UNDERGRADUATE FINAL YEAR PROJECT REPORT

Department of Mechanical Engineering

NED University of Engineering and Technology

1-TON SOLAR REFRIGERATION

SYSTEM FOR COLD CHAINS

Group Number: 22 Batch: 2017 – 2018

Group Member Names:

Tahir Amin ME-17100

Mohammad Sohaib Siddique ME-17117
Danish Raza ME-17120
Usama Iftikhar ME-17126

Approved by
……………………………………………………………………………………………...
Mr Muzammil Ejaz
Lecturer
Project Advisor

© NED University of Engineering & Technology. All Rights Reserved–Sept 2021

Author’s Declaration

We declare that we are the sole authors of this project. It is the actual copy of the project
that was accepted by our advisor(s) including any necessary revisions. We also grant
NED University of Engineering and Technology permission to reproduce and distribute
electronic or paper copies of this project.

Signature and Date Signature and Date Signature and Date Signature and Date

................................. ................................. ................................. .................................

. . . .

Tahir Amin Mohammad Sohaib Danish Raza Usama Iftikhar

Siddique

ME-17100 ME-17117 ME-17120 ME-17126

amint6282@gmail.com sohaibmuhammad071@gmail.com danishraza4567@gmail.com usamaifti0711@gmail.com

ii
Statement of Contributions

Fabrication

• 30% fabrication work is done by Usama Iftikhar

• 30% fabrication work is done by Danish Raza

• 20% fabrication work is done by Mohammad Sohaib Siddique

• 20% fabrication work is done by Tahir Amin

Design and Research

• 30% design and research work is done by Mohammad Sohaib Siddique

• 20% design and research work is done by Tahir Amin

• 30% design and research work is done by Usama Iftikhar

• 20% design and research work is done by Danish Raza

Report

• 30% report work is done by Tahir Amin

• 30% report work is done by Danish Raza

• 20% report work is done by Usama Iftikhar

• 20% report work is done by Mohammad Sohaib Siddique

Presentation

• 30% presentation work is done by Tahir Amin

• 30% presentation work is done by Mohammad Sohaib Siddique

• 20% presentation work is done by Usama Iftikhar

• 20% presentation work is done by Danish Raza

iii
Executive Summary

According to research, milk/food of most of the farmer got spoiled during hot summer
days in rural areas. We discovered the refrigerator whose energy storage element instead
of battery is replaced by thermal storage element.
As discovery of this refrigerator was much important because we are living in a country
where most of the rural areas even do not have electricity or shut down is the major
problem. Heap of food or a large quantity of milk in summers gets spoiled due to not
working of conventional refrigerators. To overcome this problem, we discovered
refrigerator which takes energy from sun to cool our brine that will assist to cool our
food/milk.
Discovery of refrigerator was not a piece of cake. We studied about different energy
storage techniques. After complete research, we found out that brine (mixture of water
and salt) which best fits as a thermal cooling medium. Afterwards we made a design in a
way that heat transfer will be effective. Compressor, evaporator and condenser will be
utilized of freezer and containers will be placed in deep freezer. Later we have to know
the exact concentration of brine solution and install the system. Our main concern is to
increase its efficiency at lower operating cost. After complete analysis of prototype, we
will do large scale production for food centers, businesses, farms, pharmaceutical
companies, etc.
According to our experimental work, we find out that when there is no sun at night and
only brine storing energy is used to chill our food/milk, the temperature drop is not much
as shown in table 6.4, which means that our insulation best fits our system due to which
losses to environment are minimum. Furthermore, our system is effective for all the rural
areas and cost effective as it is only one time investment. Our thermal storage is also once
introduced to system, then it will work for years.
All in nutshell, we discovered the refrigerator for rural regions where load shutting is
main concern and conventional refrigerators fails in those areas. It uses thermal cooling
medium. So, we used methodology to make such innovative refrigerator and after
experimental work finds out best results.

iv
 Acknowledgments

First and foremost, we express gratitude to Allah, the Almighty, on whom we ultimately
rely for sustenance and guidance. After that we would like to express our sincere
gratitude to several individuals for supporting us throughout our project. At first, we want
to express our profound gratitude to Mr. Muzammil Ejaz, our supervisor, for his
enthusiasm, endurance, insightful observations, excellent knowledge, practical guidance,
and never-ending suggestions, all of which assisted us tremendously in finishing the
project. We are feeling oblige in taking the opportunity to sincerely thanks to Mr. Ayaz,
our mentor, for successful completion of this project. We are extremely grateful to our
parents for their love, prayers, caring and sacrifices for educating and preparing us
for our future. We would also like to further extend our gratitude to all teachers,
friends and all those people who helped us, support us in finalizing this project within
the limited time frame.

v
 Dedication

Every activity requires self-effort, but we also need recognition, moral support, direction,
and confidence from those particular people who are very dear to our hearts in order to do
it. Our efforts and hard work in finishing this project are dedicated to those exceptional
people whose love, advice, support, and prayers have enabled us to achieve such
accomplishment.

We would like to dedicate this effort to our beloved

Parents

Along with all hard and working and respected

Teachers

vi
 Table of Contents
Author’s Declaration ................................................................................................................. ii
Statement of Contributions ...................................................................................................... iii
Executive Summary ................................................................................................................. iv
Acknowledgments..................................................................................................................... v
Dedication [Optional] .............................................................................................................. vi
Table of Contents .................................................................................................................... vii
List of Figures ........................................................................................................................... x
List of Tables ...........................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
List of Symbols ....................................................................................................................... xii
United Nations Sustainable Development Goals ................................................................... xiii
Similarity Index Report.......................................................................................................... xiii
Chapter 1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Background Information ........................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Significance and Motivation................................................................................................... 2
1.3 Aims and Objectives............................................................................................................... 3
1.4 Methodology .......................................................................................................................... 4
1.5 Report Outline ........................................................................................................................ 4
Chapter 2 Literature Review ..................................................................................................... 5
2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 5
2.2 Application of Solar Technology ........................................................................................... 9
2.3 Types of Solar Collectors ....................................................................................................... 9
2.4 Solar Energy Scope .............................................................................................................. 13
2.5 Summary .............................................................................................................................. 25
Chapter 3 Refrigeration System .............................................................................................. 26
3.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 26
3.2 Refrigeration ......................................................................................................................... 26
3.3 Regrigeration Cycle .............................................................................................................. 26
3.4 Components of Regrigeration Cycle .................................................................................... 28
3.5 Refrigerant ........................................................................................................................... 35
3.6 Summary .............................................................................................................................. 39
Chapter 4 Methodology .......................................................................................................... 40
4.1 Project Implementation ........................................................................................................ 41
4.2 Project Milestone .................................................................................................................. 42
4.3 Gantt Chart ........................................................................................................................... 42
4.4 Research and Analysis.......................................................................................................... 43
4.5 Schematic Of Refrigeration System ..................................................................................... 45
4.6 Summary .............................................................................................................................. 45

vii
Chapter 5 Calculations ............................................................................................................ 46
5.1 Volume Of Container ........................................................................................................... 46
5.2 Volume Of brine Container ................................................................................................. 46
5.3 Energy Calculation............................................................................................................... 47
5.4 Power ................................................................................................................................... 47
5.5 Volume Of brine Required................................................................................................... 47
5.6 Cooling brine from 25C to -16C .......................................................................................... 48
5.7 Power .................................................................................................................................. 48
5..8 Cooling brine from 4C to -16C ........................................................................................... 48
5.9 Power .................................................................................................................................. 49
5.10 Power Calculation .............................................................................................................. 49
5.11 Heat and Mass Flow Rate .................................................................................................. 50
5.12 Heat Transfer ..................................................................................................................... 50
5.13 Area .................................................................................................................................... 50
5.14 Volume Of Brine around milk compartment ..................................................................... 50
5.15 Pump Selection .................................................................................................................. 51
5.16 Critical thickness Of Insulation.......................................................................................... 51
Chapter 6 Processing And Results .......................................................................................... 52
6.1 Design Of Container ............................................................................................................ 52
6.2 Thermostat ........................................................................................................................... 54
6.3 Pump .................................................................................................................................... 55
6.4 Observation .......................................................................................................................... 56
Chapter 7 Summary ................................................................................................................ 59
5.2 Recommendations for Future Work .................................................................................... 59
References .......................................................................................................................... 60

viii
 List of Figures
Figure 2.1: Source: Global Status Report by REN21, 2019 ..........................................................15
Figure 2.2: Direct Normal IRRADIATION of Solar in Pakistan ..................................................17
Figure 2.3: Solar Panels Import in Pakistan MW ..........................................................................18
Figure 2.4: Mono Crystalline Photo Voltaic Module ....................................................................19
Figure 2.5: Polycrystalline Photo Voltaic Module ........................................................................20
Figure 2.6: Block diagram of PV system and air conditioning system .........................................21
Figure 2.7: PV Module .................................................................................................................22
Figure 2.8: Deep cycle battery .....................................................................................................23
Figure 2.9: Air conditioning system [1 Condenser, 2 Expansion Valve, 3 Evaporator, 4. ..........24
Figure 3.1: Vapor compression cycle .........................................................................................27
Figure 3.2: PV diagram of vapor compression cycle ..................................................................27
Figure 3.3: Shell-and-tube type condensers ...............................................................................29
Figure 3.4: Tube-in-tube type condenser....................................................................................30
Figure 3.5: Shell-and-coil type condenser ..................................................................................30
Figure 3.6: Schematic of rotary compressor ...............................................................................31
Figure 3.7: Reciprocating compressor schematic .......................................................................33
Figure 3.8: Schematic of centrifugal compressor ........................................................................34
Figure 4.1: Gantt Chart ................................................................................................................41
Figure 4.2: Brine solution freezing point chart ............................................................................42
Figure 4.3: Fridge Model Details ................................................................................................43
Figure 4.4: Fridge Model Dimensions .........................................................................................43
Figure 4.5: Schematic of refrigeration system ............................................................................44
Figure 6.1: Isometric View ..........................................................................................................52
Figure 6.2: Top View ..................................................................................................................52
Figure 6.3: Front View ................................................................................................................53
Figure 6.4: Side View .................................................................................................................53
Figure 6.5: Thermostat .................................................................................................................53
Figure 6.6: Pump .........................................................................................................................54
Figure 6.7: Experimental setup ....................................................................................................57
Figure 6.8: Cooling coils to condenser .........................................................................................57
Figure 6.9: AC compressor connected to fridge ...........................................................................57

ix
 List of Tables
Table 1: Top 10 countries by solar installed capacity................................................................15

Table 2: International cost of Solar Modules .............................................................................18

Table 2: Project Milestones .......................................................................................................40
Table 3: Brine solution experiment table ...................................................................................42
Table 4: Temperature Observation .............................................................................................59

x
 List of Symbols
Symbols

Kg Kilogram
hp Horsepower
𝑻 Temperature (𝑲)
PV Photovoltaic
𝑹𝒕𝒏 Refrigeration Ton

xi
 United Nations Sustainable Development Goals

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are the blueprint to achieve a better and
more sustainable future for all. They address the global challenges we face, including
poverty, inequality, climate change, environmental degradation, peace and justice. There
is a total of 17 SDGs as mentioned below. Check the appropriate SDGs related to the
project.

☐ No Poverty

☐ Zero Hunger

☐ Good Health and Well being

☑ Quality Education

☐ Gender Equality

☐ Clean Water and Sanitation

☑ Affordable and Clean Energy

☑ Decent Work and Economic Growth

☑ Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure

☐ Reduced Inequalities

☑ Sustainable Cities and Communities

☐ Responsible Consumption and Production

☐ Climate Action

☐ Life Below Water

☐ Life on Land

☐ Peace and Justice and Strong Institutions

☐ Partnerships to Achieve the Goals

xii
 Similarity Index Report
Following students have compiled the final year report on the topic given below for
partial fulfillment of the requirement for Bachelor’s degree in Mechanical Engineering.

Project Title 1-TON SOLAR REFRIGERATION SYSTEM FOR COLD CHAINS

S. No. Student Name Seat Number Signature

1.
Tahir Amin ME-17100 _____________

2.
Mohammad Sohaib Siddique ME-17117 _____________

3.
Danish Raza ME-17120 _____________

4.
Usama Iftikhar ME-17126 _____________

This is to certify that Plagiarism test was conducted on complete report, and overall
similarity index was found to be less than 20%, with maximum 5% from single source, as
required.

Signature and Date

..................................

[Mr Muzammil Ejaz]

xiii
xiv
xv
 Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background Information

Utilizing any renewable energy source compels us to utilize batteries as an energy
stockpiling unit. This causes the utilization of sustainable power for ranchers, dairy
makers and numerous others to be as well exorbitant. To decrease the expense for any use
of refrigeration utilizing sustainable power we have supplanted the battery, which is
chemical energy storage, with brine solution at - 16 C, which is thermal energy storage.
For this reason, we have planned an explicitly designing container that will utilize
ordinary flows to chill off any things in the fridge. The expense of salt water is
insignificant as it is essentially a combination of water and salt, with salt making up just
35 % of the solution.
In a conventional system utilizing solar energy for instance, the sun-oriented energy is
utilized to power the refrigerator and charge the battery at the same time. The battery is
fundamental to run the refrigerator during the night. Our framework then again, will
utilize sun-based energy to just decrease the temperature of brine solution from room
temp to - 16 °C. During which the temperature of any object within the refrigerator will
start to decrease too. Brine solution will not flow anymore in the chamber when desirable
temperature is achieved. After which brine will be chilled off to - 16 °C. During night, the
saline solution at - 16 °C will be utilized to preserve the temperature of objects within the
refrigerator, as an end result the complete system will attain thermal equilibrium to 4-5 °C
by the next morning, and then the cycle will proceed.
All in nutshell, our project depends upon refrigerator having two compartment, one
compartment will be utilized as a capacity tank for food varieties to be kept. Second
compartment will be utilized as a capacity tank for brine solution. The brine solution will
be allowed to cool the food or other perishable items, hence will act as coolant. The brine
will be allowed to from valves and will surround the food container and will cool the food

1
through thermal cooling. Our container will be of food grade steel. Our containers size
should be perfectly according to our refrigerator as our containers are to be placed in
refrigerator. Our primary point is to save food or some other eatables under recommended
conditions given by WHO norms. Furthermore, thermostat will be installed to maintain
desirable temperature.

1.2 Significance and Motivation

During transportation heaps of food spoil, this causes inadequacy of food and increment
in costs, the transportation of food is itself costly as well as vehicle causes harmful
impact on environment. Current cold chain arrangements depend vigorously on
refrigerated trucks which utilize harmful refrigerant gases. This venture can counter this.
This project will save food from spoiling as it is sustainable and have wide uses of
preserving various sort of food, as
vegetables, organic products, meat, fish, milk and so on. Ranchers of Pakistan are
confronting difficult situations in saving their crops and milk, as there is a issue of load
shedding and in the end they must choose between limited options left however to offer
it to the organizations and various retailers at a low rate. This will help them save their
yields, milk, and so on from getting rot and can have the option to sell their item at
market costs. They will likewise be capable to deal their item straightforwardly to the
costumers. The issue of power can be overwhelmed by utilizing sunlight energy or other
sustainable source and without thermal cooling technology no batteries will be required
for all day. Various organizations have the issue to protect their item like meat and
natural products and so forth likewise deal with the issue of safeguarding huge measure
of food, this project will settle this issue as it is customizable and can be modified
according to the utilization. This project is likewise favorable in respects of cost, another
major issue of organizations is the expense of the equipment, and this project is likewise
economical and need little maintenance. This project is eco-friendly as it depends on
sustainable source of energy and does not affect the climate. The technology nowadays
is moving towards sustainable energy. A large number of pharmaceutical organizations
have issues in preserving medicines and various items as these items are preserved at
low temperatures this will help them in preserving their item at its desired
temperatures. This can be beneficial in funeral homes to store and safeguard bodies.

2
1.3 Aims and Objectives
Our aim is to design and fabricate a refrigerator framework that runs on sustainable
energy but instead of using battery to store energy it will use thermal energy.

1.3.1 Innovation Objective

We will likely plan another creative innovation that will totally change the way the world
sees cold chain activities. This won't just be environment friendly than other solution but
also be less expensive. In the modern food inventory network, cold storage is quite
possibly the major process where there is an enormous yet at the same time unused
potential for utilizing sustainable energy technologies. The reconciliation of rooftop
photovoltaic influences the design as well as performance of refrigerated storeroom,
which are turning into the favored decision for frozen food storage facilities.

Energy and cost savings can be accomplished by installing solar panels. The targets of
this project are to work for ranchers and the cool chain enterprises to protect meal for
longer timeframe, as practically 40% of the food spoils during the transportation. This
venture won't just work with the conservation of food yet additionally decrease the
effect of climate changes as it is climate cordial. The significant characteristic about it is
that it is customizable that implies it can be designed according to applications and type
of food to be saved as the temperature can be fluctuated by the type of food.

1.3.2 Industrial Objective

Cold storage industry uses energy in unfair way, therefore are called as energy hog.
Worldwide, cold storage facilities consume more than $30 billion a year and have the
greatest energy demand per cubic foot of any industrial sector. With unstable energy
costs, the business is looking for better advancements that yield more prominent energy
savings and extra advantages. This venture will save bunches of energy particularly in
the night time as the extra energy can be stocked in the batteries. This will make a
gigantic effect in the cold chain firms. It is cost effective as well as have high
performance with an incredible feature of variable temperature and customization. This
project can store immense measure of meal and can store meal for a more extended
time in a modest expense. It is useful in limiting the contamination and unsafe impact in
the climate as it is sustainable and has almost zero ecological pollution.

3
1.4 Methodology
The fourth section of the chapter one should be “Methodology”. It should include the
details of the methodology that you have used to solve the problem.

1.5 Report Outline

We researched on different solutions for energy storage. We chose to utilize brine
solution with 35 % salt fixation, which is an innovation and a modest source with higher
effectiveness than other sources. We have planned the schematic for the refrigeration
framework. We have uniquely designed the compartment for salt water that will
empower convection stream. The design itself has huge role in convention of heat. The
solitary segment to be made is the container, it might need a couple of conclusive
contacts and testing after the main model is produced. The compartment will be housed
in a deep freezer and will utilize a compressor, evaporator and condenser of the freezer.
All other element will be bought from the market and are easily accessible in market.
Once the container is fabricated and the parts have been bought, we can begin amassing
the framework. We will test the exact brine concentration required for most
effectiveness. This prototype is generalized for variable applications and can be used for
different quantities of product. The model might be introduced in any application we
have recorded. This step will enhance the general expenses as well as effectiveness of
the system. Commercial clients will be added in priority list during testing. This can be
personalized according to the application. Once we have set up our idea, we can start
large scale fabricating on the venture. This venture can be carried out in different food
communities, organizations, ranch, drug organizations and so on.

4
 Chapter 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction to Renewable Energies

Sunlight, wind, rain, tides, and geothermal heat are examples of renewable natural
resources that may be used to produce energy for the future (naturally recharged).
Approximately 16 percent of worldwide final energy consumption comes from
renewable sources, with traditional biomass making up 10 percent (primarily used for
heating) and hydroelectricity making up 3.4 percent. Three percent of the additional
energy came from new renewable sources (small hydro, biomass modernized for
contemporary use, wind, solar, geothermal, and biofuels). Solar, wind, and
hydroelectricity make for about 19 percent of overall power generation, with new
renewables contributing for 3 percent.
Globally, sustainable energy sources need natural processes such as sunlight, wind and
tides as well as plant growth and geothermal heat.

Sustainable energy is obtained from natural occurrences that are constantly replenished
and replenished over time. Depending on its form, it can come directly from the sun or
from the heat created deep within the earth. It includes electricity and heat generated from
the sun, wind, and ocean, as well as hydropower, biofuels, and geothermal resources, as
well as biofuels and hydrogen produced from renewable resources.
Sustainable energy supplanted conventional fuels in four ways:
1. Generation of electricity
2. Heating using hot water/space heating
3. Automobile fuels
4. Off-grid (rural) energy services

5
2.1.1 Types of Renewable Energies
Sustainable Energy is growing increasingly common across the world, although it is still
not the energy source. Science and technology have been studying and developing
renewable energies as an alternative for traditional energy sources because of the high
dependence on natural resources. The definition of clean energy is energy that can be
regenerated in a short period of time. Solar, wind, biomass, hydropower, geothermal, and
biofuels are the most common types of renewable energy.

2.1.2 Wind Power

Wind Power generating is the transformation of wind energy into usable energy, such as
utilizing wind turbines to generate electricity, windmills to provide mechanical power,
wind pumps to pump or drain water, or sails to drive ships. Wind power, as substitute to
fossil fuels, is abundant, sustainable, cosmopolitan, and clean, emitting no greenhouse
gases during operation and utilizes a small piece of land. Any environmental
repercussions are often less severe than those of other power sources. Wind energy
generation accounted for more than 2.5 percent of global electricity in 2010, expanding at
a rate of more than 25 percent each year. The total cost per unit of energy generated is
comparable to the value of coal and gas facilities. Although wind energy is a common
source of electricity, the establishment of wind farms is not uniformly accepted.

2.1.3 Biomass
Biomass is biological material from live or recently living creatures that can be used as a
sustainable energy source. Biomass can be utilized directly as an energy source or
transformed into ethanol or in other energy products. Biomass, in the broadest sense, is
plant matter that is capable of generating energy. Using steam turbines and gasifiers, you
can generate electricity or heat, which is normally done through direct combustion. It is
also possible to use yard clippings as well as forest waste (dead trees, branches and tree
stumps). Garbage that can be recycled includes wood chips and even municipal solid
waste. Plant or animal matter is referred to as biomass in the short passage. Animal stuff
that will be used to make fibers or other industrial compounds, such a s Biofuels. A

6
range of tree species, ranging from eucalyptus to oil palm are frequently used to generate
industrial biomass such as miscanthus, switchgrass and hemp, as well as maize, poplar
and willow.

2.1.4 Hydro power

The flow of water generates hydro energy. One type of hydro power is created when
water flows across turbines, such that when water flows through turbines during a dam.
Hydro power is considered a sustainable energy source since the water is constantly
cycled back through the plant or into nature. Hydroelectricity has a cheap cost of
production, making it a viable sustainable energy source. Electricity from a hydro plant
with a capacity of more than 10 megawatts costs 3 to 5 cents per kilowatt-hour on
average. Since plants are regularly ramped up and down, hydro is also a versatile energy
source. Damming, on the other hand, disrupts river flow and may destroy local
ecosystems, and the construction of major dams and reservoirs frequently results in the
displacement of people and species. When a hydroelectric complex is built, it creates no
direct waste and emits far less CO2 (CO2) than fuel-powered generating facilities.

2.1.5 Geothermal Energy

As the name implies, geothermal energy refers to thermal energy that is generated and
stored in the Earth's interior. Thermal energy is the energy responsible for determining
the temperature of matter. Planet's heat comes from two sources: the creation of the earth
(20%) and mineral decomposition (80 percent). Thermal energy is constantly flowing
from the earth's core to its surface due to the geothermal gradient, which is defined as the
temperature difference between the earth's core and its surface.
The term geothermal comes from the Greek roots γη (ge), meaning earth, and θερμoς
(thermos), meaning hot. Geothermal energy is cost-effective, reliable, long-lasting, and
environmentally friendly, yet it has historically only been used in areas near tectonic plate
boundaries because of its reliability. It is now possible to use a broad range and scale of
resources because of recent technological developments, especially for purposes such as
home heating. Geothermal wells emit greenhouse gases from deep inside the ground, but

7
at a far lower rate per work unit than fossil fuels. As a result, if widely installed in place
of fossil fuels, geothermal power has the potential to help alleviate heat.

2.1.6 Tidal Energy

A type of hydropower that converts tide energy into useable types of power, mostly
electricity is frequently referred to as tidal energy. Even while tidal power isn't widely
used now, in the future, it has the potential to generate electricity. Wind and solar energy
are also less predictable than tides. There are few sites with big enough tidal ranges or
flow rates to make tide power economically viable, which limits its availability as a
renewable energy source. Because of the technical advancements in design and turbine
technology, tidal power has the potential to be competitive in terms of cost.

2.1.7 Solar Energy

Humans have used a range of ever-evolving techniques to capture solar energy, radiant
light and warmth for thousands of years. These solar power technologies, which include
photovoltaics, thermal energy, and solar architecture, have the potential to tackle some of
the world's most challenging problems. A solar technology can be classed as passive or
active based on how it absorbs, transforms and distributes solar energy. The usage of
photovoltaic panels and solar thermal collectors are examples of active solar methods for
harvesting energy from the sun. The International Energy Agency claimed in 2011 that
"the development of affordable, unlimited, and clean solar power technologies will have
enormous long-term benefits".
By relying on an indigenous, renewable, and mainly self-sustaining resource, it would
enhance countries' energy safety; it would also promote sustainability, lessen pollution,
limit the costs of tackling global climate change, and keep gasoline prices lower than they
would be otherwise. These are benefits that are worldwide. There are 174 petawatts of
radiation entering the upper atmosphere (insolation). Approximately 30 percent of the
energy is reflected back into space, with the remainder being absorbed by clouds and

8
oceans, as well as land masses. The visible and near-infrared wavelengths of solar
radiation are the most common at the surface, with just a small percentage falling into the
near-ultraviolet range. The absorption of radiation raises the temperature of Earth's land
surface, oceans, and atmosphere. Due to hot air carrying evaporated water from sea rises,
convection occurs. While at high altitudes, water vapor condenses into clouds. These
clouds subsequently become rain to complete the cycle. Water condensation heat
amplifies convection, resulting in wind and anti-cyclones in the atmosphere as a result. A
constant 14°C surface temperature is maintained by the ocean and land masses absorbing
the sun's radiation. Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants convert solar
energy into energy that may be used to produce food, wood, and fossil fuels (from
biomass). There are about 3,850,000 exajoules of solar energy that is absorbed by the
Earth's atmosphere, seas, and landmasses per year (EJ). An hour's worth of energy was
used by the world in 2002, more than a year's worth. 3000 EJ are collected by the process
of photosynthesis in biomass. The quantity of solar power reaching the earth's surface is
so huge that it is approximately twice as much as can be obtained from all of Earth's non-
renewable resources combined, including coal, oil, gas, and mined uranium. Worldwide,
solar energy is typically controlled and used at several levels.
.

2.2 Applications of Solar Technology

For practical purposes, solar energy generally uses radiation. Apart from geothermal and
tidal, all renewable energies get their energy from the sun. Solar technologies are classed
as passive or active based on how they capture, process, and disperse sunlight. Passive
solar techniques include selecting materials with good thermal properties, creating spaces
that naturally circulate air, and orienting a structure toward the Sun. In contrast, active
solar technologies enhance energy accessibility and are viewed as supply-side
technology, while passive solar technologies reduce the need for alternative resources and
are viewed as demand-side technology.

9
2.3 Types of Solar Collectors
Both non-concentrating and concentrating solar collectors are type of solar collectors.
Due to the fact that the absorber area is the same in the non-concentrating version, the
collector area (i.e., the region that intercepts solar energy) is also the same (i.e., the world
absorbing the radiation). This sort of solar array absorbs the sun's energy. Flat-plate and
evacuated-tube solar collectors are frequently used for space heating, household usage,
and absorption chiller cooling.

2.3.1 Flat plate collectors

The most prevalent form is flat-plate collectors, which were invented by Hottel and
Whillier in the 1950s. Flat-plate solar power collectors consist of a dark flat-plate solar
power absorber, a transparent cover that enables solar power to flow through while
limiting heat losses, a heat-transport fluid (air, antifreeze, or water) to transfer heat from
the absorber, and a heat-insulating backing. Thin thermally stable polymer, aluminum,
steel or copper absorber sheets with a matte black or selective coating are typically
placed in an insulated casing with a glass or polycarbonate cover to function as an
absorber and are commonly supported by fluid tubing grids. As a way to transfer heat
from the absorber to the insulated cistern, water heat panels use tubing to pump fluid
through the absorber. Directly or via a device, this is possible. A totally flooded absorber
is used by the majority of air heat fabricators, as well as a few water heat fabricators. As a
result of the greater warmth exchange surface, they will be slightly more efficient than
traditional absorbers. When sunlight goes through the glass and reaches the absorber
plate, it warms up, converting solar energy into heat. In this case, heat is transferred to
liquid through pipes connecting to the absorber plate. To improve heat absorption and
retention, absorber plates commonly utilize a "selective coating". Absorber plates are
frequently made of metal since it is an excellent heat conductor. Copper being more
costly than aluminum is better in conducting electricity and resisting corrosion. Nearly
half to one square foot of flat plate collectors is needed per gallon of one-day usage in
areas with average solar power availability.

10
2.3.2 Evacuated tube collectors
Tube collectors use heat pipes instead of liquid running directly through their cores in the
vast majority (if not all) of cases. They consist of a series of evacuated glass tubes with an
absorber plate fused to a heat pipe in the middle of each tube. The manifold is wrapped in
insulation and covered with a sheet or plastic case to protect it from the weather.
Vacuuming the tubes reduces convection and conduction heat loss to the surface,
resulting in a better efficiency than flat-plate collectors, especially in colder
environments. This benefit is mostly lost in warmer climates, except in situations where
extremely popular water is required, such as industrial process water. When the heat pipe
and absorber are enclosed in vacuum, certain evacuated tubes (glass-metal) are built with
a single layer of glass that fuses to the heat pipe at its upper end. It is also possible to
make a vacuum flask or vacuum flask-like device by using two layers of glass fused
together at one or both ends. The absorber and warmth pipe are kept at normal air
pressure.
In spite of the vacuum seal, the two layers of glass reduce sunlight reaching the absorber,
and there is the possibility that moisture will enter the non-evacuated section of the tube
and cause absorber deterioration. A glass-metal tube allows more light to reach the
absorber while protecting the absorber and heat pipe from corrosion, despite the fact that
they are made of different materials (see galvanic corrosion). A lack of radiated heat may
also prevent the effective shedding of collected snow in some snowy conditions because
the gaps between the tubes enable snow to fall flat on the collector, reducing production
loss.

2.3.3 Parabolic Trough

This type of collector is commonly used in solar energy plants. As the sun shines down
on an insulated tube (Dewar tube) or heat pipe positioned at the focus, coolant is used to
transfer heat from collectors to the boilers of the power plant. Use a tube with a black
surface to concentrate sunlight on. For parabolic-trough collectors, mirrors are curved.
Through the tube, water and heat transfer fluids are poured. As a result of solar heat
absorption, the fluid may reach temperatures of 299 degrees Celsius. A turbine or a
thermal tank uses steam or hot water to generate electricity. There are parabolic-trough
11
collectors that supply predicament and/or power. This type of solar collector uses just
direct radiation, and although though it requires tracking systems to keep it facing the sun,
it is most effective in locations with ample solar resources. This type of collector is ideal
for big operations that require continual monitoring. It is expensive to install them, but
they reduce the demand for conventional energy and provide environmental benefits in
addition to reducing energy demand. Sun-heating in a parabolic trough appears to be a
well-proven method of water heating. Parabolic-trough Collectors can also be used to
drive absorption cooling systems or other equipment that operates on a thermal load.
Government sites in the Southwest or other areas with a lot of direct-beam radiation may
benefit greatly from these technologies, as well. Prisons, hospitals, and barracks, which
consume large amounts of predicament on a daily basis, are excellent options. With the
use of these systems, federal buildings can comply with Executive Order 12902's mandate
to reduce energy usage by 30 percent by 2005, while also moving forward with other
initiatives to encourage the federal government's energy efficiency leadership, like the
1997 million solar rooftops campaign.
As part of the Federal Energy Management Program, this Federal Technology Alert
(FTA) focuses on innovative energy-efficiency and sustainable energy advancements in
the United States. According to FTA, Energy Savings Performance Contracting (ESPC) is
a way of supporting energy saving and sustainable energy initiatives at federal buildings.
ESPC is offered for parabolic trough systems and offers numerous advantages. The sun is
focused on a dark-surfaced absorber tube along the length of a parabolic-trough
collector's curved mirror surfaces, which have been linearly expanded. Water and
antifreeze or another heat transfer fluid is forced down the absorber tube to heat potable
water or a thermal storage tank. In order to keep them towards the sun, single-axis
tracking devices are needed. This is because the trough mirrors will only reflect direct-
beam sunlight. Location and system size limit the usage of parabolic-trough solar water
heating systems, although they may be very cost-effective in some situations. Parabolic
troughs are less effective since they only use direct radiation as a focusing method.
Cloudy days make it more effective, and it's more likely to work in the Southwest.
Anyone living in a location with a lot of direct sunshine. Creating big systems that will be
utilized indefinitely costs more. A parabolic trough with solar panels with a parabolic
trough provides the most efficient water heating (and air cooling) for large-scale
12
residential hot-water customers. On average, a parabolic-trough system will need at least
one day's supply. District space or water heating systems that service several buildings
from a single source benefit from the use of troughs as well. An important economic
element might be the value of the collector system. In any case, as with any capital-
intensive energy-saving or renewable-energy project, the current cost of energy will most
certainly be a major factor. When it comes to facilities that spend a lot of money on
utilities, traditional water heating or air cooling will always be the most cost-effective
option.

2.3.4 Parabolic Dish

Parabolic dish collectors are the most powerful collectors available. Solar energy is
concentrated using one or more parabolic dishes. power concentrated in one spot, similar
to a reflector that focuses starlight or a dish that concentrates There are radio waves. Solar
furnaces and solar energy facilities might both benefit from this geometry. To understand
the planning of a parabolic dish, you must first understand two key phenomena. On the
one hand, the form of a parabola is designed so that all parallel-to-the-dish-axis light is
reflected toward its principal goal. The second element is that the sun's rays arrive at the
surface in a nearly parallel pattern. Losses occur due to parabolic design errors and
insufficient reflections. If it is oriented with its axis towards the sun, the dish's focal point
will receive the bulk of incoming radiation. Since the dish is normally constructed to be
small enough, so losses due to environment between the dish and its focus are limited.
This impact is minor on a clear, bright day. Compared to other designs, this may be a
critical element, the efficiency of a parabolic dish will be considerably decreased if the
weather is cloudy. At the main target of the dish in Stirling power station designs, a
Stirling engine coupled to a dynamo collects the heat of the incoming radiation and
converts it into energy.

2.4 Solar Energy Scope

In Pakistan, there has been a greater emphasis on alternative energy sources during the
previous ten years, owing to the country's energy problem and extended

13
planned/unplanned power outages. The government of Pakistan is searching for ways to
invest in renewable energy. The Quaid-e-Azam solar energy plant, a state-of-the-art
project, will enhance the country's current electricity supply. Aside from these state-
sponsored programs, efforts must be made at the grass-roots level. Individual customers
must all try to make up for a portion of the shortage by constructing sustainable energy
projects on their properties. Swiftly overcoming the energy shortage in the short term,
installing sustainable energy project is best option. The most widely used
sustainable energy advancements are hydel, wind, and solar.

2.4.1 Global Interest

The creation and usage of fuel transformed technology, more than a century ago.
Domestic and industrial devices improve people's lives by combining several processes
into one go. To meet rising demand fast transportation, electrical and electronic
accessories, and increased industrial productivity are just a few of the initial benefits
individuals received from this addition to their lifestyle. Quickly depleting fuel reservoirs
and an exponential growth in fuel consumption outgrew the assembly because of the
passage of time, resulting in a significant shortfall of the Product. This is when the
problem initially occurred. There was such a high demand for fuel that there weren't
enough reserves, and the process of searching for it can be time-consuming and expensive
because the oil companies must conduct extensive surveys and if any signs of the fuel are
found, massive drilling at great depths in the Earth or within oceans is required. Rather
than weeks or months, it would take years. Fuel prices have risen as a result of the supply
and demand imbalance. This example has prompted the world to seek simple, quick, and
cost-effective alternatives such as wind, solar, solar thermal, and biogas, among others.
The matter is becoming worse day by day because of decreased fuel supply due to
depleting reserves and increased demand due to population growth. Sustainable energy
sources at a lower level are the only solution to both issues, as they will not only meet
rising energy demands but also safeguard the environment from carbon pollution,
therefore preserving ozone layer in the future.

14
Figure 2.1: Source: Global Status Report by REN21, 2019

2.4.2 Local Interest

Pakistan has been dealing with a difficult energy problem for over two decades. In spite
of enormous natural gas and oil reserves, Pakistan cannot solve its energy crisis because
of a lack of new technologies and poor financial planning. On average, fuel costs have
climbed by as much as from 1996 to 2014, the increase was 175%. Similarly, power rates
have climbed by about 200 percent since from 2010 until 2014. Despite the fact that the
government of Pakistan is doing everything possible to help the country overcome the
crisis, no substantial positive effects have been witnessed thus far. Business
circumstances are deteriorating as a result of limited fuel supplies and rising fuel cost [8].
Economic dissatisfaction among citizens because of the great majority of homes are
unable to afford power expenses. It is imperative that cost-effective solutions be
implemented during its critical period. Figure 2.1: Source: Global Status Report by
REN21, 2019 sustainable energy sources to stabilize the country's home, industry, and
economy. Geographically, Pakistan is located in a location that gets the most solar power
radiation, making it ideal for solar power generation. The areas such as karachi and
gwadar are coastal region of our country which are in direct contact with Arabian
sea. The sea has a high potential for wind energy.

15
2.4.3 Technology Overview
Globally, the photovoltaic sector is increasing at a rate of up to 30% per year, with China
leading the way. PV module manufacturing. In terms of consumable electricity, China
sold solar panels totaling 23,000 MW in 2010. In 2010, China accounted for 75% of
worldwide solar transections. Due to the strong demand for solar modules, multiple
national and global corporations are formed each year. With rising market competition,
PV module prices are falling by the day. According to recent surveys and research, the
average per watt cost of a PV module has dropped from $1.61 to $0.8 in just four years,
virtually precisely opposite the growth in power rates in the country during the same
period.

Rank Country Installed Capacity

1 China 43,530
2 Germany 39,700
3 Japan 34,410
4 U.S 25,620
5 Italy 18,920
6 U.K 8,780
7 France 6,580
8 Spain 5,400
9 Australia 5070
10 India 5050
23 Pakistan 1000

When it comes to PV installation, China is the world's top in list. With a solar power
installation capacity of 1000 MW, Pakistan is presently ranked 23rd on the list. Pakistan
is located in a very viable solar energy location, with an average daily sunlight duration of
10-11 hours in the summer and 6-7 hours in the wintertime. The sun provides around
1.259 KW/m2 of energy to the planet on average. The radiation from the sun reaching

16
Earth can reach up to 80%, on a clear day. Fog, moisture, and clouds that hide the sun
often cause a drop in solar power radiations.

2.4.4 Solar Power Development in Pakistan

To align and enhance solar power penetration in Pakistan's home and industrial purposes,
numerous attempts are being undertaken. The daily average for this location is about nine
hours of sunshine. The system installation at Minneola in 1981 was one of the earliest
initiatives in this respect. Four more solar photovoltaic systems were erected in a number
of locations, after the successful completion of the pilot program. It includes Khukhera
near Lasbela (Baluchistan), Malmari in district Thatta, Ghakkar in district Attock, and
Dital Khan Legari in district Mirpur Khas. The Punjab government announced the Quaid-
e-Azam solar energy park, which would be built on 5000 acres of land near the district of
Bahawalpur. 400MW of sunlight energy plants have been constructed and successfully
linked to the national grid to far. It is expected that by 2020, the project's entire capacity
would be 1000MW. A local business has installed 100 solar panels in the village of
Narian Korian near Islamabad, which will provide lighting and fans for 100
households. Sun oriented energy is used to power the system. In Khuzdar and off-grid
areas of Karak in the province of KPK, similar projects have been undertaken by
Pakistan's AEDB (Alternate Energy Development Board), which has delivered around
200 solar solutions.

Figure 2.2

17
2.4.5 Market Potential
Pakistan, being a growing country, is a market with shifting trends. To absorb and adapt
to new technology, the local market is eager. Consequently, there is great potential for
energy alternatives in Pakistan, and solar energy is one of the most cost-effective and
easiest to deploy and collect. There is a higher likelihood that solar solutions will be
employed in commercial, industrial, and agricultural sectors due to their high rate of
return and shorter payback periods than in residential sectors. The payback time for
households is relatively substantial. A Pakistani citizen's monthly salary is around $255.
The cost of solar PV modules per watt is shown in the table below.

Solar Panel Technology Cost per watt $

Mono Crystalline 0.79
Poly Crystalline 0.73

According to the following data, particularly for the middle class, In the local market,
solar panels are still expensive. Solar energy is significantly more practical for businesses
and industries who want to use it economically and industrially.

Figure 2.3: Solar Panels Import in Pakistan MW

The AEDB issued an SRO in 2006 to exempt solar energy items from tariffs, which aided
in the advancement of the technology. In accordance with SRO.575 (1)/2006, the
government reduced the 32.2 percent tariff on the import of solar panels in order to make
18
them more accessible to the general people. In 2007, the PV module import was around
0.14MW, but by the end of 2012, it had increased to 22.4MW, a stunning rise of almost
16000 percent.

2.4.6 Types of Solar Panels

SiO2 is abundant on the planet and very affordable from which solar modules are
constructed. Up to 1 part per million (1 ppm) or to a purity of 99.9999 percent raw sand
must be refined. The expense of purifying sand to the required levels is too expensive.
Solar panels are classified into three categories.
1. Mono-Crystalline Based Solar Panels
2. Poly Crystalline Based Solar Panels

2.4.6.1 Mono Crystalline Solar Panels

The underlying recipe for all solar panels is the same, and they are all constructed
from silicon. Monocrystalline solar panels are built of a single silicon crystal. Mono
crystalline solar panels, as the name implies (meaning "single"), are made from a single
crystal on silicon and hence lack such grain boundaries. The highest efficiencies in the
world are found in monocrystalline solar panels. At the laboratory level, the most modern
solar panels claim an efficiency of approximately 22 percent. Monocrystalline solar
panels are more costly than other types of solar panels due to their higher output
efficiency.

Figure 2.4
19
2.4.6.2 Poly Crystalline Solar Panels
Polycrystalline solar panels (also known as multi crystalline solar panels) have a different
structure than monocrystalline solar panels and are made from several silicon crystals.
They are less expensive due to less refined silicon crystals. They have reduced efficiency
as a result of their lower purity. According to the most current research, polycrystalline
solar panels have 17 percent efficiency. They function well in hotter environments
because this type of module can withstand high temperatures. As a result, polycrystalline
modules are utilized throughout Africa, Australia, and the Gulf areas.

Figure 2.5

2.4.7 System Description

An air conditioner and a photovoltaic system are shown in the block diagram.
Consideration of each component must be done as a whole unit in order for us to
understand its qualities. if feasible, achieve the same efficiency as a typical air
conditioning system, the entire system must be able to run in a steady state. When it
comes to chilling, the DC air conditioner should operate similarly to a conventional AC
air conditioner.

20
Figure 2.6

2.4.8 PV System
Despite the fact that there are numerous changes in PV processes presently, whether in
research or commercial fields, the core premise is straightforward. Photovoltaic, a mix of
two terms, photo means light and voltaic means electricity, turns sunshine energy directly
into electricity. The PV effect is responsible for the conversion of sunlight into electricity.
The expression “solar cell” is booked for gadgets designed specially to extract energy
from sunlight, whereas the phrase “photovoltaic cell” is used when the light source is not
specified. A comprehensive PV framework is made up of two subsystems. The PV
modules, which convert sunlight into energy, are the first subsystem. Between the first
and air conditioner, there will be a second subsystem, which is a network of components
and assembly that allow the PV power to be correctly transferred to the load. BOS
(balance of system) is the third subsystem. On their rated power output in Watts, PV
modules classification is based. The amount of electricity that a solar panel is predicted to
21
produce in one peak sun hour (PSHs) is rating. Varying amounts of average peak solar
hours every day is received by different geographical areas. To determine the quantity of
PV modules to be placed, the peak sun hour is required. The power that may be estimated
to be generated by the PV modules must be estimated based on the location's solar
irradiation before doing so.

Figure 2.7

Inverter, a charge controller, and a battery consist this BOS. The charger's job is to
control the voltage and current flowing from the solar panel to the battery. The major
element in PV-SA framework is battery as it serves as an energy backup for the
sustainable energy systems. On overcast days and at night, It also serves as a storage
device for PV-generated power. An inverter is required to convert the DC power
generated by the PV panel into AC in order to use this system with an AC load, a. The
alternating current load is a typical form of load that is easily supplied at a low cost.

2.4.9 Battery
It is critical when it comes to obtaining and keeping the optimum batteries. The most
prevalent concern when selecting an appropriate battery is cost and maintenance. To meet
the system's energy demands, battery storage must have sufficient capacity particularly
during times of low radiation. All instances of low radiation are rainy day, gloomy
weather, and being in the dark. Deep cycle batteries are designed to be depleted over a
lengthy period of time and recharged
hundreds or thousands of times.
22
Figure 2.8

In order to prevent the batteries from overcharging, the charge controller manages the
current coming from the PV module. It is the charge controller's job to identify when the
batteries have been fully charged and to stop or lower the current going to the battery.
The rating of a charge controller is determined by the amount of current it can collect
from the solar panels.

2.4.10 System Operation

The PV module collects solar energy and converts it to electricity. The charge controller
then regulates the power by either supplying it straight to the equipment or charging the
batteries. DC electricity from the PV module will be converted to alternating current (AC)
by the inverter since the compressor requires AC to operate. Direct expansion,
mechanical, vapor-compression cooling system are most popular type of air conditioning.
AC works by trapping heat in a cooled region and then releasing it outside. Cold, low-
pressure liquid (refrigerant) absorbs heat as it passes through the cooling chamber's
evaporator coil. Similar to coffee pressure gas emerges when the cold liquid that entered
the evaporator coil. Afterwards, the cold, low gas is transported outside and pressurized
by the compressor, producing a hot, high gas. Recent gas also travels through condenser
coil, where part of its heat is dissipated when outdoor air blasts over loop. Thus, the
newly formed gas condenses back into a liquid. Expansion decreases temperature and

23
pressure of heated liquid when it returns to the evaporator through a return path. A basic
air conditioner's function is shown in the image.

Figure 2.9: Air conditioning system [1 Condenser, 2 Expansion Valve, 3 Evaporator,

4.

24
2.5 Summary
All in nutshell, Sustainable energy techniques are growing increasingly across the world
due to its environment friendly nature than traditional energy sources. Solar, wind,
biomass, hydropower, geothermal and biofuels are most common types of renewable
resources but our concern is with solar which takes energy from sun. We used flat plate
collector solar panel for our project. Swiftly overcoming the energy shortage in the short
term, installing sustainable energy project is best option. Fuel prices have risen as a result
of the supply and demand imbalance. This example has prompted the world to seek
simple, quick, and cost-effective alternatives such as wind, solar, solar thermal, and
biogas, among others. Geographically, Pakistan is located in a location that gets the most
solar power radiation, making it ideal for solar power generation. The areas such as
karachi and gwadar are coastal region of our country which are in direct contact with
Arabian sea. The sea has a high potential for wind energy. Pakistan is now placed 23rd on
the list, with a solar power installation capacity of 1000 MW. Pakistan is located in a very
viable solar energy location, with an average daily sunlight duration of 10-11 hours in the
summer and 6-7 hours in the wintertime. Solar energy is significantly more practical for
businesses and industries who want to use it economically and industrially. The suggested
system idea, which comprises of an air conditioner and a PV system. The PV module
collects solar energy and converts it to electricity. The charge controller then regulates the
power by either supplying it straight to the equipment or charging the batteries.

25
 Chapter 3
REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

3.1 Introduction
Refrigeration is the process of extracting heat from a refrigerated space (space required
for chilling) and repelling that heat to another area of greater temperature using any
mechanical or electrical means. Therefore, in a refrigerator, power is to be supplied to
remove the heat continuously from the refrigerator cabinet to keep it cool at a temperature
less than the atmospheric temperature. A medium called refrigerant continuously extracts
the heat from the space within the refrigerator which is to be kept cool at temperature less
than the atmosphere and finally rejects it to the surrounding.

3.2 Refrigeration
Refrigeration is the process of extracting heat from a refrigerated space (space required
for chilling) and repelling that heat to another area of greater temperature using any
mechanical or electrical means.

3.3 Refrigeration Cycle

A refrigeration cycle is a closed cycle that circulates, evaporates, and condenses a
constant amount of refrigerant.

3.3.1 Vapor Compression Cycle

The refrigeration cycle in which a working fluid (refrigerant) extracts heat from the
refrigerated region at lower temperatures and pressures and repels it to the higher
temperature side at greater pressures. The processes involved in the vapour compression
cycle are outlined below.
1-2 Adiabatic Compression: Vapor refrigerant is compressed to a relatively high
temperature and pressure, which necessitates work input in the compressor.

26
2-3 Isothermal Heat Rejection: Through heat transfer to the cooler in the condenser, vapor
refrigerant condenses to liquid.
3-4 Adiabatic Expansion: Heat transfer from the refrigerated compartment causes liquid
refrigerant to expand to evaporator pressure in the expansion device.
4-1 Isothermal Heat Addition: A two-phase liquid-vapor refrigerant combination is
evaporated through heat transfer from the chilled space to the evaporator.

Figure 3-1: Vapor compression cycle

Figure 3-2: PV diagram of vapor compression cycle

27
3.3 Components of Refrigeration Cycle

3.3.1 Evaporator
An evaporator is a heat exchanger that absorbs heat from the refrigerated environment
and evaporates the working fluid (refrigerant) at low temperature and pressure.

3.3.1.1 Types of Evaporators

• Bare Tube Evaporators

Copper or steel pipes make up the bare tube evaporator. When other than ammonia
refrigerant and a small evaporator are required, copper pipes are utilized, whereas steel
pipes are used when ammonia refrigerant is utilized. It is made up of numerous turns of
tubes, the most popular of which being flat zigzag and oval trombones. They are utilized
in freezing operations where air runs over the evaporator, chills, and is then utilized to
cool.

• Plate Type Evaporators

Plate evaporators are flat surface evaporators that are often embedded with copper and
aluminum coil. Outside, it seems to be a single plate evaporator, but inside, numerous
turns of tubes are present, increasing the heat transfer rate of the refrigerant.

• Finned Evaporators
To boost heat transmission capabilities, fins are placed to the bare tube. They function as
heat collectors, absorbing heat from the surrounding air and transferring it to the
refrigerant inside the tube, boosting efficiency in chilling the surrounding air.

28
• Shell-And-Tube Type Evaporators
A high number of tubes are put in the shell or drum of shell and tube evaporators. It is the
most popular form of evaporator, and it is usually utilized in big air conditioning systems
or in central air conditioning.

3.3.2 Condenser
Condensers are heat exchangers that condensate the working fluid (refrigerant) from the
compressor by rejecting its heat to the secondary fluid ( i.e. air or water).

3.3.2.1 Type of Condensers

• Air Cooled Condensers

Air is utilized in air cooled condensers to cool the refrigerant that comes from the
compressor. The two types of air-cooled condensers are natural convection and forced
convection air cooled condensers. Air moves in a natural way by any means in natural
convection. In the case of forced convection, the condenser's temperature and pressure
control the flow of air from an outside source.

• Water Cooled Condensers

Using water, water cooled condensers chill the refrigerant. There are three types of
condensers that use water as a cooling medium: shell-and-tube, shell-and-coil, and tube in
tube. Refrigeration fluid passes through the shell of a shell-and-tube condenser, while
water flows through the tubes. Whenever refrigerant is present in the shell of a shell-and-
tube condenser, water is forced to flow through tubes. The annulus of tube-in-tube
condensers contains refrigerant and the inner tubes hold water. These tubes may include
fins to boost the rate of heat transfer.

29
Figure 3.3

Figure 3.4

Figure 3.5

30
• Evaporative Condensers
The refrigerant in evaporative condensers is in bare coils of tubes, which have no fins.
The coils are sprinkled with water. An enclosure surrounds the coil and sprays through
which air is drawn or propelled by the fan. Water treatment is essential in order to
decrease corrosion. The bare tubes make cleaning easier.

3.3.3 Compressor
A compressor is a pump that generates work energy by pressurizing the refrigerant in a
refrigeration cycle. Positive displacement compressors and centrifugal compressors are
the two main types of compressors.
Positive displacement compressors operate on the basis of trapping volume and are
classified into multiple types, including rotary, scroll, and helical kinds, whilst centrifugal
compressors have different configurations. The types of compressors are as follows.

• Rotary Compressors
This next type of positive displacement pump, the rotary compressor, is distinguished by
continuous circular motion or rotation. The region around the cylinder is continually
swept in this type of compressor by spinning the rotor on an eccentric shaft. By moving
against the cylinder wall, a vane divides the suction and discharge ports.

• Helical Rotary Compressors

Helical rotary compressors come in single screw and twin-screw configurations. It is
sometimes referred to as a screw compressor. Two-star wheels pass through a helical
main rotor in a single screw compressor, the insertion of which gives the compression
chamber boundaries. In a twin-screw design, two meshing helical gears are present, and
the fluid is forced to travel in a direction parallel to the axis of rotation of the rotor shaft
due to the helical form of the screw.

31
Figure 3.6

• Reciprocating Compressors
Reciprocal compressors are single action piston compressors in which the piston sweeps
the volume with its displacement. The clearance is defined as the remaining volume. The
theoretical volumetric efficiency is given by the ratio of these two volumes, which is
reduced by high compression ratios. Because of pressure drops between the valves, the
real efficiency is lower than the theoretical efficiency. Other inefficiencies exist in
addition to pressure losses in valves.

Figure 3.7

32
Centrifugal Compressors
Centrifugal compressors have higher capacity than positive displacement compressors
and are thus more commonly employed in HVAC. They have a typical driving speed of
around 3600 rpm. They are designed in a centrifugal fashion. For medium flow rates and
high compression ratios, centrifugal compressors are employed.

Figure 3.8

Other types and categories of compressors exist, but the primary ones are covered.

3.3.4 Expansion Device

Throttling is accomplished by the employment of an expansion device, which provides
resistance to flow, resulting in a pressure decrease. It moves the liquid refrigerant from
the condenser pressure to the evaporator pressure. There are mainly two types of
expansion devices.

•Constant Restriction Type (Fixed Opening)

It features a specific area for refrigerant flow. Capillary tubes are a form of fixed opening
valve. It has a long, thin tube with a constant diameter. Because the walls of the tube
impede flow, the pressure is lowered. Because area is fixed, so is mass flow rate,

33
therefore as liquid refrigerant changes to vapors, its density falls, increasing velocity as
V=lAV, resulting in pressure drop.

•Variable Restriction Type (Variable Opening)

Variable restriction type expansion valves are classified into three types:
1. Thermostatic Expansion Valve

It reduces pressure and adjusts the quantity of refrigerant in the evaporator based on the
load need.
2. Float Valves

It is found in high-capacity refrigeration systems. It maintains a steady amount of liquid

in the evaporator as detected by the float.
3. Automatic Expansion Valve

For refrigerant metering, pressure sensor devices that maintain constant pressure in the
evaporator are utilized.

3.4. Refrigerant
A refrigerant is a fluid that is used as a working fluid in the refrigeration cycle to absorb
heat from the surrounding or refrigeration space. It can be either liquid or gaseous, but as
it takes heat from the refrigerated space, it transforms to gas and travels to the
compressor, where it is pressured to condenser pressure, while it converts to liquid when
it releases heat to the cooling fluid in the condenser.
Refrigerants are categorized as follows:

• Primary Refrigerants
It is a kind of refrigerant that undergoes phase shift in the evaporator by absorbing and
releasing heat throughout the refrigeration cycle. Primary refrigerants include R-11, R-22,
R134a, and others.

34
• Secondary Refrigerants
Its phase does not vary during the cycle. It simply transfers energy or heat from one point
to another. It absorbs heat from the main refrigerant before forming refrigeration space. It
is primarily utilized in the cycle to reduce the strain on main refrigerants. Brine, dry CO2,
and other secondary refrigerants are most common examples.

3.4.1 Refrigerant

1. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

Chlorofluorocarbons are chlorine-containing refrigerants. It is hazardous to the

environment, which is why it was banned in the early 1990s. It consists of R11, R12, and
R115.

2. Hydro chlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs)

It has less chlorine in it than CFCs. It is a temporary replacement for CFCs. R22, R123,
and R124 are components of HCFCs.

3. Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)

Because there is no chlorine in this form of refrigerant, it is not damaging to the

environment or the ozone layer. When compared to typical refrigerants, it has a
significant influence on global warming. R32, R134a, and other popular HFCs.

4. Ammonia (NH3, R717)

It can also be used as a refrigerant because it does not deplete the ozone layer. However,
due to the fact that its smell might cause fear, it is not commonly used by less trained
persons.

35
5. Carbon dioxide (CO2, R744)

It might be another refrigerant used in refrigeration since it is non-flammable, has no

negative effects on the ozone layer, is readily accessible, and is inexpensive. Because it
has a lesser efficiency and runs at a greater pressure, it cannot be utilized in a standard
refrigeration cycle.

3.4.2 Basis of Choice of Refrigerant

• Refrigerant 11
This refrigerant is utilized in centrifugal compressors.

• Refrigerant 12
It is extensively utilized in reciprocating compressor systems in residential and vehicle air
conditioning systems.

• Refrigerant 22
It may be utilized with refrigerant 12 in lower cos and smaller compressors.

• Ammonia R717
It is widely employed in big industrial low-temperature installation systems.

• Carbon dioxide R744

It is intended for immediate freezing of food. It has a greater condensing pressure,
limiting its applicability.

36
3.5 Summary
All in nutshell, refrigeration is process of removing heat from a substance under
controlled conditions. It uses vapor compression cycle to extract heat from refrigerated
region at lower temperature. The components of refrigerated cycle are evaporator,
condenser, compressor, and expansion device. A refrigerant is a fluid that is used as a
working fluid in the refrigeration cycle to absorb heat from the surrounding or
refrigeration space. Refrigerant 134a is used in our compressor due to cheaper cost.

37
 Chapter 4
METHODOLOGY

This section contains the technique which have used to complete this innovative project.

4.1 Project Implementation

• Research & Design:

The first stage is to create and investigate various energy storage technologies. Brine with
a salt content of 35% have opted to employ, which is an innovation and a low-cost source
with greater efficiency than other sources. The refrigeration system's schematic has been
created by us. We have particularly constructed the brine container to enhance convection
movement. The design itself plays a significant effect in the heat convention.

• Manufacturing:

The container is the sole component that has to be fabricated; when the initial model is
completed, it may require a few last touches and testing. The freezer's compressor,
evaporator, and condenser will be utilized and the container will be kept in a deep freezer.
All other elements are easily accessible in the market will be obtained from the market.

• Prototype:

We may begin manufacturing the system after the container has been produced and the
components have been acquired. For maximum efficiency, we will determine the precise
brine concentration. This prototype is generalizable for a wide range of applications and
may be utilized for both small and big scale projects.

38
• Installation:

The prototype can be used in any of the applications we've specified. This stage will
primarily focus on lowering the system's operating costs and increasing its efficiency.
During testing, we will also aim to keep commercial consumers in mind. This can be
modified depending on the requirements.

• Production:
We'll be able to start large-scale production on the project, once we've established our
concept. In a variety of food centers, businesses, farms, pharmaceutical companies, and
so on this project can be implemented.

4.2 Project Milestones

Table

39
4.3 Gantt Chart

GANT CHART

20-Nov 9-Jan 28-Feb 19-Apr 8-Jun 28-Jul

Research and Study Literature

Testing of brine solution

Testing of container's material

Start Date
Fabrication of food container
Days to complete

Solenoid and pump Fixing

Overall testing

Optimization

Installation

Final Report and Final Project

Figure 4.1

4.4 Research & Analysis

4.4.1 Brine Solution Freezing Point

In order to find proof of concept for thermal cooling, The initial study was carried out.
Similar research articles were collected and examined. The first step was to choose a fluid
for thermal heat transfer. There were two choices considered: brine and coolant. Based on
our temperature requirements, as well as the restriction of not allowing the fluid to
solidify, a brine solution had to be chosen.

Figure 4.2
40
4.4.2 Brine Solution Experiment
An experiment was carried out over a few days in a deep freezer for this purpose. We
made many concentrated brine solutions and stored them in a deep freezer. The containers
were examined and reported on a regular basis for any ice formation. The outcomes are
shown in the table below.
Salt in gram Salt Percentage Salt Percentage Time Taken Ice Formed
110g of salt 1 liter 11 After 1 day Yes
150g of salt 1 liter 15 After 3 days Yes
200g of salt 1 liter 20 After 5 days Yes

350g of salt 1 liter 35 After 5 days No

As a result, a salt content of 35% was chosen.

4.4.3 Fridge Model Selection

Two components were to be developed in design. The brine-filled containers and the
milk-filled containers These containers will be placed in a deep freezer. Which has been
chosen, as well as its measurements, are listed below.
Selected Freezer Model: WDFT 315TL - 425 Liters Cool Bank Series

Figure 4.3

41
Figure 4.4

4.5 Schematic Of Refrigeration System

Figure 4.5

42
4.6 Summary
All in nutshell, it includes our research work, design work, manufacturing, prototype,
installation and production. Based on our temperature requirements, as well as the
restriction of not allowing the fluid to solidify, a brine solution had to be chosen. After
experimentation, 35% salt solution concentration was chosen.

43
 Chapter 5

CALCULATIONS

5.1 Volume of container:

Length = 16 inch
Breath = 13.5 inch
Height = 14.5 inch
VOUME = 13.5’’x 14.5’’x 16’’
= 3132 cubic inch.
=3132x 0.0164 liter.
V =51.332 liter.

5.2 Volume of brine container:

Radius = 7 inch
Height = 16inch
Volume = ∏R²H
= 3.142 x 7² x 16
= 2463.328 cubic inch
= 2463.328 x 0.0164 liter
V = 40.4 liter.

5.3 Energy calculation:

5.3.1 Thermal energy of milk:

Cooling milk from 38.3 °C to 4°C.
Weight of 1 liter of water at 4°C equal to 1 Kg.
Mass = 51.2 Kg.
Specific heat = 3.84KJ/kg.°C

44
Temperature difference = 38.3°C - 4°C
= 34.3°C
Energy = m c ΔT
= 51.2 x 3.89 x 34.3
= 6831.462 KJ

5.4 Power:
Energy = 6831.462 KJ
Time = 1 hour ( milk take one hour to reach 4°C )
= 3600 sec
Power = energy /time
= 6831.462/ 3600
P= 1.897 KW.

5.5 Volume Of Brine Required:

By comparing energies equations we get
Mmilk x Cmilk x (T2-T1)milk= Mmilk x Cbrine x ( T2-T1)brine
6831.462 = Mbrinex 1.85 x (25+16)

Mbrine= 90.065 Kg

5.6 Cooling Brine From 25°C To -16°C

5.6.1 Thermal Energy of brine

Mbrine= 90.065 Kg
Specific heat of brine=1.85KJ/Kg°C
Temperature difference=25°C+16°C
=41°C
Energy = m c ΔT
=90.065x1.85x41
=6831.43KJ
45
5.7 Power:
Energy= 6831.43KJ
Time= 2.5 hours
= 9000 sec
Power= Energy/Time
= 6831.43/9000
P = 0.759 KW

5.8 Cooling Brine From 4°C to -16°C

5.8.1 Thermal Energy of brine:

Mbrine= 90.065 Kg
Specific heat of brine=1.85KJ/Kg°C
Temperature difference=4°C+16°C
=20°C
Energy = m c ΔT
=90.065x1.85x20
=3332.405KJ

5.9 Power:
Energy= 6831.43KJ
Time= 1.25 hours
= 4500 sec
Power= Energy/Time
= 3332.405/4500
P = 0.7405 KW

46
5.10 Power Calculation
During the day the compressor will be cooling the milk and brine therefore the power
needed will be:
Total power needed= 1.897KW+ 0.7405KW
P=2.637KW
Power in hp= 2.637x1.341hp
= 3.536hp
Converting into Rtn=2.637/3.536
= 0.753Rtn
Converting into KW= 0.753x1.8
= 1.3554KW
Number of solar panels required 6 if we are using of 250W
Number of solar panels required 3 if we are using of 500W

5.11 Heat And Mass Flow Rate

Mass flow rate=Mbrine/time
=90.065/1x3600
=0.025 kg/s
5.12 Heat Transfer
Q=(Mass flow rate)xCpxΔT
=0.025x4.18x(38.3-4)
Q =3.584 J/s

47
5.13 Area
Heat transfer= 1897J/s
Coefficient=401 w/m²k
ΔT=38.3-4
=34.3
Q=hxAxΔT
1897= 401xAx(38.3-4)
A=0.1379m²

5.14 Volume Of Brine Around Milk Compartment

V=16.5”x15.5”x18”
=4603.5in³
V=75.43 lit
Volume of milk container:
V=3132 in³=51.324 litre
Volume of brine around milk container=24.106 litres

5.15 Pump Selection

Our required diameter of pump inlet is 0.01 m so we select the pump of 10

l/min volume flow rate which fulfill our requirement.

5.16 Critical Thickness Of Insulation

Tambient=30°C
Tbrine= -16°C
Thermal Conductivity of Polystyrene (k)= 0.033 W/mK
Q= -kΔT/Δx
Q= (0.033)(30+16)/(0.127)
Q= 11.95 J

Critical Thickness (Δx)= 0.127 m = 5 inches

48
 Chapter 6

PROCESSING AND RESULTS

6.1 Design of Containers

We substituted the battery, which is chemical energy storage, with brine at -16C, which is
thermal energy storage, to lower the cost of any sustainable energy refrigerator
application. We have manufactured a specially built engineering container for this
purpose to chill down any things in the refrigerator that utilize conventional currents. The
cost of brine is low as it is basically a combination of water and salt, with salt comprising
of just 5-10% of the solution. Solar energy is utilized to power the refrigerator and charge
the battery at the same time in a conventional system. The battery is required to keep the
refrigerator running through the night. To lower the temperature of brine solution from
room temperature to -16 degrees Celsius, our technology will only need solar energy. The
system will cease the flow of brine in the chamber when the desired temperature is
attained. The brine will then be chilled to -16C. Now, over the night, the brine at -16 C
will be utilized to keep the temperature of the contents in the fridge stable; as a
consequence, the entire system will attain thermal equilibrium equal to 4 C by the next
morning, and the cycle will resume.
Our model relies on a freezer with two containers, one of which will store brine solution
and second container serve as a storage tank for the items that will be stored. In addition,
there will be a standard compressor with the refrigerator. The brine solution will serve as
the coolant, flowing via the pipes connecting the containers. To keep food or other
perishable objects chilled, brine solution is employed. The pipe will be made of a
conducting substance through which the brine will flow, and our containers will be made
of food-grade steel. Because the containers will be placed in the refrigerator, they will be
made to fit the size of the refrigerator. To preserve food or other eatables under specified
circumstances is our fundamental goal specified by WHO standards. Moreover,
thermostat is also used to maintain a favorable temperature.

49
Figure 6.1: Isometric View

Figure 6.2: Top View

50
Figure 6.3: Front View Figure 6.4: Side View

6.2 Thermostat
We have installed three thermostats. One is installed with the compressor, which shut off
the compressor automatically when temperature reached to -16°C in brine container,
second is install to operate a pump when the temperature of food container reaches to 4°C
and third is install to open a solenoid valve when the temperature of food container
reaches to 4 °C .

Figure 6.5: thermostats

51
Figure 6.6: Solenoid Valve

6.3 Pump
We install a pump which transfer brine solution from the surrounding of food container to
the brine container.

Figure 6.7: Pump

52
 6.4 Observation
Time Of Day Brine container Temperature (°C) Food Container Temperature (°C)

6:00 PM -16°C 2°C

9:00 PM -14.5°C 3°C

12:00 AM -11.5°C 4°C

7:00 AM -3°C 4°C

8:00 AM -10°C 2°C

9:30 AM -16°C 2°C

53
 TEMPERATURE VS TIME

5 4 4
3
2 2 2

0
-3
TEMPERATURE (°C)

-5

-10
-10 -11.5

-14.5
-15 -16 -16

-20
6:00 9:00 12:00 7:00 8:00 9:30
PM PM AM AM AM AM
BRINE FOOD CONTAINER (°C) -16 -14.5 -11.5 -3 -10 -16
FOOD CONTAINER
2 3 4 4 2 2
TEMPERATURE(°C)

BRINE FOOD CONTAINER (°C) FOOD CONTAINER TEMPERATURE(°C)

54
Figure 6.7: Experimental Setup Figure 6.8: Cooling coils to condenser

Figure 6.9: AC compressor connected to fridge

55
 Chapter 7

SUMMARY
The Refrigeration Effect may be produced without the use of a battery to store energy
with the addition of brine cooling. Cooling time in the cooling compartment is shortened.
As a result, the time necessary to reach the desired temperature is reduced, and the
compressor may shut down faster, saving energy. The primary alteration required is the
replacement of the batteries with a brine container. In addition, after one two and half
hour of operation, the system may attain temperatures of up to -16 C. Solar energy
technologies are very important for the developing nations to sustain their energy needs.
We made several errors when developing our brine container design, but we learnt from
the majority of them. In the future, we hope to improve our design by incorporating more
advanced technologies and higher-quality components, resulting in a more trustworthy
and modern design. As in future, we will add additional functions to the fridge.
Our major objective is our design to be utilized in rural regions of Pakistan, where we
may assist to reduce the challenges that people encounter. We accomplished most of the
goals we set for ourselves at the start of our project, such as chilling brine to a specific
temperature, but there are many more steps to take before we can achieve large-scale
manufacturing, that's where we hope to be.

7.1 Recommendations for Future Work

We made prototype of this innovative refrigerator. Further we can make it at larger scale
and can earn from this innovative refrigerator as it is the only refrigerator that fulfil
demands in rural areas at lower costs. Further enhancement in refrigerator can result in
better efficiency and lessen pollution. We can use R-290 or R-600A as they are
environment friendly and have less global warming potential. We can also use R-32 to get
more efficient results. Likewise, we can also replace the refrigerant that can results in
lower degrees temperature. Further using some techniques, we can lower more
temperature in less time.

56
References

[1] Ala Al-Haj Hussein, Michael Pepper, Ahmad Harb, Issa Batarseh “An Efficient Solar
charging
Algorithm for Different Battery Chemistries” Available: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org
[2] Khurmi R.S., and Gupta J.K., Refrigeration and Air Conditioning, S Chand, 2012.
Hundy G.F., Trott A.R., and Welch T.C., Refrigeration and Air Conditioning, 4th
Edition, Butterworth-Heinemann, 2008.
[3] Admiraal D. M., and Bullard C. W., Heat Transfer in Refrigerator Conditioners and
Evaporators, University of Illinois, 1993. [4] Holman J.P., Heat Transfer, Mc Graw
Hill, 2003
[4] Holman J.P., Heat Transfer, Mc Graw Hill, 2003.
[5] Domkundwa and Arora, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning, Dhanpat Rai and Sons,
1994
[6] Shan K. W., Handbook of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration, 2nd Edition, Mc Graw
Hill, 2003.
[7] https://www.brighthubengineering.com/hvac/61270-types-of-refrigerationevaporators/
[8]https://mechaengineerings.wordpress.com/2015/06/20/primaryandsecondaryrefrigerant
s/
[9] Table 3 Maximum solar heat gain factor for Sunlit glass. Reproduced with permission
from the 1989 ASHRAE HandbookFundamentals.
[10] HDIP, 2011. Pakistan Energy Yearbook
[11] Amasyali K, El-Gohary NM (2016). Energy-related values and satisfaction levels of
Residential and office building occupants. Building and Environment, 95: 251–263.
[12] Beghi A, Cecchinato L, Rampazzo M, Simmini F (2014). Energy efficient control of
HVAC systems with ice cold thermal energy storage. Journal of Process Control, 24:
773–781. BERC (2014).

57
58