WEST VISAYAS STATE UNIVERSITY

LAMBUNAO CAMPUS
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
Lambunao, Iloilo

Course Guide
ED 227- Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching: The Learner Centered
Approaches with Emphasis on Trainers Methodology

Date Revised/Enhanced: August 16, 2021

I. University

Vision: A research university advancing quality education towards societal

transformation and global recognition.
Mission: WVSU commits to develop life-long learners empowered to generate
knowledge and technology, and transform communities as agent of
change
Core Values: Excellence Creativity and Innovation Service
Institutional Outcomes for Instruction:
Taga-West
Institutional Outcomes for Instruction:
- is a creative and critical thinker
- is an effective and responsible communicator
- has uncompromising personal and professional ethical standards
- is technologically –skilled
- has teaming and collaborative skills
- is socially responsible and has strong national identity
- is globally employable
- is self-directed, competent, and accountable professional
- can utilize lifelong learning skills for personal development and excellence in
professional practice
-
II. Campus/College Outcomes:
Taga-West (Lambunao-Campus):
- is value-laden professional (responsible, accountable, independent,
resourceful, trustworthy, refined, God-fearing, service oriented,
considerate of others, tactful);
- is expert/competent of his/her field (skilful/talented, versatile,
productive, competitive, artistic, confident);
- is life-long learner (change agent, innovative, resourceful); and
- has communicative competence (articulate, has language facility,
can open/relay ideas clearly.

College of Education Outcomes:

1. exhibited and nurtured a culture of excellence;
2. produced effective facilitators of learning;

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 3. initiated, undertaken researches and extension services in teacher
education and allied fields;
4. collaborated and shared expertise with local and international
entities/agencies; and
5. provided with equitable access to educational opportunities to
deserving clientele.

III. Program/Degree : Bachelor of Technical Vocational Teacher Education

IV. Program/Degree Outcomes: CMO No. 79 Series of 2017

The graduates of BTVTEd must have:
1. demonstrate the competencies required of the Philippine TVET Trainers-
Assessors Qualification Frameworks:
2. demonstrate broad and coherent, meaningful knowledge and skills in any
of the specific fields in technical and vocational education;
3. apply with minimal supervision specialized knowledge and skills in any of
the specific fields in technical vocational education
4. demonstrate higher level literacy, communication, numeracy, critical
thinking, learning skills needed for higher learning
5. manifest a deep and principled understanding of the learning processes
and the role of the teacher in facilitating these processes in their
students;
6. show a deep and principled understanding of how education processes
relate to target historical, social, cultural, and political processes;
7. apply a wide range of teaching process skills (including curriculum
development, educational assessment, and teaching approaches); and
8. reflect on the relationships among the teaching process, skills, the
learning processing in the students, the nature of the content/subject
matter, and other factors affecting educational processes in order to
constantly improve their teaching knowledge, skills and practices.

V. Course No. ED 227

Course Title: Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching: The Learner Centered
Approaches with Emphasis on Trainers Methodology 1
Prerequisites: None

VI. School Year: 2021-2022 Semester Offered: First Semester

VII. Course Description: CMO No. 17 Series of 2017

This course explores the fundamental principles, processes and practices
anchored on leaner-centeredness and other educational psychologies as these apply
to facilitate various teaching-learning delivery modes to enhance learning.

VIII. Course Credit/Unit: 3 (54 hrs. Lecture)

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IX. Course Outcomes:
At the end of the course the students must have:
1. revisited the different learner-centered psychological principles needed in
enhancing effective delivery of learning;
2. studied theories of development focusing on learner including their
diversity;
3. deepened understanding on different theories that focusing on learning
activities in classroom;
4. compared different theories in cognitive perspective;
5. learned how to apply cognitive processes to create meaningful teaching-
learning experience to the learners;
6. identified various motivational activities that could help in provide
meaningful experience to the learner in classroom; and
7. revisited the learner-centered psychological principles and its application.

Notes for student:

This course guide is made for the student who has the subject for ED 220,
The Andragogy of Learning Including Principles Training Methodology 1. The content
of this course guide are the activities for students to do while they are having their
off line classes. The activities provide the necessary information regarding the
subjects including the assessment tasks for them to accomplish. The students could
answer the assessment tasks in separate paper or a photocopy of the sheet from the
guide. The students might submit the accomplish assessment task after the midterm
(for midterm coverage) and finals (final coverage). Submission of the activities might
be through on line or in the hard copy submitted at the guard house.
For some questions and clarification you can connect to the author through
the following:
Jaime G. Latoza
09294449868
matalinongnilikha@gmail.com
facebook
Messenger

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X. Content
Unit 0: Vision, Mission, Core Values and Outcomes
Desired Learning Outcomes:
a. Identified, internalized, and demonstrated the vision, mission, core values of the
University, Camus and School of Education outcomes.
b. Applied the underlying school policies and displayed the desirable attributes of
WVSUnian.

1. The University VMGO and Core Values

1.1. Vision: A research university advancing quality education towards societal
transformation and global recognition.
1.2. Mission: WVSU commits to develop life-long learners empowered to
generate knowledge and technology, and transform communities
as agent of change
1.3. Core Values: Excellence Creativity and Innovation Service
University Outcomes
- is a creative and critical thinker
- is an effective and responsible communicator
- has uncompromising personal and professional ethical standards
- is technologically skilled
- has teaming and collaborative skills
- is socially responsible and has strong national identity
- is globally employable
- is self-directed, competent, and accountable professional
- can utilize lifelong learning skills for personal development and
excellence in professional practice
2. Lambunao Campus Outcomes
- is value-laden professional (responsible, accountable, independent,
resourceful, trustworthy, refined, God-fearing, service oriented,
considerate of others, tactful);
- is expert/competent of his/her field (skilful/talented, versatile,
productive, competitive, artistic, confident);
- is life-long learner (change agent, innovative, resourceful); and
- has communicative competence (articulate, has language facility,
can open/relay ideas clearly.
3. College of Education Outcomes
1. exhibited and nurtured a culture of excellence;
2. produced effective facilitators of learning;
3. initiated, undertaken researches and extension services in/teacher
education and allied fields;
4. collaborated and shared expertise with local and international
entities/agencies; and
5. provided with equitable access to educational opportunities to
deserving clientele.

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4. Bachelor of Technical Vocational Teacher Education Outcomes
CMO No. 79 Series of 2017
The graduates of BTVTEd must have:
1. demonstrate the competencies required of the Philippine TVET
Trainers-Assessors Qualification Frameworks:
2. demonstrate broad and coherent, meaningful knowledge and skills in
any of the specific fields in technical and vocational education;
3. apply with minimal supervision specialized knowledge and skills in
any of the specific fields in technical vocational education
4. demonstrate higher level literacy, communication, numeracy, critical
thinking, learning skills needed for higher learning
5. manifest a deep and principled understanding of the learning
processes and the role of the teacher in facilitating these processes in
their students;
6. show a deep and principled understanding of how education
processes relate to target historical, social, cultural, and political
processes;
7. apply a wide range of teaching process skills (including curriculum
development, educational assessment, and teaching approaches); and
8. reflect on the relationships among the teaching process, skills, the
learning processing in the students, the nature of the content/subject
matter, and other factors affecting educational processes in order to
constantly improve their teaching knowledge, skills and practices.

Assessment Task:
Name: _____________________________________ Score: ___________________
Year & Section: ______________________________ Date: ____________________
Task Number: Unit 0-1

Direction: Write a reflection about how the university vision, mission and goals affect the
students? How can this things help the students in the accomplishment of his/her dreams in
life?

Reference:
2013 University Code

2016-2020 Strategic Plan

2014 WVSU Student Handbook

Bulletin of Information

COE Goals and Objectives

Time Table: 3 Hours

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Unit 1: Introduction to Facilitating Learning
Desired Learning Outcomes
1. Explained the meaning of metacognition and other purposes
2. Discussed the context of learner-centered psychological principles
3. Studied the cognitive and metacognitive approach the students encounter
4. Learned the developmental and social factors that may affect the students
5. Applied different principles of metacognition as teachers.

Student Activities
1. Metacognition
The most important gaol of education is to teach students how to learn on
their own. The quotation on the side margin stresses this. It is vital that the students
acquire the skills of how to learn; and that this skills enable them to learn not just
while they are in school but for a lifetime. This entails a deeper awareness of how
one processes information, the ability to evaluate his own thinking and to think of
ways to make his own learning process more effective. All these involve
metacognition.
What is metacognition? This appears to be such a high-sounding word that
some people are confused about even before they actually spent time to find out
what it really means. It is not at all that complicated. In fact, we do metacognitive
activities so often in our daily lives. When you sense that you are experiencing
difficulty with a topic you are studying, and you try our different strategies to learn
better, you are practicing metacognition. The word maybe long, seems to be so
intangible but it is worth focusing on because it can help you to be a more successful
learner. When you become a teacher, it can also help your students to learn, it can
also help students to learn more efficiently and effectively,
The term “metacognition” was coined by John Flavell. According to Flavell
(1979, 1887), metacognition consists of both metacognitive knowledge and
metacognitive experiences or regulation. Metacognition, simply put, is “Thinking
about thinking” or “learning how to learn”. It refers to higher order thinking which
involves active awareness and control over the cognitive processes engaged in
learning, metacognition knowledge refers to acquired cognitive processes,
knowledge that can be used to control cognitive processes: knowledge of person
variables, task variables and strategy variables.
Metacognition is a conscious awareness of one’s thoughts–thinking about
thinking. When developed, this awareness helps students not only achieve
awareness of what they are thinking, but also recognize themselves as problem-
solvers, choose appropriate strategies for thinking and problem-solving, match
appropriate study strategies for given types of assessments, and more accurately
evaluate the depth of their understanding and the effectiveness of their learning.
Metacognition is an awareness of one’s own learning. It entails understanding
the goals of the learning process, figuring out the best strategies for learning, and
assessing whether the learning goals are being met. A metacognitive student sees
him or herself as an agent in the learning process and realizes that learning is an
active, strategic activity.

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 A useful analogy for understanding metacognition might be mastering an
athletic skill: in the early stages, a novice player needs to think carefully about how
his or her actions affect performance. For instance, in figuring out the best way to
swing a golf club, a novice player might deliberately adjust his or her stance, assess
whether the adjustment leads to better performance, and then decide whether to
adopt the strategy going forward. This is essentially the active thinking about the
learning process that we want to encourage with students.
Metacognition can include any of the following elements:
- Understanding what one already knows about a topic
- Figuring out what one wants to know about a topic
- Realizing what one has learned in the course of a lesson
- Monitoring one’s understanding during the course of an activity
- Choosing which learning strategies to employ and when
- Evaluating whether a particular learning strategy was successful in a
given circumstance
Metacognition has been linked to improved learning outcomes. It makes
sense that individuals who are strategic in their learning are more successful than
those who do not reflect on the learning process. For instance, metacognitive
learners are more likely to notice when what they are studying does not make sense.
These are the students who try to clarify their understanding rather than passively
continuing on with the assignment. According to researcher John Hattie, the effect
size for teaching metacognitive strategies is 0.69, making it one of the most effective
teaching interventions.
Metacognition is also a significant factor in whether students can transfer
their learning to new scenarios. Students who are metacognitive are actively
embedding new information in their existing network of knowledge and creating
connections among ideas. This is the sort of thinking that gets students beyond
surface learning and drives them to deeper understanding.
Person Variables. This include how one views himself as a learner and
thinker. Knowledge of person variables refers to knowledge about how human
beings learn and process information, as well as individual knowledge of one’s own
learning processes. For example, you may be aware that you study more effectively
if you study very early in the morning than late in the evening, and that you work
better in a quiet library rather than at home where there are a lot of things that
make it hard for you to focus and concentrate.
Task Variables. Knowledge of task variables includes knowledge about the
nature of the task as well as the type of processing demand s that it will place upon
the individual. It is about knowing what exactly needs to be accomplished, gauging
its difficulty and knowing the kind of effort it will demand from you. For example,
you may be aware that it takes more time for you to read and comprehend a book in
educational philosophy than it is for you to read and comprehend a novel.
Strategy Variables. Knowledge of strategy variables involves awareness of
the strategy you are using to learn a topic and evaluating whether this strategy is
effective. If you think your strategy is not working, then you may think of various
strategies and try out one to see if it will help you learn better. Terms like meta-

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attention and meta-memory are related to strategy variables. Meta-attention is the
awareness of specific strategies so that you can keep your attention focused on the
topic or task at hand. Meta-memory is your awareness of memory strategies that
work best for you.

These three variables all interact as you learn and apply metacognition.
Omrod includes the following in the practice of metacognition:
 Knowing the limits of one’s own learning and memory capacities
 Knowing what learning tasks one can realistically accomplish within a
certain amount of time
 Knowing which learning strategies are effective and which are not
 Planning an approach to a learning task that is likely to be successful
 Using effective ;earning strategies to process and learn new material
 Monitoring one’s own knowledge and comprehension. In other words,
knowing when information has been successfully learned and when it’s
not
 Using effective strategies for retrieval of previously stored information
 Knowledge is said to be metacognitive is it is keenly used in a purposeful
manner to ensure that the goal is met. For example, a student may use
knowledge in planning how to do homework: “I know that I (person
variable) have more difficulty with my science assignments than English
and find Araling Panlipunan easier (task variable), so I will do my
homework in science first, then Language Arts, then Araling Panlipunan,
(strategy variable).” If one is only aware about one’s cognitive strengths
or weaknesses and the nature of the task but does not use this to guide
or oversee his/her own learning, then no metacognition has been applied.
Huitt believes that metacognitive includes the ability to ask and answer the
following types of questions:
 What do I know about this subject, topic, issue?
 Do I know what I need to know?

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  Do I know where I can go to get some information, knowledge?
 How much time will I need to learn this?
 What are some strategies an tactics that I can use to learn this?
 Did I understand what I just heard, read or saw?
 How will I know if I am learning at an appropriate rate?
 How can I spot an error if I make one?
 How should I revise my plan if it is not working to my
expectations/satisfaction?

Metacognitive Strategies to Facilitate Learning

Researchers such as that of Fang and Cox showed that metacognitive
awareness was evident in pre-schoolers and in students as young as eight years old.
Children already have the capacity to be more aware and reflective of their own
learning. However, not many have been taught and encouraged to apply
metacognition.
The challenge then to future teachers like you is to integrate more activities
that would build in your students’ capacity to reflect on their own characteristics as
learners (self-knowledge), the task they are to do (task knowledge) and the
strategies that they can use to learn (strategic knowledge). Remember,
metacognition is like any other thing you will teach. Metacognition involves
knowledge and skills which you and your students can learn and master.

Metacognitive Study Strategies

Below are some ideas for how to engage in metacognition when you are
studying. Think about which of these resonate with you and plan to incorporate them into
your study routine on a regular basis.

Use your syllabus as a roadmap

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 Look at your syllabus. Your professor probably included a course schedule,
reading list, learning objectives or something similar to give you a sense of how the
course is structured. Use this as your roadmap for the course. For example, for a
reading-based course, think about why your professor might have assigned the
readings in this particular order. How do they connect? What are the key themes
that you notice? What prior knowledge do you have that could inform your reading
of this new material? You can do this at multiple points throughout the semester, as
you gain additional knowledge that you can piece together.

Summon your prior knowledge

Before you read your textbook or attend a lecture, look at the topic that is
covered and ask yourself what you know about it already. What questions do you
have? What do you hope to learn? Answering these questions will give context to
what you are learning and help you start building a framework for new knowledge. It
may also help you engage more deeply with the material.

Think aloud
Talk through your material. You can talk to your classmates, your friends, a
tutor, or even a pet. Just verbalizing your thoughts can help you make more sense of
the material and internalize it more deeply. Talking aloud is a great way to test
yourself on how well you really know the material. In courses that require problem
solving, explaining the steps aloud will ensure you really understand them and
expose any gaps in knowledge that you might have. Ask yourself questions about
what you are doing and why.

Ask yourself questions

Asking self-reflective questions is key to metacognition. Take the time to be
introspective and honest with yourself about your comprehension. Below are some
suggestions for metacognitive questions you can ask yourself.
 Does this answer make sense given the information provided?
 What strategy did I use to solve this problem that was helpful?
 How does this information conflict with my prior understanding?
 How does this information relate to what we learned last week?
 What questions will I ask myself next time I’m working these types of
problems?
 What is confusing about this topic?
 What are the relationships between these two concepts?
 What conclusions can I make?
 Try brainstorming some of your own questions as well.

Use writing
Writing can help you organize your thoughts and assess what you know. Just
like thinking aloud, writing can help you identify what you do and don’t know, and
how you are thinking about the concepts that you’re learning. Write out what you

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know and what questions you have about the learning objectives for each topic you
are learning.

Organize your thoughts

Using concept maps or graphic organizers is another great way to visualize
material and see the connections between the various concepts you are learning.
Creating your concept map from memory is also a great study strategy because it is
a form of self-testing.

Take notes from memory

Many students take notes as they are reading. Often this can turn notetaking
into a passive activity, since it can be easy to fall into just copying directly from the
book without thinking about the material and putting your notes in your own words.
Instead, try reading short sections at a time and pausing periodically to summarize
what you read from memory. This technique ensures that you are actively engaging
with the material as you are reading and taking notes, and it helps you better gauge
how much you’re actually remembering from what you read; it also engages your
recall, which makes it more likely you’ll be able to remember and understand the
material when you’re done.

Review your exams

Reviewing an exam that you’ve recently taken is a great time to use
metacognition. Look at what you knew and what you missed. Try using this handout
to analyze your preparation for the exam and track the items you missed, along with
the reasons that you missed them. Then take the time to fill in the areas you still
have gaps and make a plan for how you might change your preparation next time.

Take a timeout
When you’re learning, it’s important to periodically take a time out to make
sure you’re engaging in metacognitive strategies. We often can get so absorbed in
“doing” that we don’t always think about the why behind what we are doing. For
example, if you are working through a math problem, it’s helpful to pause as you go
and think about why you are doing each step, and how you knew that it followed
from the previous step. Throughout the semester, you should continue to take
timeouts before, during or after assignments to see how what you’re doing relates to
the course as a whole and to the learning objectives that your professor has set.

Test yourself
You don’t want your exam to be the first time you accurately assess how well
you know the material. Self-testing should be an integral part of your study sessions
so that have a clear understanding of what you do and don’t know. Many of the
methods described are about self-testing (e.g., thinking aloud, using writing, taking
notes from memory) because they help you discern what you do and don’t actually
know. Other common methods include practice tests and flash cards—anything that
asks you to summon your knowledge and check if it’s correct.

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Figure out how you learn
It is important to figure out what learning strategies work best for you. It will
probably vary depending on what type of material you are trying to learn (e.g.
chemistry vs. history), but it will be helpful to be open to trying new things and
paying attention to what is effective for you. If flash cards never help you, stop using
them and try something else instead. Making an appointment with an academic
coach at the Learning Center is a great chance to reflect on what you have been
doing and figuring out what works best for you.

Here are some examples of teaching strategies to develop metacognition:

(Work hard on applying these strategies now in your role as a student. It will surely
be a rewarding learning experiences for your.)
1. Have student monitor their own learning and thinking. (Example: have a
student monitor a peer’s learning/thinking/behaving in dyad)
2. Teach student study or learning strategies.
TQLR – this can be taught to younger students (primary grades). It is
a metacognitive strategy before listening to a story or presentation.

T is for Tune in. it is first important for the learner himself to be aware
that is paying attention, and that he is ready to learn.

Q is for Question. The learner is given question or he thinks of

questions about what he will soon learn.

L is for Listen. The learner then intentionally exerts effort to listen. He

becomes aware if he is momentarily distracted and goes back to listen
again.

R is for Remember. The learner uses ways or strategies to remember

what was learned.

PQ4R – this is usually for older students in the intermediate levels and
onwards. This strategy is used to study a unit or chapter.
P – Preview. Scan the whole chapter before delving on each
paragraph. Check out the objectives. Look for outlines or advance
organize that will give you an idea about the important topics and
ideas in the chapter. Read the summary of the chapter first. (But
please don’t stop at the summary alone. No. No. No. this is not a
good idea at all. Read the whole chapter!)

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 Q- Question. Read the guide question provided, or think of your own
questions about the topic.

R-Read. Check out sub heading as you read. Pay attention on words
that are printed in bold or italicized. Find out the meaning of words
that are not clear to you. Use a marker or colored pencil to highlight
important words or phrases. (Do you highlight the whole paragraph!)

R-Recite. Work on answering the questions you had earlier.

R-Review. Pinpoint topics you may need to go back to and read in

order to understand better.

R-Reflect. Think about what you read. Is everything clear to you?

What are the main points you learned? How is this relevant or useful
to you?

3. Have students make predictions about information to be presented next

based on what they have read.
4. Have students relate ideas to existing knowledge structures well learned.
5. Have students develop questions; ask question of themselves, about
what’s going on around them.
6. Help students to know when to ask for help. (He/she must be able to self-
monitor; require students to show how they have attempted to deal with
the problem of their own.)
7. Show students how to transfer knowledge, attitudes, values, skills to
other situations or tasks.

Novice and Expert Leaners

In the last twenty years, cognitive psychologists have studied the distinctions
among learners in the manner they absorb or process information. They are able to
differentiate expert learners form novice learners. A very important factor that
separate this two types of learners mentioned is metacognition. Expert learners
employ metacognitive strategies in learning. They are more aware of their learning
process as they read, study and do problem solving. Expert learners monitor their
learning and consequently adjust their strategies to make learning more effective.
The Table below shows the difference between a novice learner and an
expert learner.
Difference Between Novice and Expert Learners
Aspect of Leaning Novice Learners Expert Learners
Knowledge in different Have limited knowledge in Have deeper knowledge in
subject areas the different subject areas different subject areas
because they look for
interrelationships in the
things they learn.
Problem Solving Satisfied at just scratching First try to understand the

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Learning/thinking
strategies
Selectivity in processing
Production of output
the surface; hurriedly problem, look for
gives a solution to the boundaries, and create a
problem mental picture of the
problem.
Employ rigid strategies Design new strategies that
that may not be would be appropriate to
appropriate to the task at the task at hand
hand
Attempt to process all Select important
information they receive information to process;
able to breakdown
information to manageable
chunks
Do not examine the Check their errors and
quality of their work, nor redirect their efforts to
stop to make revisions maintain quality output

2. Learner-Centered Psychological Principles (LCP)

The Learner-Centered Psychological Principles were put together by the
American Psychological Association. The following 14 psychological principles pertain
to the learner and the learning process. The 14 principles have the following aspects.
 They focus on psychological factors that are primarily internal to and
under the control of the learner rather than conditioned habits or
psychological factors. However, the principles also attempt to
acknowledge external environment or contextual factors that interact with
these internal factors.
 The principles are intended to deal holistically with learners in the context
of real-word learning situations. Thus, they are best understood as an
organized se of principles; no principle should be viewed in isolation.
 The 14 principles are divided into those referring to (1) cognitive and
metacognitive, (2) motivational and affective, (3) developmental and
social, and (4) individual differences factors influencing learners and
learning.
 Finally, the principles are intended to apply to all learners – from children,
to teachers, to administrators, to parents, and to community members
involved in our educational system.

Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors

1. Nature of the learning process
The learning of a complex subject matter is most effective when it
is an intentional process of constructing meaning from information and
experience.
 There are different types of learning processes: for example, habit
formation in motor learning and learning that involves the generation of
knowledge or cognitive skills and learning strategies.

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 Learning in schools emphasizes the use of intentional processes that
students can use to construct meaning from information, experiences and
their own thoughts and beliefs.
 Successful learners are active, goal-directed, self-regulating and assume
personal responsibility for contributing to their own learning.

2. Goals of the learning process

The successful learner, overtime and with support instructional
guidance, can create meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge.
 The strategic nature of learning require students to be goal-directed.
 To construct useful representations of knowledge and to acquire the
thinking and learning strategies necessary for continued learning success
across the life span, students must generate and pursue personally-
relevant goals. Initially, students’ short-terms goals and learning may be
sketchy in an area, but over time their understanding can be refined by
filling gaps, resolving inconsistencies and deepening their understanding
of the subject matter so that they can reach longer-term goals.
 Education can assist learners in creating meaningful learning goals that
can consistent with both personal and educational aspirations and
interests.

3. Construction of knowledge
The successful learner can link new information with existing
knowledge in meaningful ways.
 Knowledge widens and deepens as students continue to build links
between new information and experiences and their existing knowledge
base. The nature of these links can take a variety of forms, such as
adding to, modifying, or recognizing existing knowledge or skills. How
these links are made or developed may vary in different subject areas,
and among students with varying talents, interests and abilities. However,
unless new knowledge becomes integrated with the learner’s prior
knowledge and understanding, this new knowledge remains isolated,
cannot be used most effectively in new tasks, and does not transfer
readily to new situations.
 Educators can assist learners in acquiring and integrating knowledge by a
number of strategies that have been shown to be effective with learners
of varying abilities, such as concept mapping and thematic organizing or
categorizing.

4. Strategic thinking
The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and
reasoning strategies to achieve complex learning goals.
 Successful learners use strategic thinking in their approach to learning,
reasoning, problem solving and concept learning.

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  They understand and can use a variety of strategies to help them reach
learning and performance goals, and to apply their knowledge in novel
situations.
 They also continue to expand their repertoire of strategies by reflecting
on the methods they use to see which work well for them by receiving
guided instruction and feedback, and by observing or interacting with
appropriate models.
 Learning outcomes can be enhanced if educators assist learners in
developing, applying and assessing their strategic learning skills.

5. Thinking about thinking

Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operations
facilitate creative and critical thinking.
 Successful learners can reflect on how they think and learn, set
reasonable learning or performance goals, select potentiality appropriate
learning strategies or methods, and monitor their progress toward these
goals.
 In addition, successful learners know what to do if a problem occurs or if
they are not making sufficient or timely progress toward a goal. They can
generate alternative methods to reach their goal (or reassess the
appropriateness and utility of the goal.)
 Instructional methods that focus on helping learners develop these higher
order (metacognitive) strategies can enhance student learning and
personal responsibility for learning.

6. Context of learning
Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture,
technology and instructional practices.
 Learning does not occur in a vacuum. Teachers play a major interactive
role with both the learner and the learning environment.
 Cultural or group influences on student can impact many educationally
relevant variables, such as motivation, orientation toward learning and
ways of thinking.
 Technologies and instructional practices must be appropriate for learners’
level of prior knowledge, cognitive abilities and their learning and thinking
strategies.
 The classroom environment, particularly the degree to which it is
nurturing or not, can also have significant impact on student learning.

Motivational and Affective Factors

7. Motivational and emotional influences on learning

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 What and how much is learned is influenced by the learner’s
motivation. Motivation to learn, in turn, is influenced by the individual’s
emotional states, beliefs, interests and goals, and habits of thinking.
 The rich internal world of thoughts, belief, goals and expectations for
success or failure can enhance or interfere with the learner’s quality of
thinking and information processing.
 Students’ beliefs about themselves as learners and the nature of learning
have a marked influence on motivation. motivational and emotional
factors also influence both the quality of thinking and information
processing as well as an individual’s motivation to learn.
 Positive emotions, such as curiosity, generally enhance motivation and
facilitative learning and performance. Mild anxiety can also enhance
learning and performance by focusing the learner’s attention on a
particular task, however, intense negative emotions (e.g., anxiety, panic,
rage, insecurity) and related thoughts (e.g., worrying about competence,
ruminating about failure, fearing punishment, ridicule, or stigmatizing
labels) generally detract from motivation, interfere with learning, and
contribute to low performance.

8. Intrinsic motivation to learn

The learner’s creativity, higher order thinking, and natural curiosity all
contribute to motivation to learn. Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by task of
optimal novelty and difficulty, relevant to personal interest, and providing for
personal choice and control.
 Curiosity, flexible and insightful thinking, and creativity are major
indicators of the learners’ intrinsic motivation to learn, which is in large
part a function of meeting basic needs to be competent and to exercise
personal control.
 Intrinsic motivation is facilitated on task that learners perceive as
interesting and personally relevant and meaningful, appropriate in
complexity and difficulty to the learners’ abilities, and on which they
believe they can succeed.
 Intrinsic motivation is also facilitated on task that are comparable to real-
world situations and meet needs for choice and control.
 Educators can encourage and support learners’ natural curiosity and
motivation to learn by attending to individual differences in learners’
perception of optimal novelty and difficulty, relevance and personal choice
and control.

9. Effects of motivation on effort

Acquisitions of complex knowledge and skill requires extended learner
effort and guided practice. Without learners’ motivation to learn, the
willingness to exert effort is unlikely without coercion.

17
  Effort is another major indicator of motivation to learn. The acquisition of
complex knowledge and skills demands the investments of considerable
learner energy and strategic effort, along with persistence over time.
 Educators need to be concerned with facilitating motivation by strategies
that enhance learner effort and commitment to learning and to achieving
high standards of comprehension and understanding.
 Effective strategies include learning activities, guided by practices that
enhance positive emotions and intrinsic motivation to learn, and methods
that increase learners’ perceptions that a task is interesting and
personally relevant.

Developmental and Social Factors

10. Developmental influences on learning

As individual develop, there are different opportunities and constraints
for learning. Learning is most effective when differential development within
and across physical, intellectual, emotional and social domains is taken into
account.
 Individuals learn best when material is appropriate to their developmental
level and is presented in an enjoyable and interesting way.
 Because individual development varies across intellectual, social,
emotional and physical domains, achievement in different instructional
domains may also vary.
 Overemphasis on one type of developmental readiness-such as reading
readiness – may preclude learners from demonstrating that they are more
capable in other areas of performance.
 The cognitive, emotional and social development of individual leaner and
how they interpret life experiences are affected by prior schooling, home,
culture and community factors.
 Early and continuing parental involvement in schooling, and the quality of
language interactions and two-way communications between adults and
children with and without emotional, physical or intellectual disabilities,
can facilitate the creation of optimal learning contexts.

11. Social influences on learning

Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relation and
communication with others.
 Learning can be enhanced when the learner has an opportunity to
interact and to collaborate with others on instructional tasks.
 Learning settings that allow for social interactions and that respect
diversity encourage flexible thinking and social competence.
 In interactive and collaborative instructional contexts, individuals have an
opportunity for perspective taking and reflective thinking that may lead to

18
 higher levels of cognitive, social and moral development, as well as self-
esteem.
 Quality personal relationships that provide stability, trust and caring can
increase learners’ sense of belonging, self-respect and self-acceptance,
and provide a positive climate for learning.
 Family influences, positive interpersonal support and instruction in self-
motivation strategies can offset factors that interfere with optimal
learning such as negative beliefs about competence in a particular
subject, high levels of test anxiety, negative sex role expectations, and
undue pressure to perform well.
 Positive learning climates can also help to establish the context for
healthier levels of thinking, feeling and behaving. Such contexts help
learners feel safe to share ideas, actively participate in the learning
process, and create a leaning community.

Individual Differences Factors

12. Individual differences in learning

Learners have different strategies, approaches and capabilities for
learning that are a function of prior experience and heredity.
 Individuals are born with and develop their own capabilities and talents.
 In addition, through learning and social acculturation, they have acquired
their own preferences for how they like to learn and the pace at which
they learn. However, these preferences are not always useful in helping
learners reach their learning goals.
 Educators need to help student examine their learning preferences and
expand or modify them, if necessary.
 The interaction between learner differences and curricular and
environmental conditions is another key factor affecting learning
outcomes.
 Educators need to be sensitive to individual differences, in general. They
also need to attend to learner perception of the degree to which these
differences are accepted and adapted to by varying instructional methods
and materials.

13. Learning and diversity

Learning is most effective when differences in learners’ linguistic,
cultural and social backgrounds are taken into account.
 The same basic principles of learning, motivation and effective instruction
apply to all learners. However, language, ethnicity, race, beliefs and
socioeconomic status all can influence learning. Careful attention to these
factors in the instructional setting enhances the possibilities for designing
and implementing appropriate learning environments.

19
  When learners perceive that their individual difference in abilities,
backgrounds, cultures and experiences are valued, respected and
accommodated in learning tasks and contexts, levels of motivation and
achievement are enhanced.

14. Standards and assessment

Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing
the learner as well as learning progress – including diagnostic process and
outcome assessment – are integral parts of the learning process.
 Assessment provide important information to both the learners and
teacher at all stages of the learning process.
 Effective learning takes place when learners feel challenged to work
towards appropriately high goals; therefore, appraisal of the learner
cognitive strengths and weaknesses, as well as current knowledge and
skills, is important for the selection of instructional materials of an optimal
degree of difficulty.
 Ongoing assessment of the learner’s understanding of the curricular
material can provide valuable feedback to both learners and teachers
about progress toward the learning goals.
 Standardized assessment of learner progress and outcomes assessment
provides one type of information about achievement levels both within
and across individual that can inform various types of programmatic
decisions.
 Performance assessments can provide other sources of information about
the attainment of learning outcomes.
 Self-assessments of leaning progress can also improve students’ self-
appraisal skills and enhance motivation and self-directed learning

Alexander and Murphy gave a summary of the 14 principles and distilled

them into five areas:
1. The knowledge base. One’s existing knowledge serves as the foundation
of all future learning. The learner’s previous knowledge will influence new
learning specifically on how he represents new information, make
associations and filters new experiences.
2. Strategic processing and control. Learners can develop skills to reflect and
regulate their thoughts and behaviours in order to learn more effectively
(metacognition).
3. Motivation and affect. Factors such as intrinsic motivation (from within),
reasons for wanting to learn, personal goals and enjoyment of learning
tasks all have a crucial role in the learning process.
4. Development and Individual Differences. Learning is a unique journey for
each person because each leaner has his own unique combination of
genetic and environmental factors that influence him.
5. Situation or context. Learning happens in the context of a society as well
as within an individual.

20
What makes cognition different from metacognition?
Basically, cognition deals with mental processes such as memory, learning,
problem-solving, attention and decision making. However, the metacognition deals
with an individual's higher order cognitive processes, where a person has active
control over his cognition.

Besides, what is cognitive and metacognitive factors?

This ability to be self-aware and reflective is at the heart of metacognition
and the self-regulatory processes that allow Cognitive factors refer to the mental
processes involved in gaining knowledge and comprehension. These processes
include thinking, knowing, remembering, judging, and problem-solving.

Furthermore, what is metacognitive thinking? From Wikipedia, the free

encyclopedia. Metacognition is "cognition about cognition", "thinking about thinking",
"knowing about knowing", becoming "aware of one's awareness" and higher-order
thinking skills. The term comes from the root word meta, meaning "beyond", or "on
top of".

In this manner, what are cognitive and metacognitive strategies?

Cognitive vs Metacognitive Strategies. Cognitive strategies are based on the
need to achieve a particular goal, whilst the purpose of Metacognitive strategies is to
ensure that the cognitive goal has been reached.

What are the three categories of metacognitive knowledge?

3 categories of metacognitive knowledge:

Person variable – knowledge about how human beings learn and process information
and individual's knowledge of one's own learning process.

Task variables – knowledge about nature of tasks and type pf processing demands
that it will place upon the individual.

What is motivational and affective factors?

Motivational and affective factors. Motivational and Affective factors
Motivational and emotional influences on learning. The rich internal world of
thoughts, beliefs, goals, and expectation for success or failure can enhance or
interfere with the learner's quality of thinking and information processing.
Affective factors are emotional factors which influence learning. They can
have a negative or positive effect. Negative affective factors are called affective
filters and are an important idea in theories about second language acquisition.
Subsequently, question is, what are the factors of motivation? Drivers of
human behavior related to the intrinsic nature of the work, but not necessarily to the
surrounding circumstances or environment. Motivating factors include achievement,

21
advancement, autonomy, personal growth, recognition, responsibility, and the work
itself.

In respect to this, what are motivational factors in learning?

Many factors influence a given student motivation to work and learn, interest
in the subject matter, general desire to achieve, environment, facilities as well as
patience and persistence. However, not all students are motivated by the same
values needs or desires.

What is motivational and emotional influences on learning?

Motivational and emotional influences on learning. Motivation to learn is
determined by many factors; emotional state, beliefs, interests, goals, habits of
thinking etc. Understanding and encouraging certain motivational states is key in
determining a student's success in the classroom.
What is social development?
Social development occurs throughout life and explains how we recognise,
interpret and respond to social situations. Healthy social development is a known
protective factor for children and young people's mental health and wellbeing.

Daily contact and interactions with family members, educators and friends
teaches children and young people about the social world and the rules, practices
and values that support it. Social development is also influenced by wider networks
including extended family, as well as participation in the community and culture
around them.

Through their relationships and connections with others, children build a

sense of who they are and where they fit in the social world. By actively participating
in these relationships, children also affect the ways that adults and their peers relate
to them.

Learn about how you can support social development in children and young people.

Individual Differences Factors

Each person has unique endowments, powers, responsibilities, talents,
interests and capabilities based on innate, inherited and acquired characteristics.
Inherited characteristics come from our genetic makeup and acquired characteristics
come from education as our genetic endowments interacting with the environment.
Innate capacities and characteristics are those inborn qualities that make us unique
even from those who had the same parents and similar environmental influences.
The combination and interaction of these three characteristics determines
individual differences. We cannot change the innate and inherited qualities since they
are given to us at birth, but the degree to which we are trained educated will
determine how we will develop and realize our innate and inherited potentialities.

22
 The differences education and experience can cause are very great. As this is the
only area we can significantly influence, we should do our best to see that each
person is equipped to fully develop their minds, wills and hearts.
Educators can help learners to understand, develop and use their unique
talents, interest, capabilities, environments and limitations to their and others’
benefit. Teachers can help their students know themselves, accept themselves, trust
themselves and develop themselves by helping them know, accept, trust and
develop their capacities. The ultimate authority and responsibility to accomplish
these goals lies with the individual. As part of that process, we begin to recognize
our abilities and build our capacity for loving, knowing and willing. We can help
others understand, accept and work with their unique resources and provide the
means, material and methods to develop them.
Our similarities are greater than our differences, but we are each unique.
Science confirms the essential oneness and unity of the human race, but also that no
two people are exactly alike, even identical twins. We are alike in that knowing,
loving and willing are part of our natures and purpose, but each person has unique
endowments, experiences and heredity. Our capacities, subjective realities and
experiences are unique.
We each bring special talents, abilities, personalities and interests to learning.
We need not make our differences a source of disunity, conflict or competition. As in
the physical world, the richness, health, well-being and beauty of an individual or
group depends upon the principle of unity in diversity. One of the operating
principles and goals of the new paradigm of education is unity in diversity. Schools
and teachers should always work to appreciate diversity while maintaining unity.
Diversity and the differences around us are powerful forces for developing truth, love
and justice.
Some falsely fear that diversity will lead to disunity and think unity requires
uniformity. Justice, love and truth help create unity in diversity. We can change our
ignorance to knowledge, hate to love, injustice to justice, conflict to unity, and
violence to peace as move toward truth, love and justice from our various
perspectives. We can positively create unity in diversity in our communities, curricula
and classrooms, and in the process, make this a better world for all of us.
We should teach according to each individual’s capacity, needs and interests
and help learners become aware of their similarities and uniqueness, finding ways
they can best develop their unique potentialities. The individual is like a mine filled
with rich gems and minerals which educators can help uncover and polish. Just as
there are basic principles of mining and learning, each must be applied according to
the individual circumstances of the mine or person involved. Mines have different
gems or minerals and require different methods to discover and bring forth these
resources. Likewise, we can adapt our best approaches to find, refine and polish
each individual’s virtues.

Assessment Task:
Name: ____________________________________________ Score: ______________
Year & Section: _____________________________________ Date: _______________

23
Task Number: Unit 1-1

Part I: Essay
Direction: Explain your understanding on the idea presented below. Provide a separate
sheet for your answer.

1. How accurate were the children in predicting how well they would remember the
worst list? How well did they remember the list? Were they able to tell you what they
did to remember the words after repeating the list? Were here any differences I age
in terms of how accurate their predictions or their list were?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

2. How well did the children do in retelling the story? Did the children tend to tell the
story in the “correct” order or in the order you told it? Were there age differences in
how they responded here?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

3. Consider the older children’s responses to the questions about memory and reading.
Give their responses, how well do schools seem to support children developing
metacognitive strategies for memory and reading? Did the children have a sense of
which way they learn best? Do they seem to think that teachers help them with this?
How effective do schools seem to be in creating/supporting an appreciation of
reading in children? Do the children seem to see teachers being helpful in theses
area?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

Name: ____________________________________ Score: ___________________

Year and Section: ___________________________ Date: ____________________
Task Number: Unit 1-2

Part II. SYNAPSE STRENGTHENERS

Direction: Do the following activity.

24
 1. Surf the internet for additional reading on metacognition.
2. Make a collection of metacognitive strategies that can make learning more effective
and efficient.
3. Make a collection of teaching strategies that develop metacognition in students.

Name: ____________________________________________ Score: ______________

Year & Section: _____________________________________ Date: _______________
Task Number: Unit 1-3

Part III. Research Connection:

Direction: Read a research or study related to metacognition. Fill out the matrix below:
Title and Source: _________________________________________________________

Problem Research Methodology

Findings Conclusions/Recommendations

Name: ____________________________________________ Score: ______________

Year & Section: _____________________________________ Date: _______________
Task Number: Unit 1-4

PART IV. ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTION.

1. Describe what you can do to advocate the use of the 14 Learning-Centered
Psychological Principles.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

2. Advocate the use of the 14 learning principles by means of any the following:
a. Power Point presentation consisting of 5 slides or less
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

25
 b. A 3-minute speech
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

Name: ____________________________________________ Score: ______________

Year & Section: _____________________________________ Date: _______________
Task Number: Unit 1-4

PART V. A FIVE MINUTE WRITING.

Direction: From the Module on Learner-Centered Psychological Principles, I realized that..
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

Resources:

Lucas, M.R (2014) and Corpuz, B. (2014). Facilitating learning: A Metacognitive Process.
LORIMAR Publishing Inc. ISBN 971-685-775-7.

teaching.ist.psu.edu › teaching-orientation › metacognition

saylordotorg.github.io › s06-02-what-is-metacognition

McGuire, S.Y. and McGuire, S. (2016). Teach Students How to Learn: Strategies You Can
Incorporate in Any Course to Improve Student Metacognition, Study Skills, and
Motivation. Sterling, Virginia: Stylus Publishing, LLC.

Centre for Innovation and Excellence in Learning. Ten Metacognitive Teaching

Strategies. Vancouver Island University. Retrieved from https://ciel.viu.ca/teaching-
learning-pedagogy/designing-your-course/how-learning-works/ten-metacognitive-
teaching-strategies

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Anderson, J. (2017, May 09). A Stanford researcher’s 15-minute study hack lifts B+ students
into the As. Quartz. Retrieved from https://qz.com/978273/a-stanford-professors-15-
minute-study-hack-improves-test-grades-by-a-third-of-a-grade/

learningcenter.unc.edu>metacognitive-study-strategies

askinglot.com › what-is-motivational-and-affective-factors

Time Table: 11 Hours

Unit 2: Focus on the Learner
Desired Learning Outcomes
1. Differentiated the different theories that being learned.
2. Studied the theories related to the learners development
3. Familiarized the differences of the students as they learned about diversity.
4. Explored on the different characteristic and learned what does the student have.

Student Activities
1. Review of the developmental theories
The educational trend brought out by a number of ground breaking
researches tells us that you can be an effective facilitator of learning if you have
a good working knowledge of your learners’ development.
The educational trend brought out by a number of ground-breaking
researches tells that one can be an effective facilitator of learning if one has a
good working knowledge of the learners’ development. Previously in your Child
and Adolescent Development course, the foundation theories related to the
learners’ development were discussed. This module aims to help you think about
and review these theories that you have taken up and connects them to learning.
The ideas of the theories, Freud, Erikson, Piaget, Vygotsky and
Bronfenbrenner remain to be foundational in the teacher’s understanding of the
learners’ development. Let us recall highlights of this theories.
Freud said, “The mind is like an iceberg, it floats with one-seventh of its
bulk of water.” This is of course the very famous analogy that Freud referred to
when he explained the subconscious mind. He believed that much of what the
person is really about is not what we see in the outside and what is conscious,
but what is there hidden in the subconscious mind. As the teachers, it is
important that we remember not be too quick in making conclusions about our
students’ intentions for their actions. Always consider that there are many factors
that may influence one’s behaviour.

The Freud’s 5 Stages of Psychosexual Development

Psychosexual Stages
Freud’s personality theory also relates to psychosexual stages of
development theory. He illustrates different stages of human development from
infancy to adulthood.

27
 It is to be said psychosexual because all stages are described on the
assumption of sexual energy or libido on the different parts of the body called
‘erogenous zone’. Freud recognized the 5 stages of psychosexual development in
us human body. They are:
Oral stage
Anal stage
Phallic stage
Latency stage
and, Genital Stage

The Oral Stage

From Birth To 1 Year
The oral stage of psychosexual stages remains from birth to 1 year.
Within the oral phase, the infant derives pleasure from the mouth through
sucking or swallowing. Succeeding, the toddler uses teeth for biting and chewing.
If the kid likes mouth or oral needs like swallowing considerably, s/he may fixate
on this stage and be ‘oral receptive personality.
This is often displayed in later personality development. Such children
may realize overeating, smoking, chewing pencils, and excessive dependence
could also be seen as personality characteristics. If the oral needs are frustrated
or delayed without caring children got to eat. The child’s character could also be
arrested or fixated and become an ‘oral aggressive personality during which the
kid enjoys verbal aggressive expression in later life.

The Anal Stage

1 To 3 Years
The second stage of psychosexual stages of personality development is
that the anal phase. This stage continues from 1 to three years when parents
introduce toilet training for his or her children. Children enjoy expulsion or
retention of faces as they earn muscular control. Their area shifts from the
mouth there to the anus.
The training child receives during this stage later develops his/her
personality. Within the early anal phase, children enjoy the removal of faces. If a
toddler is fixated at this stage is mentioned as anal-expulsive. These children are
cruel, disorderly, and messy in later life. If a toddler receives charging and strict
parental education may create a fixated personality that’s overly rigid, obstinate,
suborn, and orderly or excessively generous and undisciplined later as adults.
This is mentioned as anal-retentive.

The Phallic Stage

3 To 6 Years
The third stage of psychosexual stages is that the phallic phase. The
phallic phase covers about 3 to six years of age. The area alters from the anus to

28
the genitals. the kid enjoys touching genitals. This is often the amount the kid
develops a sexual attraction to the oldsters of the other sex.
Boys develop the Oedipus complex, loving their mummies and perceiving
their father as a competitor. As a young boy, the kid worries that his father will
punish his sexual desires towards his mother by removing his genitalia which is
named anxiety. To beat his fear the boy represses his concupiscence for his
mother and starts to spot together with his father. This is the crucial period for
the event of the superego. The boy then tries to repeat his father’s behavior,
values, attitudes, etc. which can cause successful resolution of the Oedipus
complex and therefore the male sex role for additional advancement of
personality.
Girls develop, Electra complex, loving their father and need to urge
obviate the mother. For the young girls, they need “penis envy” as they sense
that they are doing not have a penis. the women blame their mummy (mother)
for that cause, as a result, transfers her like to the daddy to catch up on her loss
of the penis. The girl understands that society won’t allow fulfilling her desires to
her father and controls her sexual desires and begins to spot together with her
mother. This act is a crucial part of superego development. Copying the role of
the mother results in the successful resolution of the Electra complex.
In some cases, girls don’t completely distinguish themselves from
mothers due to the dominant inferior feeling of men. This might be the rationale
that a special identity grows in such girls than of normal girls.

The Latent Stage

6 To 11 Years
The fourth of psychosexual stages is that the latent stage. This stage
lasts from 6 to 11 years. during this period the sexual interests are usually
suppressed until the start of adolescence. Freud has given importance to
academic, social, and moral development. for instance, riding, playing, and
faculty work. They dislike excessive parental affection and are keen on both
parents.

The Genital Stage

Above 11 Years
The last of the psychosexual stages is that the genital phase. Above 11
years aged genital phase is seen with the reappearance of oral, anal, and phallic
stages. This stage is often further divided into two parts:
Homoeroticism: in which children prefer to play with the same sex. Girls
with girls, boys with boys. They are very egocentric. This may be because society
opposes opposite sex attachment too early in life.
Heterosexuality: in which sexual interest becomes stronger and the
erogenous zone remains in the attraction toward the opposite sex. The
heterosexual relationship is seen working as a foundation for adult sexual
behavior.

29
 However, reach the genital phase is normal if fixation has not occurred at
the sooner stages of the event. If such fixation has occurred before, the event
toward a far better personality could also be blocked and end in a mental
disorder of maladjustment.

Freud also emphasized the three components that make up one’s

personality, the id, ego and the superego. The id is pleasure-centered; the ego,
reality-centered and the superego, which is related to the ego ideal or
conscience.

Erikson said, “Healthy children will not fear life if their elders have
integrity enough not to fear death.” He believe in the impact of significant others
in the development of one’s view of himself, life and of the world. He presented a
very comprehensive framework of the eight psycho-social stages of development.
It is Erikson who described the crisis (expressed in opposite polarities) that a
person goes through; the maladaptions and malignancies that result from failure
to effectively resolve the crisis; and the virtue that emerges when balance and
resolution of the crisis is attained.

Erik Erikson Stages Of Psychosocial Development

Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development are based on (and expand
upon) Freud’s psychosexual theory. Erikson proposed that we are motivated by
the need to achieve competence in certain areas of our lives. According to
psychosocial theory, we experience eight stages of development over our
lifespan, from infancy through late adulthood. At each stage there is a crisis or
task that we need to resolve. Successful completion of each developmental task
results in a sense of competence and a healthy personality. Failure to master
these tasks leads to feelings of inadequacy.

30
 Erikson also added to Freud’s stages by discussing the cultural
implications of development; certain cultures may need to resolve the stages in
different ways based upon their cultural and survival needs.

Trust vs. Mistrust

From birth to 12 months of age, infants must learn that adults can be
trusted. This occurs when adults meet a child’s basic needs for survival. Infants
are dependent upon their caregivers, so caregivers who are responsive and
sensitive to their infant’s needs help their baby to develop a sense of trust; their
baby will see the world as a safe, predictable place. Unresponsive caregivers who
do not meet their baby’s needs can engender feelings of anxiety, fear, and
mistrust; their baby may see the world as unpredictable. If infants are treated
cruelly or their needs are not met appropriately, they will likely grow up with a
sense of mistrust for people in the world.

Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt

As toddlers (ages 1–3 years) begin to explore their world, they learn that
they can control their actions and act on their environment to get results. They
begin to show clear preferences for certain elements of the environment, such as
food, toys, and clothing. A toddler’s main task is to resolve the issue of autonomy
vs. shame and doubt by working to establish independence. This is the “me do
it” stage. For example, we might observe a budding sense of autonomy in a 2-
year-old child who wants to choose her clothes and dress herself. Although her
outfits might not be appropriate for the situation, her input in such basic
decisions has an effect on her sense of independence. If denied the opportunity
to act on her environment, she may begin to doubt her abilities, which could lead
to low self-esteem and feelings of shame.

Initiative vs. Guilt

Once children reach the preschool stage (ages 3–6 years), they are
capable of initiating activities and asserting control over their world through
social interactions and play. According to Erikson, preschool children must resolve
the task of initiative vs. guilt.By learning to plan and achieve goals while
interacting with others, preschool children can master this task. Initiative, a
sense of ambition and responsibility, occurs when parents allow a child to explore
within limits and then support the child’s choice. These children will develop self-
confidence and feel a sense of purpose. Those who are unsuccessful at this stage
—with their initiative misfiring or stifled by over-controlling parents—may develop
feelings of guilt.

Industry vs. Inferiority

During the elementary school stage (ages 6–12), children face the task of
industry vs. inferiority. Children begin to compare themselves with their peers to
see how they measure up. They either develop a sense of pride and
accomplishment in their schoolwork, sports, social activities, and family life, or

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they feel inferior and inadequate because they feel that they don’t measure up. If
children do not learn to get along with others or have negative experiences at
home or with peers, an inferiority complex might develop into adolescence and
adulthood.

Identity vs. Role Confusion

In adolescence (ages 12–18), children face the task of identity vs. role
confusion. According to Erikson, an adolescent’s main task is developing a sense
of self. Adolescents struggle with questions such as “Who am I?” and “What do I
want to do with my life?” Along the way, most adolescents try on many different
selves to see which ones fit; they explore various roles and ideas, set goals, and
attempt to discover their “adult” selves. Adolescents who are successful at this
stage have a strong sense of identity and are able to remain true to their beliefs
and values in the face of problems and other people’s perspectives. When
adolescents are apathetic, do not make a conscious search for identity, or are
pressured to conform to their parents’ ideas for the future, they may develop a
weak sense of self and experience role confusion. They will be unsure of their
identity and confused about the future. Teenagers who struggle to adopt a
positive role will likely struggle to “find” themselves as adults.

Intimacy vs. Isolation

People in early adulthood (20s through early 40s) are concerned with
intimacy vs. isolation. After we have developed a sense of self in adolescence, we
are ready to share our life with others. However, if other stages have not been
successfully resolved, young adults may have trouble developing and maintaining
successful relationships with others. Erikson said that we must have a strong
sense of self before we can develop successful intimate relationships. Adults who
do not develop a positive self-concept in adolescence may experience feelings of
loneliness and emotional isolation.

Generativity vs. Stagnation

When people reach their 40s, they enter the time known as middle
adulthood, which extends to the mid-60s. The social task of middle adulthood is
generativity vs. stagnation. Generativity involves finding your life’s work and
contributing to the development of others through activities such as volunteering,
mentoring, and raising children. During this stage, middle-aged adults begin
contributing to the next generation, often through childbirth and caring for
others; they also engage in meaningful and productive work which contributes
positively to society. Those who do not master this task may experience
stagnation and feel as though they are not leaving a mark on the world in a
meaningful way; they may have little connection with others and little interest in
productivity and self-improvement.

Integrity vs. Despair

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 From the mid-60s to the end of life, we are in the period of development
known as late adulthood. Erikson’s task at this stage is called integrity vs.
despair. He said that people in late adulthood reflect on their lives and feel either
a sense of satisfaction or a sense of failure. People who feel proud of their
accomplishments feel a sense of integrity, and they can look back on their lives
with few regrets. However, people who are not successful at this stage may feel
as if their life has been wasted. They focus on what “would have,” “should have,”
and “could have” been. They face the end of their lives with feelings of
bitterness, depression, and despair.

Piaget said, “The principle goal of education in the schools should be

creating men and women who are capable of doing new things, not simply
repeating what other generations have done.”
Piaget’s theory centered on the stages of cognitive development. He
described four stages of cognitive development, namely the sensory-motor, pre-
operational, concrete-operational and formal operational stages. Each has
characteristics ways of thinking and perceiving that shows how one’s cognitive
abilities develop.

The 4 Stages of Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that children
move through four different stages of mental development. His theory focuses
not only on understanding how children acquire knowledge, but also on
understanding the nature of intelligence. Piaget's stages are:
- Sensorimotor stage: birth to 2 years
- Preoperational stage: ages 2 to 7
- Concrete operational stage: ages 7 to 11
- Formal operational stage: ages 12 and up

Piaget believed that children take an active role in the learning

process, acting much like little scientists as they perform experiments, make
observations, and learn about the world. As kids interact with the world
around them, they continually add new knowledge, build upon existing
knowledge, and adapt previously held ideas to accommodate new
information.

The Sensorimotor Stage

Ages: Birth to 2 Years
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
1. The infant knows the world through their movements and
sensations
2. Children learn about the world through basic actions such as
sucking, grasping, looking, and listening
3. Infants learn that things continue to exist even though they
cannot be seen (object permanence)

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 4. They are separate beings from the people and objects around
them
5. They realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the
world around them

The Preoperational Stage

Ages: 2 to 7 Years
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
1. Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and
pictures to represent objects.
2. Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see
things from the perspective of others.
3. While they are getting better with language and thinking, they still
tend to think about things in very concrete terms.

The Concrete Operational Stage

Ages: 7 to 11 Years
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes
1. During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about
concrete events
2. They begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the
amount of liquid in a short, wide cup is equal to that in a tall,
skinny glass, for example
3. Their thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very
concrete
4. Children begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific
information to a general principle

The Formal Operational Stage

Ages: 12 and Up
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
1. At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think
abstractly and reason about hypothetical problems
2. Abstract thought emerges
3. Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical,
social, and political issues that require theoretical and abstract
reasoning
4. Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle
to specific information

Kohlberg said, “Tight action tends to be defined in terms of general individual

rights and standard that have been critically examined and agreed upon by the
whole society.” Kohlberg proposed there levels of moral development (pre-
conventional, conventional and post conventional) which are further subdivided into

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the stages. Influenced by Piaget, Kohlberg believe that one’s cognitive development
influenced the development of one’s moral reasoning.

Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

Kohlberg's theory proposes that there are three levels of moral development,
with each level split into two stages. Kohlberg suggested that people move through
these stages in a fixed order, and that moral understanding is linked to cognitive
development. The three levels of moral reasoning include pre-conventional,
conventional, and post conventional.
By using children's responses to a series of moral dilemmas, Kohlberg
established that the reasoning behind the decision was a greater indication of moral
development than the actual answer.
Lawrence Kohlberg (1958) agreed with Piaget's (1932) theory of moral
development in principle but wanted to develop his ideas further.

Stages of Moral Development

Level 1 - Preconventional morality
Pre-conventional morality is the first stage of moral development, and lasts
until approximately age 9. At the pre-conventional level children don’t have a
personal code of morality, and instead moral decisions are shaped by the standards
of adults and the consequences of following or breaking their rules.
For example, if an action leads to punishment is must be bad, and if it leads
to a reward is must be good.
Authority is outside the individual and children often make moral decisions
based on the physical consequences of actions.
 Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation. The child/individual is
good in order to avoid being punished. If a person is punished, they must
have done wrong.
 Stage 2. Individualism and Exchange. At this stage, children recognize
that there is not just one right view that is handed down by the
authorities. Different individuals have different viewpoints.

Level 2 - Conventional morality

Conventional morality is the second stage of moral development, and is
characterized by an acceptance of social rules concerning right and wrong. At the
conventional level (most adolescents and adults), we begin to internalize the moral
standards of valued adult role models.
Authority is internalized but not questioned, and reasoning is based on the
norms of the group to which the person belongs.
A social system that stresses the responsibilities of relationships as well as
social order is seen as desirable and must, therefore, influence our view of what is
right and wrong.
 Stage 3. Good Interpersonal Relationships. The child/individual is good in
order to be seen as being a good person by others. Therefore, answers
relate to the approval of others.

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  Stage 4. Maintaining the Social Order. The child/individual becomes aware
of the wider rules of society, so judgments concern obeying the rules in
order to uphold the law and to avoid guilt.

Level 3 – Post conventional morality

Post conventional morality is the third stage of moral development, and is
characterized by an individuals’ understanding of universal ethical principles. These
are abstract and ill-defined, but might include: the preservation of life at all costs,
and the importance of human dignity.
Individual judgment is based on self-chosen principles, and moral reasoning
is based on individual rights and justice. According to Kohlberg this level of moral
reasoning is as far as most people get.
Only 10-15% are capable of the kind of abstract thinking necessary for stage
5 or 6 (post-conventional morality). That is to say, most people take their moral
views from those around them and only a minority think through ethical principles
for themselves.
 Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual Rights. The child/individual
becomes aware that while rules/laws might exist for the good of the
greatest number, there are times when they will work against the interest
of particular individuals.
 The issues are not always clear-cut. For example, in Heinz’s dilemma, the
protection of life is more important than breaking the law against stealing.
 Stage 6. Universal Principles. People at this stage have developed their
own set of moral guidelines which may or may not fit the law. The
principles apply to everyone.
E.g., human rights, justice, and equality. The person will be prepared to
act to defend these principles even if it means going against the rest of
society in the process and having to pay the

Vygotsky said, “The teacher must orient his work not on yesterday’s
development in the child but on tomorrow’s.” Vygotsky emphasized the role of social
interaction in learning and development. Scaffolding is the systematic manner of
providing assistance to the learner that helps the more knowledgeable other (MKO)
would lead a leaner to a higher level of performance that if he were alone. This
higher level of performance then eventually becomes the learner’s actual
performance when he works independently in the future. His concept of zone of
proximal development (ZPD) illustrate this.

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 What Is the Zone of Proximal Development?
The zone of proximal development is the gap between what a learner has
mastered and what they can potentially master with support and assistance. This
concept, highly influential in educational psychology, was first introduced by Russian
psychologist Lev Vygotsky in the 1930s.

Origins
Lev Vygotsky, who was interested in education and the learning process, felt
that standardized tests were an inadequate measure of a child's readiness for further
learning. He contended that standardized tests measure the child’s current
independent knowledge while overlooking the child’s potential capability to
successfully learn new material.
Vygotsky recognized that a certain amount of learning happens automatically
as children mature, a notion championed by developmental psychologists like Jean
Piaget. However, Vygotsky also believed that in order to advance their learning even
further, children must engage in social interaction with "more knowledgeable
others." These more knowledgeable others, like parents and teachers, introduce
children to the tools and skills of their culture, such as writing, math, and science.
Vygotsky passed away at a young age before he could fully develop his
theories, and his work wasn’t translated from his native Russian for a number of
years following his death. Today, however, Vygotsky's ideas are important in the
study of education—especially the process of teaching.

Definition
The zone of proximal development is the gap between what a student can do
independently and what they can potentially do with the help of a "more
knowledgeable other."
In the zone of proximal development, the learner is close to developing the
new skill or knowledge, but they need assistance and encouragement. For example,
imagine a student has just mastered basic addition. At this point, basic subtraction
may enter their zone of proximal development, meaning that they have the ability to
learn subtraction and will likely be able to master it with guidance and support.

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However, algebra is probably not in this student's zone of proximal development yet,
as mastering algebra requires an understanding of numerous other fundamental
concepts. According to Vygotsky, the zone of proximal development offers learners
the best chance to master new skills and knowledge, so the student should be
taught subtraction, not algebra, after mastering addition.
Vygotsky noted that a child's current knowledge is not equivalent to their
zone of proximal development. Two children might receive equal scores on a test of
their knowledge (e.g. demonstrating knowledge of at an eight-year-old level), but
different scores on a test of their problem-solving ability (both with and without adult
help).
If learning is taking place in the zone of proximal development, only a small
amount of assistance will be required. If too much assistance is given, the child may
learn only to parrot the teacher rather than mastering the concept independently.

Scaffolding
Scaffolding refers to the support given to the learner who is attempting to
learn something new in the zone of proximal development. That support might
include tools, hands-on activities, or direct instruction. When the student first begins
to learn the new concept, the teacher will offer a great deal of support. Over time,
the support is gradually tapered off until the learner has fully mastered the new skill
or activity. Just as a scaffold is removed from a building when construction is
complete, the teacher's support is removed once the skill or concept has been
learned.
Learning to ride a bike offers an easy example of scaffolding. At first, a child
will ride a bike with training wheels to ensure that the bike stays upright. Next, the
training wheels will come off and a parent or other adult may run alongside the
bicycle helping the child to steer and balance. Finally, the adult will step aside once
can ride independently.
Scaffolding is typically discussed in conjunction with the zone of proximal
development, but Vygotsky himself did not coin the term. The concept of scaffolding
was introduced in the 1970s as an expansion of Vygotsky's ideas.

Role in the Classroom

The zone of proximal development is a useful concept for teachers. To ensure
that students are learning in their zone of proximal development, teachers must
provide new opportunities for students to work slightly beyond their current skills
and provide ongoing, scaffolded support to all students.
The zone of proximal development has been applied to the practice of
reciprocal teaching, a form of reading instruction. In this method, teachers lead
students in executing four skills—summarizing, questioning, clarifying, and predicting
—when reading a passage of text. Gradually, students take over the responsibility for
utilizing these skills themselves. Meanwhile, the teacher continues to offer assistance
as needed, reducing the amount of support they provide over time.

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 Bronfenbrenner’s model also known as the Bioecological Systems Teory
presents child development within the context of relationship systems that comprise
the child’s environment. The model is composed of microsystem, mesosystem,
exosystem, macrosystem and the chronosystem. Each layer is further made up of
different structures. The term “bioecological” points out that a child’s own biological
make-up impacts on his/her development. The child’s growing and developing body
and the interplay between his/her immediate family/community environment, and
the societal landscape fuel and steer his/her development. Changes or conflict in any
one layer will ripple throughout other layers. To study a child’s development then,
we must look not only at the child and his/her immediate environment, but also at
the larger environment with which the child interacts.

Bronfenbrenner conceptualized four ecological systems that an individual

interacted with, each nested within the others. Listed from closest to the person to
furthest:
1. Microsystem — The prefix “micro” comes from the Greek for “small,” and is
the first and most immediate layer of the nested systems. It encompasses an
individual’s human relationships, interpersonal interactions and immediate
surroundings. An example of this system would be the relationship between an
individual and his or her parents, siblings, or school environment.
2. Mesosystem — The second layer from the individual, surrounding the
microsystem and encompassing the different interactions between the characters of
the microsystem. For example, the relationship between the individual’s family and
their school teachers or administrators. In order for an interaction to be considered
part of the mesosystem, it has to be a direct interaction between two aspects of the
microsystem that influences the development of the individual.
3. Exosystem — The exosystem is the third layer, and contains elements of
the microsystem which do not affect the individual directly, but may do so indirectly.
For example, if a parent were to lose their job or have their hours cut back, this
would affect their child in an indirect way such as financial strain or increased
parental stress.
4. Macrosystem — The prefix “macro” comes from the Greek for “large,” and
is used because this system was thought to be all-encompassing. The fourth and
outermost layer of the bioecological model, it encompasses cultural and societal

39
beliefs and programming that influence an individual’s development. Examples of this
would include gender norms or religious influence.

Criticism of the early model

Bronfenbrenner’s early model of the bioecological system has sometimes
been criticized for not emphasizing the active role of the individual in his or her own
development. As such, sometimes the individual’s own biological and identifying
characteristics, such as age, health, sex or gender are considered the unofficial first
layer of the nested systems.
In later iterations, a fifth stage is considered part of the bioecological model,
called the chronosystem. This system focuses on the interaction between the various
systems and how they affect one another over time. One instance of this would be
parents scolding a child for disobedience, which is an instance of microsystem-
macrosystem interaction. While the parents are members of the microsystem, they
are reinforcing a cultural belief that children should always listen to their parents.
The assumption is that over time, the child would grow up to be obedient.

Later Models
Process — Person — Context — Time (PPCT)
This model was later adapted to include the chronosystem, based on four
establishing principles and their interactions which were Bronfenbrenner’s original
basis for the bioecological theory:
Process — The developmental processes that happen through the systematic
interactions mentioned above. What Bronfenbrenner referred to as proximal
processes functioned as the primary mechanism of an individual’s development.
Person — This principle was establish to indicate the role of the individual
and their personal characteristics in social interactions and their individual
development. These characteristics include age, sex, gender, physical or mental
health, and others. Some of these characteristics are more visible than others (such
as age) and as such, are more easily measured over time.
Context — The (now five) systems of the bioecological model serve as the
context for an individual’s development — the micro-, meso-, exo-, macro-, and
chronosystems.
Time — The most essential element of the bioecological model. Because this
model measures an individual’s development, these interactions occur on a
measurable, chronological scale. Time influences the systemic interactions within an
individual’s lifespan as well as across generations, such as in the case of “family
values,” a set of morals or beliefs that are passed down between generations and
shape development. This would be an example of microsystem interaction over time.

2. Student Diversity
Factors that Bring about Student Diversity
In all learning environments, individual interact with others who are in
some ways different from them. Recall how these differences were shown in your

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class tally-gender and racial, ethnic or cultural background (nationality, province,
language). This diversity also comes from other factors like the following:
1. Socioeconomic status – The millionaires’ lifestyle differs from that of
the middle income or lower income group.
2. Thinking/learning style – Some of you learn better by seeing
something; others by just listening; and still others by manipulating
something.
3. Exceptionalities – In class there maybe one who has difficulty in
spoken language comprehension of in seeing, etc.

How student Diversity Enriches the Learning Environment

A teacher may be “challenge” to handle a class with students so
diverse. There may be student having different cultural background, different
language abilities, different attitudes and aptitudes and behaviour. Some
teachers might see this diversity as a difficult predicament, really a hassle.
Yet a more reflective teacher may see a diverse classroom as an exciting
place to learn not just for her students, but for herself, as well. A wise
teacher may choose to respect and celebrate diversity! Read on to discover
the benefits and learning opportunities that student diversity can bring to
your classroom.
1. Students’ self-awareness is enhanced by diversity. Exposing
students to another with diverse backgrounds and experiences
also serve to help students focus on their awareness of
themselves. When they see how other are different, students are
given reference points or comparative perspectives which sharpen
assessment of their own attitudes, values and behaviors.
2. Student diversity contributes to cognitive development. The
opportunity to gain access to the perspectives of peers and to
learn from other students, rather than the instructor only, may be
especially important for promoting the cognitive development of
learner. Supreme Court Justice, William J. Brenan said: “The
classroom is peculiarly the marketplace of ideas. The depth and
breath of student learning are enhanced by exposure to others
from diverse backgrounds. Student diversity in the classroom
brings about different points of view and varied approaches to the
learning process.
As the German philosopher, Nietzche, said over 100 years
ago: “The more affects we allow to speak about one thing, the
more eyes, different eyes we can use to observe one thing, the
more complete will our concept of this thing, our objectivity, be.”
3. Student diversity prepares learners for their role as responsible
members of society. Suzanne Morse stresses one competency that
has strong implications for instructional strategies that capitalize

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 on diversity: “The capacity to imagine situations or problems from
all perspectives and to appreciate all aspects of diversity.”
Furthermore, she argues: “The classroom can provide more than
just theory given by the teacher in a lecture. With student
diversity, the classroom becomes a public place where community
can be practiced.
4. Student diversity can promote harmony. When student diversity is
integrated into the classroom teaching and learning processes, it
can become a vehicle for promoting harmonious race relations.
Through student-centered teaching strategies, diverse students
can be encouraged to interact and collaborate with one another
on learning tasks that emphasize unity of effort while capitalizing
on their diversity of backgrounds.

Some Tips on Student Diversity

1. Encourage learners to share their personal history and experiences.
Students will be made to realize that they have something in common
with the rest. They also differ in several ways.
2. Integrate learning experiences and activities which promote students’
multicultural and cross-cultural awareness.
 You can encourage or even initiate co-curricular experiences that are
aimed at promoting diversity awareness. These activities could be held to
coincide with already-scheduled national weeks or months which are
designated for appreciation of diverse groups: Disability Awareness Week,
Linggo ng Wika, Indigenous Peoples Week, etc.
 Let students interview other students on campus who are from diverse
backgrounds (foreign students or students from other ethnic/racial
groups). These students of different racial and ethnic origin serve as
source of the first-hand information on topics related to their culture. This
can also provide opportunity for interaction among students who may
otherwise never come in contact with each other.
 Invite students to Internet discussion groups or e-mail; have students
“visit” foreign countries and “talk” to natives of those countries.
 Ask students if they have ever been the personal target of prejudice or
discrimination, and have them share these experiences with other
members of the class.
3. Aside from highlighting diversity, identify patterns of unity that transcend
group differences. Clyde Kluckholn, an early American anthropologist who
spent a lifetime studying human diversity across different cultures,
concluded from his extensive research that, “Every human is, the same
time like all other humans, like some humans, and like no other humans”
(cited in Wong, 1991). His observations suggests a paradox in the human
experiences, namely: We are all the same in different ways. It may be
important to point out to students the biological reality that we, human
beings, share approximately 95% of our genes in common, and that less

42
 than 5% of our genes account for the physical differences that exist
among us. When focusing on human differences these commonalities
should not be overlooked: otherwise, our repeated attempts to promote
student diversity may inadvertently promote student divisiveness. one
way to minimize this risk, and promote unity along with diversity, is to
stress the university" of the learning experience by raising students’
consciousness of common themes that bind all groups of people-in
addition to highlighting the variations on those themes.
 Periodically place students in homogenous groups on the basis of shared
demographic characteristics (e.g., same –gender groups or same-
race/ethnicity groups), and have them share their personal views or
experiences with respect to course issues. Then form a panel comprised
of representatives from each group who will report their group’s ideas.
You can serve as moderator and identify the key differences and
recurrent themes that emerge across different groups, or students who
are not on the panel can be assigned this task.
 Try to form groups of students who are different with respect to one
demographic characteristic but similar with respect to another (e.g.,
similar gender but different with respect to race. Ethnicity, or similar in
age but different gender). This practice can serve to increase student
awareness that humans who are members of different groups can, at the
same time, be members of the same group-and share similar experiences,
needs or concerns.
 After students have completed self-assessment instruments (e.g., learning
style inventories or personality profile), have them line up or move to a
corner of the room according to their individual scores or overall profile.
This practice can visibly demonstrate to students how members of
different student populations can be quite similar with respect to their
learning styles or personality profiles, i.e., student can see how individual
similarities can often overshadow group differences.
4. Communicate high expectations to students from all subgroups.
 Make a conscious attempt to call on, or draw in students from diverse
groups by using effective questioning techniques that reliably elicit
student involvement. In addition to consciously calling on them in class,
other strategies for “drawing in” and involving students include: (a)
assigning them the role of reporter in small-group discussions, i.e., the
one who reports back the group’s ideas to the class, and (b) having them
engaged in paired discussion with another classmate with the stipulation
that each partner must take turns assuming the role of both listener and
speaker, and (c) scheduling instructor-student conferences with them
outside the classroom.
 Learn the name of your students, especially the foreign names that you
may have difficulty pronouncing. This will enable you to establish early
personal rapport with them which can late serve as a social/emotional
foundation or springboard for encouraging them to participate.

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5. Use varied instructional methods to accommodate student diversity in
learning styles.
 Diversify the sensory/perceptual modalities through which you deliver and
present information (e.g., orally, in print, diagrammatic and pictorial
representations, or hands on experiences).
 Diversify the instructional formats or procedures you use in the class:
1. Use formats that are student-centered (e.g., class discussion,
small group work) and teacher-centered (e.g., lectures,
demonstrations).
2. Use formats that are unstructured (e.g., trial-and-error discovery
learning) and structured (e.g., step-by-step instructions).
3. Use procedures that involve both independent learning (e.g.,
independently completed projects, individual presentations) and
interdependent learning (e.g., collaborative learning in pairs or
small groups).
6. Vary the examples you use to illustrate concepts and order to provide
multiple contexts that are relevant to student from diverse backgrounds.
Specific strategies for providing multiple examples and varied contexts
that are relevant to their varied backgrounds include the following.
 Have students complete personal information cards during the first week
of class and use this information to select examples or illustrations that
are relevant to their personal interests and life experiences.
 Use ideas, comments and questions that students raise in class, or which
they choose to write about to help you think of examples and illustrations
to use.
 Ask students to provide their own examples of concept based on
experiences drawn from their personal lives.
 Have students apply concepts by placing them in a situation or context
that is relevant to their (e.g., “How would you show respect to all persons
in your home?”).
7. Adapt to the students’ diverse backgrounds and learning styles by
allowing them personal choice and decision-making opportunities
concerning what they will learn and how they will learn it.
Giving the learner more decision-making opportunity with respect to
learning task: (a) promotes positive student attitudes towards the subject
matter, (b) foster more positive instructions among students, and (c)
results in students working more consistently with lesser teacher
interventions. Also, when individuals are allowed to exert some control
over a task, they tend to experience less anxiety or stress while
performing that task.
8. Diversify your methods of assessing and evaluating student learning. You
can accommodate student diversity not only by varying what you do with
your teaching, but also by varying what you ask students to do to
demonstrate learning. In addition to the traditional paper-and-pencil tests
and written assignments, students can demonstrate their learning in a

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 variety of performance formats, such as: (a) individual-delivered oral
reports, (b) panel presentations, (c) group projects, (d) visual
presentations (e.g., concept maps, slide presentation, Power Point
Presentations, collages, exhibits), or (d) dramatic vignettes –presented
live or on videotape. One potential benefit of allowing students to choose
how they demonstrate their learning is that the variety of options
exercised may be a powerful way to promote student awareness of the
diversity of human learning styles.
9. Purposely, form small-discussion groups of students from diverse
backgrounds. You can form groups of students with different learning
styles, different cultural background, etc. small peer-learning groups may
be effective for promoting student progress to a more advanced stage of
cognitive development. Peer-learning groups may promote this cognitive
advancement because: (a) the instructor is removed from center stage,
thereby reducing the likelihood that the teacher is perceived as the
ultimate or absolute authority; and (b) students are exposed to the
perspectives of other students, thus increasing their appreciation of
multiple viewpoints and different approaches to learning.

3. Learning/Thinking styles and Multiple Intelligences

One factor that brings about student diversity is thinking/learning styles.
Individuals think and learn in distinct ways. In any group of learners there will
always be different learning characteristics, particularly in the learners’ manner of
processing information. Some would absorb the lesson better when they work with
their hands than when they just listen. Others would prefer to watch a video about a
topic. Students, likewise, have preferred ways of expressing their thoughts, feeling
and ideas. Some would prefer to write, other would draw or even dance and sing.
These preference involve thinking/learning styles and multiple intelligences.
The inventory you just answered reflects whether you are a visual, auditory,
or kinesthetic learner. This is only but one way of describing the variations of
learning and teaching styles. A. Hilliard describes learning style as the sum of the
patterns of how individuals develop habitual ways of responding to experience.
Howard Gardner identified nine kinds of intelligences that individuals may have.

Learning/Thinking Styles
Learning/Thinking Styles refer to the preferred way an individual process
information. They describe a person’s typical mode of thinking, remembering or
solving. Furthermore, styles are usually considered to be bipolar dimensions. For
instance, your particular learning/thinking style would lie at a point in a continuum.
Having a particular learning/thinking style simply denotes a tendency to behave in a
certain manner. Your style is usually described as a personality dimension which
influences your attitudes values and social interaction.
There are several perspectives about learning-thinking styles. we shall focus
on sensory preferences and the global-analytic continuum.

45
 Sensory preferences. Individuals tend to gravitate toward one or two types
of sensory input and maintain a dominance in one of the following types:
Visual Learners. These learners must see their teacher’s actions and facial
expressions to fully understand the content of a lesson. They tend to prefer sitting in
front so no one would block their view. They may think it pictures and learn best
from visual aids including: diagrams, illustrated text books, overhead transparencies,
videos, flipcharts and hand-outs. During a lecture or classroom discussion, visual
learners often prefer to take detailed notes to absorb the information.
Ri Charde further breaks down visual learners into:
Visual-iconic. Those who prefer this form of input are more
interested in visual imagery such as film, graphic displays, or pictures in order
to solidify learning. They usually have good picture memory, a.k.a iconic
imagery and attend to pictorial detail. They would like to read a map better
than to read a book.
Visual-symbolic. Those who prefer this form of input feel
comfortable with abstract symbolism such as mathematical formulae or the
written word. They would prefer to read a book than a map and would like to
read about things than hear about them. They tend to be good abstract
thinkers who do not require practical means for learning.

Auditory Learners. They can best through verbal lecturers, discussion,

talking things through and listening to what others have to say. Auditory learners
interpret the underlying meanings of speech through listening to tone of voice, pitch,
speed and other nuances. Written information may have little meaning until it is
heard. These learners often benefit from reading text aloud and using a tape
recorder. They can attend aurally to details, translate the spoken word easily into the
written word, and are not easily distracted in their listening ability.

Auditory learners also fall into two categories:

The “Listeners”. This is more common type. Listeners most likely do
well in school. Out of school too, they remember things said to them and
make their information their own. They may even carry on mental
conversation and figure out how to extend what they learned by reviewing in
their heads what they heard other say.
The “Talkers”. They are ones who prefer to talk and discuss. They
often find themselves talking to those around them. In a class setting when
the instructor is not asking questions, auditory-verbal processors (talkers)
tend to whisper comments to themselves. They are not trying to be disruptive
and may not even realize that they need to talk.

Tactile/Kinesthetic Learners. Tactile/Kinesthetic persons benefit much

from a hand-on approach, actively exploring the physical world around them. They
may find it hard to sit still for long periods. They may not benefit so much from the
discussion or the written materials, and may become distracted by their need for
activity and exploration. Those preferring this form of input move toward active,

46
sensorimotor learning. They tend prefer learning by doing, preferring the use of
psychomotor skills to, say, abstract thinking skills. They tend to have good motor
memory and motor coordination.

Global – Analytic Continuum

Analytic. Analytic thinkers tend towards the linear, step-by-step
processes of learning. They tend to see finite elements of patterns rather
than the whole; they are the tree seers. They are more comfortable in a word
of details and hierarchies of information.
Global. Global thinkers lean towards non-linear thought and tend to
see the whole pattern rather than the particle elements. They are forest seers
who give attention only to the overall structure and sometimes ignore details.
Several theorists have tied global-analytic continuum to the left-brain/right-
brain continuum. In accord with Roger Sperry’s model, the left-brained dominant
individual is portrayed as the linear (analytic), verbal, mathematical thinker while the
right-brained person is one who is viewed as global, non-linear and holistic in
thought preferences.
Both side of the brain can reason but through different strategies in an
individual, one side may be more dominant than the other. The left-brained is
regarded as analytic in approach while the right is described as holistic or global. A
successive processor (Left Brain) prefers to learn in a step-by-step sequential format,
beginning with details leading to a conceptual understanding of a skill. A
simultaneous processor (right brain) prefers to learn beginning with the general
concept and then going on to specifics.

LEFT BRAIN (Analytic) RIGHT BRAIN (Global)

Successive Hemispheric Style
1. Verbal
2. Respond to word meaning
3. Sequential
4. Process information linearly
5. Responds logic
6. Plans ahead
7. Recalls people’s names
8. Speaks with few gestures
9. Punctual
10. Prefers formal study design
11. Prefers bright lights while studying
Simultaneous Hemispheric Style
1. Visual
2. Respond to tone of voice
3. Random
4. Process information in varied order
5. Responds to emotion
6. Impulsive
7. Recalls people’s faces
8. Gesture when speaking
9. Less punctual
10. Prefers sound/music background
while studying
11. Prefers frequent mobility while
studying.

Multiple Intelligences
The theory of multiple intelligences (MI) was first described by Howard
Gardner in Frames of Mind (1983). Gardner defines intelligences as an ability or set
of abilities that allows a person to solve a problem or fashion a product that is valued
in one or more cultures. Gardner believes that different intelligences may be

47
independent abilities – a person can be low in one domain area but high in another.
All of us possess the intelligences but in varying degrees of strength.
His most current research indicates that there are nine distinct forms of
intelligences. In order to facilitate learning effectively, teachers should use strategies
that match these kinds of intelligences. The nine kinds are:
Visual/Spatial Intelligence (Picture Smart) – learning visually and organizing
ideas spatially. Seeing concepts in action in order understand them. The ability to
see things in one’s mind in planning to create a product or solve a problem.
Verbal/Linguistic (Word Smart) – learning through the spoken and written
word. This intelligence is always valued in the traditional classroom and in traditional
assessments of intelligence and achievement.
Mathematical/Logical (Number Smart/Logic Smart) – learning through
reasoning and problem solving. Also highly valued in the traditional classroom where
students are asked to adapt to logically sequenced delivery of instruction.
Bodily/Kinesthetic (Body Smart) – learning through interaction with one’s
environment. This intelligence is the domain of overly active learners. It promotes
understanding through concrete experience.
Musical (Music Smart) – learning through patterns, rhythms and music. This
includes not only auditory learning but also the identification of patterns through all
the senses.
Intrapersonal (Self Smart) – learning through feeling, values and attitudes.
This is decidedly affective component of learning through which students place value
on what they learn and take ownership for their learning.
Interpersonal (People Smart) – learning through interactions with others. Not
the domain of children who are simple talkative or overly social. This intelligence
promotes collaborative and working cooperatively with others.
Naturalist (Nature Smart) – learning through classification, categories and
hierarchies. The naturalist intelligence picks up on subtle differences in meaning. It is
not simply the study of nature; it can be used in all areas of study.
Existential (Spirit Smart) – learning by seeing the big picture. Why are we
here? What is my role in the world? What is my place in my family, school and
community? This intelligence seeks connection to real world understanding and
application of new learning.
It is important for teachers to use their knowledge about thinking/learning
style and multiple intelligences in planning activities to keep their students learn
effectively.
While researchers on these typologies continue, it is clear that the teachers
can no longer just teach the book. It is a sensible practice to each child according to
his/her thinking/learning styles and multiple intelligences.

Teaching strategies guided by Thinking/Learning Styles and Multiple Intelligence

1. Use question of all types to stimulate various levels of thinking from
recalling factual information to drawing implications and making value
judgments.

48
 2. Provide a general overview of materials to be learned, i.e., structured
overview, advance organizers, etc., so that the students’ past experiences
will be associated with the new ideas.
3. Allow sufficient time for information to be processed and then integrate
using both the right-and-left-brain hemispheres.
4. Set clear purposes before any listening, viewing or reading experience.
5. Warm up before the lesson development by using brainstorming, set
induction, etc.
6. Use multisensory means for both processing and retrieving information.
(Write directions on the board and give them orally).
7. Use a variety of review and reflection strategies to bring closure to
learning (writing summaries, creating opinions surveys, etc.,).
8. Use descriptive feedback rather than simply praising (The example you’ve
provided is an excellent one to point the concept of…”).

4. Learner with Exceptionalities

One significant factor that highlights individual differences and
diversity in learning is the presence of exceptionalities. We commonly refer to
learners with exceptionalities as person who are different in some way from
the normal or average. The term exceptional learners includes those with
special needs related to cognitive abilities, behaviour, social functioning
physical and sensory impairments, emotional disturbances, and giftedness.
Most of these learners require a lot of understanding and patience as well as
special education and related services if they are to reach their full potential
of development.
As a future teacher, you would probably encounter learners with
special needs, more so if special education is your major. It is therefore
necessary that you have both the right information and proper attitude in
dealing with special learners. This will help you perform your task to facilitate
learning. Let us begin by differentiating the words disability and handicap.
Disability. A disability is a measurable impairment or limitation
that interferes with a person’s ability, for example, to walk, lift, hear
or learn. It may refer to physical, sensory, or mental conditions
(Schiefelbusch Institute, 1991). The word disability has become the
more accepted term, having replaced the word handicap in federal
laws in the US, one of which is the Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act (IDEA). IDEA is the law that provides comprehensive
service and support for exceptional learners. Our very own 1987
Philippine Constitution, Article XIV, Sec. 2, uses the word disabled in
paragraph 5 Provide adult citizens the disabled, and out-of-school
youth with training.
Handicap. The word handicap does not have the same
meaning as disability. A handicap is a disadvantage that occurs as a
result of a disability or impairment. The degree of disadvantage (or
the extend of the handicap) is often dependent on the judgement

49
 made by both the person and his environment. Therefore, the extent
to which a disability handicaps an individual can vary greatly. Two
persons may have the same disability but nit the same degree of
being handicapped. For example, they both have a hearing
impairment, one knows sign language and can read lips while the
other cannot. The first individual would not have as much handicap as
the second one. Another example, two persons who move around on
a wheel chair, the one studying in a school campus with wheelchair
accessibility in all areas would be less handicapped than one in a
school without wheel chair accessibility.

Categories of Exceptionalities
There are different ways of presenting categories of exceptionalities.
Special education practitioners would have varying terms and categories. For
this short introduction of categories, we are basing it on the categories found
in Omrod’s Educational Psychology (2000).

Specific Cognitive or Academic Difficulties

Learning Disabilities. Learning disabilities involve difficulties in specific
cognitive process like perception, language, memory or metacognition that
are not due to other disabilities like mental retardations, emotional or
behavioural disorders, or sensory impairments. Examples of learning
disabilities include dyslexia (reading), dyscalculia (number operations) and
dysgraphia (writing).
Attention-Deficit Hyperactive Disorder. ADHD is manifested in either
or both of these: (1) difficulty in focusing and maintaining attention and (2)
recurrent hyperactive and impulsive behaviour.
Speech and Communication Disorders. There is difficulty in spoken
language including voice disorders, inability to produce the
sounds….correctly, stuttering, difficulty in spoken language comprehension
that significantly hamper classroom performance.

Social/Emotional and Behavioral Difficulties

Autism. Autism is a condition manifested by different levels of
impaired social interaction and communication, repetitive behaviour and
limited interests. Individuals with autism usually have an intense need for
routine and a predicable environment.
Mental Retardation. Mental retardation refers to significant sub-
average intelligence and deficits and adaptive behaviour. There is difficulty in
managing activities of daily living and in conducting themselves appropriately
in social situations.
Emotional/Conduct Disorders. This involves the presence of emotional
states like depression and aggression over a considerable amount of time
that they notably disturb learning and performance school.

50
Physical Disabilities and Health Impairments
Physical and health impairments. This involves physical or medical
conditions (usually long-term) including one or more of these: (1) limited
energy and strength, (2) reduced mental alertness, and/or (3) little muscle
control.
Severe and Multiple Disabilities. This refers to the presence of two or
more different types of disability, at time at a profound level. The
combination of disabilities makes it necessary to make specific adaptations
and have more specialized educational programs.

Sensory Impairments
Visual Impairments. These are conditions when there is malfunction of
the eyes or optic nerves that prevent visions even with corrective lenses.
Hearing Impairments. These involve malfunction of the ear or auditory
nerve that hinders perception of sounds within the frequency range of normal
speech.

Giftedness
Giftedness. This involves a significantly high level of cognitive
development. There is unusually high ability or attitude in one or more of
these aspects: intellectual ability, aptitude in academic subjects’ creativity,
visual or performing arts or leadership.

People-First Language
What is people first language? Just as the term would imply this
language trend involves putting the person first, not the disability (e.g., a
person with a disability, not a disabled person). Thus, people first language
tells us what conditions people have, not what they are (Sciefelbusch
Institute, 1996). This is similar to saying “person with AIDS, rather than
“AIDS victim”. Other suggestion for referring to those with disabilities include:
 Avoiding generic labels (people with mental retardation is preferable to
the mental retarded).
 Emphasizing abilities, not limitations (for instance, uses a wheelchair is
preferable to confined to a wheelchair).
 Avoiding euphemism (such as physical challenged) which are regarded as
condescending and avoid real issues that result from a disability
 Avoiding implying illness or suffering (had polio is preferable to is a polio
victim, and has multiple sclerosis is preferable to suffers from multiple
sclerosis) (Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitations, 2000;
Sciefelbusch Institute, 1996).

Using people-first language and applying the guidance above will

remind you to have a more respectful and accepting attitude toward learners

51
 with exceptionalities. The presence of impairments requires them to exert
more effort to do things that others like us find quite easy to do. They are
learners who may turn to you for assistance. Beginning with the right
attitude, one of compassion (not of pity nor ridicule), will make you a more
effective teacher, one with the hand and the heart who can facilitate their
learning and adjustments.

Assessment Task:

Name: __________________________________________ Score: ________________

Year and Section: _________________________________ Date: _________________
Task Number: Unit 2-1

Direction: Provide the answer on the following activity.

Freud’s Component of the Personality
Review the three components and write important concepts about them in the
spaces provided.
Id Ego Superego

Freud’s Psycho-Sexual Stages of Development

Write the description, erogenous zone and fixation of each of the stages below.
Oral Stage

Anal Stage

Phallic Stage

Latency Stage

Genital Stage

52
 Erikson’s Psychological Stages of Development
Review the psycho-social stages and fill out the matrix below.
Stage Crisis Significant Maladaption Malignancy Virtue
Person (Include (includes (include
description) descriptions) description)
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

Piaget’s Cognitive Stages of Development

Sensory Motor Stage: Age Range:

Characteristics:
Key Teaching Strategies:

Pre-operational Stage: Age Range:

Characteristics:

Key Teaching Strategies:

Concrete Operations Stage: Age Range:

Characteristics: 53
Key Teaching Strategies:
 Formal Operations Stage: Age Range:

Characteristics:

Key Teaching Strategies:

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

Pre-Conventional

Conventional

Post-Conventional

Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory

Define of describe the words below.

More Knowledgeable Other Zone of Proximal Scaffolding

(MKO) Development (ZPD)

54
 Bronfrenbrenner’s Bio-Ecological Theory
Describe each of the systems in the theory.

Macrosystem

Exosystem/Mesosystem

Microsystem/Chronosystem

The individual

Name: __________________________________________ Score: ________________

Year and Section: _________________________________ Date: _________________
Task Number: Unit 2-2

Direction: Describe what parents and teachers should do to help children develop into the
persons that they are meant to be from the point of view of:

1. Freud
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2. Erikson
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
3. Piaget
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
4. Kohlberg
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

55
 5. Vygotsky
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
6. Bronfrenbrenner
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

Name: __________________________________________ Score: ________________

Year and Section: _________________________________ Date: _________________
Task Number: Unit 2-3

Direction: Identify one concept from the theories reviewed and describe how this can be
applied in:

Theory/Concept Application

Name: __________________________________________ Score: ________________

Year and Section: _________________________________ Date: _________________
Task Number: Unit 2-4

Direction: Describe/present the concept on individual differences by mean of the

following: (You may choose one only)

56
 song
poem
jingle
slide presentation
power point presentation

Name: __________________________________________ Score: ________________

Year and Section: _________________________________ Date: _________________
Task Number: Unit 2-5

Direction: Choose a topic from your field of specialization. Think of at least ten learning
activities relevant to the topic you picked. Indicate the thinking/learning styles and
multiple intelligences that each learning activity can address. Remember, a learning
activity may address both thinking/learning style and multiple intelligence.

Topic Learning Activity Learning Style/Multiple Intelligence

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Name: __________________________________________ Score: ________________

Year and Section: _________________________________ Date: _________________
Task Number: Unit 2-6

Direction: Answer the following.

1. In your own words, describe the different learning/thinking and multiple
intelligences.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2. What is/are your thinking/learning styles? What are your dominant multiple
intelligences?

57
 _____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
3. Choose a particular learning style and intelligence of student. Plan learning activities
that match with the particular learning styles and multiple intelligences of students.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

Name: __________________________________________ Score: ________________

Year and Section: _________________________________ Date: _________________
Task Number: Unit 2-7

Direction: Revise the following sentences to adhere to the people-first language and the
other guidelines given in this module.

1. The teacher thought of many strategies to teach the mentally challenged.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2. Their brother is mentally retarded.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
3. Their organization is for the autistic.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
4. He is polio victim who currently suffers from post-polio syndrome.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
5. There was a blind girl in my psychology class.

58
 _____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

Name: __________________________________________ Score: ________________

Year and Section: _________________________________ Date: _________________
Task Number: Unit 2-8

Direction: Answer the following.

1. By means of a graphic organizer present the basic categories of exceptionalities
learners and describe each category briefly.

2. How do handicap and disability differ?

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

3. Revise the following sentences to adhere to the people-first language and the other
guidelines given in this module,
a. I attended a seminar about teaching disabled children.
b. That classroom was designed for the deaf and blind.
c. I like to read books about the handicapped.
d. When she was suffering from a spinal cord injury, in a car accident, she became
a paraplegic and was confined to a wheelchair.
e. He is behaving like that because he is abnormal.

References:
Lucas, M.R (2014) and Corpuz, B. (2014). Facilitating learning: A Metacognitive Process.
LORIMAR Publishing Inc. ISBN 971-685-775-7.

www.verywellmind.com>freuds-stages-of-psychosexual

course.lumenlearning.com>teachereducationx92x1

www.simplypsychology.org › piaget

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www.simplypsychology.org › Kohlberg
Cherry, Kendra. “What is the Zone of Proximal Development?” Verywell Mind, 29 December
2018. https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-the-zone-of-proximal-development-
2796034

Crain, William. Theories of Development: Concepts and Applications. 5th ed., Pearson
Prentice Hall. 2005.

McLeod, Saul. “Zone of Proximal Development and Scaffolding.” Simply Psychology, 2012.
https://www.simplypsychology.org/Zone-of-Proximal-Development.html

Vygotsky, L. S. Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes.

Harvard University Press, 1978.

Bronfenbrenner, Urie, and Pamela A. Morris. “The bioecological model of human

development.” Handbook of Child Psychology (2006).

Bronfenbrenner, U., & Ceci, S. J. (1994). Nature-nurture reconceptualized in developmental

perspective: A bioecological model. Psychological Review, 101(4), 568-586.

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1994). Ecological models of human development. Readings on the

Development of Children, 2(1), 37-43.

Time Table: 11 Hours

60
 Midterm ED 227-Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching: 1st Semester 2021-2022
The Learner Centered Approaches with
Emphasis on Trainers Methodology
Type of Examination Course No. Descriptive Title

Name: ______________________________ Score: _______ Shown to me ____________

Course, Year & Section: __________________________ Date: ________________

I. Multiple Choice:
Direction: Choose the best answer and write it in your answer sheet provided.

1. It refers to higher order thinking which involves active awareness and control over the
cognitive processes engaged in learning simply put, is “Thinking about thinking” or “learning
how to learn”.
A. Metacognition C. Cognitive
B. Developmental D. Strategies
2. Knowledge of variables that includes knowledge about the nature of the task as well as
the type of processing demand s that it will place upon the individual.
A. Person Variables C. Task Variables
B. Strategy Variables D. Work Variables
3. The awareness of specific strategies so that you can keep your attention focused on the
topic or task at hand.
A. Meta-memory C. Meta-variables
B. Meta-attention D. Meta-awareness
4. This include how one views himself as a learner and thinker.
A. Task Variable C. Work Variables
B. Strategy Variables D. Person Variables
5. This is your awareness of memory strategies that work best for you.
A. Meta-memory C. Meta-variables
B. Meta-Attention D. Meta-awareness
6. Your professor probably included a course schedule, reading list, learning objectives or
something similar to give you a sense of how the course is structured. Use this as your
roadmap for the course. This is…..
A. Think aloud C. Look at your syllabus
B. Use writing D. Organize your thoughts

61
7. You don’t want your exam to be the first time you accurately assess how well you know
the material. This is refer to…
A. Take a timeout C. Review your exams
B. Test yourself D. Take notes from memory
8. It can help you organize your thoughts and assess what you know.
A. Use writing C. Take a timeout
B. Review your exams D. Take notes from memory
9. Talk through your material. You can talk to your classmates, your friends, a tutor, or even
a pet. This is refer to…
A. Summon your prior knowledge C. Look at your syllabus
B. Ask yourself questions D. Think aloud
10. Many students take notes as they are reading. Often this can turn notetaking into a
passive activity, since it can be easy to fall into just copying directly from the book without
thinking about the material and putting your notes in your own words. This is….
A. Review your exams C. Take notes from memory
B. Take a timeout D. Test yourself
11. It is first important for the learner himself to be aware that is paying attention, and that
he is ready to learn.
A. Question B. Tune in C. Listen D. Remember
12. The learner uses ways or strategies to think what was learned. This is refer to ….
A. Question B. Tune in C. Listen D. Remember
13. This is where the student scan the whole chapter before delving on each paragraph.
A. Question B. Read C. Preview D. Recite
14. This is refer to learner with limited knowledge in the different subject areas.
A. Novice Learners C. Expert Learners
B. Normal Learners D. Versatile learners
15. Make students have this about information to be presented next based on what they
have read.
A. Relate ideas C. Develop question
B. Make prediction D. Ask for help
16. This where students were able to relay knowledge, attitudes, values, skills to other
situations or task. This students might…..
A. Give B. Transfer C. Ask D. Relate
17. This is where the students could work on answering the questions you had earlier.
A. Question B. Recite C. Review D. Reflect
18. Which is NOT the description of nature of the learning process.
A. There are different types of learning processes: for example, habit formation in
motor learning and learning that involves the generation of knowledge or cognitive skills and
learning strategies.
B. Learning in schools emphasizes the use of intentional processes that students can use to
construct meaning from information, experiences and their own thoughts and beliefs.
C. Education can assist learners in creating meaningful learning goals that can consistent
with both personal and educational aspirations and interests.
D. Successful learners are active, goal-directed, self-regulating and assume personal
responsibility for contributing to their own learning.

62
19. The successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in meaningful
ways. This is refer to….
A. Nature of the learning process C. Goals of the learning process
B. Strategic thinking D. Construction of knowledge
20. This is refer to higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operations
facilitate creative and critical thinking.
A. Thinking about thinking C. Strategic thinking
B. Construction of knowledge D. Goals of the learning process

21. The learning of a complex subject matter is most effective when it is an intentional
process of constructing meaning from information and experience. This is refer to…
A. Context of learning C. Nature of the learning process
B. Strategic thing D. Construction knowledge
22. The learner’s creativity, higher order thinking, and natural curiosity all contribute to
motivation to learn. Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by task of optimal novelty and
difficulty, relevant to personal interest, and providing for personal choice and control. This is
refer to…
A. Effects of motivation on effort C. Context of learning
B. Intrinsic motivation learn D. Motivational and emotional on learning
23. Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relation and communication
with others.
A. Developmental influences on learning C. Strategic thing
B. Construction of knowledge D. Social influences on learning
24. Learning is most effective when differences in learners’ linguistic, cultural and social
backgrounds are taken into account. This is refer to…
A. Standards and assessment C. Learning and diversity
B. Individual differences in learning D. Learning and diversity
25. This refer to learner’s previous knowledge will influence new learning specifically on how
he represents new information, make associations and filters new experiences.
A. The knowledge base C. Strategic process and control
B. Motivation and affect D. Development and individual difference
26. This is where the learning happens in the context of a society as well as within an
individual.
A. Motivation and affect C. Situation or context
B. Strategic processing and control D. Development and individual difference
27. We a nation need to be re-educated about the necessary and sufficient conditions for
making human beings human. This is the word of….
A. Sigmund Freud C. Urie Bronfenbrenner
C. Jean Piaget D. Lev Vygotsky
28. The word he speak is “The mind is like an iceberg, it floats with one-seventh of its bulk
above water.
A. Sigmund Freud C. Urie Bronfenbrenner
C. Jean Piaget D. Lev Vygotsky
29. The teacher must orient his work not on yesterday’s development in the child but on
tomorrow’s. This word was coined by……

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 A. Lawrence Kolhberg C. Erik Erikson
B. Lev Vygotsky D. Jean Piaget
30. The psychosexual stages remains from birth to 1 year. Within this, the infant derives
pleasure from the mouth through sucking or swallowing.
A. Anal Stage C. Oral Stage
B. Phallic Stage D. Latent Stage

31. This covers about 3 to six years of age. The area alters from the anus to the genitals.
The kid enjoys touching genitals. This is often the amount the kid develops a sexual
attraction to the oldsters of the other sex.
A. Anal Stage C. Oral Stage
B. Phallic Stage D. Latent Stage.
32. This occurs when adults meet a child’s basic needs for survival. Infants are dependent
upon their caregivers, so caregivers who are responsive and sensitive to their infant’s needs.
A. Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt C. Initiative vs. Guilt
B. Industry vs. Inferiority D. Trust vs. Mistrust
33. From the mid-60s to the end of life, we are in the period of development known as late
adulthood. This refer to..
A. Integrity vs. Despair C. Generativity vs. Stagnation
B. Intimacy vs. Isolation D. Identity vs. Role Confusion
34. Children begin to compare themselves with their peers to see how they measure up.
This is refer to….
A. Initiative vs. Guilt C. Industry vs. Inferiority
B. Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt D. Trust vs. Mistrust
35. Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to represent
objects. What stage of development is this?
A. Preoperational Stage C. Sensorimotor Stage
B. Concrete Operational Stage D. Formal Operational Stage
36. During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about concrete events./
A. Preoperational Stage C. Sensorimotor Stage
B. Concrete Operational Stage D. Formal Operational Stage
37. Obedience and Punishment Orientation. The child/individual is good in order to avoid
being punished. If a person is punished, they must have done wrong. This stage of moral
development is…
A. Conventional morality C. Post conventional morality
B. Advanced Conventional D. Preconventional morality
38. Maintaining the Social Order. The child/individual becomes aware of the wider rules of
society, so judgments concern obeying the rules in order to uphold the law and to avoid
guilt.
A. Conventional morality C. Post conventional morality
B. Advanced Conventional D. Preconventional morality
39. This is refers to the support given to the learner who is attempting to learn something
new in the zone of proximal development.
A. Origin B. Definitions C. Scaffolding D. Definitions

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40. The fourth and outermost layer of the bioecological model, it encompasses cultural and
societal beliefs and programming that influence an individual’s development.
A. Microsystem C. Mesosystem
B. Macrosystem D. Exosystem

41. The third layer, and contains elements by which do not affect the individual directly, but
may do so indirectly.
A. Microsystem C. Mesosystem
B. Macrosystem D. Exosystem
42. The most essential element of the bioecological model. Because this model measures an
individual’s development, these interactions occur on a measurable, chronological scale.
A. Time B. Context C. Person D. Process
43. This happen through the systematic interactions mentioned above.
A. Time B. Context C. Person D. Process
44. The millionaires’ lifestyle differs from that of the middle income or lower income group.
This is refer students……
A. Thinking B. Learning C. Socioeconomic status D. Exceptionalities
45. These learners must see their teacher’s actions and facial expressions to fully
understand the content of a lesson.
A. Sensory preferences C. Visual Learners
B. Auditory Learners D. Tactile/Kinesthetic Learners
46. The persons benefit much from a hand-on approach, actively exploring the physical
world around them. This is refer to..
A. Sensory preferences C. Visual Learners
B. Auditory Learners D. Tactile/Kinesthetic Learners
47. This thinkers tend towards the linear, step-by-step processes of learning. They tend to
see finite elements of patterns rather than the whole; they are the tree seers.
A. Global B. Analytic C. Personal D. Iconic
48. Learning through feeling, values and attitudes. This is decidedly affective component of
learning through which students place value on what they learn and take ownership for their
learning.
A. Intrapersonal C. Mathematical
B. Naturalist D. Existential
49. Learning through the spoken and written word. This intelligence is always valued in the
traditional classroom and in traditional assessments of intelligence and achievement.
A. Visual B. Musical C. Intrapersonal D. Verbal
50. This is a measurable impairment or limitation that interferes with a person’s ability, for
example, to walk, lift, hear or learn.
A. Disability B. Handicap C. Abnormalities D. Normal

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Unit 3: Focus on Learning
Desired Learning Outcomes
1. Described the characteristic of behaviourist.
2. Cited authors that discuss matters on cognitive perspective.
3. Identified the different values on the learning of cognitive process.
4. Gave important details of knowledge construction or concept learning.
5. Discussed matters on hesitation and application of problem solving.

Student Activities

1. Behaviorist Perspective
The theory of behaviourism focuses on the study of observable and
measurable behaviour. It emphasizes the behaviour is mostly learned through
conditioning and reinforcement (reward and punishment). It does not give much
attention to the mind and the possibility of through of thought processes occurring in
the mind. Contributions in the development of the behaviourist theory largely came
from Pavlov, Watson, Thorndike and Skinner.

A. Behaviourism
Ivan Pavlov. Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, is well known for his work in
classical conditioning or stimulus substitution. Pavlov’s most renowned experiment
involved meat, a dog and a bell. Initially, Pavlov was measuring the dog’s salivation
in order to study digestion. This is when he stumbled upon classical conditioning.
Pavlov’s Experiment. Before conditioning, ringing the bell (neutral stimulus)
caused no response from the dog. Placing food (unconditioned stimulus) in front of
the dog initiated salivation (unconditioned response). During conditioning, the bell
was rung a few seconds before the dog was presented with food. After conditioning,
the ringing of the bell (conditioned stimulus) alone produced salivation (conditioned
response). This is classical conditioning.

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 Somehow you were conditioned to associate particular objects with you
teacher. So at present, when you encounter the objects, you are also reminded of
your teacher. This is example of classical conditioning.

Ivan Pavlov
1849 – 1936

Pavlov also had the following findings:

Stimulus Generalization. Once the dog has learned to salivate at the sound of
the bell, it will salivate at other similar sounds.
Extinction. If you stop pairing the bell with the food, salivation will eventually
cease in response to the bell.
Spontaneous Recovery. Extinguished responses can be recovered after an
elapse time, but will soon extinguish again if the dog is not presented with food.
Discrimination. The dog could learn to discriminate between similar bells
(stimuli) and discern which bell would result in the presentation of food and which
would not.
Higher-Order Conditioning. Once the dog has been conditioned to associate
the bell with food, another unconditioned stimulus, such as a light may be flashed at
the same bell is rung. Eventually, the dog will salivate at the flash of the light
without the sound of the bell.

What Is Classical Conditioning?

Classical conditioning is a behaviorist theory of learning. It posits that when a
naturally occurring stimulus and an environmental stimulus are repeatedly paired,

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the environmental stimulus will eventually elicit a similar response to the natural
stimulus. The most famous studies associated with classical conditioning are Russian
physiologist Ivan Pavlov’s experiments with dogs.

Key Takeaways: Classical Conditioning

 Classical conditioning is the process by which a naturally occurring
stimulus is paired with a stimulus in the environment, and as a result, the
environmental stimulus eventually elicits the same response as the
natural stimulus.
 Classical conditioning was discovered by Ivan Pavlov, a Russian
physiologist, who conducted a series of classic experiments with dogs.
 Classical conditioning was embraced by the branch of psychology known
as behaviorism.

Origins and Influence

Pavlov’s discovery of classical conditioning arose out of his observations of his
dogs’ salivation responses. While dogs naturally salivate when food touches their
tongues, Pavlov noticed that his dogs' salivation extended beyond that innate
response. They salivated when they saw him approach with food or even just heard
his footsteps. In other words, stimuli that had previously been neutral became
conditioned because of their repeated association with a natural response.
Although Pavlov wasn’t a psychologist, and in fact believed his work on
classical conditioning was physiological, his discovery had a major influence on
psychology. In particular, Pavlov’s work was popularized in psychology by John B.
Watson. Watson kicked off the behaviorist movement in psychology in 1913 with a
manifesto that said psychology should abandon the study of things like
consciousness and only study observable behavior, including stimuli and responses.
After discovering Pavlov’s experiments a year later, Watson made classical
conditioning the foundation of his ideas.

Other Principles of Classical Conditioning

There are several additional principles in classical conditioning that further
detail how the process works. These principles include the following:

Extinction
As its name suggests, extinction happens when a conditioned stimulus is no
longer associated with an unconditioned stimulus leading to a decrease or complete
disappearance of the conditioned response.
For example, Pavlov’s dogs started to salivate in response to the sound of a
bell after the sound was paired with food over several trials. However, if the bell was
sounded several times without the food, over time the dog’s salivation would
decrease and eventually stop.

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 Spontaneous Recovery
Even after extinction has occurred, the conditioned response may not be
gone forever. Sometimes spontaneous recovery happens in which the response
reemerges after a period of extinction.
For example, suppose after extinguishing a dog’s conditioned response of
salivation to a bell, the bell isn’t sounded for a period of time. If the bell is then
sounded after that break, the dog will salivate again — a spontaneous recovery of
the conditioned response. If the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli aren’t paired
again, though, spontaneous recovery won’t last long and extinction will again occur.

Stimulus Generalization
Stimulus generalization happens when, after a stimulus has been conditioned
to a specific response, other stimuli that may be associated with the conditioned
stimulus also elicit the conditioned response. The additional stimuli are not
conditioned but are similar to the conditioned stimulus, leading to generalization. So,
if a dog is conditioned to salivate to the tone of a bell, the dog will also salivate to
other bell tones. Although the conditioned response may not occur if the tone is too
dissimilar to the conditioned stimulus.

Stimulus Discrimination
Stimulus generalization often doesn’t last. Over time, stimulus discrimination
begins to occur in which stimuli are differentiated and only the conditioned stimulus
and possibly stimuli that are very similar elicit the conditioned response. So, if a dog
continues to hear different bell tones, over time the dog will start to distinguish
between the tones and will only salivate to the conditioned tone and ones that sound
almost like it.

Higher-Order Conditioning
In his experiments, Pavlov demonstrated that after he has conditioned a dog
to respond to a particular stimulus, he could pair the conditioned stimulus with a
neutral stimulus and extend the conditioned response to the new stimulus. This is
called second-order-conditioning. For example, after a dog was conditioned to
salivate to a bell, the bell was presented with a black square. After several trials, the
black square could elicit salivation by itself. While Pavlov found he could also
establish third-order-conditioning in his research, he was unable to extend higher-
order conditioning beyond that point.

Examples of Classical Conditioning

Examples of classical conditioning can be observed in the real world. One
instance is various forms of drug addiction. If a drug is repeatedly taken in specific
circumstances (say, a specific location), the user may become used to the substance
in that context and require more of it to get the same effect, called tolerance.
However, if the individual takes the drug in a different environmental context, the
individual may overdose. This is because the user’s typical environment has become
a conditioned stimulus that prepares the body for a conditioned response to the

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drug. In the absence of this conditioning, the body may not be adequately prepared
for the drug.
A more positive example of classical conditioning is its use to support wildlife
conservation efforts. Lions in Africa were conditioned to dislike the taste of beef in
order to keep them from preying on cattle and coming into conflict with farmers
because of it. Eight lions were given beef treated with a deworming agent that gave
them indigestion. After doing this several times, the lions developed an aversion to
meat, even if it wasn’t treated with the deworming agent. Given their aversion to the
meat, these lions would be highly unlikely to prey on cattle.
Classical conditioning can also be used in therapy and the classroom. For
example, to combat anxieties and phobias such as a fear of spiders, a therapist
might repeatedly show an individual an image of a spider while they are performing
relaxation techniques so the individual can form an association between spiders and
relaxation. Similarly, if a teacher couples a subject that makes students nervous, like
math, with a pleasant and positive environment, the student will learn to feel more
positive about math.
Concept Critiques
While there are numerous real-world applications for classical conditioning,
the concept has been criticized for several reasons. First, classical conditioning has
been accused of being deterministic because it ignores the role of free will in
people's behavioral responses. Classical conditioning anticipates an individual will
respond to a conditioned stimulus with no variation. This may help psychologists
predict human behavior, but it underestimates individual differences.
Classical conditioning has also been criticized for emphasizing learning from
the environment and therefore championing nurture over nature. The behaviorists
were committed to only describing what they could observe so they would stay away
from any speculation about the influence of biology on behavior. Yet, human
behavior is likely more complex than simply what can be observed in the
environment.
A final criticism of classical conditioning is that it is reductionist. Although
classical conditioning is certainly scientific because it utilizes controlled experiments
to arrive at its conclusions, it also breaks down complex behaviors into small units
made up of a single stimulus and response. This can lead to explanations of behavior
that are incomplete.

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 Edward L. Thorndike

1874-1949
Edward Thorndike’s Connectionism theory gave us the original S-R framework
of behavioural psychology. More than a hundred years ago he wrote a textbook
entitled, Educational Psychology. He was the first one to use this term. He explained
that learning is the result of associations forming between stimuli (S) and response
(R). Such associations or habits become strengthened or weakened by the nature
and frequency of the S-R pairing. The model for S-R theory was trial and error
learning in which certain responses came to be repeated more than others because
of rewards. The main principle of connectionism (like all behavioural theory) was that
thinking could be adequately explained without considering any unobservable
internal states.
Thorndike’s theory on connectionism, states that learning has taken place
when a strong connection or bond between stimulus and response is formed. He
came up with three primary laws.
Law of Effect. The law of effect states that a connection between a stimulus
and response is strengthened when the consequence is positive (reward) and the
connection between the stimulus and the response is weakened when the
consequences is negative. Thorndike later on, revised this law when he found that
negative rewards (punishment) do not necessarily weaken bonds, and that some
seemingly pleasurable consequences do not necessarily motivate performance.
Law of Exercise. This tells us that the more an S-R (stimulus-response) bond
is practiced the stronger it will become. Practice make perfect seem to be associated
with this. However, like the law of effect, the law of exercise also had to be revised
when Thorndike found that practice without feedback does not necessarily enhance
performance.
Law of Readiness. This states that the more readiness the learner has to
respond to the stimulus, the stronger will be the bond between them. When a
person is ready to respond to a stimulus and is not made to respond, it becomes
annoying to the person. For example if the teacher says, “Okay we will now watch
movie (stimulus) you’ve been waiting for.” And suddenly the power goes off. The

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students will feel frustrated because they were ready to respond to the stimulus but
was presented from doing so. Likewise, if the person is not at all ready to respond to
a stimuli and is asked to respond, that also becomes annoying. For instance, the
teacher calls a student to stand up and recite, and then the teacher asks the
question and expects the student to respond right away when he is still not ready.
This will be annoying to the student. That is why teachers should remember to say
the question first, and wait for a few seconds before calling on anyone to answer.

Principles Derived from Thorndike’s Connectionism:

1. Learning requires both practice and rewards (laws of effect/exercise)
2. A series of S-R connections can be chained together if they belong to the
same action sequence (law of rediness).
3. Transfer of learning occurs because of previously encountered situations.
4. Intelligence is a function of the number of connection learned.

Edward Thorndike Theory Explained

The Edward Thorndike theory is a learning theory that focuses on operant
conditioning within behaviors. By studying animals, and usually just cats, he devised
an experiment to determine how they learn new skills.
Thorndike created a puzzle box. He would then place a cat inside the box,
but encourage it to escape by placing a treat outside of the box. Then he would
measure the amount of time it took for the cat to escape. As he watched, the cats
would experiment with different solutions to determine if or how they could escape
so they could reach the treat.
Thorndike designed his puzzle box to have a lever inside of it. If the lever
was pressed, then the cage would open. Eventually, the cat would stumble upon the
lever as it looked for a way to escape, see the cage open, and then come out to take
the treat. Once that happened, Thorndike would take the cat and place it back into
the box. He would once again track the time it took the cat to escape.
What Thorndike found was that the cat would adopt the behavior of pressing
the lever because the behavior produced a favorable result. They would complete
the task faster and faster in subsequent attempts. This information would become
the law of effect that he would propose in his theory.

How Does Operant Conditioning Change Behaviors?

Thorndike proposed that behaviors that are followed by a pleasant

outcome create the conditions where a person wants to repeat the behavior.
If behaviors are followed by an unpleasant outcome, then a person is likely to
stop the behavior instead of repeating it.
The definition of “pleasantness” is defined by the individual. A person
who sees a red burner on a stove top has a choice: to touch the burner or to
not touch the burner. For most people, touching the hot burner resulted in
pain, if not a burn, and that stops the behavior from being repeated.
For some, however, the pain or burn might be associated with a
pleasant outcome. Maybe the person went to the doctor, was given several

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free treats, and then found a $100 bill on the ground. Although the pain was
still a negative, the other events are seen as a positive, and that could
encourage a repetition of the behavior.
The operant condition is therefore based on personal wants, needs,
and expectations. A person who is hungry and hasn’t eaten in three days
might choose any food, even if it doesn’t taste good, to relieve their hunger.
A person who gets three meals per day might only choose specific foods to
eat because the level of hunger being relieved isn’t as great.
This led Thorndike to create two additional laws that would become
part of his theory

Updating the Edward Thorndike Theory

One of the most important aspects of Thorndike’s theory is the law of
readiness. This takes into account the motivational aspects a person has for a
certain behavior. If a hungry wolf spots a prey animal, they’re likely to go
hunting. If a hungry person spots a free granola bar, they’re likely to start
eating.
Thorndike refers to this process as a “conduction unit.” It is an almost
unconscious action and decision that is taken based on internal or external
triggers that are being experienced.
There is also the law of exercise that Thorndike included with his
theory. This law incorporates use and disuse. When the conduction units are
experienced on a regular basis, the urge to complete the behavior grows
stronger. It becomes almost impossible to resist the urges that occur once a
trigger is encountered.
If the conduction units are not used regularly, then the urge to
complete the process is not as great. Some people (and some animals) can
resist the urge to complete the process.
Thorndike notes that these processes and laws are supplemented by 5
specific characteristics.
 Varied reactions and multiple responses.
 Individual attitudes.
 Partial activity familiarity.
 Element assimilation.
 Associative shifting.
Over time, Thorndike realized that simple exercise did not cause
learning, but could influence the law of effect that he had proposed. He also
began to question whether repetition was evidence of learning or evidence of
unconscious habit development.
With the right rewards and punishments, the Edward Thorndike theory
suggests that behaviors can be modified. Although there will always be some
individuals who will choose negative outcomes repeatedly, the core of this
theory shows how people and animals can learn on a basic level.

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 John Watson
1878 – 1958
John B. Watson was the first American psychologist to work with
Pavlov’s ideas. He too was initially involve in animal studies, then later
became involved in human behaviour research.
He considered that humans are born with a few reflexes and the
emotional reactions of love and rage. All other behaviour is learned through
stimulus-response associations through conditioning. He believed in the
power of conditioning so much that he said that if he is given a dozen healthy
infants he can make them into anything you want them to be, basically
through making stimulus-response connections through conditioning.
Experiment on Albert. Watson applied classical conditioning in his
experiment concerning Albert, a young child and a white rat. In the
beginning, Albert was not afraid of the rat; but Watson made a sudden loud
noise each time Albert touched the rat. Because Albert was frightened by the
loud noise, he soon conditioned to fear and avoid the rat. Later, the child’s
response was generalized to other small animals. Now, he was also afraid of
small animals. Watson then extinguished or made the child unlearn fear by
showing the rat without the loud noise.
Surely, Watson’s research methods would be questioned today,
nevertheless, his work did clearly show the role of conditioning in the
development of emotional responses to certain stimuli. This may help us
understand the fears, phobias and prejudices that people develop.
John Watson (1878-1958) began the behaviourist movement in 1913
when he published the article: ‘Psychology as the behaviorist views it’.
Behaviourism refers to a psychological school which emphasises scientific and
objective methods of investigation. Watson’s ‘manifesto’ stated a number of
underlying assumptions regarding methodology and behavioural analysis,
made it clear behaviourism focuses only on observable stimulus-response
behaviours, and considers that all behaviours are learned through events and
situations within the environment.
CHILD DEVELOPMENT Child Development Theories: John Watson
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John Watson was an American psychologist who is generally
recognised as the ‘father’ of the psychological school of behaviourism.
Watson’s 1913 article ‘Psychology as the Behaviorist Views it’ promoted a

74
change in the field of psychology. Pursuing his behaviourist approach, Watson
conducted research into animal behaviour, child rearing (which included his
controversial “Little Albert” experiment), and advertising.

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John Watson and Behaviourism
John Watson (1878-1958) began the behaviourist movement in 1913
when he published the article: ‘Psychology as the behaviorist views it’.
Behaviourism refers to a psychological school which emphasises scientific and
objective methods of investigation. Watson’s ‘manifesto’ stated a number of
underlying assumptions regarding methodology and behavioural analysis,
made it clear behaviourism focuses only on observable stimulus-response
behaviours, and considers that all behaviours are learned through events and
situations within the environment.

Basic Assumptions
All behaviour is learned from, and shaped by, the environment:
Behaviourism stresses how environmental factors influence behaviour,
virtually ignoring innate or inherited factors – which is essentially a learning
perspective. Humans are born with a blank-slate mind (tabula rasa) and learn
new behaviours via classical or operant conditioning.
Psychology should be regarded as a science:
Any theory must be supported by empirical data obtained via
systematic observation and measurement of behaviour. Theoretical
components should be as simple as possible.
Behaviourism is principally concerned with behaviour that can be
observed, rather than with internal events such thinking and emotion:
Though behaviourists largely accept the existence of cognitions and
emotions, they prefer to study them only observable in the context of what
can be objectively and scientifically measured.
Human learning is very similar to the learning which takes place in
other animals:
This implies research can be conducted on animals as well as humans
– what is known as comparative psychology. For behaviourists, animal
research became the primary source of data simply because such
environments could be easily controlled.
Behaviour is the result of stimulus-response:
Even complex behaviours can be reduced to a simple stimulus-
response association.
Watson’s approach is termed ‘methodological behaviourism’.
Practitioners should note that many ‘classic’ classroom management
techniques (such as ‘time out’) are based on behaviourist principles.

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 Burrhus Frederick Skinner
1904 – 1990
Like Pavlov, Watson and Thorndike, Skinner believed in the stimulus-
response pattern of conditioned behaviour. His theory zeroed in only one
changes in observable behaviour, excluding any likelihood of any process
taking place in the mind. Skinner 1948 book, Walden Two, is about a utopian
society based on operant conditioning. He also wrote, Science and Human
Behavior (1953) in which he pointed out how the principles of operant
conditioning function in social institutions such as government, law, religion,
economics and education.
Skinner’s work differs from that of the three behaviourist before him in
that he studied operant behaviour (voluntary behaviours used in operating on
the government). Thus, his theory came to be known as Operant
Conditioning.
Operant Conditioning is based upon the notion that learning is a result
of changes in overt behaviour. Changes in the behaviour are the result of an
individual’s response to events (stimuli) that occur in the environment. A
response produces a consequences such as defining a word, hitting a ball, or
solving a math problem. When particular Stimulus-Response (S-R) pattern is
reinforced (rewarded) the individual is conditioned to respond.
Reinforcement is the key element in Skinner’s S-R theory. A reinforce is
anything that strengthens the desired response. There is a positive reinforce
and a negative reinforce.
A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that is given or added to increase
the response. An example of positive reinforcement is when a teacher
promises extra time in the play area to children who behave well during the
lesson. Another is a mother who promises a new cell phone for her son who
gets good grades. Still, other example include verbal praise, star stamps and
stickers.

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 A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that results in the increased
frequency of a response when it is withdrawn or removed. A negative
reinforce is not a punishment, in fact it is reward. For instance, a teacher
announces that a student who gets an average grade of 1.5 for the two
grading period will no longer take the final examination. The negative
reinforcer is removing the final exam which we realize is a form of reward for
working hard and getting a average grade of 1.5.
A negative reinforce is different from a punishment because a
punishment is a consequence intended to result in reduced responses. An
example would be a student who always comes late is not allowed to join a
group work that has already began (punishment) and, therefore, loses points
for that activity. The punishment was done to reduce the response of
repeatedly coming to class late.
Skinner also looked into extinction or non-reinforcement: response that
are not reinforced are not likely to be repeated. For example, ignoring a
student’s misbehaviour may extinguish that behaviour.
Shaping of Behaviour. An animal on a cage may take a very long time
to figure out that pressing a lever will produce food. To accomplish such
behaviour, successive approximations of the behaviors are rewarded until the
animal learns the association between the lever and the food reward. To
begin shaping, the animal may be rewarded for simply turning in the direction
of the lever, then for moving toward the lever, for brushing against the lever,
and finally for pressing the lever.
Behaviour chaining comes about when a series of steps are needed to
be learned. The animal would master each step in sequence until the entire
sequence is learned. This can be applied to a child being taught to tie a
shoelace. The child can be given reinforcement (rewards) until the entire
process of tying the shoelace is learned.
Reinforcement Schedules. Once the desired behaviour response is
accomplished, reinforcement does not have to be 100% in fact, it can be
maintained more successfully through what Skinner referred to as partial
reinforcement schedules. Partial reinforcement schedules include interval
schedules and ratio schedules.
He bird in a cage is given food (reinforcer) every 10 minutes,
regardless of how many times it presses the bar.
Variable Interval Schedules. This is similar to fixed interval schedules
but the amount of time that must pass between reinforcement varies.
Example, the bird may receive food (reinforcer) different intervals, not every
ten minutes.
Fixed Ratio Scheduled. A fixed number of correct responses must occur
before reinforcement varies. Example, the bird is given food (reinforcer) after
it presses the bar 3 times, then after 10 times, then after 4 times. So the bird
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will not be able to predict how many times it needs to press the bar before it
gets food again.
Variable interval and especially, variable ratio schedule produce
steadier and more persistent rates of response because the learners cannot
predict when the reinforcement will come although they know that they will
eventually succeed. An example of this is why people continue to buy looto
tickets even when an almost negligible percentage of people actually win.
While it is true that very rarely there is a big winner, but once in a while
somebody hits the jackpot (reinforcement). People cannot predict when the
jackpot can be gotten (variable interval) so they continue to buy tickets
(repetitive of response).

Implications of Operant Conditioning. These implications are gives for

programmed instruction.
1. Practice should take the form of question (stimulus) – answer
(response) frames which expose the student to the subject in
gradual steps.
2. Require that the learner make a response for every frame and
receives immediate feedback.
3. Try to arrange the difficulty of the questions so the response
always correct and hence, a positive reinforcement.
4. Ensure that good performance in the lesson is paired with
secondary reinforcers such as verbal praise, prizes and good
grades.

Principles Derived from Skinner’s Operant Conditioning

1. Behaviour that is positively reinforced will reoccur, intermittent
reinforcement is particularly effective.
2. Information should be presented in small amounts so that
responses can be reinforced (shaping).
3. Reinforcement will generalize across similar stimuli (stimulus
generalization) producing secondary conditioning.

B. Neo Behaviourism: Tolman and Bandura

With new researches, explanations provided by the basic principles of
behaviourism appeared not to satisfy all learning scenarios. New theories
came into view which maintained some of the behaviourist concept but
excluded other, and added new ideas which later came to be associated with
the cognitive views of learning. The neo-behaviourists, then, were a
transitional group, bridging the gap between behaviourism and cognitive
theories of learning.
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 Usually, people who worked on the maze activity which you just did
would say they found the second maze easier. This because they saw that the
two mazes were identical, except that the entrance and exit point s were
reversed. Their experience in doing maze A help them answer Maze B a lot
easier. People create mental maps of things they perceived. This mental maps
help them respond to other things or task later, especially if they see the
similarity. You may begin to respond with trial and error (behaviouristic), but
later on your response becomes more internally driven (cognitive
perspective). This is what neo-behaviourism is about. It has respect of
behaviourism but it also reaches out to the cognitive perspective.
There two theories reflecting neo-behaviourism that stands out.
Edward Tolman’s Purposive Behaviourism and Albert Bandura’s Social
Learning Theory. Both theories are influenced by behaviourism (which is
focused on external elements in learning), but their principles seem to also be
reflective of the cognitive perspective (focused on more internal elements).

Tolman’s Purposive Behaviourism

Purposive behaviourism has also been referred to as Sign Learning
Theory and is often seen as the link between behaviourism and cognitive
theory. Tolman’s theory was founded on two psychological views: those of
the Gestalt psychologists and those of John Watson, the behaviourist.
Tolman believed that learning is a cognitive process. Learning involves
forming beliefs and obtaining knowledge about the environment and then
revealing that knowledge through purposeful and goal-directed behaviour.
Tolman stated in his sign theory that an organism learns by pursuing
sings to a goal, i.e., learning is acquired through meaningful behaviour. He
stressed the organized aspect of learning: “The stimuli which are allowed in
are not connected by just simple one-to-one switches to the outgoing
responses. Rather the incoming impulses are usually worked over and
elaborated in the central control room into a tentative cognitive-like map of
the environment. And it is this tentative map, indicating routes and paths and
environmental relationships, which finally determines what response, if any,
the animal will finally make.”
Tolman’s form of behaviourism stressed the relationships between
stimuli rather than stimulus-response. Tolman said that a new stimulus (the
sign) becomes associated with already meaningful stimulus (the significate)
through a series of pairing; there is no need for reinforcement in order to
establish learning. In your maze activity, the new stimulus or “sign” (maze B)
became associated with already meaningful stimuli, the significate (maze A).
So you may have connected the two stimuli, maze A and maze B; and used
your knowledge and experience in maze A to learn to respond to maze B.

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Tolman’s Key Concepts
Learning is always purposive and goal-directed. Tolman asserted that
learning is always purposive and goal-directed. He held the notion that an
organism acted or responded for some adaptive purpose. He believed
individuals do more than merely respond to stimuli; they act on beliefs,
attitudes, changing conditions, and they strive toward goals. Tolman saw
behaviour as holistic, purposive and cognitive.
Cognitive maps in rats. In his most famous experiment, one group of
rats was placed at random starting location in a maze but the food was
always in the same location. Another group of rats had the food placed in
different locations which always required exactly the same pattern of turns
from their starting location. The group that had the food in the same location
performed much better than the other group, supposedly demonstrating that
they had learned the location rather than a specific sequence of turns. This is
tendency to “learn location” signified that rats somehow forms cognitive maps
that help them perform well on the maze. He also found out that organisms
will select the shortest or easiest path to achieve a goal.
Applied in human learning, since a student passes by the same route
going to school every day, he acquires a cognitive map of the location of his
school. So when transportations re-routing is done, he can still figure out
what turns to make to get to school the shortest or easiest way.
Latent Learning. Latent learning is a kind of learning that remains or
stays or individual until needed. It is learning that is not outwardly manifested
at once. According to Tolman is can exist even without reinforcement. He
demonstrated this in his rat experiment wherein rats apparently “learned the
maze” by forming cognitive maps of the maze, but manifested this knowledge
of the maze only when they needed to.
Applied in human learning, a two-year old always sees her dad operate
the t.v. remote control and observes how the t.v. is turned on or how channel
is changed, and volume adjusted. After sometime, the parents are surprised
that on the first time that their daughter holds the remote control, she
already knows which buttons to press for what function. Through latent
learning, the child knew the skills beforehand, even though she has never
done them before.
The concept of intervening variable. Intervening variable are variable
that are not readily seen but serve as determinants of behaviour. Tolman
believed that learning is mediated or is influenced by expectations,
perceptions, representations, needs and other internal or environmental
variables. Examples, in his experiments with rats he found out that hunger
was an intervening variable.
Reinforcement not essential for learning. Tolman concluded that
reinforcement is not essential for learning, although it provide an incentive for
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performance. In his studies, he observed that a rat was able to acquire
knowledge of the way through a maze, i.e. to develop a cognitive map, even
in the absences of reinforcement.

Albert Bandura’s Learning Theory

Social learning theory focuses on the learning that occurs within social
context. It considers that people learner from one another, including such
concepts as observational learning, imitation and modelling. The ten-year old
boy Sergio Pelico did watch Saddam’s execution on TV and then must have
imitated it.
Among others, Albert Bandura is considered the leading proponent of
this theory.

General principles of social learning theory

1. People can learn by observing the behaviour of others and the
outcome of those behaviors.
2. Learning can occur without a change in behaviour. Behaviourist say
that learning has to be represented by a permanent change in
behaviour, in contrast social learning theorists say that because
people can learn through observation alone, their learning may not
necessarily be shown in their performance. Learning may or may
not result in a behaviour change.
3. Cognition plays a role in learning. Over the last 30 years social
learning theory has become increasingly cognitive in its
interpretation of human learning. Awareness and expectations of
future reinforcements or punishments can have a major effect on
the behaviours that people exhibit.
4. Social learning theory can be considered a bridge or a transition
between behaviourist learning theories and cognitive learning
theories.

How the environment reinforces and punishes modelling

People are often reinforced for modelling the behaviour of others.
Bandura suggested environment also reinforces modelling. This is in several
possible ways:
1. The observer is reinforced by the model. For example a students
who changes dress to fit with a certain group of students has a
strong likelihood of being accepted and thus reinforced by that
group.
2. The observer is reinforced by a third person. The observer might be
modelling the action of someone else, for example, an outstanding
class leader or student. The teacher notices this and compliments
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 and praises the observer for modelling such behaviour for modelling
such behaviour thus reinforcing that behaviour.
3. The imitated behaviour itself leads to reinforcing consequences.
Many behaviours that we learn from others produce satisfying or
reinforcing results. For example, a student in my multimedia class
could observe how the extra work a classmate does is fun. This
student in turn would do the same extra work and also experience
enjoyment.
4. Consequences of the model’s behaviour affect the observer’s
behaviour vicariously. This is known as vicarious reinforcement.
This is where the model is reinforced for a response and then the
observer shows an increase in that same response. Bandura
illustrated this by having students watch a film of a model hitting an
inflated clown doll. One group of children saw the model being
praised for such action. Without being reinforced, the group of
children began to also hit the doll.

Contemporary social learning perspective of reinforcement and punishment

1. Contemporary theory propose that both reinforcement and
punishment have indirect effects on learning. They are not the sole
or main cause.
2. Reinforcement and punishment influence the extent to which an
individual exhibits a behaviour that has learned.
3. The expectation of reinforcement influences cognitive processes
that promote learning. Therefore, attention pays a critical role in
learning, and attention is influenced by the expectation of
reinforcement. An example would be, when the teacher tells a
group of students that what they will study next is not on the test.
Students will not pay attention because they do not expect to know
the information for a test.

Cognitive factors in social learning

Social learning theory has cognitive factors as well as behaviourist
factors (actually operant factors).
1. Learning without performance: Bandura makes a distinction
between learning through observation and the actual imitation of
what has been learned. This is similar to Tolman’s latent learning.
2. Cognitive processing during learning: Social learning theorist
contend that attention is a critical factor in learning.
3. Expectations: As a result of being reinforced, people form
expectations about the consequences that future behaviours are
likely to bring. They expect certain behaviours to bring
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 reinforcements and others to bring punishment. The learner needs
to be aware, however, of the response reinforcements and
response punishment. Reinforcement increase a response only
when the learner is aware that connection.
4. Reciprocal causation: bandura proposed the behaviour can
influence both the environment and the person. In fact each of
these three variables, the person, the behaviour, and the
environment can have an influence on each other.
5. Modelling: There are different types of models, there is the live
model, an actual person demonstrating the behaviour. There can
also be a symbolic model, which can be a person or action
portrayed in some other medium, such as television, videotape,
computer programs.

Behaviours that can be learned through modelling

Many behaviours can be learned, at least partly, through modelling.
Examples that can be cited are, students can watch parents read, students
can watch the demonstration of mathematics problems, or see someone act
bravely and fearful situation. Aggression can be learn through models.
Research indicates that children become more aggressive when they
observed aggressive or violent models. Moral thinking and moral behaviour
are influenced by observation and modelling. This includes moral judgments
regarding right and wrong which can, in part, develop through modelling.

Conditions necessary for effective modelling to occur

Bandura mentions four conditions that are necessary before an
individual can successfully model the behaviour of some else:
1. Attention – The person must first pay attention to the model.
2. Retention – The observer must be able to remember the behaviour
that has been observed. One way of increasing this is using the
technique of rehearsal.
3. Motor reproduction – The third condition is the ability to replicate
the behaviour that the model has just demonstrated. This means
that the observer has to be able to replicate the actions, which
could be a problem with a learner who is not ready developmentally
to replicate the action. For example, little children have difficulty
doing complex physical motion.
4. Motivation – The final necessary ingredients for modelling to occur
is motivation. Learners must want to demonstrate what they have
learn. Remember that since four condition vary among individuals,
different people will reproduce the same behaviour differently.
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 Effects of modelling on behaviour:
1. Modelling teaches new behaviours.
2. Modelling influences the frequency of previously learned
behaviours.
3. Modelling may encourage previously forbidden behaviours.
4. Modelling increases the frequency of similar behaviours. For
example a student might see a friend excel in basketball and he
tries to excel in football because he is not tall enough for
basketball.

Educational implication of social learning theory

Social learning theory has numerous implications for classroom use.
1. Students often learn a great deal simply by observing other people.
2. Describing the consequences of behaviours can effectively increase
the appropriate behaviours and decrease inappropriate ones. This
can involve discussing with learners about the rewards and
consequences of various behaviours.
3. Modelling provides an alternative to shaping for teaching new
behaviours. Instead of using shaping, which is operant
conditioning, modelling can provide a faster, more efficient means
for teaching new behaviour. To promote effective modelling, a
teacher must make sure that the four essential conditions exists;
attention, retention, motor reproduction, and motivation.
4. Teachers and parents must model appropriate behaviours and take
care that they do not model inappropriate behaviours.
5. Teachers should expose students to a variety of other models. This
technique is especially important to break down traditional
stereotypes.

2. Cognitive Perspective
A. Gestalt psychology was at the forefront of the cognitive psychology. It
served as the foundation of the cognitive perspective to learning. It
opposed the external and mechanistic focus of behaviourism. It consider
the mental processes and products of perception.

Gestalt theory was the initial cognitive response to behaviourism. It

emphasized the importance of sensory wholes and the dynamic nature of
visual perceptions. Psychologist Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler and
Kurt Koffka studied perceptions and concluded that perceirvers (or
learner) are not passive, but rather active. They suggested that learners
do not just collect information as is but they actively process and
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 restructure data in order to understand it. This is the perceptual process.
Certain factors impact on this perceptual process. Factors like past
experience, needs, attitudes and one’s present situation can affect their
perception.

What are Gestalt Principles?

Gestalt Principles are principles/laws of human perception that describe
how humans group similar elements, recognize patterns and simplify complex
images when we perceive objects. Designers use the principles to organize
content on websites and other interfaces so it is aesthetically pleasing and
easy to understand.

Gestalt Principles – a Background

“Gestalt” is German for “unified whole”. The first Gestalt Principles
were devised in the 1920s by German psychologists Max Wertheimer, Kurt
Koffka and Wolfgang Kohler—who aimed to understand how humans typically
gain meaningful perceptions from the chaotic stimuli around them. They
identified a set of laws which address the natural compulsion to find order in
disorder. According to this, the mind “informs” what the eye sees by
perceiving a series of individual elements as a whole. Professionals in the
then-growing industry of graphic design quickly adopted these principles, and
designers have since used Gestalt Principles extensively to craft designs with
well-placed elements that catch the eye as larger, whole images.

Gestalt Principles
Gestalt Principles are an essential part of visual design. There are more
than ten overlapping principles; four of the most widely recognized ones are:

Closure (Reification): We prefer complete shapes, so we automatically

fill in gaps between elements to perceive a complete image. That’s how we
can see the whole first. You can apply closure in all sorts of imaginative ways
to win users’ admiration and trust when they recognize pleasing “wholes” in
cleverly placed elements, be they lines, dots or shapes (e.g., segments of a
picture). Iconic logos such as IBM’s and the World Wildlife Fund’s are
examples of applied closure—IBM’s comprising blue horizontal lines arranged
in three stacks; the WWF’s consisting of a cluster of black shapes set against
a white background to reveal the familiar form of a panda.

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 Common Region: We group elements that are in the same closed
region. You include related objects in the same closed area to show they
stand apart from other groups. You can see this principle applied in Facebook,
for example, where likes, comments and other interactions appear within the
boundaries of one post and so stand apart from others.

Figure/Ground (Multi-stability): We dislike uncertainty, so we look for

solid, stable items. Unless an image is ambiguous—like Rubin’s Vase, below—
we see its foreground first. You can apply figure/ground in many ways, but
chiefly to contrast elements: for example, light text (i.e., figure) from a dark
background (i.e., ground). When you use figure/ground well, alongside other
considerations such as a careful application of color theory, you’ll help guide
users in their tasks and lessen their cognitive load.

Proximity (Emergence): We group closer-together elements, separating

them from those farther apart. So, when you cluster individual elements into

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one area or group on your design, users will recognize it as one entity
standing distinct from anything else on-screen. An example of proximity in
design is the Girl Scouts logo, with its three faces clustered in profile (two
green, one white).

Similarity: The principle of similarity states that when things appear to

be similar to each other, we group them together. And we also tend to think
they have the same function. For instance, in this image, there appear to be
two separate and distinct groups based on shape: the circles and the squares.

Continuity: The principle of continuity states that elements that are

arranged on a line or curve are perceived to be more related than elements
not on the line or curve. In the image below, for example, the red dots in the
curved line seem to be more related to the black dots on the curved line than
to the red dots on the straight horizontal line. That’s because your eye
naturally follows a line or a curve, making continuation a stronger signal of
relatedness than the similarity of color.

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 Focal point: The focal point principle states that whatever stands out
visually will capture and hold the viewer’s attention first. When you look at
the image below, for example, the first thing you notice is the red square
because it’s different than all of the black circles around it. It’s the first point
of interest that grabs your attention, and from there your attention moves to
other parts of the image.

Gestalt Principles are in the Mind, Not the Eye

The Gestalt Principles are vital in user experience (UX) design. When
you design interfaces, users must be able to understand what they see—and
find what they want—at a glance. The principles of proximity and common
region are a good example, as our landing page shows below. Colors and
graphics divide the page into separate regions. Without this, users would
struggle to make associations between unrelated clustered-together items—
and leave. In your designs, you should never confuse or delay users. Instead,
guide them to their options and so they can identify with
organizations/brands rapidly.
The Gestalt Principles are vital in user experience (UX) design. When
you design interfaces, users must be able to understand what they see—and
find what they want—at a glance. The principles of proximity and common
region are a good example, as our landing page shows. Colors and graphics
divide the page into separate regions. Without this, users would struggle to
make associations between unrelated clustered-together items—and leave. In
your designs, you should never confuse or delay users. Instead, guide them
to their options and so they can identify with organizations/brands rapidly.

INSIGHTFUL LEARNING Gestalt Theory

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1. Basics Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, Wolfgang Kohler Learning as a result
of organization of perception by the learner (insight) Advocated that the
organism perceives the whole and not the parts Dissatisfied with the
approach of behaviourists Gestalt is German word means- Pattern, form,
or configuration. We react to our own pattern when we face problems
2. A thing cannot be understood by the study of its parts but only by the
study of it as a whole. According to gestalt psychology the primary factors
that determine group are (Law of organization) Proximity: Nearness, if
elements are near to each other then chance of to be grouped Similarity:
If elements are similar in specialities they become a group: Simplicity:
items tend to be organized into simple figures according to symmetry,
regularity, and smoothness
3. Learning is purposive, exploratory, and novel/creative, Neither trail and
error, nor SR bond. Learner-Seeing the whole situation/perception
Evaluating the relationship, Intelligent Decision
4. Learning through Perception of the whole situation Perceptual
reorganization. Aaahaa experience-intelligent decision. They use insight
for the same.
5. Stages of learning Survey of the problem Hesitation or pause to see the
problem Repeated trails without insight. Transition to sharpen the attempt
Rethinking about the goal Appearance of critical point after insight
Repetition and adaption as a response.
6. Experiments Chimpanzees Sultan in a cage- banana hung on the roof part-
a box- Jumped- failed- Sudden idea- use of box to jump from Second
experiment- many boxes were required to reach banana- Learned
arrangement Third- Banana Outside- two sticks- one was hollow so that
the other can be put onside to make it lengthy-Tried one and another-
failed- finally joined
7. Confirmed the role of intelligence and cognitive abilities in higher order
learning like problem solving and making patterns or association Problem
identification-organization of perceptual field- Insight Insight is a good
observation, perception of situations as a whole or perception of those
parts of the situation that provide the goal- Woodworth
8. Learning is based on Experience- past experience is helpful Intelligence-
capacity is a matter Learning situation- situation and the availability of the
options are relevant Initial efforts of the organism in form of trial and error
is relevant Repetition and generalization- finally.

Gestalt Principles and the Teaching-Learning Process

The six gestalt principles not only influence perception but they also
impact on learning. Other psychologists like Kurt Lewin expounded on Gestalt
psychology. His theory focusing on “life space” adhered to Gestalt psychology.
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He said that an individual has inner and outer forces that affect his
perceptions and also his learning. Inner forces include his own motivation,
attitudes and feelings. Outer forces may include the attitude and behavior of
the teacher and classmates. All these forces interact and impact on the
person’s learning. Maria Polito, an Italian psychologist, writes about the
relevance of Gestalt psychology to education.
Gestalt theory is focused on the experience of contact that occurs in
the here and now. It considers with interest the life space of teachers as well
as students. It takes interest in the complexity of experience, without
neglecting anything, but accepting and amplifying all that emerge. It
stimulates learning as experience and the experience as a source of learning.
It appreciates the affections and meaning that awe attribute to what we
learn. Knowledge is conceived as a continuous organization and
rearrangement of information according to needs, purposes and meanings. It
asserts that learning is not accumulation but remodelling or insight. Autonomy
and freedom of the student is stimulated by the teacher. The time necessary
for assimilation and for cognitive and existential remodelling is respected. The
contact experience between teachers and students is given value: an
authentic meeting based on sharing ideas and affections.

B. Information Processing
Information processing is a cognitive theoretical framework that
focuses on how knowledge enters and is stored in and is retrieved from our
memory. It is one of the most significant cognitive theories in the last century
and it has strong implications on the teaching-learning process.

Information Process Theory

Relating how the mind and the computer work is a powerful analogy.
The terms used in information processing theory (IPT) extend this analogy. In
fact, those who program and design computers aim to make computers solve
problem through processes similar to that of the human mind. Read on to
know more about IPT.
Cognitive psychologist believe that cognitive processes influences the
nature of what is learned. They consider learning as largely an internal
process, not an external behaviour change (as behaviourist theorist thought).
They look into how we receive, perceive, store and retrieve information. They
believe that how a person thinks about and interprets what s/he receives
shape what he/she will learn. All these notions comprise what is called the
information processing theory.
IPT describes how the learner receives information (stimuli) from the
environment through the senses and what takes place in between determines
whether the information will continue to pass through the sensory register
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then the short term memory and the long term memory. Certain factors
would also determine whether the information will be retrieved or
remembered when the learner needs it. Let us go into the details.
We first consider the types of knowledge that the learner may receive.

Types of knowledge
 General vs. Specific: This involves whether the knowledge is useful
in many tasks, or only in one.
 Declarative – This refers to factual knowledge. They relate to the
nature of how things are. They may be in the form of a word or an
image. Examples are your name, address, a nursery rhyme, the
definition of IPT or even the face of your crush.
 Procedural – This includes knowledge on how to do things.
Examples include making a lesson plan, baking a cake, or getting
the least common denominator.
 Episodic – This includes memories of the events, like your jigh
school graduation.
 Conditional – This is about knowing when and why to apply
declarative or procedural strategies.

Stages in the Information Processing Theory

The stages of IPT involve the functioning of the sense, sensory
register, short-term memory, and the long-term memory. Basically, IPT
asserts three primary stages in the progression of external information
becoming incorporated into the internal cognitive structure of choice (schema,
concept, script, frame, mental model, etc.).

The three primary stages in IPT are:

1. Encoding – Information is sensed, perceived and attended to.
2. Storage – The information is stored for either a brief or extended
period of time, depending upon the processes following encoding.
3. Retrieval – The information is brought back at the appropriate time
and reactivated for use on a current task, the true measure of
effective memory.

What made IPT plausible in the notion that cognitive process could be
described in a stage-like model? The stages to processing follow a trail along
which information is taken into the memory system, and brought back
(recalled) when needed. Most theories of information processing revolve
around the three main stages in the memory process.

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Sensory Register
The first step in the IP model holds all sensory information for a very
brief time.
 Capacity: Our mind receives a great amount of information but it is
more than what our minds can hold or perceived.
 Duration: The sensory register only holds the information for an
extremely brief period – in the order of 1 to 3 seconds.
 There is difference in duration based on modality: auditory memory
is more persistent than visual.

The Role of Attention

 To bring information into consciousness, it is necessary that we
give attention to it. Such that, we can only perceive and remember
later those things that pass through our attention gate.
 Getting through this attention filter is done when the learner in
interested in the material; when there is conscious control over
attention, or when information involves novelty, surprise, saliences
and distinctiveness.
 Before information is perceived, it is known as precategorical
information. This means that until that point, the learner has not
established a determination of the categorical membership of the
information. To this point, the information is coming in as
uninterpreted patterns of stimuli. Once it is perceived, we can
categorize, judge, interpret and place meaning to the stimuli. If we
fail to perceive, we have no means by which to recognize that the
stimulus was ever encountered.

Short-Term Memory (STM or Working Memory)

 Capacity: The STM can only hold 5 to 9 chunks of information
sometimes described as 7 +/-2. It is called working memory
because it is where new information is temporarily placed while it is
mentally processed. STM maintains information for a limited time
until the learner has adequate resource to process the information,
or until the information is forgotten.
 Duration: Around 18 seconds or less.
 To reduce of information in 18 minutes, you need to do
maintenance rehearsal. It is using repetition to keep the
information active in STM, like when you repeat a phone number
just given over and over.

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

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 The LTM is the final or permanent storing house for memory
information. It holds the stored information until needed again.
 Capacity: LTM has unlimited capacity
 Duration: Duration in the LTM is indefinite

Executive Control Processes

The executive control processes involve the executive processor or
what is referred to as metacognitive skills. These processes guide the flow of
information through the system, help the learner make informed decision
about how to categorize, organize or interpret information. Example of
processes are attention, rehearsals and organization.

Forgetting
Forgetting is the ability to retrieve or access information when needed.
There are two main ways in which forgetting likely occurs.
 Decay – Information is not attended to, and eventually fades away.
Very prevalent in Working Memory.
 Interference – New or old information blocks access to the
information in question.

Methods for Increasing Retrieval of Information

 Rehearsal – This is repeating information verbatim, either mentally
or aloud.
 Meaningful Learning – This is making connections between new
information ad prior knowledge.
 Organization – It is making connection among various pieces of
information. Info that is organized efficiently should be recalled.
 Elaboration – This is adding additional ideas to new information
based on what one already knows. It is connecting new info with
old to gain meaning.
 Visual Imagery – This means forming a picture of the information.
 Generation – Things we produce are easier to remember than
things we hear.
 Context – Remembering the situation helps recover information.
 Personalization – It is making the information relevant to the
individual.

Other memory Methods

 Serial Position Effect (recency and primacy) – You will remember
the beginning and end of a list more readily

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  Part Learning – Break up the list or chunk information to increase
memorization
 Distributed Practice – Break up learning sessions, rather than
cramming all the info in at once (Massed Practice)
 Mnemonic Aids – These are memory techniques that learners may
employ to help them retain and retrieve information more
effectively. This includes the loci technique, acronyms, sentence
construction, peg-word, and association techniques among others.

C. Gagne’s Conditions of leaning

In his theory, Gagne specified several different types or levels of
learning. He stressed that different internal and external conditions are
needed for each type of learning, thus his theory is called conditions of
learning. He also provided nine instruction events that serve as basis for
the sequencing of instruction.
Gagne theory deals with all aspects of learning. However, the focus
of the theory is on intellectual skills. The theory has been utilized to design
instruction in all domains. In the earlier version of the theory, special
attention was given to military training settings. Later, Gagne also looked
into the role of instructional technology in learning.

Gagne’s Principles
1. Different instruction is required for different learning outcomes.
Gagne’s theory asserts that there are several different types or
levels or learning. Furthermore, the theory implies that each
different type of learning calls for different types of learning calls
for different types of instructions. Gagne named five categories of
learning: verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies,
motor skills and attitudes. Distinct internal and external conditions
are required for each type of learning. For instance, for cognitive
strategies to be learned, there must be an opportunity for problem
solving; to learn attitudes, the learner must be exposed to credible
role model or arguments that are convincing and moving. Below are
the categories of learning with corresponding learning outcomes
and conditions of learning:
Category of Learning Example of Learning Conditions of Learning
Outcomes
Verbal Information Stating previously learned 1. Draw attention to
materials as facts, concept, distinctive features by
principles and procedures, variations in print or speech.
e.g., listing the 14 learner- 2. Present information so
centered psychological that it can be made into

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 principles.
Intellectual Skills: Discriminations:
Discriminations, Distinguishing objects,
Concrete Concepts, features or symbols, e.g.,
Defined Concepts, distinguishing an even and
Rules, Higher Order an odd number
Rules
Concrete Concepts:
Identifying classes of
concrete objects, features
or event, e.g., picking out
all the red beads from a
bowl of beads.
Defined Concepts:
Classifying new examples
of events or ideas by their
definition, e.g., noting she
sells sea shells as
alliteration
Rules: Applying a single
relationship to solve a class
of problem, e.g.,
computing average
monthly income of a
company
Order Rules: Applying a
new combination of rules
to solve a complex
problem, e.g., generating a
balance budget for a
school organization
Cognitive Strategies Employing personal ways
to guide learning, thinking,
acting and feeling, e.g.,
constructing concept maps
of topics being studied.
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chunks.
3. Provide a meaningful
context for effective encoding
of information.
4. Provide cues for effective
recall and generalization
information.
1. Call attention to distinctive
features.
2. Stay within the limits of
working memory.
3. Stimulate the recall of
previously learned
component skills.
4. Present verbal cues to the
ordering or combination of
component skills.
5. Schedule occasions for
practice and spaced review.
6. Use a variety of contexts
to promote transfer.
1. Describe or demonstrate
the strategy.
2. Provide a variety of
occasions for practice using
the strategy.
3. Provide information

Attitudes Choosing personal actions
based on internal states of
understanding and feeling,
e.g., deciding to avoid soft
drinks and drinking a least
8 glasses of water
everyday
Motor Skills Executing performance
involving the use of
muscles, e.g., doing the
steps of the singkil dance
feedback as to the creativity
or originality of the strategy
or outcome
1. Establish an expectancy of
success associated with the
desired attitude.
2. Assure student
identification with an admired
human model.
3. Arrange for communication
or demonstration of choice of
personal action.
4. Give feedback for
successful performance; or
allow observation of feedback
in the human model.
1. Present verbal or other
guidance to cue the
executive subroutine.
2. Arrange repeated practice.
3. Furnish immediate
feedback as to the accuracy
of performance.
4. Encourage the use of
mental practice.

2. Learning hierarchies define what intellectual skills are to be learned

and a sequence of instruction. Gagne suggest that learning tasks
for intellectual skills can be organized in a hierarchy according to
complexity: stimulus recognition, response generations, procedure
following, use of terminology, discriminations, concept formulation,
rule application, and problem solving. The primary significance of
the hierarchy is to identify prerequisites that should be completed
to facilitate learning at each level. Prerequisites are identified by
doing a task analysis of a learning/training task. Learning
hierarchies provide a basis for the sequencing of instruction.
3. Events of learning operate on the learner in ways that constitute
the conditions of learning. These events should satisfy or provide
the necessary conditions for learning and serve as the basis for
designing instruction and selecting appropriate media. The theory
includes nine instructional events and corresponding cognitive
process.
1. Gaining attention (reception)
2. Informing learners of the objective (expectancy)
3. Stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval)

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 4. Presenting the stimulus (selective perception)
5. Providing learning guidance (semantic encoding)
6. Eliciting performance (responding)
7. Providing feedback (reinforcement)
8. Assessing performance (retrieval)
9. Enhancing retention and transfer (generalization)
Study the two examples of teaching sequences below. They reflect the
events of instruction.
Example 1 Lesson: Equilateral Triangles
Objective: for students to create equilateral triangles
Target group: Grade 4 pupils
1. Gain attention – show variety of computer-generated
triangles
2. Identify objective – pose question: What is an equilateral
triangle?
3. Recall prior learning – review definition of triangles
4. Present stimulus – give definition of equilateral triangle
5. Guide learning – show example of how to create an
equilateral triangle
6. Elicit performance – ask students to create 5 different
examples
7. Provide feedback- check all examples as correct/incorrect
8. Assess performance – provide scores and remediation
9. Enhance retention/transfer – show pictures of objects and
ask students to identify equilaterals

Example 2 Lesson: Powerful Lessons with Power Point

Objective: Students to create presentations using Microsoft PowerPoint
Target Group: This lesson is geared for education students (pre-service
teachers) with basic computer skills.

Event of Instruction Lesson Example/ Rationale

Conditions of Learning
1. Gaining Attention Teacher tells learners how
she has used Powerpoint in
the classroom. Shows an
example of a powerpoint.
Asks learners question about
using powerpoint.
Give background
information creates validity
The use of multimedia
grabs the audience’s
attention

Asking question in the

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2. Informing the Teacher says, Today we are
Learner of the going to work on using a
Objective multimedia presentation
software, Microsoft
Powerpoint”
3. Stimulating Recall of For this particular group of
Prior Learning learners, they have learned
previously about Microsoft
Windows, particularly
Microsoft Word. Teacher
associates this knowledge
with lesson at hand.
4. Presenting the Teacher gives students
Stimulus hands-on, step-by-step
tutorial on using Microsoft
Powerpoint
5. Providing Learner Teacher demonstrates how to
Guidance create a presentation.
Teacher moves around and
shows students how to use
the tools to type in text, add
links, add symbols and clip
art, insert videos and
diagrams, use sounds, etc.
Learner are allowed to try the
tools demonstrated in
partners on their computers.
6. Eliciting Teacher asks students to
Performance demonstrate Powerpoints
tools.
7. Giving Feedback Teacher gives immediate
feedback to learners after
eliciting responses.
8. Assessing Assign a practice activity –
Performance Create an electronic story
book using Microsoft
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beginning creates an
interactive atmosphere.
Make learner aware of
what to expect so that
they are aware and
prepared to receive
information.
When learning something
new, accessing prior
knowledge is a major
factor in the process of
acquiring new information.
The goal is information
acquisition, therefore, the
stimulus employed is
written content and the
actual software program.
Teacher uses discovery
learning because learners
are adults and it gives
them the freedom to
explore. Teacher facilitates
the learning process by
giving hints and cues
when needed. Since the
audience are pre-service
with some basic level of
technology skills and the
software program is easy
to follow and understand,
guidance is minimal.
Requiring the learner to
produce based on what
has been taught enables
the learner to confirm
his/her learning.
Regular feedback
enhances learning.
Independent practice
forces students to use
what they learned and
 powerpoint. Teacher checks
work.
9. Enhancing Retention Teacher asks learners to
and transfer create activities using
Powerpoint presentation for
6th grade pupils. Teacher also
assigns learner to teach
another learner how to make
powerpoint presentations.
apply it. Assessing such
gives instructions a means
of testing student learning
outcomes.
Applying learning in real-
life situation is a step
towards Mastery Learning.

D. Ausubel’s Meaningful Verbal Learning/Subsumption Theory

Many educational psychology theories often criticize the expository or
presentational manner of teaching. They say that teachers assume such a
major role in learning as providers of information, while students remain as
passive receivers of information. David Ausubel, instead of criticizing this
manner of teaching, proposed ways of improving it. He suggested the use of
advance organizers. His ideas are contained in his theory of Meaningful Verbal
Learning.
The main theme of Ausubel’s theory is that knowledge is hierarchically
organized; that new information is meaningful to the extent that it can be
related (attached, anchor) to what is already known. It is about how
individuals learn large amounts of meaningful material from verbal textual
presentations in a school setting. He proposed the use of advance organizers
as a tool for learning.

Focus of Ausubel’s Theory

1. The most important factor influencing learning is the quantity,
clarity and organization of the learner’s present knowledge. This
present knowledge consists of facts, concepts, propositions,
theories and raw perceptual data that the learner has available to
him/her at any point in time. This comprises his/her cognitive
structure.
2. Meaningful learning takes place when an idea to be learned is
related in some sensible way to ideas that the learner already
possess. Ausebel believed that before new material can be
presented effectively, the student’s cognitive structure should be
strengthened. When this is done, acquisition and retention of new
information is facilitated. The way to strengthen the student’s
cognitive structure is by using advance organizers that allow
students to already have a bird’s eye view or to see the big picture
of the topic to be learned even before going to the details

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 Ausubel’s belief of the use of advance organizers is anchored on the
principles of submission. He thought that the primary way of learning was
subsumption: a process by which new material is related to relevant ideas in
the existing cognitive structure. Likewise, Ausubel pointed out, that what is
learned is based on what is already known. This signifies that one’s own prior
knowledge and biases limit and affect what is learned. Also, retention of new
knowledge is greater because it is based on prior concrete concepts.
Meaningful learning can take place through four processes:
Derivative subsumption. This describe the situation in which the
new information you learn is an example of a concept that you have already
learned. Let’s say you have acquired a basic concept such as bird. You know
that a bird has feathers, a beak, lays egg. Now you learn about a kind of bird
that you have never seen before, let’s say a blue jay, that conforms to your
previous understanding of bird. Your new knowledge of blue jays is attached
to your concept of bird, without substantially altering that concept in any way.
So, an in Ausubel’s theory, you had learned about blue jays through the
process of derivative subsumption.
Correlative subsumption. Examine this example. Now, let’s say you
see a new kind of bird that has a really big body and long strong legs. It
doesn’t fly but it can rum fast. In order to accommodate this new information,
you have a change or expand your concept of bird to include the possibility of
being big and having long legs. You now include your concept of an ostrich to
your previous of what bird is. Yu have learned about this new kind of bird
through the process of correlative subsumption. In a sense, you might say
that this is more valuable learning than that of derivative subsumption, since
it enriches the higher-level concept.
Superordinate learning. Imagine that a child was well acquainted
with banana, mango, dalandan, guava, etc., but the child did not know, until
she was taught, that these were all examples of fruits. In this case, the child
already knew a lot of example of the concept, but did not know the concept
itself until it was taught to her. This is superordinate learning.
Combinatorial learning. This is when newly acquired knowledge
combines with prior knowledge to enrich the understanding of both concepts.
The first three learning processes all included new information that relates to
a hierarchy at a level that is either below or above previously acquired
knowledge. Combinatorial learning is different; it describes a process by
which the new idea is derived from another idea that is neither higher nor
lower in the hierarchy, but at the same level (in a different, but related,
branch). It is a lot like as learning by analogy. For example, to teach someone
about how plants breathe you might relate it to previously acquired

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knowledge of human respiration where man inhales oxygen and exhales
carbon dioxide.

Advance Organizers
The advance organizer is a major instructional tool proposed by
Ausebel. The advance organizer, gives you two benefits: (1) You will find it
easier to connect new information with what you already know about the
topic, and (2) you can readily see how the concepts in a certain topic are
related to each other. As you go about the topic and go through the four
learning process, the advance organizer helps you link the new learning to
your existing scheme. As such, advance organizers facilitate learning by
helping you organize and strengthen your cognitive structure.
Ausebel stressed that advance organizers are not the same with
overview and summaries which simply emphasize key ideas and are
presented at the same level of abstraction and generality as the rest of the
material. Organizers act as a subsuming bridge between new learning
material and existing related ideas.

Types of Advance Organizers

1. Expository – describes the new content
2. Narrative – presents the new information in the form of a story to
students
3. Skimming – is done by looking over the new material to gain a
basic overview
4. Graphic organizer – visual to set up or outline the new information.
This may include pictographs, descriptive patterns, concept
patterns, concept maps.

Application of Principles
1. The most general ideas of a subject should be presented first and
the progressively differentiated in terms of detail and specificity. He
called this progressive differentiations. According to Ausubel, the
purpose of progressive differentiations is to increase the stability
and clarity of anchoring ideas. The basic idea here is that, if you’re
teaching three related topics A, B and C, rather than teaching all of
topic A, then going on to B, etc., you would take a spiral approach.
That is, in your first pass through the material, you would teach the
big ideas (i.e., those highest in the hierarchy) in all three topics,
then on successive passes you would begin to elaborate the details.
Along the way you would point out principles that the three topics
had in common, and things that differentiated tem.

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 2. Instructional materials should attempt to integrate new material
with previously presented information through comparisons and
cross-referencing of new and old ideas.

E. Bruner’s Constructivist Theory

Jerome Bruner was one of the first proponents of constructivism. A
major theme in the theory of Bruner is that learning is an active process in
which learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their
current/past knowledge.
REPRESENTATION
1. Enactive representation- The earliest age, children learn about the
world through actions on physical objects and the outcomes of
these action.
2. Iconic representation- is when learning can be obtained through
using models and pictures.
3. Symbolic representation- the learners has developed the ability to
think in abstract terms.

SPIRAL CURRICULUM
Teachers must revisit the curriculum by teaching the same content in
different ways depending on students developments level.  Principles of
instruction stated by Bruners.
1. Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and context
that make the student willing and able to learn (readiness)
2. Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily grasped by
the students (spiral organization)
3. instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and or fill
in the gaps.(going beyond the information given

DISCOVERING LEARNING
Discovering Learning refers to obtaining knowledge for oneself.
Teacher plans and arranges activities in such a way that students search,
manipulate, explore, and investigate. Students learn new knowledge relevant
to the domain and such general problem-solving skills as formulating rules,
testing and gathering information. Most discovery does not happen by
chance. Students require background preparation. Once students possess
prerequisite knowledge careful structuring of material allows them to discover
important principles.

Bruner (1996) states that a theory of instruction should address four

major aspects :

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 1. Predisposition to learn. He introduced the ideas of “readiness for
learning”
2. Structure of Learning the ways in which a body of knowledge can
be structured so that it can be most readily grasped by the leaner.
3. Effective Sequencing no one sequencing will fit every learner, but in
general, the lesson can be presented in increasing difficulty.
4. Reinforcement Rewards and punishment should be selected and
paced appropriately.

CATEGORIZATION
Categories are “rules” that specify four thing about objects.
1. Criterial attributes – required characteristics for inclusion of an
object in a category.
2. The second rule prescribes how the criteral attributes are
combined.
3. The third rule assigns weight to various properties. 4. The fourth
rule sets acceptance limits on attributes

THERE ARE SEVERAL KINDS OF CATEGORIES

1. Identity categories- include objects based on their attributes or
features.
2. Equivalent categories- can be determined by affective criteria,
which render objects equivalent by emotional reactions, functional
criteria, based on related functions or by formal criteria.
3. Coding system- categories to recognize that serve to recognize
sensory input.

3. Cognitive Process
A. Constructivism: Knowledge Construction/Concept Learning
Individual Constructivism. This is also called cognitive constructivism. It
emphasis individual, internal construction of knowledge. It is largely based on
Piaget’s theory. Proponents of this type choose child-centered and discovery
learning. They believe the learners should be allowed to discover principles
through their own exploration rather than direct instruction by the teacher.
Social Constructivism. This view emphasizes that knowledge exists
is a social in a social context and is initially shared with others instead of
being represented solely in the mind of an individual. It is based on
Vygotsky’s theory. Here, construction of knowledge is shared by two or more
people. According to social constructivists, the opportunity to interact and
share among learners help to shape and refine their ideas. Knowledge
construction becomes social, not individual.

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Characteristics of Constructivist Learning & Teaching
Moving from constructivist philosophy, psychology and epistemology to
the characterization of constructivist learning environments presents the
challenge of synthesizing a large spectrum of somewhat disparate concepts.
An appropriate analogy for the way in which constructivist concepts have
evolved is that of a prism with many facets. While the facets reflect the same
light and form one part of a whole, they nonetheless each present distinct
and finely delineated boundaries.
The presentation of characteristics in this section aims to remain true
to this analogy in that it recognizes and attempts to represent the variety of
ways in which constructivism is articulated in the literature. Situated
cognition, anchored instruction, apprenticeship learning, problem-based
learning, generative learning, constructionism, exploratory learning: these
approaches to learning are grounded in and derived from constructivist
epistemology. Each approach articulates the way in which the concepts are
operationalized for learning. The researchers and theorists whose
perspectives are listed below suggest links between constructivist theory and
practice. They provide the beginnings of an orienting framework for a
constructivist approach to design, teaching or learning.
Jonassen (1991) notes that many educators and cognitive
psychologists have applied constructivism to the development of learning
environments. From these applications, he has isolated a number of design
principles:
1. Create real-world environments that employ the context in which
learning is relevant;
2. Focus on realistic approaches to solving real-world problems;
3. The instructor is a coach and analyzer of the strategies used to
solve these problems;
4. Stress conceptual interrelatedness, providing multiple
representations or perspectives on the content;
5. Instructional goals and objectives should be negotiated and not
imposed;
6. Evaluation should serve as a self-analysis tool;
7. Provide tools and environments that help learners interpret the
multiple perspectives of the world;
8. Learning should be internally controlled and mediated by the
learner

Jonassen (1994) summarizes what he refers to as "the implications of

constructivism for instructional design". The following principles illustrate how
knowledge construction can be facilitated:
1. Provide multiple representations of reality;
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 2. Represent the natural complexity of the real world;
3. Focus on knowledge construction, not reproduction;
4. Present authentic tasks (contextualizing rather than abstracting
instruction);
5. Provide real-world, case-based learning environments, rather than
pre-determined instructional sequences;
6. Foster reflective practice;
7. Enable context-and content dependent knowledge construction;
8. Support collaborative construction of knowledge through social
negotiation

Wilson & Cole (1991) provide a description of cognitive teaching

models which "embody" constructivist concepts. From these descriptions, we
can isolate some concepts central to constructivist design, teaching and
learning:
1. Embed learning in a rich authentic problem-solving environment;
2. Provide for authentic versus academic contexts for learning;
3. Provide for learner control;
4. Use errors as a mechanism to provide feedback on learners'
understanding

Paul Ernest (1995) in his description of the many schools of thought of

constructivism suggests the following implications of constructivism which
derive from both the radical and social perspectives:
1. sensitivity toward and attentiveness to the learner's previous
constructions;
2. diagnostic teaching attempting to remedy learner errors and
misconceptions;
3. attention to metacognition and strategic self-regulation by learners;
4. the use of multiple representations of mathematical concepts;
5. awareness of the importance of goals for the learner, and the
dichotomy between learner and teacher goals;
6. awareness of the importance of social contexts, such as the
difference between folk or street mathematics and school
mathematics (and an attempt to exploit the former for the latter)

Honebein (1996) describes seven goals for the design of constructivist

learning environments:
1. Provide experience with the knowledge construction process;
2. Provide experience in and appreciation for multiple perspectives;
3. Embed learning in realistic and relevant contexts;
4. Encourage ownership and voice in the learning process;
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 5. Embed learning in social experience;
6. Encourage the use of multiple modes of representation;
7. Encourage self-awareness in the knowledge construction process

An important concept for social constructivists is that of scaffolding

which is a process of guiding the learner from what is presently known to
what is to be known. According to Vygotsky (1978), students' problem solving
skills fall into three categories:
1. skills which the student cannot perform
2. skills which the student may be able to perform
3. skills that the student can perform with help

Scaffolding allows students to perform tasks that would normally be

slightly beyond their ability without that assistance and guidance from the
teacher. Appropriate teacher support can allow students to function at the
cutting edge of their individual development. Scaffolding is therefore an
important characteristic of constructivist learning and teaching.
Multiple perspectives, authentic activities, real-world environments
these are just some of the themes that are frequently associated with
constructivist learning and teaching. There were many similarities between
the perspectives of different researchers in this brief review of the literature.
The following section presents a synthesis and summary of the characteristics
of constructivist learning and teaching as presented by the above review and
as suggested by the previous section on constructivist theory. These are not
presented in a hierarchical order.
1. Multiple perspectives and representations of concepts and content
are presented and encouraged.
2. Goals and objectives are derived by the student or in negotiation
with the teacher or system.
3. Teachers serve in the role of guides, monitors, coaches, tutors and
facilitators.
4. Activities, opportunities, tools and environments are provided to
encourage metacognition, self-analysis-regulation, -reflection &
-awareness.
5. The student plays a central role in mediating and controlling
learning.
6. Learning situations, environments, skills, content and tasks are
relevant, realistic, authentic and represent the natural complexities
of the 'real world'.
7. Primary sources of data are used in order to ensure authenticity
and real-world complexity.
8. Knowledge construction and not reproduction is emphasized.
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 9. This construction takes place in individual contexts and through
social negotiation, collaboration and experience.
10. The learner's previous knowledge constructions, beliefs and
attitudes are considered in the knowledge construction process.
11. Problem-solving, higher-order thinking skills and deep
understanding are emphasized.
12. Errors provide the opportunity for insight into students' previous
knowledge constructions.
13. Exploration is a favoured approach in order to encourage students
to seek knowledge independently and to manage the pursuit of
their goals.
14. Learners are provided with the opportunity for apprenticeship
learning in which there is an increasing complexity of tasks, skills
and knowledge acquisition.
15. Knowledge complexity is reflected in an emphasis on conceptual
interrelatedness and interdisciplinary learning.
16. Collaborative and cooperative learning are favoured in order to
expose the learner to alternative viewpoints.
17. Scaffolding is facilitated to help students perform just beyond the
limits of their ability.
18. Assessment t is authentic and interwoven with teaching.

Making Concept-leaning Effective. As a future teacher, you can help

students learn concepts by doing the following:
 Provide a clear definition of the concept
 Make the defining features very concrete and prominent
 Give a variety of positive instances
 Give negative instances
 Cite a best example or a prototype
 Provide opportunity for learners to identify positive and negative
instances
 Ask learners to think of their own example of the concept
 Point out how concepts can be related to each other

Applying Constructivism in Facilitating Learning

 Aim to make learners understand a few key ideas in an in-depth
manner, rather than taking up so many topics superficially
 Give varied examples
 Provide opportunities for experimentation
 Provide lots of opportunities for quality interaction
 Have lots of hands-on activities

107
  Relate your topic to real life situations
 Do not depend on the explanation method all the time.

B. Transfer of Learning
Transfer of learning happens when learning is one context or with one
set of materials affects performance in another context or with other related
materials. Simply put, it is applying to another situation what was previously
learned.

Types or Transfer
Positive transfer. Positive transfer occurs when learning in one context
improves performance in some other context. For instance, a speaker of
Spanish would find it easier to learn Mexican language than Japanese.
Negative transfer. Negative transfer occurs when learning in one
context impacts negatively on performance in another.
Near transfer. Near transfer refers to transfer between very similar
contexts. This is also referred to as specific transfer.
Far transfer. Far transfer refers to transfer between contexts that, on
appearance, seem remote and alien to one another. This is also called general
transfer.

Conditions and Principles of transfer

These principles are based on the factors that effect transfer of
learning. These factors are similar to what Perkins termed as conditions of
transfer. Below you will find the factors with the consequent principles and
educational implication.

Conditions/Factors Principle of transfer Implication

affecting transfer of
learning
Similarity between two The more similar the Involve students in
learning situations two situations are, the learning situations and
greater the chances tasks that are similar as
that learning from one possible to the
situation will be situations where they
transferred to the other would apply the task
situation.
Degree of Meaningful learning Remember to provide
meaningfulness/ leads to greater transfer opportunities for
relevance of learning than rote learning learners to link new
material to what they
learned in the past.
Length of instructional The longer the time To ensure transfer,

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time spent in instruction, the teach a few topics in
greater the probability depth rather than many
of transfer topics tackled in a
shallow manner.
Variety of learning Exposure to many and Illustrate new concepts
experiences varied examples and and principles with a
opportunities for variety of examples.
practice encourages Plan activities that allow
transfer. your learners to practice
their newly learned
skills.
Contexts of learner’s Transfer of learning is Relate a topics in one
experiences most likely to happen subject to topics in
when learners discover other subject or
that what they learned disciplines. Relate it also
is applicable to various to real life situations.
context.
Focus on principles Principles transfer Zero in on principles
rather than tasks easier than facts related to each topic
together with strategies
based on those
principles.
Emphasis on Student reflection Encourage students to
metacognition improves transfer of take responsibility for
learning their own learning, and
to reflect on what they
learned.

C. The Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives

Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (Backgrounder) ▪
Taxonomy - a hierarchical model that describes classification and sequencing
procedures ▪ 1956 –The Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: the
Classification of Educational Goals Handbook 1: Cognitive Domain was
published ▪ Benjamin Bloom - developed the most prominent methods for
categorizing differences in thinking skills ▪ 1964 - Bloom and his colleagues
published Handbook II, The Affective Domain in 1964
Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (Original) ▪ a model that
described the different levels of learning outcomes that target what skills and
competencies the teachers aim to develop in the learners ▪ includes six levels
of cognition ranging from recall or knowledge to evaluation of knowledge ▪
progress from simple to more complex levels of thinking ▪ HOTS (higher order
thinking skills): analysis, synthesis, evaluation.
Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (Original) • facts, stating
memorized rules, principles or definitions • includes memorizing, recognizing
or recalling factual information • Use: list, identify, name, recite and define.

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 Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (Original) • understanding
concepts, rules and principles • organizing, describing and interpreting
concepts • Use: describe, interpret, explain, illustrate, summarize, restate and
defend.
Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (Original) • Using the
concepts and principles in real life situation • Use: apply, classify,
demonstrate, discover, predict, show, solve and compare.
Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (Original) • requires
higher level thinking skills such as finding underlying structures, separating
the whole into its components, identifying motives and recognizing hidden
meanings • Use: analyze, ascertain, diagram, differentiate, discriminate,
examine, determine, classify, investigate, construct and contrast.
Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (Original) • Students put
together elements of what had been learned in a new way • expected to
create an original product based on the knowledge acquired, combine the
ideas presented into a new whole or relate several ideas into a consistent
concept. • Use: combine, compile, create, design, develop, expand, integrate,
extend, originate, synthesize and formulate.
Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (Original) • highest level
of cognition • students can now assess or judge, based on a set of standards,
on what they learned • expected to make thoughtful value decisions with
reference to knowledge, resolve differences and controversies and develop
personal opinions, judgments and decisions • Use: assess, critique, judge,
appraise, contrast, evaluate, weigh and recommend.
Revised Taxonomy ▪ Lorin Anderson (a former student of Bloom),
David Krathwohl and a group of cognitive psychologist, updated the
taxonomy
Revised Taxonomy • Can the student recall or remember the
information? • Use: define, duplicate, list, memorize, recall, repeat,
reproduce, and state.
Revised Taxonomy • Can the student explain ideas or concepts? • Use:
classify, describe, discuss, explain, identify, locate, recognize, report, select,
translate, and paraphrase.
Revised Taxonomy • Can the student use the information in a new
way? • Use: choose, demonstrate, dramatize, employ, illustrate, interpret,
operate, schedule, sketch, solve, use, and write.
Revised Taxonomy • Can the student distinguish between the different
parts? • Use: appraise, compare, contrast, criticize, differentiate, discriminate,
distinguish, examine, experiment, question, and test.
Revised Taxonomy • Can the student justify a stand or decision? • Use:
appraise, argue, defend, judge, select, support, value, and evaluate.

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 Revised Taxonomy • Can the student create a new product or point of
view? • Use: construct, create, develop, formulate, and write.
Differences between the Old and the Revised Taxonomies 1.The
levels/categories of thinking in the old taxonomy were nouns, while in the
revised taxonomy they are verbs.
Differences between the Old and the Revised Taxonomies 2.While the
revised taxonomy remains to be in hierarchical levels of increasing
complexity, it is intended to be more flexible, allowing the categories to
overlap.
Differences between the Old and the Revised Taxonomies 3.The
knowledge level was changed to remember. Creating Evaluating Analyzing
Applying Understanding Remembering Evaluation Synthesis Analysis
Application Comprehension Knowledge.
Differences between the Old and the Revised Taxonomies 4.The
comprehension level was changed to understand.
Differences between the Old and the Revised Taxonomies 5. Synthesis
was changed to create and was placed at the highest level.
Differences between the Old and the Revised Taxonomies 6.The
cognitive domain now includes two dimensions: the cognitive dimension and
the knowledge dimension. The knowledge dimension of the revised taxonomy
was based on the subcategories of knowledge in the old taxonomy (factual,
conceptual, procedural, metacognitive).
Two Dimensions of the Revised Taxonomy Cognitive Dimension ▪
includes the hierarchical or ordered levels of thinking. It represents a
continuum of increasing cognitive complexity – from remember to create. ▪
remember, understand, apply, analyze, evaluate and create.
Cognitive Dimension
Two Dimensions of the Revised Taxonomy Knowledge Dimension ▪
includes four knowledge categories: factual, conceptual, procedural and
metacognitive. ▪ The knowledge ranges from concrete (factual) to abstract
(metacognitive).
Knowledge Dimension
Formulating a Learning Objective ▪ consider what level of thinking
(cognitive) should be achieved and what type of knowledge should be taught.
▪ The level of thinking is always represented by the verb, while the knowledge
dimension is always represented by the noun.
Practical Guide in Using the Revised Taxonomy Cognitive Dimension
Levels Sample Action Words Suggested Activities, Outputs or Outcomes
Remember (recalling information) Recall, name, list, state, tell, reproduce,
describe, locate, write, find, underline, define, define, duplicate, list,
memorize, recall, repeat, reproduce, state Recitations, worksheets,
definitions, fact charts, lists
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 Practical Guide in Using the Revised Taxonomy Cognitive Dimension
Levels Sample Action Words Suggested Activities, Outputs or Outcomes
Understand (explaining information and concepts) Explain, translate,
interpret, discuss, describe, define, report, predict, classify, describe, discuss,
explain, identify, locate, recognize, report, select, translate, and paraphrase
Story problems, drawing, show and tell, summary, paraphrasing.
Practical Guide in Using the Revised Taxonomy Cognitive Dimension
Levels Sample Action Words Suggested Activities, Outputs or Outcomes Apply
(using information in a new way) Use, solve, implement, construct, practice,
execute, demonstrate, dramatize, choose, demonstrate, dramatize, employ,
illustrate, interpret, operate, schedule, sketch, solve, use, and write
Presentation, role-playing, simulation, collection, model, scrapbook, product.
Practical Guide in Using the Revised Taxonomy Cognitive Dimension
Levels Sample Action Words Suggested Activities, Outputs or Outcomes
Analyze (distinguishing different parts of a whole) Compare, distinguish,
investigate, infer, contrast, separate, differentiate, sequence, appraise,
compare, contrast, criticize, differentiate, discriminate, distinguish, examine,
experiment, question, and test Chart, plan, questionnaire, spreadsheet,
summary, survey.
Practical Guide in Using the Revised Taxonomy Cognitive Dimension
Levels Sample Action Words Suggested Activities, Outputs or Outcomes
Evaluate (defending a concept or idea) Assess, debate, defend, dispute,
judge, appraise, check, decide, justify, rate, appraise, argue, defend, judge,
select, support, value, and evaluate Opinion, judgement, recommendation,
report, self- evaluation, position paper, critique.
Practical Guide in Using the Revised Taxonomy Cognitive Dimension
Levels Sample Action Words Suggested Activities, Outputs or Outcomes
Create (creating something new) Change, design, formulate, improve, plan,
propose, invent, devise, generate, compose, combine, assemble, construct,
create, develop, formulate, and write Framework, model, story, multimedia
presentation, poem, haiku, song, essay.
Uses of the Revised Taxonomy ▪ It provides educators with a common
set of terms and levels about learning outcomes that help in planning across
subject matter and grade levels. ▪ It helps in the drafting of learning
standards across levels. ▪ It serves as a guide in evaluating the school’s
curriculum objectives, activities and assessments. ▪ It guides the teacher in
formulating learning outcomes that tap higher order thinking skills.

The Revised Taxonomy

Bloom’s Taxonomy was reviewed and revised by Anderson and
Krathwohl, with the help of many scholars and practitioners in the field, in
2001. They developed the revised Taxonomy, which retained the same goals
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as the original Taxonomy but reflected almost half a century of engagement
with Bloom’s original version by educators and researchers.
Orignal vs Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy
Unlike Bloom’s original “Knowledge” category, “Remember” refers only
to the recall of specific facts or procedures
Many instructors, in response to the original Taxonomy, commented on
the absence of the term “understand”. Bloom did not include it because the
word could refer to many different kinds of learning. However, in creating the
revised Taxonomy, the authors found that when instructors use the word
“understand”, they were most frequently describing what the original
taxonomy had named “comprehension”.

Structure of the Cognitive Process Dimension of the Revised Taxonomy

1. Remembering – Retrieving relevant knowledge from long-term memory
1.1 Recognizing
1.2 Recalling
2. Understanding – Determining the meaning of instructional messages,
including oral, written, and graphic communication
2.1 Interpreting
2.2 Exemplifying
2.3 Classifying
2.4 Summarizing
2.5 Inferring
2.6 Comparing
2.7 Explaining
3. Applying – Carrying out or using a procedure in a given situation
3.1 Executing
3.2 Implementing
4. Analyzing – Breaking material into its constituent parts and detecting how
the parts relate to one another and to an overall structure or
purpose
4.1 Differentiating
4.2 Organizing
4.3 Attributing
5. Evaluating – Making judgments based on criteria and standards
5.1 Checking
5.2 Critiquing
6. Creating – Putting elements together to form a novel, coherent whole or
make an original product
6.1 Generating
6.2 Planning
6.3 Producing
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 One major change of the revised Taxonomy was to address Bloom’s
very complicated “knowledge” category, the first level in the original
Taxonomy. In the original Taxonomy, the knowledge category referred both
to knowledge of specific facts, ideas, and processes (as the revised category
“Remember” now does), and to an awareness of possible actions that can be
performed with that knowledge. The revised Taxonomy recognized that such
actions address knowledge and skills learned throughout all levels of the
Taxonomy, and thus added a second “dimension” to the Taxonomy: the
knowledge dimension, comprised of factual, conceptual, procedural, and
metacognitive knowledge.

Structure of the Knowledge Dimension of the Revised Taxonomy

Factual knowledge – The basic elements that students must know to be
acquainted with a discipline or solve problems in it.
Conceptual knowledge – The interrelationships among the basic elements
within a larger structure that enable them to function
together.
Procedural knowledge – How to do something; methods of inquiry; and
criteria for using skills, algorithms, techniques, and
methods.
Metacognitive knowledge – Knowledge of cognition in general as well as
awareness and knowledge of one’s own condition.

The two dimensions – knowledge and cognitive – of the revised

Taxonomy combine to create a taxonomy table with which written objectives
can be analyzed. This can help instructors understand what kind of
knowledge and skills are being covered by the course to ensure that adequate
breadth in types of learning is addressed by the course.

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D. Sternberg’s Successful Intelligence Theory and WICS Model
• by Robert Sternberg
• Four skills (MACP) ROBERT JEFFREY STERNBERG American psychologist
and psychometrician Born in New Jersey on December 9, 1949 After suffering
from test anxiety and doing poorly on an exam, he realized that the test was
not an accurate measure of his actual knowledge and abilities. Sternberg
served as the President of the American Psychological Association in 2003. In
2013, he voluntarily resigned as President of the University of Wyoming after
having held the office for only four months.
Robert Sternberg did extensive work in the field of intelligence. As a
youngster, he had difficulty with intelligence tests. He did not perform well on
such tests. This might have fueled his interest in the field that led him to
come up with the Triarchic Theory of Intelligence in the 1980's. Over the
years, his theory evolved from the more complicated, componential Triarchic
Theory to the simpler, successful Intelligence Theory. More recently, in
collaboration with other prominent psychologists, he proposed the WICS
(Wisdom, Intelligence, Creativity, Synthesized) Model. It is an alternative
paradigm to deliver more relevant admission, instruction and assessment in
education.
Robert J. Sternberg is a cognitive psychologist who is currently the
Provo stand Professor of Psychology at the Oklahoma State University.
 Ph.D. Stanford University, 1975(Psychology)
 BA, summa cum laude, Yale University,1972 (Psychology)
 has 13 honorary doctorate degrees including one Conferred by De
La Salle University, Manila in 2011.
 received numerous awards for his contribution and service to
psychology and education

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  has written 20 major books with topics ranging from intelligence,
giftedness, creativity, love and hate

Successful Intelligence Theory

The four skills included in the theory are described below:
1. Memory skills help us recall facts and pieces of information. It helps
us retain the knowledge we acquire.
2. Analytical skills help the person determine if a certain idea is good.
3. Creative skills allow a person to come up with a new idea, usually
to answer a need or solve a problem. It makes one flexible and able
to adjust to changes in one's situation.
4. Practical skills enable a person to apply what one has learned. It
also allows one to carry through or implement a plan.

Sternberg believed that traditional views of intelligence focused heavily

on memory and analytical skills. This traditional view led to teaching
strategies that focused mainly on memory and analytical skills as well. It
naturally followed that assessment of learning likewise concentrated heavily
on these two skills.
Memory and analytical skills are very much necessary. Being able to
recall information or have knowledge is needed to begin thinking creatively.
One cannot apply knowledge which he cannot remember. Analysis is
important before one can think of new and better ideas. However, memory
and analytical skills should not be the only focus of education.
Sternberg also emphasized creative and practical intelligence.
Creativity is what moves people forward. Creativity gives birth to new and
better solutions to problems. Without creativity we will get trapped in things
and ways that don't work anymore. Practical intelligence makes us apply what
we have learned. It gets us to actually do what needs to be done.

The WICS Model

In the WICS model, intelligences is viewed as a set of fluid as a set of
fluid abilities to learn from experiences and to adapt to one’s surroundings.
Individuals possess abilities that can be nurtured into competences and
further cultivated into expertise. The WICS is more recent model of how
human think and reason that can help us understand how student will learn
most effectively. It aims to develop basic abilities to true expertise.
WICS stands for Wisdom, Intelligence, Creativity, Synthesized.
Sternberg (2010) describe the WICS model as follows.
The basic idea is that citizen of the world need creativity to form a
vision of where they want to go and to cope with changes in the
environment, analytical intelligence to ascertain whether their creative ideas
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are good ones, practical intelligence to implement their ideas and to persuade
others of the value of their ideas, and wisdom in order to ensure that the
ideas will help achieve some ethnically-based common good, over the long
and short terms, rather than just what is good for them and their families and
friends.
Sternberg presents a model for education that is relevant to the need
of the times. Time and again the world has seen leaders in countries,
corporations, religious groups, and other institutions who have been
considered intelligent. They were capable of serious analysis of issues and
problems. They were good at coming up with new ideas. However, some of
these leaders lacked the moral and ethical muscles to really act for the good
of their people and not just for their own. Your role as a teacher is not to
educate the mind alone, but to educate the soul as well. Accept this not just a
job but embrace it as a mission.
Sternberg proposed that while education develop analytical and
practical intelligence as well as creativity, wisdom should be an integral part
of the whole process. Whatever topic you will be teaching, it is important to
integrate questions, tasks, or activities that target the development of
wisdom. You should also come up with creative ways for your learners to put
together or synthesize intelligence, creativity and wisdom.

Applying the WICS Model

One way you can apply the WICS model in instruction is when you
reflect and make choices on the task and activities that you will give to each
and assess your students. You may choose to teach analytically, creatively,
practically as well as teach for wisdom. Your choice can be based on the
preferences and strength of your learners. This useful for any level, from
preschool to higher education. Sternberg described each of these. Some
examples relevant to education in the Philippines are also provided below.
How do you teach analytically? Make your students use critical
thinking. Design tasks and activities that provide opportunity for your learners
to
1. Analyse
2. Critique
3. Judge
4. Compare and contrast
5. Evaluate
6. Assess

Here are some examples for analytical intelligence:

a. Analyse the development of the character of Ibarra in Noli Me
Tangere
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 b. Critique the design and features of the latest smart phones
c. Judge the artistic merits of Filipino cartoonist, Larry Alcala’s Slice of
life.
d. Compare and contrast the Italian approaches of Montessori and
Reggio Emilia in early childhood education.
e. Evaluate the validity the theory of evolution. Write a term paper on
this.
f. Assess the strategy of the Manila city government to improve the
traffic situation around the city.

How do you teach creativity? It is important for you to encourage and

sustain your students’ creative ideas. Remember to be an example to them by
taking the risk to share your own creative ideas. Think out of the box. Design
tasks and activities that help students to:
1. Create
2. Invent
3. Discover
4. Imagine if…
5. Suppose that…
6. Predict
Here are some examples for creative intelligence.
a. Create an alternative ending to Florante at Laura (Literature)
b. Invent a dialogue that would transpire if Jose Rizal and Ninoy
Aquino met (Araling Panlipunan)
c. Discover a way to explain why heavy ships float at sea (Science)
d. Imagine if the EDSA Revolution did not happen in 1986. What do
think our country will be like at present and 10 years later? (Araling
Panlipunan)
e. Suppose that you were to design a computer game to help children
learn about love and sacrifice. Describe the game you will create.
(Computer Education, Edukasyon sa Pagpapakatao)
f. Predict changes that will happen if humans had a third eye at the
back of their heads. Choose an appliance or gadget that would
need to be changed in order to be useful. Propose a new functional
design. (HELE)

How do you teach practically? Have in minds real life situation where
students can use what they learn to meet their own and also others’ practical
needs. Design tasks and activities that allow your students to:
1. Apply
2. Use
3. Put into practice
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 4. Implement
5. Employ
6. Render practical what they know

Here are some examples for practical intelligence:

a. Apply additional concept in determining number of boys and girls in
the classroom (Mathematics)
b. Use the knowledge of Excel to keep track of daily household
expense (Computer Education, Mathematics)
c. Put into practice what you learn about classroom rules in making
your own classroom rules poster (Classroom Management)
d. Implement a lesson plan that one has made (Principles of
Teaching)
e. Employ the formula of computing the area of one’s living room to
determine the number of 12”x12” tiles needed to cover the floor.
f. Render practical a proposed assembly design for a computer PC.

How do you teach for wisdom? One of the goal is for learners to lean
to see and understand the point of you of others. It is important for your
learners to balance one’s own needs with the needs of other people and also
that of the world or the environment. It is developing your learners to
consistently as based on positive ethical values. You teach for wisdom when
you are able to move your students to:
1. Try to find s common good
2. See things from others’ point of view
3. Balance your own interests with those of others and of institutions.
4. Look at the long term as well as the short term
5. Reflect about how one can base his every decision on positive
ethical values
6. Appreciate that in life what is seen as true and effective may vary
over time and place

Here are some examples for wisdom:

a. What might be a solution for the common good in the Philippines
and China claim on Spratly Islands (Araling Panlipunan, Political
Science)
b. Think of a person you had a conflict or fight with. Put yourself in
the person’s place. Write down her point of view and concerns as
detailed as possible. What can you do or say to express that you
understand the person now? (Edukasyon sa Pagpapakatao, General
Psychology)

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 c. Should parents expect their children to take care of them when
they are old? Why? (Edukasyon sa Pagpapakatao)
d. How is global warming to affect the world, and the Philippines in
particular? What can you do? (Science, Geology, Edukasyon sa
Pagpapakatao)
e. It is ever ethical to shoot down a plane with civilian and terrorists
on board if the terrorists plan to slam the plane to a building with
thousands of people? (Edukasyon sa Pagpapakatao)
f. How does parenting change overtime? What would you say are
different now than before? What are the constant things that
should be present to make the parent-child relationship work?
(Edukasyon sa Pagpapakatao)

The WICS Model has been used not only for instruction but also for
admission and assessment. Sternberg and his colleagues proposed, tried out
and studied creative ways of doing students admission as well as assessing
students’ learning. Based on their studies, the WICS model was successful for
teachers and their learners because it (1) celebrated the differences of
learners through a supportive learning environment, (2) made students
remember better what they learned, (3) build on the strengths of the
learners, and (4) strengthened the motivations of the learners.

E. Problem Solving and Creativity

What you went through is an exercise on creative thinking and
problem solving. What are the aspects of creative thinking and problem
solving? The notes below will provide more details.

Torrance Framework for Creative Thinking

A common framework for creative thinking process is described by
Torrance (1979). Each aspect is defined below, along with ways to facilitate
the respective aspects by using key words and application activities.

Fluency
Definition
Fluency refers to the production of a great number of idea or alternate
solutions to a problem. Fluency implies understanding, not just remembering
information that is learned.

Key words
Compare, convert, count, define, describe, explain, identify, label, list,
match, name, outline, paraphrase, predict, summarize.

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Application activities
Trace a picture and label the parts.
Outline an article you find on your topic.
How many uses can you think of for a clothes hanger?
List 15 things that are commonly red or contain red.
Example: Apple, blood, brick, caboose, cherry, Christmas stocking, exit
sign, fire alarm, flag, heart, red nose reindeer, rose, tomato, wagon.

Flexibility
Definition
Flexibility refers to the production of ideas that show a variety of
possibilities or realms of thought. It involves the ability to see things from
different points of view, to use many different approaches or strategies.

Key words
Change, demonstrate, distinguish, employ, extrapolate, interpret,
predict.

Application ideas
What would happen if.. there were no automobiles?
How would a….a dog look to a flea?
How is ____________ like __________?
How would you feel if… you were invisible for a day?
How would you group the ideas about red into categories?
Example: Fruit, safety feature, vehicles.
Once categories are identified, fluency may be further demonstrated by
generating more ideas about the idea re within categories. Even a modest
attempt could result in the following lists, recognizing that the creative
thinking process may shift the mind in a spiral way between all four aspects
of creativity.

Red fruit Red safety features Red vehicles

apple exit sign caboose
cherry fire alarm fire truck
raspberry stop sign tricycle
tomato tail lights wagon

Elaboration
Definition
Elaboration is the process of enhancing ideas by providing more
details. Additional detail and clarity improves interest in, and understanding
of, the topic.

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Key words
Appraise, critique, determine, evaluate, grade, judge, measure, select,
test.

Application ideas
Tell your neighbour about your last family trip using as many details as
possible.
What can you add to _______ to improve its quality or performance?
Describe all the possible characteristics of the red quality in a wagon.
Example: Shade, finish, texture, uniformity

Originality
Definition
Originality involves the production of ideas that are unique or unusual.
It involves synthesis or putting information about a topic back together in a
new way.

Key words
Compose, create, design, generate, integrate, modify, rearrange,
reconstruct, reorganize, revise.

Application ideas
Find an original use for ________.
What would be the strangest way to get out of bed?
Design a new _____ that is better than the one you have.
Write an unusual title for the ideas about red.
Example: Revolutionary Red Representation
An overview of the four aspects of creativity appears in a Power Point
presentation that may be downloaded from the following link: Creativity ppt
An adaptation of the creativity aspects to the construct jumping
appears in a Word document that may be downloaded from the link: Jumping
doc

Creative Problem Solving – CPS

Creative Problem Solving (CPS) is an intentional process for solving
problems and discovering opportunities. It espouses the use of creativity in
coming up with solution which are not only novel but practical as well. In the
1950”s Alex Osborn described this process in his book, Applied Imagination.
Osborn opened the process in the public domain which meant anyone can use
it. Over the years countless people have utilized the CPS in various fields and
endeavours.

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 Osborn’s Checklist, the original of Classical Brainstorming is the root of
creative problem solving (CPS). There are a variety of general structures:
define problem, generate possible solutions, select and implement the best’
which can be found extensively, in several different academic traditions.
In its most extended and formalized from it has the six stages shown
below, each with a divergent and a convergent phase. However, more recent
publications seem more interested in focusing on procedure and technique
issues, with less weight on the full elaboration of this structure.
The following, based on Van Gundy (1988’s) description, is a very brief
skeleton of a very rich process, showing it in its full 6x2 stages form:
1. Stage 1: Mess finding: Sensitive yourself (scan, search) for issues
(concerns, challenges, opportunities, etc.) that need to be tackled.
 Divergent techniques include “Wouldn’t It Be Nice..” (WIBN) and
“Wouldn’t It Be Awful If…” (WIBAI) – brainstorming to identify
desirable outcomes and obstacles to be overcome.
 Convergent techniques include the identification of hotspots
(Highlighting), expressed as a list of IWWMs (In What Ways
Might..) and skeleton in terms of ownership criteria (e.g. problem-
owner’s motivation and ability to influence it) and outlook criteria
(e.g. urgency, familiarity, stability).
2. Stage 2: Data finding: Gather information about the problem.
 Divergent techniques include Five W’s and H (Who, Why, What,
When, Where and How) and listing of wants, sources and data: List
all your information wants as a series of question: for each, list
possible sources of answers; then fellow these up and for each
sources, list what you found.
 Convergent techniques again include: identifying hotspots
(Highlighting); Mind-mapping to sort and classify the information
gathered; and also restating the problem in the light of your richer
understanding of it.
3. Stage 3: Problem finding: convert a fuzzy statement of the problem
into a broad statement more suitable for idea finding.
 Divergent techniques include asking “Why?” etc. – the repeatable
question and Five W’s and H.
 Convergent techniques include highlighting again, reformulation of
problem-statements to meet the criteria that they contain only one
problem and no criteria, and selection of the most promising
statement (but NB that the mental starching that the activity gives
to the participants can be important as the actual statement
chosen).
4. Stage 4: Idea Finding: generate as many ideas as possible

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  Divergence using any of a very wide range of idea-generating
techniques. The general rules of Classic Brainstorming (such as
deferring judgement) are likely to underpin all of these.
 Convergence can again involve hotspots or mind-mapping, the
combining of different ideas, and the shortlisting of the most
promising handful, perhaps with some thought for the more
obvious evaluation criteria, but not over-restrictively.
5. Stage 5: Solution finding: Generate and select obvious evaluation
criteria (using an expansion/contraction cycle) and develop (which
may include combining) the short listed ideas from Idea Finding as
much as you can in the light of these criteria. Then opt for the best
of these improved ideas (e.g. using Comparison tables).
6. Stage 6: Acceptance finding: how can that suggestion you have just
selected be made up to standard and put into practice? Shun
negativity, and continue to apply deferred judgment – problems are
exposed to be solved, not to dishearten progress. Action plans are
better developed in small groups of 2 – 3 rather than in a large
group (unless you particularly want commitment by the whole
group). Particularly for people problems it is often worth developing
several alternative action plans. Possible techniques include – Five
W’s and H, Implementation Checklist, Consensus Mapping,
Potential-Problem Analysis (PPA)

Other Model for Problem Solving

Bransford’s IDEAL Model
1. Identify the problem.
2. Define the problem through thinking about it and sorting out the
relevant information.
3. Explore solutions through looking into at alternatives,
brainstorming, and checking out different point of view.
4. Act on the strategies.
5. Look back and evaluate the effects of your activity.

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Assessment Task:
Name: __________________________________________ Score: ________________
Year and Section: _________________________________ Date: _________________
Task Number: Unit 3-1

Direction: Please do the observation report.

1. Observation
a. Choose a place where you can observe adult-child interactions – such as in a
mall, in church, at the playground, etc. spend one hour observing such adult-
child interactions. Focus your attention on the stimulus-response-consequence
patterns you observe.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
b. Describe the consequences you observe. (It is better to write or scribble the
details on the spot or a soon as you finish your observation).
c. Answer these questions:
1. What kind of stimuli for children’s and adult behaviour did you observe?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
2. What kinds of behaviours on the part of children elicit reinforcement and
punishment consequences from the adult?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
3. What kinds of behaviours of adults are reinforced or punished by the
children?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
4. What kind of reinforcements and punishments seem to be the most
successful?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

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 _______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
5. Given this experience, what are your thoughts about operant conditioning?
Do you think children reinforce and punish adults as adults reinforce and
punish them? How might the two be interdependent?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

2. Thorndike’s Connectionism
a. Think of ways you can apply the three primary laws while you teach the topic.
Primary Law How I would apply the primary Law
Law of Readiness

Law of Effect. Indicate

specifically how you will
use positive/negative
reinforcements
(rewards

Law of Exercise

Name: __________________________________________ Score: ________________

Year and Section: _________________________________ Date: _________________
Task Number: Unit 3-2

Direction: Please answer from your own understanding.

1. Explain the basic principles of behaviourism.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

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 _____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2. Make a simple plan applying the principles of learning.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
3. Explain how to use rewards in the learning process effectively.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

Name: __________________________________________ Score: ________________

Year and Section: _________________________________ Date: _________________
Task Number: Unit 3-3

Direction: State a personal message derived from the key concepts of Tolman’s purposive
behaviourism. Use the Table provided below.

Key Concept of Tolman’s Theory on Personal Meassge

Purposive Behaviourism
1. Learning is always purposive and
goal-dericted.
1.1. To make my students do what I
require them to do, I should state the
goal clearly and specifically.
1.2.

1.3.

2. Cognitive maps help students 2.1.

perform well. Organisms select the
shorter or easiest path to achieve a
goal.
2.2.

3. Latent learning stays with the 3.1.

individual until needed.

3.3.

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 4. Learning is influenced by 4.1.
expectations, perceptions,
representations, needs and other
internal variables like hunger.
4.2.

4.3.

Name: __________________________________________ Score: ________________

Year and Section: _________________________________ Date: _________________
Task Number: Unit 3-3

Direction: Choose 3 concepts of Bandura’s social learning theory that state how you apply
the concept as you teach. Use the Table provided for this purpose.

3 Key Concepts of Albert Bandura How I apply it in my teaching

1. 1.1.

1.2.

2. 2.1.

2.2.

3. 3.1.

3.3.

Name: __________________________________________ Score: ________________

Year and Section: _________________________________ Date: _________________
Task Number: Unit 3-4

Direction: Identify the gestalt principle applied in each of the following learning activities.
________ 1. The teacher relates a new topic with something the student already knows.
________ 2. Topics with commonalities are taught next to each other.

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________ 3. The most important words in the paragraph are written in bolder fonts.
________ 4. The teacher slows down her pace and varies her tone of voice to emphasize a
point.
________ 5. Teachers remind children to keep their numbers in straight columns when
doing math operations.

Name: __________________________________________ Score: ________________

Year and Section: _________________________________ Date: _________________
Task Number: Unit 3-5

Direction: Answer the following.

1. In your own words, describe the different gestalt principles.

2. List at least 5 ways to apply gestalt psychology in the teaching-learning process.

Name: __________________________________________ Score: ________________

Year and Section: _________________________________ Date: _________________
Task Number: Unit 3-5

Direction: Cite a teaching implication of the information process given in the Table below.
One is done for you.

Process Teaching Implication/s

1. Information is received through 1.1. Be sure that the learners’ senses are
senses. functioning well.
1.2.
2. If information is not relevant, it 2.1.
decays.

2.2.
3. If information goes to the Short 3.1.
Term Memory and if given attention
and is found to be relevant, it is
sent to the Long Term Memory.
3.2.

3.3.

4. If information is not properly 4.2.

encoded, forgetting occurs.

4.3.

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 5. There are methods to increase 5.1.
retrieval of information when
needed.

5.2.

Name: __________________________________________ Score: ________________

Year and Section: _________________________________ Date: _________________
Task Number: Unit 3-6

Direction: Choose a topic with a particular lesson objective in any grade or year level. Make
a teaching sequence applying Gagne’s nine instructional events. Use the Table provided for
you.

Event of Instruction Lesson Example/Condition of Learning

1. Gaining Attention

2. Informing the
Learner of the
Objective

3. Stimulating Recall
of Prior Learning

4. Stimulating Recall
of Prior Learning

5. Providing Learner
Guidance

6. Eliciting
Performance

7. Giving Feedback

8. Assessing
Performance

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9. Enhancing
Retention and
Transfer

Reference

Lucas, M.R (2014) and Corpuz, B. (2014). Facilitating learning: A Metacognitive Process.
LORIMAR Publishing Inc. ISBN 971-685-775-7.

Courses.lumenlearning.com>chapter>classical.conditioning

Cherry, Kendra. “What is Classical Conditioning?” Verywell Mind, 28 September 2018.

https://www.verywellmind.com/classical-conditioning-2794859

www.interaction-design.org › topics › gestalt-principles

studylecturenotes.com>gestalt-theory-of-learning-by-insight

Time Table: 5 Hours

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Unit IV: Focus on Classroom Processes
Desired Learning Outcomes
1. Prepared activities that tells about the motivation of students
2. Conducted pre-assessment activities on how to motivate in the classroom
3. Learned about the motivation that affecting human environment
4. Accounted physical learning environment
5. Reviewed strategies that increase motivation

Learning Activities
1. Focus on Classroom Processes
A. Motivation
Motivation is process whereby a goal-directed activity is instigated and
sustained. (Schunk. Pintrich & Meece, 2008)

Meaning of motivation
Motivation is an inner drive that causes you to do something and
persevere at something. It energizes you to do something. It is the strength
of the drive toward an action. While ability refers to what children can do,
motivation refers to what these children will do. Motivation refers to the
initiation, direction, intensity and persistence of behaviour. When we get
motivated to do something, it is not enough what we start working at that
thing but that we get attracted to it. Our attraction towards it become so
intense that we persist working on it through thick and thin until its
completion. Learner’s motivation is the primary factor influencing both
performance and success in school (Ryan, et al, 2007).

Indicators of High Level of Motivation

Your student’s level of motivation is shown in his/her choice of action,
intensity and persistence of effort. If you have a highly motivated students,
you have a student who is excited about learning and accomplishing things.
S/he takes the initiative to undertake learning tasks, assignments and
projects without being pushed by his/her teachers and parents. S/he has
goals to accomplish and dreams to realize. S/he convinced that accomplishing
the things s/he asked to accomplish in class helps her/him realize the goals
s/he set for herself/himself and his/her dream in life. S/he is willing to give up
satisfaction of immediate goals for the sake of more important remote goals.
An example is her willingness to give up joining his/her barkada to watch a
movie in order to prepare thoroughly for final examinations.
A student who is highly motivated to learn enjoys and learning and
learns much more than the one who is not as motivated. S/he persists and
perseveres in her/his studies event when things turn out to be difficult. S/he
does not give easily. As a result, his/her performance is satisfactory. In
contrast, a student who is not motivated to learn does not enjoy learning,

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does not study unless pushed. When s/he feels the difficult of study, s/he
readily gives up. S/he lacks persevere.
In summary, motivated students have following characteristic traits:
1. Have positive attitude toward school and describe schools as
satisfying.
2. Persist on difficult tasks and cause few management problem.
3. Process information in depth and excel in classroom learning
expertise. (Stipek, 1996, 2002 cited by Wooltook, 2013).

Types of Motivation
Motivation is classified as either intrinsic or extrinsic. It is intrinsic
when the source of motivation is from within the person himself/herself or
the activity itself. It is motivation to engage in an activity for its own sake
(Schunk et al. 2008). An example is when a student reads pocketbooks
because s/he herself/himself wants to read them or because reading them is
in itself worthwhile and enjoyable. Motivation is extrinsic when that which
motivates a person is someone or something outside him/her. When a
student studies because s/he was told by her/his teacher or because s/he is
afraid to fail and his/her parents will make her/him stop schooling or because
it will lead to a good grade, we can say that s/he is extrinsically motivated.
Extrinsic motivation is motivation to engage in an activity as a means to an
end. In our examples, the student studies to please her/his teacher, parents
or to get a good grade. He does not study for the joy of studying.
Obviously, intrinsic motivation is more beneficial than extrinsic
motivation because intrinsic motivation comes from within the person
himself/herself. If that which motivates a person is something or someone
outside, the moment that person or that something is gone, the person’s
motivation is also gone. Intrinsic motivation is evident when people engage in
an activity for its own sake, without some obvious external incentive present.
Reading for no reason other than the joy of reading illustrates intrinsic
motivation.
Research indicates that intrinsic motivation is preferable because for
its focus on learning and understanding (Brophy, 2004).

The Role of Extrinsic Motivation

Initially, extrinsic motivation is necessary to develop the love for
learning among poorly motivated students. If good grades, rewards, praises
or words of encouragement or fear of failing grade can motivate unmotivated
students to study, why not? For as long as students are hardly motivated,
external motivation in the form of rewards, incentives or punishments play a
significant role in the development of motivated students. It is expected,
however, that these extrinsic motivational factors be gradually replaced by
internal motivation. in the concrete, this means that after motivating the
students to study by way of reward, praise, encouragement, punishment,
hopefully the students develop the genuine love for learning and becomes

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 intrinsically motivated in the process. In short, we may begin employing
extrinsic motivation at the start but this should fade away as the students get
intrinsically motivated themselves.

B. Theories on Factors Affecting Motivation

There is currently no unified theory to explain the origin or element of
intrinsic motivation. Most explanations combine elements of Bernard Weiner’s
attribution theory, Bandura’s work on self-efficacy, Maslow’s hierarchy of
needs, William Glasser’s choice theory, and other studies relating to goal
orientation.

Attribution theory
What is attribution theory? This theory explains that we attribute our
successes or failure or other events to several factors. For instance, you
attribute your popularity to your popular parents or to your own sterling
academic performance. Or you attribute the poor economic condition you are
in to the land Reform of the Philippine government (your lands were
subjected to land reform) or to the vices of your father. These attributions
differ from one another in three ways- locus, stability and controllability
(Ormrod, 2004).
1. Locus (place): Internal versus external. If you student traces his
good grade to his ability and to his hard work, he attributes his
good grade to internal factors. If your student, however, claims
that his good grade is due to the effective teaching of his teacher
or to the adequate library facilities, he attributes his good grades
to factors external to himself.
2. Stability: Stable versus unstable. If you attribute your poor
performance to what you have inherited from your parents then
you are attributing the cause of your performance to something
stable, something that cannot change because it is in your genes.
If you attribute it to excessive watching of tv, then you are
claiming that you poor eyesight is caused by unstable factor,
something that can change.
3. Controllability: Controllable versus uncontrollable. If your student
claims his poor academic performance is due to his teacher’s
ineffective teaching strategy, he attributes his poor performance
to a factor beyond his control. If, however, your student admits
that his poor class performance is due to his poor study habits and
low motivation, he attributes the event to factors which are very
much within his control.

How does attribution affect motivation?

If your students attributes his/her success or failure to
something within him/her and therefore is within his/her control or to
something unstable and, therefore, can be change s/he is more likely

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 to be motivated. If, however, your students traces his/her success to
something outside him/her and therefore beyond his/her control, s/he
is likely to be less motivated.
Motivation tends to increase when students attribute failure to
lack of effort because effort can be controlled. It tends to decrease
when students attribute failure to uncontrollable cause (e.g. luck, or
ability if viewed as stable (Weinstock, 2007).
This is something interesting. People to attribute their
successes to internal causes (e.g. high ability, hard work) and their
failures to external causes (e.g. luck, behaviors or others, March,
1990). When students do poorly, for example, they commonly
attribute their failure to poor teaching, boring topics, poor tests.

Relationships Among the Dimensions of Attributions

Attribution Locus (location of Stability (of cause) Control (of
cause) learning
situation)
Ability Inside the learner Stable (cannot change) Learner out of
control
Effort Inside the learner Unstable (can change) Learner in control
Luck Outside the learner Unstable (can change) Learner out of
control
Rask difficulty Outside the learner Stable (cannot change) Learner out of
control

Self-efficacy Theory
A sense of high self-efficacy means a high sense of competence. Self-
efficacy is the belief that one has the necessary capabilities to perform a task,
fulfil role expectations, or meet a challenging situation successfully. When
your students believe that the have the ability to perform learning activities
successfully, they are more likely to be intrinsically motivated to do such
learning activities. The secret, therefor, to enhancing intrinsic motivation is
enhancing our students’ sense of self-efficacy. Social cognitive theorists
identified several self-efficacy-enhancing strategies.
 Make sure students master the basic skills. Mastery of the basic skills like
reading, writing, ‘rithmetic will enable the child to tackle higher level
activities. Imagine how miserable it is for a student who has not mastered
the basic skills! Unable to perform higher-level-learning tasks that require
display and use of basic skills, your student will feel he is a failure in his
school life.
 Help them make noticeable progress on difficult tasks. You like to give up
climbing a mountain when you feel that you are not making progress at
all. When you have spent hours and hours on a difficult task and you
seem not to be progressing, you are made to think that your efforts are
leading you nowhere and you want to give up. That’s why, it is good that
you are helped to see progress while you are working on your difficult
task. The knowledge that you are progressing inspires you to keep on.

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  Communicate confidence in student’s abilities through words and actions.
Express confidence that your students, with all their abilities can easily
tackle the learning task. Words like, if you were able to do a more difficult
task yesterday, what you are asked to do today is much easier than that
of yesterday. Needless to say that body language and your words
expressing your belief in their in their abilities must match.
 Expose them to successful peers. Being with successful peers, your
students will inhale success and get energized to succeed as well. Success
is infectious in the same way that failure is also contagious. (Ormrod,
2004)

Other recommendations from motivated theorist are:

 Provide competence-promoting feedback. Communicate to your students
that they can do the job. They have the ability to succeed.
 Promote mastery on challenging tasks. Don’t give your students
extremely difficult nor extremely easy task. If the task you give is
extremely easy, they do not challenged and you do not draw the best
from them; if it is extremely difficult, they get frustrated. Then it is best
to strike the golden mean between the two extremes. A challenging task
is one that encourages your students to stretch themselves to their limits.
 Promotes self-comparison rather than comparison with others. Desiderata
says: if you compare yourself with others, you will become vain and
bitter. For always there will be greater and lesser person than yourself.
After encouraging your students to set their personal goals, ask them to
evaluate their progress against their own goals.
 Be sure errors occurs within an overall context of success. (Ormrod,
2004) there will be always be errors or mistakes as we learn, as we go
through life. But they cease to be mistakes once we learn from them. But
if it is all errors that come one after another without a taste of success,
chances are your students will feel so down that they are robbed of the
courage to proceed. The learning process requires the challenge of new
and different experience, the trying of the unknown, and therefore,
necessarily must involve the making of mistakes. In order for people to
learn, they need the opportunity to explore new situations and ideas
without being penalized or punished for mistakes which are integral to the
activity of learning. (Ortigas, 1990).

The Influence of Self-efficacy on Motivation

High Self-Efficacy Learners
Task Orientation Accept challenging task
Effort Expend high effort when face
with challenging task
Persistence Persist when goals aren’t initially
reached
Beliefs Believe they will succeed
Control stress and anxiety when
goals aren’t met
Low Self-Efficacy Learners
Avoid challenging task
Expand low effort when faced
with challenging tasks
Give when goals aren’t initially
reached.
Focus on feeling of
incompetence
Experience anxiety and

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 Believe they’re in control their
environment
Strategy Use Discard unproductive strategies
Performance Perform higher than low-efficacy
students of equal ability
depression when goals aren’t
met
Believe they’re not in control of
their environment
Persist with unproductive
strategies
Perform lower than high-efficacy
students of equal ability.

Self-determination and self-regulation theories

Students are intrinsically motivated when they have a sense of self-
determination-when they believe that they have some choice and control regarding
the things they do and the directions their live take. A student’s sense of self-
determination is demonstrated in his capacity for self-regulation. Self-regulation
refers to a person’s ability to master himself. He is the “I am the captain of my soul”
type of person. He is not a victim of circumstances. He is capable of directing
himself.

What are indicators of self-regulation? They are the abilities to:

 Set standards for oneself
 Monitor and evaluate one’s own behaviour against such standards, and
 Impose consequences on oneself for one’s successes or failures. (Ormrod,
2004)

How does self-regulation relate to motivation?

A student who is capable of self-regulation is more likely to be more
intrinsically motivated because he sets his goals and standards, he monitors his
progress, and evaluates his own performance.
A student who is capable of self-regulation, is not only capable of regulating
his behaviour but he is also capable of regulating his own learning. Ormrod (2004)
cites the following processes involved in self-regulated learning:
 Goal-setting. Self-regulated learners know what they want to accomplish
when they read or study.
 Planning. Self-regulated learners determine ahead of time how best to
use the time they have available for learning.
 Attention control. Self-regulated learners try to focus their attention on
the subject matter at hand and clear their minds of distracting thoughts
and emotions.
 Application of learning strategies. Self-regulated learners choose different
learning strategies depending on the specific goal they want to
accomplish.
 Self-monitoring. Self-regulated learners continually monitor their progress
toward their goals and they change their learnings strategies or modify
their goals, if necessary.
 Self-evaluation. Self-regulated learners determine whether what they
have learned is sufficient for the goals they have set.

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 A student who has self-determination and self-regulation is more likely to be
intrinsically motivated and so is more capable of self-regulated learning.
Here are some suggestions from theorist to enhance students’ sense of self-
determination about school activities and assignments.
 Present rules and instruction in an informational manner rather than
controlling manner. Here are examples on how to present in an
informational manner.
“We can make sure everyone has an equal chance to speak and be heard
if we listen without interrupting and if we raise our hands when we want
to contribute to the discussion.”
“I’m giving you a particular format to follow when you do Math
homework. If use this format, it will be easier for me to find your answers
and to figure out how I can help you improve.
 Provide opportunities for students to make choices. A particular lesson
objective can be reached by the use of varied strategies. Students will be
more likely to be intrinsically motivated to attain the objective when they
are given a freedom to choose how to attain it, of course, within set
parameters. An example is when we allow our students to choose their
manner of group work presentation to the class after the group activity.
 Evaluate student performance in a non-controlling fashion. Communicate
evaluation results to inform your students of their progress without
passing judgment of some of sort but to make them see that they are
strong in some but not so in other items. The practice of self-evaluation
especially with the use of scoring rubrics will be a great help. Says
renowned author, consultant and speaker Alfie Kohn, “reward for learning
undermines intrinsic motivation.” Kohn Alfie, (1993).

Choice Theory
Bob Sullo (2007) writes:
The choice theory is a biological theory that suggests that we are born with
specific needs that we are genetically instructed to satisfy. All of our behaviour
represent our best attempt at any moment to satisfy our basic needs or genetic
instruction. In addition to the physical need for survival, we have four basic
psychological needs that must be satisfied to be emotionally healthy:
 Belonging or connecting
 Power or competence
 Freedom
 Fun
The need for belonging or connecting motivates us to develop relationship
and cooperate with others. Without the need for belonging and cooperating, we
would only strive to be independent.
The need for power is more than just a drive to dominate. Power is gained
through competence, achievement and mastery. Our genetic instruction is to
achieve, master new skills and to be recognized for our accomplishments.

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 As humans, we are also motivated to be free, to choose. Having choices is
part of what it means to be human and is one reason our species has been able to
evolve, adapt and thrive…
Each time we learn something new, we are having fun, another universal
human motivator. It is our playfulness and our sense of discovery that allow us to
learn as much as we do.
What do these imply to our task to facilitate leaning? We have to come up
with a need-satisfying environment. To motivate our students for learning, we should
satisfy their need to belong, their need to have power by being competent, the need
to have a free choice, and the need to enjoy learning and have fun.
How can be these be done? If we create a sense of community in the
classroom and make every student feel s/he belongs to that classroom community,
s/he will be more likely love to go to school. If we use of cooperative leaning
structures, we strengthen the spirit of cooperation and collaboration and reduce, if
not eliminate, the spirit of cut-throat competition.
To satisfy our students’ need of power, let us help them acquire it by making
them achieve, by making them master their lesson and end up very competent. As
result of their competence and excellent achievement, they get recognized and
experience genuine power.
Let us teach our students that the source of authentic power is competence,
not bullying and other irresponsible behaviors. This way, they will learn the true road
to real power.
To motivate our students for learning, let us give them ample freedom to
choose within parameters that are safe and responsible, developmentally
appropriate, and supportive of learning for that is the ultimate purpose of freedom:
to help our students learn and grow into the responsible persons they are called to
be. When our students are made to feel that they have a lot of free choices, they are
driven to satisfy this need for freedom. On the other hand, when our students
perceive themselves to be so suffocated by our impositions and limits, they are most
likely to behave in ways, even irresponsible ways, to get them the freedom they
believe is not satisfied.
Fun is universal human motivator. If our students’ need for fun is satisfied,
they are most likely to learn much. Glasser (1990) claims fun is the genetic payoff
for learning. A joyless classroom does not motivate students to perform. Let’s have
fun while we teach. Without our knowing, our students are learning and mastering
what we are teaching while we are having fun.
What happens outside of us has a lot to do with what we choose to do but
the outside event does not cause our behaviour. What we get, and all we ever get
from the outside is information; how we choose to act on that information is up to
us. (William Glasser, 1990 quoted by Nob Sullo, p.6)

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

A student’s lower-order needs must first be met before s/he works for the
satisfaction of his/her higher-order needs. The lower-order needs include first-level
needs and second-level needs. The first-level needs are basic survival and

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physiological needs for food, air, water and sleep. The second-level needs are bodily
safety and economic security.
There are three (3) levels in the higher-order needs. The first (which is now
the third level in Maslow’s need hierarchy) is the need for love and belonging. The
needs at the fourth-level include for those for esteem and status, including one’s
feeling of self-worth and of competence. The fifth level need is self-actualization,
which means becoming all that one is capable of becoming, using one’s skills to the
fullest, and stretching talents to the maximum.
Based on Maslow’s theory, a satisfied need is not a strong motivator but an
unsatisfied need is. Research proves that unless the two-lower needs (physiological
and security) are basically satisfied, employees (in our teaching-learning context) or
our students will not be greatly concerned with higher-order needs. (Newstrom,
1997)
For us teachers, this means that we cannot teach students with hungry
stomachs. We cannot teach students when they feel afraid and insecure. While it is
not our obligation to feed them, working with parents, the school nurse and all
others who can help can address the problem of students’ hunger, lack of sleep and
the like.
Out students’ need for love and belonging is satisfied in a class where they
feel they belong and are accepted regardless of their academic standing in class,
economic status or ethnic background. Their need for self-esteem is satisfied when
we help them succeed, recognize their effort and contribution no matter how
insignificant and praise their achievement. Doing so actually propel them so self-
actualization.

Goal Theory
Learning goals versus performance goals. The goals we set for ourselves
affect level of motivation. There are several types of goals. In relation to learning we
can speak of learning goals and performance goals. How do they differ?
A learning goal is a desire to acquire additional knowledge or master new
skills while a performance goal is a desire to look good and receive favourable
judgements from others or else look bad and receive unfavourable judgment.
(Ormrod, 2004) Between these two goals, with which type of goal is the intrinsically-
motivated student occupied? Obviously, the ideal student is the student with a
learning goal. The student with a leaning goal is mastery-focused while the student
with a performance goal is performance-focused.

Comparison of Mastery-Focused and Performance-Focused Classroom

Mastery-Focused Performance-Focused
Success defined as… Mastery, improvement High grades, doing better than
others
Value placed on…. Effort, improvement High grades, demonstration of high
ability
Reasons for satisfaction… Meeting challenges, hard word Doing better than others, success
with minimum effort
Teacher oriented Student learning Student performance
toward…

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 View of errors….. A normal part of learning
Reason for efforts…. Increase understanding
Ability viewed as…. Incremental, alterable
Reason for assessment…. Measure process toward preset
criteria, provide feedback
A basis for concern and anxiety
High grades, doing better than
others
An entity, fixed
Determine grades, compare
students to one another

Self-determined goals. Personally-relevant and self-determined goals enhance

a student’s motivation. When lesson objectives are relevant to the life of students,
then they turn out to be more motivated to learn. When the lesson objective are
owned by the students because they find them relevant to their life, most likely they
become highly motivated for learning. This departs from de-contextualized teaching
that happens when all we do is deposit information into the minds of our students,
students memorize, and we withdraw what we taught every periodic examination.
Goal setting. As a motivational tool, goal setting is effective when the
following major elements are present: 1) goal acceptance, 2) specificity, 3)
challenge, 4) performance monitoring, and 5) performance feedback. Thus it is
necessary that our student accept and own our lesson objectives and that our lesson
objectives must be SMART (specific, measurable, attainable, result-oriented, and
time-bound) and challenging. It is equally important that we monitor our students’
learning. However, simply monitoring results is not enough. We have to give our
students feedback about their performance.

C. Students’ Diversity in Motivation

Our students’ motivation may vary on account of age, gender, cultural
socioeconomic background and special education needs. Our class is a
conglomerate of students with varying ages and gender and most especially
cultural background and socioeconomic status. Our students’ motivational
drives reflect the element of the culture in which they grow up – their family,
their friends, school, church and books. To motivate all of them for learning,
it is best to employ differentiated approaches. Different folks, different
strokes.” What is medicine for one may be poison for another.
Two principles to consider regarding social and cultural influences on
motivation are:
1. Students are most likely to model the behaviors they believe are
relevant to their situations.
2. Students develop greater efficacy for a task when they see others
like themselves performing the task successfully. (Ormrod, 2004)
What conclusion can be derived from the two principles? Students
need models who are similar to themselves in terms of race,
cultural background, socioeconomic status, gender and (if
applicable) disability. (Ormrod, 2004)
Then it must be good to expose our students to models of their
age and to models who come from similar cultural, socioeconomic
backgrounds.

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2. Motivation in the Classroom
A. Human Environment factors Affecting Motivation
Teacher’s Affective traits
Studies suggest that management and instruction processes are key
to facilitating learning but many interview responses, emphasizes the
teachers’ affective characteristic or social and emotional behaviors, more than
pedagogical practice. Some of your teachers were motivating and inspiring.
Others were not.
You are grateful to those who motivated and inspired you. You must
also be grateful to those who were not as motivating and inspiring. In a way,
they also helped you become better persons in the sense that you strived to
become better than them.
Researches cite the following affective characteristic of effective
teachers (James H. Stonge, 2002)
 Caring – Specific attributes that show caring are:
- sympathetic listening to students not only about life inside
the classroom but more about students’ lives in general.
- understanding of students’ questions and concerns
- knowing students individually, their likes and dislike, and
personal situations affecting behaviour and performance
 Farness and respect – These are shown in specific behaviors like:
- treating students as people
- avoiding the use of ridicule and preventing situations in
which students lose respect in front of their peers
- practicing gender, racial and ethnic fairness
- providing students with opportunities for them to participate
and to succeed.
* Social interactions with students – The specific behaviors of a facilitative
social interaction are:
- consistently behaving in a friendly, personal manner while
maintaining professional distance with students
- working with students not for the students
- interacting productively by giving students responsibility and
respect.
- allowing students to participate in decision making
- willing to participate in class activities and demonstrating a
sense of fun
- having a sense of humor and is willing to share jokes
* Enthusiasm and motivation for learning shown in:
- encouraging students to be responsible for their own learning
- maintaining an organized classroom environment
- setting high standards
- assigning appropriate challenges
- providing reinforcements and encouragement during tasks
* Attitude towards the teaching profession

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 - having dual commitment to personal learning and to
students’ learning anchored on the belief that all students
can learn
- helping students succeed by using differentiated instruction
- working collaboratively with colleagues and other staff
- serving as an example of a lifelong learner to his/her
students and colleagues.
 Positive expectations of students manifested in:
- striving to make all students feel competent
- communicating positive expectations to students, ie. They
will be successful
- having high personal teaching efficacy shown in their belief
that they can cause all students to learn
* Reflective practice
- reviewing and thinking on his/her teaching process
- eliciting feedback from others in the interest of teaching and
Learning
Classmates – Bullying and the Need to Belong
Students form a part of human environment of the learner. In fact,
they far outnumber the teachers in the learning environment.
The need to belong is a basic human need. Students who are
accepted by teachers and classmate feel they belong to the class. Students
who feel that they are part of the class look forward to attending and
participating in class. The sense of belongingness enhances their learning and
performance. The prevalence of bullying, however, obstructs the creation of a
learning community where everyone feel that they belong. With bullying in
schools, the learning environment cannot be safe. Then by all means,
bullying should be eliminated in schools. Bullying takes on several forms. It
can be mild, it can be intense or deeply-seated and highly violent. Today,
safety in schools is being raised all over the world.

Parents as Part of the Learners’ Human Learning Environment

The learner spends at least six hours in school. The rest, s/he spends
at home. Parents, therefore, are supposed to have more opportunity to be
with their children than teachers. How many of our parents use this
opportunity to support their children in their studies?
What parents’ behaviour traits are supportive of their children’s
learning? Parents who are supportive of their children’s learning are observe
to do the following:
 Follow up status of their children’s performance
 Supervise their children in their homework/project
 Check their children’s notebooks
 Review their children’s corrected seat works and test papers
 Attend conferences for parents, teachers and community association
(PTCA)

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  Are willing to spend on children’s projects and to get involved in school
activities
 Participate actively in school-community projects
 Confer with their children’s activities in school
 Meet the friends of their children
 Invite their children’s friends at home

Unsupportive parent behaviors are the opposite of all those listed above.
The interaction between the learner and the teacher, among the learners,
and among the learner, teacher, and parents affect the learner’s motivation.
Whether the climate that comes as a by-product of the interactions nurtures or
obstruct learning depends on the quality of these interactions.

B. The Classroom Climate

The classroom climate is more a product of the interaction between and
among teacher and students than that of the physical condition of the classroom.
The physical condition of the classroom may exert an influence on the social
interaction among the personalities in class but it may not contribute as much as the
classroom social interaction does.
What is a classroom climate that facilitates learning? It is something
business-like and yet non-threatening. What takes place in a classroom where a
business-like and non-threatening atmosphere prevail?
The classroom climate that is conducive for learning is one that is non-
threatening yet business-like.
It is a classroom where:
 Specific classroom rules and procedures are clear
 These classroom rules and procedures are discussed on the first days of
class
 Students are involved in the design of rules and procedures
 Techniques to acknowledge and reinforce accepted behaviour and provide
negative consequences are employed
 Clear limits for unacceptable behaviour are established
 There is a healthy balance between dominance and cooperation
 The teacher is fully aware of the happening in class
 Students’ responsibility for their own behaviour is enhanced.
(Marzarno, et.al, 2003)

C. The Physical Learning Environment

The physical learning environment has something to do with the condition of
the classroom, the immediate environment of the learner. A conducive physical
learning environment is one that:
- Allows maximum interaction between teacher and student and among
student.
- Allows student movement without unnecessary distraction

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 - Allows teacher to survey the whole class
- Is safe, clean, orderly
- Is well-ventilated, spacious and adequately lighted
- Makes possible re-arrangement of chairs as the need arises

Let us not forget the fact that while the physical condition of the classroom
and the person that the students interact with constitute their immediate
environment, our students are also influenced by factor outside their immediate
environment. Our students bring to the classroom many attitudes as a result of their
being conditioned by their families, their ethnic groups, their communities: These
attitudes influence their class performance.

D. Assessment Strategies that can Increase Motivation

From the activity, you have seen that assessment does not take place only at
the end of a lesson. The pre-test, a form of assessment at the beginning of a lesson,
helped you determine how much you knew and didn’t know about the professional
teacher.

Assessment Strategies that can Increase Motivation

How can we make assessment a palatable menu for our students?
Experiences in classroom assessment and principles of assessment tell us the
following:
1. Make your learner’s objectives every time. It is good if students are
clarified on the objectives they are working on and the criteria that will be
used in evaluating their learning.
2. Make your students own the lesson objective. Allow them to set their own
personal learning targets based on the lesson objective. Initially their
personal target may be lower than the learning target set for the class
but with the expectation that they will gradually bring them up according
to their pace until their personal targets coincide with the class target.
This will make them feel unthreatened and comfortable.
3. Engage your students in self-assessment. They have established their
own target against clearly set lesson objectives. They are in the best
position to determine if they have met their own targets and the class
target or objective.

When learners are given the opportunity to evaluate their own performance,
they bring to mind the personal task and strategy variables applicable to them. They
reflect on their personal characteristics that affect their learning, the tasks they need
to work on and the strategies that can help them. In this way, assessment
empowers the students to take a more active role in their own learning process.
1. Practice criterion-referenced assessment rather than norm-referenced
assessment. Make your students compare their performance against
established criterion, i.e., the learning objective or target and not against

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 other students’ performance. Comparing a student’s performance with the
latter makes assessment threatening.
2. If you are indeed criterion-reference, then your assessment is certainly
based on established criterion, your learning target or objective. It has
been observed, however, that a number of teachers set learning
objectives but assess another. This deals to students’ confusion and
discouragement.
3. Inspire your students to have mastery-focus rather than performance-
focus. Set their hearts on lesson mastery for the love learning rather than
on scores, grades and performance. If they fail to get an item or items in
a test, tell them not to worry and assure them that they will be taught
again until mastery.
4. Have a growth mind set. Believe that your students can improve. Failure
or wrong answer is welcome. Assure your students that they are not mad
less of themselves by a wrong answer of a mistake. What is most
important is that they learn from their mistakes and continuously grow
and improve.
5. Your assessment practice must be sensitive and constructive because
assessment has an emotional impact. Bear in mind that your comments,
mark, and grades, as well as the manner you communicate them to
students, can affect their self-confidence. Assessment should be
constructive as much as possible. Judging students harshly to the point
that they feel belittled or insulted will kill their spirit and may lead them to
have a negative view both of themselves and the subject.
6. Inspire your students to have mastery-focus rather than performance-
focus. Set their hearts on lesson mastery for the love of learning rather
than on scores, grades and performance. If they fail to get an item or
items in a test, tell them not to worry and assure them that they will be
taught again until mastery.
7. Have a great mind set. Believe that you students can improve. Failure or
wrong answer is welcome. Assure your students that they are not made
less of themselves be a wrong answer or a mistakes. What is most
important is that they learn from their mistakes and continuously grow
and improve.
8. Your assessment practice must be sensitive and constructive because
assessment has an emotional impact. Bear in mind that your comments,
marks and grades, as well as the manner you communicate them to
students, can affect their self-confidence. Assessment should be
constructive as much as possible. Judging students harshly to the point
that they feel belittled or insulted will kill their spirit and may lead them to
have a negative view both of themselves and the subject.
9. Don’t make the test too difficult to discourage students nor to easy to
make them complacent. An extremely easy test is not challenging while
an extremely difficult test is discouraging.

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 10. Communicate results/feedback. A teacher facilitates learning by providing
students with important feedback on their learning areas.

Assessment Task:
Name: ____________________________________________ Score: ______________
Year & Section: _____________________________________ Date: _______________
Task Number: Unit 4-1

Direction: Answer the following question.

1. According to psychologist Carol Dweck motivation is often more important than initial
ability in determining our success. Do you agree? Why?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2. To what do you compare motivation to make its facilitating function in learning
concrete? Come up metaphors. (An example of a metaphor is “Teaching is lighting a
torch..) Show this by completing this: Motivation is………….
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
3. Surf the internet on telic and paratelic motivational modes of Michael Apter. How do
these relate to extrinsic and intrinsic motivation?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
4. Read on biographies of great men and women. Find out how they became great.
Report on one biography in class. Narrate that part of the biography that you like
most.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
5. Potential performance is a product of ability and motivation. What does this mean?
Do you agree? Explain you answer.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

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 _____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

Name: ____________________________________________ Score: ______________

Year & Section: _____________________________________ Date: _______________
Task Number: Unit 4-2

Direction: Answer the following question.

1. The quality of teacher-student relationships is the key to all other aspects of
classroom management, says recognized expert in classroom management, Robert
Marzarno. Do the teacher’s affective traits have something to do with the quality
teacher-student relationship? Explain your answer.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2. By means of a graphic organizer, list down behavioural traits of parents who are
supportive of children’s studies.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

Name: ____________________________________________ Score: ______________

Year & Section: _____________________________________ Date: _______________
Task Number: Unit 4-3

Direction: Answer the following question.

1. Give adjectives that describe the classroom climate that is conducive for learning.
Write the antonym for each adjective.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2. In your own words, give the conditions that give rise to a classroom climate that is
conducive for learning.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

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 3. Describe an ideal classroom atmosphere by means of simile or metaphor.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
4. Simulate a classroom setting. Introduce a classroom rules in a creative way in class.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

References

Lucas, M.R (2014) and Corpuz, B. (2014). Facilitating learning: A Metacognitive Process.
LORIMAR Publishing Inc. ISBN 971-685-775-7.

Time Table: 5 Hours

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Unit V. Integration
Desired Learning Outcomes
1. Explained the different psychological principles
2. Enumerated the importance of learning process, the teachers’ guide and
teachers’ for understanding
3. Described the activities could be linked in cognitive and metacognitive factors
4. Determined motivational and affective factors
5. Differentiated the development and social factors to the learners.

Learning Activities
Facilitating learning should be firmly anchored on the 14 learner centered
psychological principles. The 14 principles espouse that everyone in the learning community
is a learner.

Learner-Centered Instruction
Applying the 14 principles, Eggen and Chauchak give us three characteristics of
learner-centere instruction:
1. Learner are at the center of the learning process. The criticisms of direct
instruction have led educators to put more emphasis on the role or the student in
the learning process. Many opted for a more student-centered environment as
opposed to the traditional teacher-centered set-up. Learners are given more
choices, learning activities are designed with the needs, interests, and
developmental levels of the learners in foremost consideration.
2. Teacher guides students’ construction of understanding. The 14 principles were
put together because of the growing implications of research in cognitive
psychology. Teachers and learner-centered classroom provide a lot of
opportunity for the learners to actively think, figure out things and learn on their
own. The teacher serves more as a facilitator, a guide on the side rather than a
sage on stage.
3. Teachers teach for understanding. Students are placed at the center of the
learning process. The teacher help them to take responsibility for their learning.
As a result, students, through their own active search and experimentation,
experience a movement from confusion to searching for answers, to discovery,
and finally to understanding.

The 14 principles of learning:

Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors
1. Nature of the learning process. The learning of complex subject matter is most
effective when it is intentional process of constructing meaning from information
and experience.

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2. Goals of the learning process. The successful learner, over time and with support
and instructional guidance, can create meaningful, coherent representations of
knowledge.
3. Construction of knowledge. The successful learner can link new information with
existing knowledge in meaningful ways.
4. Strategic thinking. The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of
thinking and reasoning strategies to achieve complex learning goals.
5. Thinking about thinking. Higher-order strategies for selecting and monitoring
mental operations facilitate creative and critical thinking.
6. Context of learning. Learning is influence by environmental factors, including
culture, technology and instructional practices.

Motivational and Affective factors

7. Motivational and emotional influences on learning. What and how much is
learned is influenced by the learner’s motivation. Motivation to learn, in turn, is
influenced by the individual’s emotional states, belief, interests and goals, and
habits of thinking.
8. Intrinsic motivation to learn. The learner’s creativity, higher order thinking and
natural curiosity all contribute to motivation to learn. Intrinsic motivation is
simulated by task of optimal novelty and difficulty, relevant to personal interests,
and providing form personal choice and control.
9. Effects of motivation on effort. Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills
requires extended learner’s effort and guided practice. Without learner’s
motivation to learn, the willingness to exert this effort is unlikely without
coercion.

Developmental and social factors.

10. Developmental influences on learning. As individuals develop, there are different
opportunities and constraints to learning. Learning is most effective when
differential development within and across physical, intellectual, emotional and
social domains is taken into account.
11. Social influences on learning. Learning is influence by social interactions,
interpersonal relations, and communication with others.

Individual differences factors

12. Individual differences in learning. Learners have different strategies, approaches,
and capabilities for learning that are a function of prior experience and heredity.
13. Learning and diversity. Learning is most effective when differences in learners’
linguistic, cultural and social backgrounds are taken into account.
14. Standards and assessment. Setting appropriately high and challenging standards
and assessing the learner as well as learning progress- including diagnostic,
process, and outcome assessment – are integral parts of the learning process.

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Assessment Task:
Name: ____________________________________________ Score: ______________
Year & Section: _____________________________________ Date: _______________
Task Number: Unit V-1

Direction: From the learning on Revisiting the 14 Learner-Centered Psychological Principles

write your idea about the topic:
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

References:

Lucas, M.R (2014) and Corpuz, B. (2014). Facilitating learning: A Metacognitive Process.
LORIMAR Publishing Inc. ISBN 971-685-775-7.

Time Table: 5 Hours

152
XI. Criteria for Grading
Midterm Finals
Midterm Examination 40% Final Examination 40%
Examinations/Output/Project 60% Examinations/Output/Project 60%
_______________ ____________
100% 100%

Final Grade Components:

1/3 of Midterm Grade +2/3 of Tentative Final Grade =FINAL GRADE

XII. Other Requirements

A. Accomplished all given activities and assessment tasks
B. Essays on selected topics
C. Reflection

Prepared and Design by:

JAIME G. LATOZA, Ed. D.

Professor

Reviewed by:

FEMA LINA L. BALTAR, Ed.D.

Department Chair Prof. Ed.

Approved:

GLENN B. LATANGA, Ed. D.

Dean, College of Education

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