2+(aq) +1.51
MnO4-1(aq) + 8 H+1(aq) + 5e-1 ---------> Mn2+(aq) + 4 H2O(l) +1.49
PbO2(s) + 4 H+1(aq) + 2e-1 ---------> Pb2+(aq) + 2 H2O(l) +1.46
BrO3-1(aq) + 6 H+1(aq) + 6e-1 ---------> Br-1(aq) + 3 H2O(l) +1.44
Au3+(aq) + 3e-1 ---------> Au(s) +1.42
Cl2(g) + 2e-1 ---------> 2 Cl-1(aq) +1.36
Cr2O72-(aq) + 14 H+1(aq) + 6e-1 ---------> 2 Cr3+(aq) + 7 H2O(l) +1.33
O3(g) + H2O(l) + 2e-1 ---------> O2(g) + 2 OH-1(aq) +1.24
MnO2(s) + 4 H+1(aq) + 2e-1 ---------> Mn2+(aq) + 2 H2O(l) +1.23
O2(g) + 4 H+1(aq) + 4e-1 ---------> 2 H2O(l) +1.23
Pt2+(aq) + 2e-1 ---------> Pt(s) +1.20
Br2(aq) + 2e-1 ---------> 2 Br-1(aq) +1.07
NO3-1(aq) + 4 H+1(aq) + 3e-1 ---------> NO(g) + 2 H2O(l) +0.96
NO3-1(aq) + 3 H+1(aq) + 2e-1 ---------> HNO2(g) + H2O(l) +0.94
2 Hg2+(aq) + 2e-1 ---------> Hg22+(aq) +0.91
HO2-1(aq) + H2O(l) + 2e-1 ---------> 3 OH-1(aq) +0.87
2 NO3-1(aq) + 4 H+1(aq) + 2e-1 ---------> 2 NO2(g) + 2H2O(l) +0.80
Ag+1(aq) + e-1 ---------> Ag(s) +0.80
Fe3+(aq) + e-1 ---------> Fe2+ (aq) +0.77
O2(g) + 2H+1(aq) + 2e-1 ---------> H2O2(aq) +0.69
I2(s) + 2e-1 ---------> 2 I-1(aq) +0.54
NiO2(s) + 2 H2O(l) + 2e-1 ---------> Ni(OH)2 + 2 OH-1(aq) +0.49
SO2(aq) + 4 H+1(aq) + 4e-1 ---------> S(s) + 2 H2O(l) +0.45
O2(g) + 2 H2O(l) + 4e-1 ---------> 4 OH-1(aq) +0.401
Cu2+(aq) + 2e-1 ---------> Cu(s) +0.34
Hg2Cl2(s) + 2e-1 ---------> 2 Hg(l) + 2 Cl-1(aq) +0.27
PbO2(s) + H2O(l) + 2e-1 ---------> PbO(s) + 2 OH-1(aq) +0.25
AgCl(s) + e-1 ---------> Ag(s) + Cl-1(aq) +0.2223
SO42-(aq) + 4H+1(aq) + 2e-1 ---------> H2SO3(aq) + H2O(l) +0.172
S4O62-(aq) + 2e-1 ---------> 2 S2O32-(aq) +0.169

218
Cu2+(aq) + e-1 ---------> Cu+1(aq) +0.16
Sn4+(aq) + 2e-1 ---------> Sn2+(aq) +0.15
S(s) + 2H+1(aq) + 2e-1 ---------> H2S(g) +0.14
AgBr(s) + e-1 ---------> Ag(s) + Br-1(aq) +0.07
2 H+1(aq) + 2e-1 ---------> H2(g) 0.00
Pb2+(aq) + 2e-1 ---------> Pb(s) -0.13
Sn2+(aq) + 2e-1 ---------> Sn(s) -0.14
AgI(s) + e-1 ---------> Ag(s) + I-1(aq) -0.15
Ni2+(aq) + 2e-1 ---------> Ni(s) -0.25
Co2+(aq) +2e-1 ---------> Co(s) -0.28
In3+(aq) + 3e-1 ---------> In(s) -0.34
Tl+1(aq) + e-1 ---------> Tl(s) -0.34
PbSO4(s) + 2e-1 ---------> Pb(s) + SO42-(aq) -0.36
Cd2+(aq) + 2e-1 ---------> Cd(s) -0.40
Fe2+(aq) + 2e-1 ---------> Fe(s) -0.44
Ga3+(aq) + 3e-1 ---------> Ga(s) -0.56
PbO(s) + H2O(l) + 2e-1 ---------> Pb(s) + 2 OH-1(aq) -0.58
Cr3-(aq) + 3e-1 ---------> Cr(s) -0.74
Zn2+(aq) + 2e-1 ---------> Zn(s) -0.76
Cd(OH)2(s) + 2e-1 ---------> Cd(s) + 2 OH-1(aq) -0.81
2 H2O(l) + 2e-1 ---------> H2(g) + 2 OH-1(aq) -0.83
Fe(OH)2(s) + 2e-1 ---------> Fe(s) + 2 OH-1(aq) -0.88
Cr2+(aq) + 2e-1 ---------> Cr(s) -0.91
N2(g) + 4 H2O(l) + 4e-1 ---------> N2O4(aq) +4 OH-1(aq) -1.16
V2+(aq) + 2e-1 ---------> V(s) -1.18
ZnO2-1(aq) + 2 H2O(l) + 2e-1 ---------> Zn(s) + 4OH-1(aq) -1.216
Ti2+(aq) + 2e-1 ---------> Ti(s) -1.63
Al3+(aq) + 3e-1 ---------> Al(s) -1.66
U3+(aq) + 3e-1 ---------> U(s) -1.79
Sc3+(aq) + 3e-1 ---------> Sc(s) -2.02
La3+(aq) + 3e-1 ---------> La(s) -2.36
Y3+(aq) + 3e-1 ---------> Y(s) -2.37
Mg2+(aq) + 2e-1 ---------> Mg(s) -2.37
Na+1(aq) + e-1 ---------> Na(s) -2.71
Ca2+(aq) + 2e-1 ---------> Ca(s) -2.76
Sr2+(aq) + 2e-1 ---------> Sr(s) -2.89
Ba2+(aq) + 2e-1 ---------> Ba(s) -2.90
Cs+1(aq) +e-1 ---------> Cs(s) -2.92
K+1(aq) + e-1 ---------> K(s) -2.92
Rb+1(aq) + e-1 ---------> Rb(s) -2.93
Li+1(aq) + e-1 ---------> Li(s) -3.05

219
Source: https://opentextbc.ca/chemistry/chapter/17-3-standard-reduction-potentials/
An important point that can be gathered from the table of standard
reduction potential is that all reactions are written as reduction. The more
positive the standard reduction potential is, the greater the possibility that it will
be reduced and the stronger its oxidizing property. The more negative the value
of the reduction potential, the less likely the half-reaction will occur as reduction
and the greater the tendency to act as a reducing agent.
Consider for example, galvanic cell where Zn/Zn+2 has an Eored = -0.762
V, while Cu/Cu+2 has an Eored = + 0.34 V. This indicates that since Cu/Cu+2 is
more positive, it will be reduced and act an oxidizing agent, while Zn/Zn+2 which
is less positive will be oxidized and act as a reducing agent. In calculating the
standard cell potential, the half – reaction which is more positive is always the
cathode.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1:
Using the standard reduction potential table, calculate the standard

potential of the cell consisting of Al and Ag immersed in 1M Ag + ions and
Al+3 ions.
SOLUTION:
Given: Al+3/Al, Eored = - 1.66 V
Ag+/Ag Eored = + 0.80 V
Required: Eocell
Strategy: Assign the half – cell with the more positive value as
the cathode.
Hence, E cell = Eo(cathode) - Eo(anode)
o
= + 0.80 V – (-1.66 V)
= 2.46 V
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2:
Using the standard reduction potential table, calculate the standard

potential of the galvanic cell that uses the redox reaction:
Cr2O7-2(aq) + 14H+1(aq) + 6I-1 → 2Cr+3(aq) + 3I2(s) + 7H2O(l)
SOLUTION:
Given: Cr2O7-2(aq) + 6e- → 2Cr+3 (reduction)

6I → 3I2(s) + 6e- (oxidation)
-1
From the table 1.1: Cr2O7-2/Cr+3 : Eored = 1.33 V

I-1/I2 : Eored = 0.54 V
o
Required: E cell
Strategy: The half – cell with the more positive value is the
cathode

220
Substituting in the formula:

= 1.33 V – 0.54 V
= 0.79 V
Calculate the standard cell potential (STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-178)
Activity 1: CRITICAL THINKING

Directions: Answer the following briefly but substantially.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
___________________________________________
standard
oxidation potential, and how are the two related?
______________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
___________________________________________
relative to?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
__________________________________________

221
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
___________________________________________
6. What are the factors that affect the cell potentials?

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
____________________________________________
7. What does hydrogen electrode consists?

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
____________________________________________

Directions: Calculate the following problems below. Refer to Table 1 for the
standard reduction potential value at 25oC. Show your complete
solution.
1. Using the standard reduction potential table, calculate the standard potential
of
the a galvanic cell based on the two standard half – reactios:
Cd+2(aq) + 2e- → Cd(s)
Pb+2(aq) + 2e- → Pb(s)
2. What is the standard cell potential for a galvanic cell that consists of Au +3/Au
and Ni+2/Ni half – cell?
3. The oxidation half – cell of the redox equation is:
Cu(s) → Cu+2 (aq) + 2e- Eoox = -0.340V
Ag+ e- → Ag(s) x 2 Eored = 0.800V
Calculate for the standard cell potential.

222
4. Determine the Eocell between Cu and Zn.
5. Determine the Eocell for the reaction:
Al(s) + Mn+2 aq) → Zn(s) + Al+3 (aq)
Q6: Calculate the Eocell of Cd+2/Cd half cell and Ag+1/Ag half cell
Q7: Determine the Eocell between Aluminum and Iodine.
Q8: For the Zn-Cu+2 galvanic cell, Eocell is 1.10 V and Zn is the anode. Given
that
the standard reduction potential of the anode is -0.76 V, calculate the Eored for
the
reduction of Cu+2 to Cu.
Directions:
A. Identify what is asked in the problem.
Q1: Given the following,
Cu+2 + 2e- → Cu +0.34
Fe+2 + 2e- → Fe -0.44V
Al+3 + 3e- → Al -1.66V
Mg+2 + 2e- → Mg -2.38V
A. Based on the Eo values, which metal is the most easily oxidized?
B. Which is the weakest reducing agent?
C. Calculate the Eo cell of Aluminum and Copper
D. Calculate the Eo cell of Magnesium and Aluminum.

223
Reflection:
1. I learned that ________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
__________
2. I enjoyed most on ____________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
__________

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
__________

224
References:
chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Analytical_Chemistry/Supplemental_Module
s_(Analytical_Chemistry)/Electrochemistry/Redox_Chemistry/Standard_Redu
ction_Potential
courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-chemistry/chapter/standard-reduction-
potentials/
opentexttbc.ca/chemistry/chapter/17-3-standard-reduction-potentials
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XpTbsI3G_zQ

225
ANSWER KEY:
Activity 1: CRITICAL THINKING
Standard reduction potential measures the tendency for a given chemical
species to be reduced.
standard oxidation potential, and how are the two related?
The standard oxidation potential measures the tendency for a given
chemical species to be oxidized as opposed to be reduced. For the same
chemical species the standard reduction potential and standard oxidation
potential are opposite in sign.
Solids and liquids are present in their standard states, solution
concentration is 1M, temperature is 25oC or 298oK, pressure is 1 atm or 1
bar
relative to?
Standard reduction potentials are measured with relativity to hydrogen
which has be universally set to have a potential of zero.
A standard reduction potential is measured using a galvanic cell which
contains a SHE on one side and an unknown chemical half - cell on the
other side. The amount of charge that passes between the cells is
measured using a voltmeter.
6. What are the factors that affect cell potentials?
The nature of reaction in each half – cell, concentration of reactants and
products in solution, pressure of gaseous substances, and temperature
7. What does hydrogen electrode consist of?
This electrode consists of platinum metal surrounded by hydrogen gas in
equilibrium with the solution of H+1 ions.

1. Using the standard reduction potential table, calculate the standard potential
of the a galvanic cell based on the two standard half – reactios:
Cd+2(aq) + 2e- → Cd(s)
Pb+2(aq) + 2e- → Pb(s)

226
Given: From the Table 1.1 Cd+2/Cd, Eored = -0.40 V
Pb+2/Pb, Eored = -0.13 V
Required: Eocell
Strategy: The more positive is -0.13, therefore, Pb+2/Pb is the
cathode.
Substitute the values from the table in the following formula:
= -0.13 V – (-0.40 V)
= 0.27 V
2. What is the standard cell potential for a galvanic cell that consists of Au +3/Au
and Ni+2/Ni half – cell?
Au3+(aq) + 3e- → Au(s) Eo cathode = +1.498 V
Ni+2(aq) + 2e- → Ni(s) Eo anode = -0.257 V
3Ni(s) + 2Au3+(aq) → 3Ni2+(aq) + 2Au(s)
= +1.498 V – (-0.257 V)
= 1.755 V
3. The oxidation half – cell of the redox equation is:
Cu(s) → Cu2+(aq) + 2e- Eoox = -0.340V
(Ag+ e- → Ag(s) x 2 Eored = 0.800V
Calculate for the standard cell potential.
= 0.800 V + (-0.340 V)
= 0.460 V
4. Determine the Eocell between Cu and Zn.
Cu2+ + 2e- → Cu Eored (cathode) = 0.34V
Zn → Zn2+ + 2e- Eored (anode0 = -0.76V
= 0.34V – (-0.76V)
= 1.10V
5. Determine the Eocell for the reaction:

227
Al(s) + Mn2+(aq) → Zn(s) + Al3+(aq)
Al3+ + 3e- → Al Eored = -1.66V
Mn2+ + 2e- → Mn Eored = -1.18
The more positive is -1.18, Mn2+/Mn is the cathode.
= -1.18V – (-1.66V)
= 0.48V
6. Calculate the Eocell of Cd+2/Cd half cell and Ag+1/Ag half cell
Cd+2 + 2e- → Cd Eoanode = -0.40V
Ag+1 + 1e- → Ag Eocathode = 0.80V
= 0.80 – (-0.40)
= 1.20V
7. Determine the Eocell between Aluminum and Iodine.
Al3+ + 3e- → Al Eoanode = -1.66
I2 + 2e- → 2I Eocathode = 0.54
= 0.54V – (-1.66V)
= 2.2V
8. For the Zn-Cu+2 galvanic cell, Eocell is 1.10 V and Zn is the anode. Given
that
the standard reduction potential of the anode is -0.76 V, calculate the Eored for
the
reduction of Cu+2 to Cu.
Given: Eocell = 1.10 V
Zn+2/Zn : Eored = -0.76 V
Required: Eored for Cu+2/Cu
Strategy: Substitute the given values in the equation
1.10 V = Eo(cathode) + (-0.76 V)
Eo(cathode) = 1.10 V – 0.76 V

228
= 0.34 V
1. Given the following,
Cu+2 + 2e- → Cu +0.34
Fe+2 + 2e- → Fe -0.44V
Al+3 + 3e- → Al -1.66V
Mg+2 + 2e- → Mg -2.38V
A. Based on the Eo values, which metal is the most easily oxidized?
B. Which is the weakest reducing agent?
C. Calculate the Eo cell of Aluminum and Copper
D. Calculate the Eo cell of Magnesium and Aluminum.
A. Magnesium (Mg)
B. Iron (Fe)
C. Eocell = Eo(cathode) - Eo(anode)
= +0.34V – (-1.66V)
= 2V
D. Eocell = Eo(cathode) - Eo(anode)
= -1.66V – (-2.38V)
= 0.72V
Prepared by:
JOVELYN Q. BANGAYAN

229
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2
Name: ____________________________ Grade Level: _________
Date: _____________________________ Score: ______________

SPONTANEOUS REDOX REACTIONS
To determine whether a redox reaction is spontaneous or not, it is
possible to use half – cell potentials to calculate the cell potential. If the
calculated cell potential is a positive quantity, the reaction is spontaneous. If the
calculated cell potential is negative, the reaction is nonspontaneous. Ordinarily,
this principle is applied at a standard condition, hence, standard cell potential,
Eocell, is likewise a measure of spontaneity of a redox reaction.
Eocell > 0; spontaneous
Eocell ˂ 0; nonspontaneous
Consequently, it is possible to determine the feasibility of a cell to
generate electric current from calculated cell potentials. Any reaction that can
occur in a galvanic cell to produce a positive cell voltage must be spontaneous.
If cell voltage is positive, then the cell can generate electricity and if negative, it
is not capable of applying electric current. Consider the following examples to
show how spontaneity of a redox reaction is determined.
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
A cell consists of iron and silver in a solution of 1M silver ions and 1M
iron (II) ions. Determine the direction of spontaneous reaction and calculate the
standard cell potential.
SOLUTION:
Given: From the table, the half reactions and the corresponding standard
reduction potential are:
Oxidation: Fe+2(aq) + 2e- → Fe(s) EOred = - 0.45 V
Reduction: Ag+1(aq) + e- → Ag(s) EOred = + 0.80 V
Required: Eocell
Strategy: The half – reaction with more positive reduction potential
oxidizes the half – reaction with the lesser potential. Ag+/Ag is more positive,
which means it has a greater tendency to be reduced and can oxidized Fe, and,

230
therefore, Ag/Ag+ half – cell undergo reduction, while, Fe+2/Fe half – cell
undergoes oxidation.
Eocell = Eored (reduction process) - Eored (oxidation process)
= + 0.80 V – (- 0.45 V)
= + 1.25 V
Since Eocell > 0, the overall reaction is spontaneous, which means the cell is
capable of generating electric current. The overall cell reaction shows Fe is
oxidized and Ag+1 is reduced.
Ag+1(aq) + Fe(s) → Fe+2(aq) + Ag(s) Eocell = 1.25 V
Use the table below as your reference for Eo values.
Table 1: Standard Reduction Potentials at 25oC.
Standard Reduction Potentials (25oC)
Half-Cell Reactions Eo
F2(g) + 2e-1 ---------> 2F-1(aq) +2.87
O3(g) + 2H+1(aq) + 2e-1 ---------> O2(g) + H2O(l) +2.08
S2O82-(aq) + 2e-1 ---------> 2 SO42-(aq) +2.05
Co3+(aq) + e-1 ---------> Co2+(aq) +1.82
H2O2(aq) + 2 H+1(aq) + 2e-1 ---------> 2 H2O(l) +1.77
MnO4-1(aq) + 4 H+1(aq) + 3e-1 ---------> MnO2(s) + 2 H2O(l) +1.695
PbO2(s) + SO42-(aq) + 4 H+1(aq) + 2e-1 ---------> PbSO4(s) + 2 H2O(l) +1.69
2 HOCl(aq) + 2 H+1(aq) + 2e-1 ---------> Cl2(g) + 2 H2O(l) +1.63

Mn3+(aq) + e-1 ---------> Mn2+(aq) +1.51
MnO4-1(aq) + 8 H+1(aq) + 5e-1 ---------> Mn2+(aq) + 4 H2O(l) +1.49
PbO2(s) + 4 H+1(aq) + 2e-1 ---------> Pb2+(aq) + 2 H2O(l) +1.46
BrO3-1(aq) + 6 H+1(aq) + 6e-1 ---------> Br-1(aq) + 3 H2O(l) +1.44

Au3+(aq) + 3e-1 ---------> Au(s) +1.42
Cl2(g) + 2e-1 ---------> 2 Cl-1(aq) +1.36
Cr2O72-(aq) + 14 H+1(aq) + 6e-1 ---------> 2 Cr3+(aq) + 7 H2O(l) +1.33
O3(g) + H2O(l) + 2e-1 ---------> O2(g) + 2 OH-1(aq) +1.24
MnO2(s) + 4 H+1(aq) + 2e-1 ---------> Mn2+(aq) + 2 H2O(l) +1.23
O2(g) + 4 H+1(aq) + 4e-1 ---------> 2 H2O(l) +1.23
Pt2+(aq) + 2e-1 ---------> Pt(s) +1.20
Br2(aq) + 2e-1 ---------> 2 Br-1(aq) +1.07
NO3-1(aq) + 4 H+1(aq) + 3e-1 ---------> NO(g) + 2 H2O(l) +0.96

231
NO3-1(aq) + 3 H+1(aq) + 2e-1 ---------> HNO2(g) + H2O(l) +0.94
2 Hg2+(aq) + 2e-1 ---------> Hg22+(aq) +0.91
HO2-1(aq) + H2O(l) + 2e-1 ---------> 3 OH-1(aq) +0.87
2 NO3-1(aq) + 4 H+1(aq) + 2e-1 ---------> 2 NO2(g) + 2H2O(l) +0.80
Ag+1(aq) + e-1 ---------> Ag(s) +0.80
Fe3+(aq) + e-1 ---------> Fe2+ (aq) +0.77
O2(g) + 2H+1(aq) + 2e-1 ---------> H2O2(aq) +0.69
I2(s) + 2e-1 ---------> 2 I-1(aq) +0.54
NiO2(s) + 2 H2O(l) + 2e-1 ---------> Ni(OH)2 + 2 OH-1(aq) +0.49
SO2(aq) + 4 H+1(aq) + 4e-1 ---------> S(s) + 2 H2O(l) +0.45
O2(g) + 2 H2O(l) + 4e-1 ---------> 4 OH-1(aq) +0.401
Cu2+(aq) + 2e-1 ---------> Cu(s) +0.34
Hg2Cl2(s) + 2e-1 ---------> 2 Hg(l) + 2 Cl-1(aq) +0.27
PbO2(s) + H2O(l) + 2e-1 ---------> PbO(s) + 2 OH-1(aq) +0.25
AgCl(s) + e-1 ---------> Ag(s) + Cl-1(aq) +0.2223
SO42-(aq) + 4H+1(aq) + 2e-1 ---------> H2SO3(aq) + H2O(l) +0.172
S4O62-(aq) + 2e-1 ---------> 2 S2O32-(aq) +0.169
Cu2+(aq) + e-1 ---------> Cu+1(aq) +0.16
Sn4+(aq) + 2e-1 ---------> Sn2+(aq) +0.15
S(s) + 2H+1(aq) + 2e-1 ---------> H2S(g) +0.14
AgBr(s) + e-1 ---------> Ag(s) + Br-1(aq) +0.07
2 H+1(aq) + 2e-1 ---------> H2(g) 0.00
Pb2+(aq) + 2e-1 ---------> Pb(s) -0.13
Sn2+(aq) + 2e-1 ---------> Sn(s) -0.14
AgI(s) + e-1 ---------> Ag(s) + I-1(aq) -0.15
Ni2+(aq) + 2e-1 ---------> Ni(s) -0.25
Co2+(aq) +2e-1 ---------> Co(s) -0.28
In3+(aq) + 3e-1 ---------> In(s) -0.34
Tl+1(aq) + e-1 ---------> Tl(s) -0.34
PbSO4(s) + 2e-1 ---------> Pb(s) + SO42-(aq) -0.36
Cd2+(aq) + 2e-1 ---------> Cd(s) -0.40
Fe2+(aq) + 2e-1 ---------> Fe(s) -0.44
Ga3+(aq) + 3e-1 ---------> Ga(s) -0.56
PbO(s) + H2O(l) + 2e-1 ---------> Pb(s) + 2 OH-1(aq) -0.58
Cr3-(aq) + 3e-1 ---------> Cr(s) -0.74
Zn2+(aq) + 2e-1 ---------> Zn(s) -0.76
Cd(OH)2(s) + 2e-1 ---------> Cd(s) + 2 OH-1(aq) -0.81
2 H2O(l) + 2e-1 ---------> H2(g) + 2 OH-1(aq) -0.83

232
Fe(OH)2(s) + 2e-1 ---------> Fe(s) + 2 OH-1(aq) -0.88
Cr2+(aq) + 2e-1 ---------> Cr(s) -0.91
N2(g) + 4 H2O(l) + 4e-1 ---------> N2O4(aq) +4 OH-1(aq) -1.16
V2+(aq) + 2e-1 ---------> V(s) -1.18
ZnO2-1(aq) + 2 H2O(l) + 2e-1 ---------> Zn(s) + 4OH-1(aq) -1.216
Ti2+(aq) + 2e-1 ---------> Ti(s) -1.63
Al3+(aq) + 3e-1 ---------> Al(s) -1.66
U3+(aq) + 3e-1 ---------> U(s) -1.79
Sc3+(aq) + 3e-1 ---------> Sc(s) -2.02
La3+(aq) + 3e-1 ---------> La(s) -2.36
Y3+(aq) + 3e-1 ---------> Y(s) -2.37
Mg2+(aq) + 2e-1 ---------> Mg(s) -2.37
Na+1(aq) + e-1 ---------> Na(s) -2.71
Ca2+(aq) + 2e-1 ---------> Ca(s) -2.76
Sr2+(aq) + 2e-1 ---------> Sr(s) -2.89
Ba2+(aq) + 2e-1 ---------> Ba(s) -2.90
Cs+1(aq) +e-1 ---------> Cs(s) -2.92
K+1(aq) + e-1 ---------> K(s) -2.92
Rb+1(aq) + e-1 ---------> Rb(s) -2.93
Li+1(aq) + e-1 ---------> Li(s) -3.05
Source: https://opentextbc.ca/chemistry/chapter/17-3-standard-reduction-potentials/
Relate the value of the cell potential to the feasibility of using the cell to generate
an electric current (STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-179)
Activity 1: MIND POWER!

1. What makes a redox reaction spontaneous?

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
2. Which is a stronger reducing agent Cr2+ or Fe2+ and why?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________

233
3. Is the decomposition of water a spontaneous redox? Support your answer.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
4. Differentiate spontaneous and non – spontaneous redox reaction.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
___________
A. Directions: Determine whether the following redox reaction is spontaneous
or non – spontaneous.
1. Mg(s) + Ni2+(aq) ⟶ Mg2+(aq) + Ni(s) Eo = +
2.115 V
2. 2 Ag+(aq) + Cu(s) ⟶ Cu2+(aq) + 2Ag(s) Eo = +
0.4626 V
3. Mn(s) + Sn(NO3)2(aq) ⟶ Mn(NO3)2(aq) + Sn(s) Eo = +
1.0589 V
4. 3 Li + Al ⟶ 3 Li + Al3+ Eo = - 1.39
V
5. 3 Fe(NO3)2(aq) + Au(NO3)3(aq) ⟶ 3 Fe(NO3)3(aq) + Au(s) Eo = +
0.727 V
6. Pb2+(aq) + 2 Fe2+(aq) ⟶ Fe3+(aq) + Pb(s) Eo = +
0.90 V
7. 3 Cu (s) + 2 Au3+(aq) ⟶ 3 Cu2+(aq) + 2 Au(s) Eo = +
1.08 V
8. 3 Cd(s) + 2Al3+(aq) ⟶ 3 Cd2+(aq) + 2Al(s) Eo = -
1.259 V
9. Cu + Fe2+ ⟶ Cu2+ + Fe Eo = -
0.789 V
10. Ni2+ + 2 Ag ⟶ Ni + 2 Ag+ Eo = -
1.0566 V

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Activity 3: SOLVE AND HUNT ME!
Directions: Solve the following redox reactions. Choose the correct Eocell in
the box. Write only the letter of your correct answer.
a. – 1.259 V b. + 0.12 V c. + 1.08 V d. - 0.26 V e. – 1.38 V
1. Determine the standard cell potential when iodine oxidize silver to silver ions.
2. Determine the overall reaction and its standard cell potential at 25 °C for the
reaction involving the galvanic cell in which cadmium metal is oxidized to
1 M cadmium(II) ion and a half-cell consisting of an aluminum electrode in
1 M aluminum nitrate solution.
3. Determine the overall reaction and its standard cell potential at 25 °C for this
reaction.
Cu(s)∣Cu2+(aq)∥Au3+(aq)∣Au(s)
4. Balance this redox reaction and determine its voltage.
Li+ + Al → Li + Al3+
5. Balance this redox reaction and determine its voltage.
Cu2+ + Ag + Cl− → Cu + AgCl

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Reflection:
1. I learned that ________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
__________
2. I enjoyed most on _____________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
__________

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
__________

236
References:
Modules_(Analytical_Chemistry)/Electrochemistry/Basics_of_Electrochemistry
https://opentextbc.ca/chemistry/chapter/17-3-standard-reduction-potentials/
https://www.mikeblaber.org/oldwine/chm1046/notes/Electro/Spontan/Spontan.
htm
https://www.ausetute.com.au/redoxspon.html

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ANSWER KEY:
Activity 1: MIND POWER!
1. What makes a redox reaction spontaneous?
A redox reaction is spontaneous if the standard electrode potential for the
redox reaction, Eo (redox reaction), is positive. If Eo (redox reaction) is
positive, the reaction in the forward direction is spontaneous.
2. Which is a stronger reducing agent Cr2+ or Fe2+ and why?
Cr2+ is a stronger reducing agent than Fe2+. This can be explained on the
basis of the standard electrode potential values Eo (Cr3+/Cr2+ = -0.41 V)
and Eo Fe3+/Fe2+ = +0.77 V). Thus Cr2+ is easily oxidized to Cr3+ but
Fe2+ cannot be as easily oxidized to Fe3+.
3. Is the decomposition of water a spontaneous redox? Support your answer.
No, the electrolysis of water is an example of a nonspontaneous redox
reaction that occurs in the presence of electricity.
4. Differentiate spontaneous and non – spontaneous redox reaction.
If the calculated cell potential is a positive quantity and it can generate
electric current, the reaction is spontaneous. If the calculated cell
potential is negative and cannot generate electric current, the reaction is
nonspontaneous.
1. spontaneous
2. spontaneous
3. spontaneous
4. non – spontaneous
5. spontaneous
6. spontaneous
7. spontaneous

238
Activity 3: SOLVE AND HUNT ME!
1. D
Oxidation: Ag+1 + e- → Ag Eored = +0.80 V
Reduction: I2 + 2e- → 2I-1 Eored = +0.54 V
Eocell = +0.54 V – (+0.80V)
= -0.26 V
2. A
3Cd(s) + 2Al3+(aq) ⟶ 3Cd2+(aq) + 2Al(s)
Eocell = −1.259 V
3. C
3Cu(s) + 2Au3+(aq) ⟶ 3Cu2+(aq) + 2Au(s)
Eocell = +1.08 V
4. E
3 Li+ + Al → 3 Li + Al3+
Eocell −1.38 V
5. B
Cu2+ + 2 Ag + 2 Cl− → Cu + 2 AgCl

Eocell = 0.12 V
Prepared by:
JOVELYN Q. BANGAYAN
Aparri School of Arts and
Trades

239
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2
Name: ____________________________ Grade Level: _________
Date: _____________________________ Score: ______________

ELECTROCHEMISTRY
Electrochemistry is a branch of chemistry that deals with the

interconversion of chemical energy and electrical energy. Electrochemistry has
many common applications in everyday life. All sorts of batteries, from those
used to power a flashlight to a calculator to an automobile, rely on chemical
reactions to generate electricity. Electricity is used to plate objects with
decorative metals like gold or chromium. Electrochemistry is important in the
transmission of nerve impulses in biological systems. Redox chemistry, the
transfer of electrons, is behind all electrochemical processes.
An electrochemical cell is any device that converts chemical energy into

electrical energy or electrical energy into chemical energy. There are three
components that make up an electrochemical reaction. There must be a
solution where redox reactions can occur. These reactions generally take place
in water to facilitate electron and ion movement. A conductor must exist for
electrons to be transferred. This conductor is usually some kind of wire so that
electrons can move from one site to another. Ions also must be able to move
through some form of salt bridge that facilitates ion migration.
Batteries consist of one or more electrochemical cells that store chemical

energy for later conversion to electrical energy. Batteries are used in many day-
to-day devices such as cellular phones, laptop computers, clocks, and cars.
Batteries are composed of at least one electrochemical cell which is used for
the storage and generation of electricity. Though a variety of electrochemical
cells exist, batteries generally consist of at least one voltaic cell. Voltaic cells
are also sometimes referred to as galvanic cells. Chemical reactions and the
generation of electrical energy is spontaneous within a voltaic cell, as opposed
to the reactions electrolytic cells and fuel cells.

240
ELECTROCHEMISTRY INVOLVED IN LECLANCHE DRY CELL
Photo courtesy of Gerhard H Wrodnigg, Images used with permission from

Wikipedia
Dry cell or Leclanche cell is a primary cell, handy for sporadic use, with
positive anode of zinc encompassed by a mixture of manganese dioxide and
powdered carbon in a pot, which is porous. The pot and the negative zinc
terminal remained in a container holding ammonium chloride solution. The
electromotive force (emf) is nearly 1 -4 volt.
Types of Leclanche’s cell include:
a) zinc (Carbon cathode)

b) zinc chloride (Ammonium chloride electrolyte reinstated by zinc chloride)
c) alkaline manganese (Ammonium chloride terminal displaced by potassium
hydroxide)
How does Lechanche works?

How does it work?
The process which generates power in a Leclanché cell starts when zinc
particles on the surface of the anode oxidize, i.e. when zinc atoms surrender
their valence electrons to end up becoming the positively charged particles. The
zinc particles move far from the anode while leaving their electrons on its
surface that makes the anode more negatively charged than the cathode. At
the point when the cell is associated in an outer electrical circuit, the excess
electrons on the zinc anode gush through the circuit to the cathode made up of
carbon. This flow of electrons frames the electric current.

241
What are the parts of dry cell or Lechanche cell?
A standard dry cell comprises a zinc anode, usually in the form of a

cylindrical pot, with a carbon cathode in the form of a central rod. The electrolyte
is ammonium chloride in the form of a paste next to the zinc anode.
Practical Use
The Leclanche cell was utilized widely for telegraphy, electric bell and
signaling work; and for work where intermittent and low current was needed.
The battery cell by Georges Leclanche proved out to be extremely
advantageous in the early years of the telephones.
ELECTROCHEMISTRY INVOLVED IN BUTTON BATTERIES?
Button batteries. Photo courtesy of Gerhard H Wrodnigg, Images used with

permission from Wikipedia
A watch battery or button cell is a small single cell battery shaped as a

squat cylinder typically 5 to 25 mm (0.197 to 0.984 in) in diameter and 1 to 6
mm (0.039 to 0.236 in) high — resembling a button. A metal can forms the
bottom body and positive terminal of the cell. An insulated top cap is the
negative terminal.
What are button cell batteries made of?

• Button cells are single cells, usually disposable primary cells. Common anode
materials are zinc or lithium. Common cathode materials are manganese
dioxide, silver oxide, carbon monofluoride, cupric oxide or oxygen from the air.
What is battery in electronics?
• Batteries consist of one or more electrochemical cells that store chemical
energy for later conversion to electrical energy. Batteries are used in many
day-to-day devices such as cellular phones, laptop computers, clocks, and
cars.

242
What kinds of devices use a button cell battery?
• Button cells are used to power small portable electronics devices such as wrist
watches, pocket calculators, artificial cardiac pacemakers, implantable cardiac
defibrillators, automobile keyless entry transmitters, and hearing aids. Wider
variants are usually called coin cells.
ELECTROCHEMISTRY INVOLVED IN FUEL CELLS
Wikipedia en.wikipedia.org.
A fuel cell can be defined as an electrochemical cell that generates electrical

energy from fuel via an electrochemical reaction. These cells require a
continuous input of fuel and an oxidizing agent (generally oxygen) in order to
sustain the reactions that generate the electricity.
Fuel cell, any of a class of devices that convert the chemical energy of a fuel
directly into electricity by electrochemical reactions. A fuel cell resembles
a battery in many respects, but it can supply electrical energy over a much
longer period of time. This is because a fuel cell is continuously supplied with
fuel and air (or oxygen) from an external source, whereas a battery contains
only a limited amount of fuel material and oxidant that are depleted with use.
For this reason fuel cells have been used for decades in space probes,
satellites, and manned spacecraft.

243
Around the world thousands of stationary fuel cell systems have been installed
in utility power plants, hospitals, schools, hotels, and office buildings for both
primary and backup power; many waste-treatment plants use fuel
cell technology to generate power from the methane gas produced by
decomposing garbage.
Types of Fuel Cells
Various types of fuel cells have been developed. They are generally classified
on the basis of the electrolyte used, because the electrolyte determines the
operating temperature of a system and in part the kind of fuel that can be
employed.
1. The Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) Fuel Cell
• These cells are also known as proton exchange membrane fuel cells (or
PEMFCs).
• The temperature range that these cells operate in is between 50oC to
100o
• The electrolyte used in PEMFCs is a polymer which has the ability to
conduct protons.
• A typical PEM fuel cell consists of bipolar plates, a catalyst, electrodes,
and the polymer membrane.
• Despite having eco-friendly applications in transportation, PEMFCs can
also be used for the stationary and portable generation of power.
2. Solid Acid Fuel Cell
• A solid acid material is used as the electrolyte in these fuel cells.

• The molecular structures of these solid acids are ordered at low
temperatures.
• At higher temperatures, a phase transition can occur which leads to a
huge increase in conductivity.
• Examples of solid acids include CsHSO4 and
CsH2PO4 (cesium hydrogen sulfate and cesium dihydrogen phosphate
respectively)
3. Alkaline Fuel Cell
• This was the fuel cell which was used as the primary source of electricity
in the Apollo space program.
• In these cells, an aqueous alkaline solution is used to saturate a porous
matrix, which is in turn used to separate the electrodes.
• The operating temperatures of these cells are quite low (approximately
90oC).
• These cells are highly efficient. They also produce heat and water along
with electricity.

244
4. Solid Oxide Fuel Cell
• These cells involve the use of a solid oxide or a ceramic electrolyte (such
as yttria-stabilized zirconia).
• These fuel cells are highly efficient and have a relatively low cost
(theoretical efficiency can even approach 85%)
• The operating temperatures of these cells are very high (lower limit of
600oC, standard operating temperatures lie between 800 and 1000 oC).
• Solid oxide fuel cells are limited to stationary applications due to their
high operating temperatures.
5. Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell
• The electrolyte used in these cells is lithium potassium carbonate salt.

This salt becomes liquid at high temperatures, enabling the movement
of carbonate ions.
• Similar to SOFCs, these fuel cells also have a relatively high operating
temperature of 650o
• The anode and the cathode of this cell are vulnerable to corrosion due
to the high operating temperature and the presence of the carbonate
electrolyte.
• These cells can be powered by carbon-based fuels such as natural
gas and biogas.
Applications of fuel cell
Fuel cell technology has a wide range of applications. Currently, heavy

research is being conducted in order to manufacture a cost-efficient automobile
which is powered by a fuel cell. A few applications of this technology are listed
below.
• Fuel cell electric vehicles, or FCEVs, use clean fuels and are therefore
more eco-friendly than internal combustion engine-based vehicles.
• They have been used to power many space expeditions including the
Appolo space program.
• Generally, the byproducts produced from these cells are heat and water.
• The portability of some fuel cells is extremely useful in some military
applications.
• These electrochemical cells can also be used to power several electronic
devices.
• Fuel cells are also used as primary or backup sources of electricity in
many remote areas.

245
Thus, the different types of fuel cells and the working of an alkaline fuel cell
are briefly discussed in this article along with some of the applications of these
electrochemical cells. To learn more about this technology and other related
topics, register with BYJU’S and download the mobile application on your
smartphone.
ELECTROCHEMISTRY INVOLVED IN LEAD BATTERIES
Lead Storage Battery I chem.wisc.edu
A lead storage battery, also known as a lead-acid battery, is the oldest

type of rechargeable battery and one of the most common energy storage
devices. These batteries were invented in 1859 by French physicist Gaston
Planté, and they are still used in a variety of applications. Most people are
accustomed to using them in vehicles, where they have the ability to provide
high currents for cranking power.
Although the batteries are reliable, they have a limited life, are heavy to ship,
and contain toxic materials that require specific removal methods at the end of
their useful life. Lead-acid batteries have moderate power density and good
response time. Depending on the power conversion technology incorporated,
batteries can go from accepting energy to supplying energy instantaneously.
Lead-acid batteries are affected by temperature and must be maintained in
order to achieve maximum life expectancy.

246
• Lead- acid batteries, also known as lead storage batteries, can store a
lot of charge and provide high current for short periods of time.
• The basic design of lead-acid batteries has not changed significantly
since 1859 when Planté designed them, although some improvements
were made by Faure.
• Lead-acid batteries are capable of being recharged, which is important
for their use in cars.
• Discharging the stored energy relies on both the positive and negative
plates becoming lead(II) sulfate and the electrolyte losing much of its
dissolved sulfuric acid.
Learning Competency
Describe the electrochemistry involved in some common batteries:

a. Leclanche dry cell
b. Button batteries
c. Fuel cells
d. Lead storage batteries (STEM_GC11ABIVf-g180)
Activity I. MIND POWER

Directions: Multiple-choice questions on batteries and alternative sources of
energy
1.A battery consists of:
(a) a cell (b) a circuit (c) a generator (d) a number of cells
2.Which of the following statements is false?
a. A Leclanché cell is suitable for use in torches
b. A nickel–cadmium cell is an example of a primary cell
c. When a cell is being charged its terminal p.d. exceeds the cell
e.m.f.
d. (d) A secondary cell may be recharged after use.
3.Which of the following statements is false? When two metal electrodes are
used in a simple cell, the one that is higher in the electrochemical series:
a. tends to dissolve in the electrolyte
b. is always the negative electrode
c. reacts most readily with oxygen
d. acts as an anode

247
4.The negative pole of a dry cell is made of:
a.carbon
b. copper
c. zinc
d. mercury
5.The energy of a secondary cell is usually renewed:

a. by passing a current through it
b. it cannot be renewed at all
c. by renewing its chemicals
d. by heating it.
6.A fuel cell is used to convert chemical energy to _________________.

a.Mechanical energy b. electrical energy
c. Solar energy d. potential
7.Which of the following statements is true?

a. A zinc–carbon battery is rechargeable and is not classified as
hazardous
b. A nickel–cadmium battery is not rechargeable and is classified as
hazardous
c. A lithium battery is used in watches and is not rechargeable
d. An alkaline manganese battery is used in torches and is classified as
hazardous
8. Which of the following is NOT example of a fuel cell?

a. hydrogen-oxygen cell b. methyl-oxygen cell
c. propane-oxygen cell d. hexanone-oxygen cell

248
Activity 2 MIND POWER
Directions: Answer the following questions briefly but substantially
1.What are the chemical reactions in a battery?
______________________________________________________________
_____.
2. What is the importance of electrochemistry?
______________________________________________________________
______.
3. What is a battery in electrochemistry?
______________________________________________________________
_____..
4.What is lead storage battery in chemistry?
______________________________________________________________
_________.

249
Reflection
1.I learned that ________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
2. I enjoyed most on ___________________________________________

______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
3.I want to learn more on ______________________________________

_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

250
References:
Harwood, William, Herring, Geoffrey, Madura, Jeffry, and Petrucci,
Ralph. General Chemistry: Principles and Modern Applications. Ninth Edition.
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2007.
Marasinghe, B.Dr. 2010. Upper Secondary Chemistry. A textbook of chemistry
for Grades 11 &12.
Sackheim, George I, Lehman, Dennis D., Chemistry for Health Sciences, 8th
Edition

251
ANSWER KEY
ACTIVITY 1
1. D 2. B 3. D 4. C 5. A
6. C 7. D
ACTIVITY 2
1. The battery operates through electrochemical reactions
called oxidation and reduction. These reactions involve the exchange
of electrons between chemical species. If a chemical species loses one
or more electrons, this is called oxidation. The opposite process, the
gain of electrons, is called reduction.
2. Electrochemistry is also vital in a wide range of important technological
applications. For example, batteries are important not only in storing
energy for mobile devices and vehicles, but also for load leveling to
enable the use of renewable energy conversion technologies.
3. A battery is an electrochemical cell or series of cells that produces an
electric current. In principle, any galvanic cell could be used as a battery.
An ideal battery would never run down, produce an unchanging voltage,
and be capable of withstanding environmental extremes of heat and
humidity.
4. Lead-acid batteries, also known as lead storage batteries, can store a
lot of charge and provide high current for short periods of time. ...
Discharging the stored energy relies on both the positive and negative
plates becoming lead(II) sulfate and the electrolyte losing much of its
dissolved sulfuric acid.
Prepared by:
DOLORES ARAGON-LIBAN

252
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2
Name: ____________________________ Grade Level: _________

Date: _____________________________ Score: ______________

CORROSION
Corrosion – Keystagewiki.com
Corrosion is one of the most common phenomena that we observe in

our daily lives. You must have noticed that some objects made of iron are
covered with some orange or reddish-brown coloured layer at some point in
time. The formation of this layer is the result of a chemical process known as
rusting, which is a form of corrosion.
For example, formation of a layer of a reddish scale or hydrated ferric

oxide (Fe3O4) on the surface of iron, also known as “rusting of iron”. Corrosion
can be defined as the process through which refined metals are converted into
more stable compounds such as metal oxides, metal sulfides, or metal
hydroxides. The rusting of iron involves the formation of iron oxides via the
action of atmospheric moisture and oxygen. Corrosion is usually an undesirable
phenomenon since it negatively affects the desirable properties of the metal.
For example, iron is known to have good tensile strength and rigidity (especially
alloyed with a few other elements). However, when subjected to rusting, iron
objects become brittle, flaky, and structurally unsound. Corrosion can be

253
classified as an electrochemical process since it usually involves redox
reactions between the metal and certain atmospheric agents such as water,
oxygen, sulphur dioxide, etc.
Electrochemical corrosion of metals occurs when electrons from atoms at

the surface of the metal are transferred to a suitable electron acceptor or
depolarizer. Water must be present to serve as a medium for the transport of
ions. The most common depolarizers are oxygen, acids, and the cations of less
active metals.
Factors Affecting Corrosion
1. Exposure of the metals to air containing gases like CO2, SO2, SO3 etc.
2. Exposure of metals to moisture especially salt water (which increases the
rate of corrosion).
3. Presence of impurities like salt (eg. NaCl).
4. Temperature: An increase in temperature increases corrosion.
5. Nature of the first layer of oxide formed: some oxides like Al 2O3 forms an
insoluble protecting layer which can prevent further corrosion. Others like rust
easily crumble and expose the rest of the metal.
6. Presence of acid in the atmosphere: acids can easily accelerate the process
of corrosion.
Types of Corrosion
Some of the corrosion types include;
1. Crevice Corrosion
Whenever there is a difference in ionic concentration between any two local
areas of a metal, a localized form of corrosion know as crevice corrosion can
occur. Examples of areas where crevice corrosion can occur are gaskets, the
undersurface of washers, and bolt heads.
Example: All grades of aluminium alloys and stainless steels undergo crevice
corrosion.
2. Stress Corrosion Cracking
Stress Corrosion Cracking can be abbreviated to ‘SCC’ and refers to the
cracking of the metal as a result of the corrosive environment and the tensile
tress placed on the metal. It often occurs at high temperatures.
Example: Stress corrosion cracking of austenitic stainless steel in chloride
solution.

254
3. Intergranular Corrosion
Intergranular corrosion occurs due to the presence of impurities in the grain
boundaries that separate the grain formed during the solidification of the metal
alloy. It can also occur via the depletion or enrichment of the alloy at these grain
boundaries.
Example: Aluminum-base alloys are affected by IGC.
4. Galvanic Corrosion
When there exists an electric contact between two metals that are
electrochemically dissimilar and are in an electrolytic environment, galvanic
corrosion can arise. It refers to the degradation of one of these metals at a joint
or at a junction. A good example of this type of corrosion would be the
degradation that occurs when copper, in a salt-water environment, comes in
contact with steel.
Example: When aluminium and carbon steel are connected and immersed in
seawater, aluminum corrodes faster and steel is protected.
5. Pitting Corrosion
Pitting Corrosion is very unpredictable and therefore is difficult to detect. It is
considered one of the most dangerous types of corrosion. It occurs at a local
point and proceeds with the formation of a corrosion cell surrounded by the
normal metallic surface. Once this ‘Pit’ is formed, it continues to grow and can
take various shapes. The pit slowly penetrates metal from the surface in a
vertical direction, eventually leading to structural failure it left unchecked.
Example: Consider a droplet of water on a steel surface, pitting will initiate at t

he centre of the water droplet (anodic site).
6. Uniform Corrosion
This is considered the most common form of corrosion wherein an attack on
the surface of the metal is executed by the atmosphere. The extent of the
corrosion is easily discernible. This type of corrosion has a relatively low impact
on the performance of the material.
Example: A piece of zinc and steel immersed in diluted sulphuric acid would
usually dissolve over its entire surface at a constant rate.
PRINCIPLES OF CORROSION
2.1 HALF CELL REACTIONS

Corrosion is an electrochemical process in which metals and alloys undergo
transformation into predominantly oxides, hydroxides, and aqueous salts.

255
In the corrosion process, two reactions take place. In one, the anodic reaction,
metal atoms are ionized and pass into solution leaving their electrons within the
original metal surface. In the second, the cathodic reaction, the free electrons
within the metal are taken up by chemical species such as O2 and H2O in
reduction reactions.
Consider a simplified version of the corrosion reaction between iron and

water. The overall reaction proceeds as follows:
Fe + 2H2O → Fe (OH)2 + H2 (1)
The overall reaction can be broken down into the oxidizing ANODIC reaction
Fe → Fe2+ + 2e- (2)
and the reducing CATHODIC reaction
2H2O + 2e- → H2 + 2(OH)- (3)
Figure 2.1 depicts this corrosion process.
The reaction 2 and 3 are called ‘half cell’ reactions. Reaction 2 is the half of the
process which is responsible for the damage during corrosion. The speed at
which this reaction proceeds is directly related to the corrosion rate.
2.2 ELECTRODE POTENTIALS

Values of ELECTRODE POTENTIAL are associated with each of the half cell
reactions and give a measure of the likelihood for the reaction to occur. Figure
2.2 depicts standard electrode potentials as measured on the Standard
Hydrogen Electrode Scale for some selected half cell reactions. This scale sets
as datum a value of zero volts for the reduction of Hydrogen.
The more reactive the metal the more negative is its standard potential. In the
case of Iron, it is -0.440V, whereas, for the more inert engineering metals, such
as Platinum, the standard electrode potential is +1.20V.
This information allows us to determine whether a metal will corrode in a given

environment.

256
FIGURE 2.1 – Schematic of the Corrosion Process
Write the charges of the ions properly and remove the highlights
Half Cell Standard Electrode

Reactions Potential (Volts)
Zn → Zn2+ + 2e- -0.76
Fe → Fe2+ + 2e- -0.44
2H+ + 2e- → H2 0.00
2H2O + 2e- → H2 + 2(OH)- 0.40
O2 + 4H+ + 4e- → 2H2O 1.23
Cl2 + 2e- → 2Cl- 1.36
FIGURE 2.2 – Selected Standard Half-Cell Potentials
Under standard conditions, the potential of the corrosion cell is the

difference between the cathodic reaction half cell potential and the anodic half
cell potential. For reaction 1 the potential difference between the cathodic and
anodic half cell reactions is:
E = +0.401 – (-0.440) = +0.841V
The positive value of the potential indicates that the reaction is possible
and that corrosion will occur under these conditions. However, theory does not
permit the calculation of the corrosion rate; this has to be measured, preferably

257
in-situ. Thus a calculation of the corrosion cell potential is not able to predict
the magnitude of damage likely to occur by the corrosion reaction.
2.3 CORROSION RATES AND POLARISATION

The existence of a potential difference between the anodic and cathodic half
cell regions generates a current flow. This has the effect of reducing the
potential difference between the half cells, phenomena known as
polarization. The shape of the polarization curve is affected by many factors,
but in its simplest form is depicted in Figure 2.3.
At the point of intersection of the two polarization curves, a metal will be freely
corroding. The potential at which this occurs is called the Free Corrosion
Potential (Ecorr) which generates a Corrosion Current (Icorr). From the
corrosion current, it is possible to calculate corrosion rates.
Control of Corrosion
Since both the cathodic and anodic steps must take place for corrosion
to occur, prevention of either one will stop corrosion. The most obvious strategy
is to stop both processes by coating the object with a paint or other protective
coating. Even if this is done, there are likely to be places where the coating is
broken or does not penetrate, particularly if there are holes or screw threads. A
more sophisticated approach is to apply a slight negative charge to the metal,
thus making it more difficult for the reaction to take place:
M⟶M2++2e−.(16.8.5)(16.8.5)M⟶M2++2e−.

258
Protection Method 1: Sacrificial Coatings
One way of supplying this negative charge is to apply a coating of a more

active metal. Thus a very common way of protecting steel from corrosion is to
coat it with a thin layer of zinc; this process is known as galvanizing. The zinc
coating, being less noble than iron, tends to corrode selectively. Dissolution of
this sacrificial coating leaves behind electrons which concentrate in the iron,
making it cathodic and thus inhibiting its dissolution.
Protection Method 2: Cathodic Protection
A more sophisticated strategy is to maintain a continual negative

electrical charge on a metal, so that its dissolution as positive ions is inhibited.
Since the entire surface is forced into the cathodic condition, this method is
known as cathodic protection. The source of electrons can be an external direct
current power supply (commonly used to protect oil pipelines and other buried
structures), or it can be the corrosion of another, more active metal such as a
piece of zinc or aluminum buried in the ground nearby, as is shown in the
illustration of the buried propane.
Corrosion Activities
Note: This activity is intended to follow the Corrosion Investigation &
Presentation activity where students investigate and summarize factors
affecting corrosion and corrosion prevention. However, it can be done on its
own if students have been introduced to the concept of corrosion.
Introduction:
What does corrosion look like? Compare samples of corroded and un-corroded
metals such as iron, aluminum, copper, zinc, silver and magnesium. Do all
corroded samples look the same? What is corrosion a result of? What are
some common objects that are subject to corrosion? Do all metals corrode at
the same rate? What are some methods used to prevent corrosion?
Corrosion is a major destructive process that results in costly and unsightly

gaping holes or cracks in aircraft, automobiles, boats, gutters, screens,
plumbing, and many other items constructed of every metal except gold.
Corrosion results from the overwhelming tendency of metals to react

electrochemically with oxygen, water, and other substances in the aqueous
environment. Fortunately, most useful metals react with the environment to
form protective films of corrosion reaction products that prevent the metals from
going into solution as ions. For example, aluminum forms a protective coating
of aluminum oxide on its surface that prevents further corrosion. This is
because many metals are not stable in their elemental state; they prefer to
combine with elements such as oxygen to form metal oxides that are lower in
energy and thus more stable.

259
Corrosion occurs via two opposing electrochemical reactions. The first is the
anodic reaction, in which a metal is oxidized, releasing electrons into the metal.
The other is the cathodic reaction, in which a solution species (often O 2 or H+)
is reduced, removing electrons from the metal. The two reactions can take
place on one metal or on two dissimilar metals (or metal sites) that are
electrically connected.
There are several different reactions that describe the process of corrosion and
most are fairly complex, depending on the type of corrosion and the conditions.
Visit the following website to view some typical anode and cathode reactions
involved in corrosion:http://www.arvanitakis.com/en/cl/corrosion_reactions.htm
Apply electrochemical principles to explain corrosion (STEM_GC11ABIVf-g-
181)
Activity 1: MULTIPLE CHOICE

Directions: Read each item carefully. Encircle the letter that corresponds to
the correct answer.
1. Corrosion of metals involves
a. Physical reactions b. Chemical reactions c. Both d. None
2. The following factors play vital role in corrosion process
a. Temperature b. Solute concentration c. Both d. None
3. Which of the following can be used for cathodic protection:
a. Al b. Cd c. Cu d. Either
4. The rusting of iron is the __________________
a. oxidation corrosion
b. liquid metal corrosion
c. wet corrosion
d. corrosion by other gases
5. Corrosion is uniform in ____________________
a. dry corrosion
b. wet corrosion
c. pitting corrosion
d. water line corrosion

260
Extension Activities:
Research answers/explanations for the following:
1. Is corrosion reversible?
2. Explain what is meant by the term “anodizing” and describe where it is

used.
3. Explain why aluminum doesn’t corrode as quickly as many other

metals despite its high reactivity.
4. Describe the process of sacrificial protection. What is it and why is it

used?
5. How does corrosion affect the economy?

6. Why do gold, platinum and other precious metals not corrode?
Reflection
1.I learned that ____________________________________________

_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
2.I enjoyed most on ________________________________________

_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
3.I want to learn more on ____________________________________

_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

261
References:

Marasinghe, B.Dr. 2010. Upper Secondary Chemistry. A textbook of
chemistry for Grades 11 &12.
Sackheim, George I, Lehman, Dennis D., Chemistry for Health Sciences, 8th
Edition

262
ANSWER KEY
ACTIVITY 1.
1. B 2. C 3. A 4. A 5A
EXTENSION ACTIVITIES
1. NO, Corrosion is an irreversible interfacial reaction of a material (metal,
ceramic, polymer) with its environment which results in consumption of
the material or in dissolution into the material of a component of the
environment.
2. Anodizing is an electrolytic passivation process used to increase the
thickness of the natural oxide layer on the surface of metal parts. The
process is called anodizing because the part to be treated forms the
anode electrode of an electrolytic cell.
3. Aluminum unlike iron and steel,does not rust or corrode in moist
conditions. Its surface is protected by a natural layer
of aluminium oxide. This prevents the metal below from coming into
contact with air and oxygen.
4. Sacrificial protection is the protection of iron or steel against corrosion
by using a more reactive metal. ... The iron pipe will be connected to a
more reactive metal such as magnesium through cooper wires, the
magnesium will donate its electrons to the iron preventing it from
rusting.
5. Corrosion of metals costs the U.S. economy almost $300 billion per
year at current prices. Approximately one-third of these costs could be
reduced by broader application of corrosion-resistant materials and the
application of best corrosion-related technical practices.
6. Gold and gold alloys: Gold is an extremely inert precious
metal and will not oxidize.
Prepared by:
DOLORES ARAGON-LIBAN

263
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2
Name: ____________________________ Grade Level: _________

Date: _____________________________ Score: ______________

ELECTRODE REACTIONS DURING ELECTROLYSIS
Electrodes and Electrode Reactions

An electrode reaction refers to the net oxidation and reduction process
that takes place at an electrode. This reaction may take place in a single
electron-transfer step, or as a succession of two or more steps. The substances
that receive and lose electrons are called the electroactive species.
Fig. 1: Electron transfer at an anode

Source: Silverio,Angelina.”Exploring Life Through Science Series: General Chemistry 2.” In
Teachers Wraparound Edition. Quezon City, Phoenix Pulishing House, Inc., 2017
This process takes place within the very thin interfacial region at the
electrode surface, and involves quantum mechanical tunneling of electrons
between the electrode and the electroactive species. The work required to
displace the H2O molecules in the hydration spheres of the ions constitutes part
of the activation energy of the process.

264
In Zn/Cu cell, the electrode reaction involves a metal and its hydrated
cation; we call such electrodes metal-metal ion electrodes. These are a number
of other kinds of electrodes which are widely encountered in electrochemistry
and analytical chemistry.
Ion-Ion Electrodes
Many electrode reactions involve only ionic species, such as Fe 2+ and
Fe3+. If neither of the electroactive species is a metal, some other metal must
serve as a conduit for the supply or removal of electrons from the system. In
order to avoid complications that would arise from electrode reactions involving
this metal, a relatively inert substance such as platinum is commonly used.
Such a half cell would be represented as:
Pt(s) II Fe3+(aq), Fe2+(aq) II ...
and the half-cell reaction would be:
Fe2+ (aq) → Fe3+ (aq) + e-
The reaction occurs at the surface of the electrode (fFig. 1 above). The
electroactive ion diffuses to the electrode surface and adsorbs (attaches) to it
by van der waals and coulombic forces. In doing so, the waters of hydration
that are normally attached to any ionic species must be displaced. This process
is always endothermic, sometimes to such an extent that only a small fraction
of the ions be able to contact the surface closely enough to undergo electron
transfer, and the reaction will be slow. The actual electron-transfer occurs by
quantum-mechanical tunnelling.
Gas Electrodes
Some electrode reactions involve a gaseous species such as H2, O2, or
Cl2. Such reactions must also be carried out on the surface of an
electrochemically inert conductor such as platinum. A typical reaction of
considerable commercial importance is:
Cl- (aq) → ½ Cl2 (g) + e-
Similar reactions involving the oxidation of Br2 or I2 also take place at
platinum surfaces.

265
Insoluble-salt Electrodes
A typical electrode of this kind consists of a silver wire covered with a
thin coating of silver chloride, which is insoluble in water. The electrode reaction
consists in the oxidation and reduction of the silver:
AgCl(s) + e- → Ag (s) + Cl- (aq)
The half cell would be represented as:
. . . II Cl- (aq) I AgCl(s) I Ag(s)
Although the usefulness of such an electrode may not be immediately
apparent, this kind of electrode finds very wide appliction in electrochemical
measurements.
Reference Electrodes
In most electrochemical experiments our interest is concentrated on only
one of the electrode reactions. Since all measurements must be on a complete
cell involving two electrode systems, it is common practice to employ a
reference electrode as the other half of the cell. The major requirements of a
reference electrode are that it be easy to prepare and maintain, and that its
potential be stable. The last requirement essentially means that the
concentration of any ionic species involved in the electrode reaction must be
held at a fixed value. The most common way of accomplishing this is to use an
electrode reaction involving a saturated solution of an insoluble salt of the ion.
One such system, the silver-silver chloride electrode has already been
mentioned:
Ag I AgCl(s) I Cl-(aq) II . . .
Ag(s) + Cl(aq) → AgCl(s) + e-
This electrode usually takes the form of a piece of silver wire coated with
AgCl. The coating is done by making the silver the anode in an electrolytic cell
containing HCl; the Ag+ ions combine with Cl- ions as fast as they are formed
at the silver surface.

266
Figure 2
Source: Silverio,Angelina.”Exploring Life Through Science Series: General Chemistry 2.” In
Teachers Wraparound Edition. Quezon City, Phoenix Pulishing House, Inc., 2017
The other common reference electrode is the calomel electrode, calomel

is the common name for mercury(I) chloride. Such a half cell would be
represented as
Hg I Hg2+(aq) I KCl ll . . .
and the half cell reaction would be:
Hg(l) + Cl- → ½ HgCl2(s) + e-
The potentials of both of these electrodes have been very accurately
determined against the hydrogen electrode. The latter is seldom used in routine
electrochemical measurements because it is more difficult to prepare; the
platinum surface has to be specially treated by preliminary electrolysis. Also,
there is need for a supply of hydrogen gas which makes it somewhat
cumbersome and hazardous.
Explain the electrode reactions during electrolysis (STEM_GC11ABIVf-g-182)

267
Activity 1: Know Me Better
Directions: Briefly describe the reactions of the different electrodes below.
Write your answer on the space provided.
Activity 2: Identify Me
Directions: Identify what kind of electrode is described in each reaction. Write
your answer on the space before the item.
_________________________ 1. Cl- (aq) → ½ Cl2 (g) + e-
_________________________ 2. Fe2+ (aq) → Fe3+ (aq) + e-
_________________________ 3. AgCl(s) + e- → Ag (s) + Cl- (aq)
_________________________ 4. Ag(s) + Cl(aq) → AgCl(s) + e-
_________________________ 5. Pt(s) II Fe3+(aq), Fe2+(aq) II ...

268
Activity 3: Fact or Bluff
Directions: Write FACT if the statement is true, otherwise write BLUFF if it is
false. Write your answer on the space provided.
___________1. An electrode reaction refers to the reduction process that takes
place at an electrode.
___________2. Metal and its hydrated cation as electrodes are called metal-
metal ion electrodes.
___________3. The actual electron transfer occurs by quantum mechanical
tunnelling.
___________4. H2, O2 and Cl2 are examples of non-gaseous species.
___________5. Caronel is the common name for mercury (I) chloride.
Activity 4: Time To Think!

Directions: Answer the following questions logically. Write your answer on the
space provided.
1. Why platinum is commonly used in electrode reactions involving ionic only
species?
Explain._____________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
____________________
2. What are the major requirements of a reference electrode? Enumerate.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
____________________

269
Reflection:
1. I learned that ________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
__________
2. I enjoyed most on ____________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
__________

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
__________

270
References
Silverio,Angelina.”Exploring Life Through Science Series: General Chemistry

2.” In Teachers Wraparound Edition. Quezon City, Phoenix Pulishing House,
Inc., 2017
https://opentextbc.ca/chemistry/chapter/17-7-electrolysis/
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Book%3A_Chem
1_(Lower)/16%3A_Electrochemistry/16.02%3A_Galvanic_cells_and_Electrod
es

271
ANSWER KEY
ACTIVITY 1:
Possible answers:
1. Ion-ion electrode - The electroactive ion diffuses to the electrode surface
and adsorbs (attaches) to it by van der waals and coulombic forces. This
process is always endothermic. The actual electron-transfer occurs by
quantum-mechanical tunnelling.
2. Gas electrode - electrode reactions that involves a gaseous species such
as H2, O2, or Cl2. It must also be carried out on the surface of an
electrochemically inert conductor such as platinum.
3. Insoluble-salt Electrodes- The electrode reaction consists in the oxidation
and reduction of the silver.
4. Reference Electrodes – commonly uses an electrode reaction involving a
saturated solution of an insoluble salt of the ion.
ACTIVITY 2:
1. Gas electrode
2. Ion-ion electrode
3. Insoluble-salt electrode
4. Reference electrode
5. Ion-ion electrode
ACTIVITY 3:
1. BLUFF
2. FACT
3. FACT
4. BLUFF
5. BLUFF

272
ACTIVITY 4:
Possible answers:
1. In order to avoid complications that would arise from electrode reactions
involving a metal, a relatively inert substance such as platinum is commonly
used.
2. The major requirements of a reference electrode are that it be easy to
prepare and maintain, and that its potential be stable. The last requirement
essentially means that the concentration of any ionic species involved in the
electrode reaction must be held at a fixed value.
Prepared by:
Licerio Antiporda Sr. National High School- Dalaya Annex

273
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2
Name: ____________________________ Grade Level: _________

Date: _____________________________ Score: ______________
Reactions in Some Commercial Electrolytic Processes

Electrolysis has various applications in our day-to-day living. Below are
some of the commercial applications of it, including how these electrolytic
processes react:
Electrorefining of copper
Electrolysis can be used for purposes other than preparing elements.

One example is the refining of copper. Very pure copper is often required in
the manufacture of electrical equipment. (A purity of 99.999 percent is not
unusual.) The easiest way to produce a product of this purity is with electrolysis.
An electrolytic cell for refining copper contains very pure copper at the
cathode, impure copper at the anode, and copper sulfate as the electrolyte.
When the anode and cathode are connected to a battery, electrons flow into
the cathode, where they combine with copper ions (Cu2+) in the electrolyte:
Cu2+ + 2e- → Cu0
Pure copper metal (Cu0 in the above equation) is formed on the cathode.
At the anode, copper atoms (Cu0) lose electrons and become copper ions
(Cu2+) in the electrolyte:
Cu0 – 2e- → Cu 2+
Overall, the only change that occurs in the cell is that copper atoms from
the impure anode become copper ions in the electrolyte . Those copper ions
are then plated out on the cathode. Any impurities in the anode are just left
behind, and nearly 100 percent pure copper builds up on the cathode.

274
Electroplating
Another important use of electrolytic cells is in the electroplating silver,

gold, chromium, and nickel. Electroplating produces a very thin coating of these
expensive metals on the surfaces of cheaper metals, giving them the
appearance and the chemical resistance of the expensive ones.
In silver plating, the object to be plated (a spoon, for example) is used

as the cathode. A bar of silver metal is used as the anode. And the electrolyte
is a solution of silver cyanide (AgCN). When this arrangement is connected to
a battery, electrons flow into the cathode where they combine with silver ions
(Ag+) from the electrolyte to form silver atoms (Ag0):
Ag+ + 1e- → Ag0
These silver atoms plate out as a thin coating on the cathode – in this
case, the spoon. At the anode, silver atoms give up electrons and become silver
ions in the electrolyte:
Ag0 – 1e- → Ag0
Silver is cycled, therefore, from the anode to the ectrolyte to the cathode,
where it is plated out.
Aluminum Production
In 1886, Charles Hall and Paul L.T. Heroult discovered that molten
cryolite (a sodium aluminum fluoride mineral) could be used to dissolve
alumina and that the resulting chemical reaction would produce metallic
aluminum. They found that by passing an electrical current through the cryolite
/alumina mixture they could bring about the chemical reaction that converts the
alumina to metallic aluminum. The Hall-Heroult process, as it is known, remains
in use today.
The cathode for the electrolytic process is a carbon lining made up of

pre-formed carbon-cathode blocks. Other carbon materials line the sides of the
pot and refractory materials generally sit between the carbon cathode and the
steel potshell. Over the typical three to ten year life of a pot, materials such as
alumina, molten aluminum, calcium, fluorides and sodium infiltrate the cathode

275
lining and cause it deteriorate. After a defined period, or when indicators
determine that the lining is at risk, the lining material is replaced and is removed
from the pot is called Spent Pontliner or SPL. Regain recovers and processes
the Spent Potliner.
The anode for the electrolytic process is a large carbon block held by a
metal frame and suspended in the molten cryolite/alumina mixture to conduct
the current. Most of the anode is consumed in the production process. At the
end of its service, the remaining carbon anode “butt” is removed and cleaned
of residues and a large proportion of the butt is recycled to make new carbon
anode blocks. Some of the anode carbon and cleaning residues are however
not re-usable. Regain recovers and processes this otherwise unusable anode
carbon.
Learning Competency
Describe the reactions in some commercial electrolytic processes

(STEM_GC11ABIVf-g-183)
Activity 1: Copper Refining

Directions: Read carefully the statement below then answer the questions that
follow. Write your answers on the space provided.
1. Blister copper is an impure sample

of copper containing small amounts
of zinc and gold. Blister copper is
purified using electrolysis.
a) What does the cathode contains?
_____________________________________
b) What does the anode contains?
_____________________________________

276
c) What will happen when the anode and
cathode are connected to a power supply?
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
____________
d) What will happen to the impurities in the anode? Explain.
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
____________
Activity 2: Let’s Electroplates Things!
Directions: Consider the following diagram and answer logically the question
that follow. Write your answer on the space provided.
1. A copper spoon is plated with silver in an

electrolytic cell.
a) What is the anode?
______________________________________________
b) What is the cathode?

______________________________________
c) Write the equation for the half-reaction

that occurs in the copper spoon.
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
____________

277
d) Write the equation for the half-reaction
that occurs in the silver metal bar.
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
____________
2. A trophy manufacturer electroplates an iron trophy with gold.

a) What is the anode?
________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
b) What is the cathode?

________________________________________________________
________________________________________________
Activity 3: What a Wonderful Ring!

Directions: Draw an electrolytic cell that could be used to plate an iron ring
with silver. Be sure to include all of the necessary parts. In addition, label the
anode, the cathode, and the solution used.

278
Activity 4: What to Use for My Aluminum?
Directions: Below is a diagram of a carbon-lined container that is used to
convert alumina into metal during electrolysis process. Choose the word from
the box that correctly label its part.
Steel Potshell Carbon lining Solid Bath Surface

Molten Bath Refractory lining Molten Aluminum
Activity 4: Fact or Bluff?
Directions: Write FACT if the statement is true. Otherwise, write BLUFF if it is

false. Write your answer on the space provided.
_______________1. Electroplating uses an electrolytic cell in which the object
to be plated is immeresed in a solution of the metal to be deposited.
_______________2. Electrorefining is only applicable in coppers.
_______________3. Copper atoms from pure anode become copper ions in
the electrolyte.
_______________4. Hall-Heroult process involves electrolytic reduction of
alumina in cells or pots.
_______________5. The cathode for the electrolytic process is a refractory
lining.

279
Reflection:
1. I learned that _______________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
__________
2. I enjoyed most on ____________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
__________

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
__________

280
References
Silverio,Angelina.”Exploring Life Through Science Series: General Chemistry
2.” In Teachers Wraparound Edition. Quezon City, Phoenix Pulishing House,
Inc., 2017
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Map%3A_Chemis
try_(Zumdahl_and_Decoste)/11%3A_Electrochemistry/11.7%3A_Electrolysis
http://www.regainmaterials.com/aluminum-smelting-industry/aluminum-
production-process
https://www.ausetute.com.au/electrorefine.html

281
ANSWER KEY
ACTIVITY 1:
1. a. The pure copper
b. The blister/impure copper
c. When the anode and cathode are connected to a battery, electrons flow
into the
cathode, where they combine with copper ions (Cu2+) in the electrolyte.
d. The impurities in the anode are just left behind, and nearly 100 percent
pure
copper builds up on the cathode
ACTIVITY 2:
1. a. The silver metal bar
b. The copper spoon
c. Ag+ + 1e- → Ag0
d. Ag0 – 1e- → Ag0
2. a. The gold bar
b. The iron trophy
ACTIVITY 3:

282
ACTIVITY 4:
ACTIVITY 5:
1. FACT
2. BLUFF
3. BLUFF
4. FACT
5. BLUFF
Prepared by:
Licerio Antiporda Sr National High School- Dalaya Annex

283

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12

LEARNING ACTIVITY SHEET

Printed by: DepEd Regional Office No. 02

Address: Regional Government Center, Carig Sur, Tuguegarao City, 3500

Name: ____________________________ Date: _____________

LEARNING ACTIVITY SHEET

Spontaneous Process and Entropy

Background Information for the Learners (BIL)

Chemical Thermodynamics is the study of the interrelation of heat and

The entropy of a substance increases (ΔS > 0) as it transforms from a

Rock rolled uphill and downhill. (Image Source: https://encrypted-

1. What can you say about the pictures? ________________________________

Uphill and Downhill Skiing. (Image Source: https://encrypted-

1. What can you say about the pictures? ________________________________

3. Which one is more spontaneous? Why? _____________________________

Activity 2. I’M EVERYWHERE!

Entropy change examples:

The spreading out of more concentrated molecules and the spreading

Activity 4. WORD SEARCH

1. What characterize a spontaneous process? ____________________

2. How does spontaneity apply to a chemical reaction? ______________

3. How do entropy changes occur? _____________________________

4. How is hot object in an open area gets cooler? ___________________

2. I enjoyed most on_________________________________________

3. I want to learn more on_____________________________________

Jessie A. Key. Introductory Chemistry-1st Canadian Edition. Chapter 18.

(1) Prepared by:

Name: ________________________________ Date: ________

LEARNING ACTIVITY SHEET

Explain the second law of thermodynamics and its significance.

Activity 1. IT’S GETTING HOTTER IN HERE!

Directions: Calculating Entropy Changes in the system: Standard Entropy of

∆S0rxn = [cS0(C) + dS0(D)] - [aS0(A) + bS0(B)]

Selected Thermodynamic Values (at 250C)*

Species ∆Hf° S° ∆Gf°

Given: S0(J/K.mol): 256.2 69.9 156.9

2. Calculate S for the reaction

Given: S0(J/K.mol) 248.5 240.5 256.2 210.6

3. Calculate S at 250C for the reduction of a given these absolute

General rules in predicting entropy change of the system:

Chemical Reaction Positive/ Reason

2. N2(g, 10atm) → N2(g, 1atm)

4.2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(l)

Directions: Solve the crossword using the clues.

____________1. The second law of thermodynamics deals with entropy.

____________2. The entropy of the universe decreases in a spontaneous

____________3. When the entropy change in the universe is greater than

____________5. When the entropy change in the universe is equal to zero,

____________6. The second law of thermodynamics tells us that heat always

____________7. If the reaction produces more gas molecules than it

____________8. If there is no net change in the total number of gas

____________9. If the total number of gas molecules diminishes, the entropy

____________10. Digestion of food is a spontaneous process.

Activity 5: RESEARCH TIME!

Directions: Explain how second law of thermodynamics applies in the

2. Hot cup coffee in a table

1. What is the second law of thermodynamics?

2. What does second law of thermodynamics tells about the entropy of

3. When is an entropy change positive or negative?

4. Why is the second law of thermodynamics very important to daily life?

2. I enjoyed most on_________________________________________

3. I want to learn more on_____________________________________

Commission on Higher Education. (2016). General Chemistry 2 (Teaching

"The NBS Tables of Chemical Thermodynamic Properties" (1982) and "CRC

Name: ________________ Date: _

Name: ________________________ Date:

Name: ______________ Grade Level: