1-1

1. Introduction to Control Systems

We can consider the following circuit at different levels:
- as an op-amp
circuit; +

u y

- inside the
IB IE
op-amp?
IC

- or, at the transistor

level?

1-2
In Control Engineering, we are not exactly interested in how things work inside
a system at the component level - not the transistor, not the op-amp, and not even
the circuit if we can avoid it. We are more interested in how the input signal u and
the output signal y are related in a functional manner at the system level.
We model this relationship as a transfer function, and if we plot its frequency
response, we will find that we can describe the function of the above circuit as a
low-pass filter. In other words, we are more interested in high-level analysis of
the system.
Gain (db)

d Phase (deg.)
frequency

u y
as 2 + bs + c

As we are interested in how things behave as systems, control engineering is

often referred to as Systems Engineering.
 1-3
We will be taking a general approach which makes the theory applicable to
systems from different disciplines, including electrical, mechanical and
electromechanical systems, provided they are linear time-invariant.

Some Examples of control systems:

1. Temperature Control (Heated Water Tank)

OUTPUT
Controller to adjust POWER TEMP
so as to maintain θ o at θo
desired θ i
POWER

CONTROLLER

e = θi − θ o
SET PT.
θi + -

1-4
2. Aircraft
OUTPUTS

How do we use the PITCH R

ATE
INPUTS to control VELOCIT
the OUTPUTS? Y
RUDDER
- autopilot design
INPUTS

ROLL RA
problem TE
ELEVATOR
AILERON

3. Feedback Amplifier

vi + Analyze as a
e -
vo
feedback system

Z2 Z1
e
vi +
- A vo
Z2
β =
Z1 + Z 2 β
 1-5
In general, a control system consists of some outputs which
respond to some inputs in a well-defined manner.
Control Engineering is to do with how we may make use of the
inputs to drive the system so that the outputs behave in some
desired way. This requires:
MODELING - describe system by math. Model for the purpose
of design, simulation etc.
ANALYSIS - determine properties of system e.g. bandwidth,
stability, etc.
DESIGN - find controller to improve system performance
and to meet prescribed specifications

TIME FREQ
2 Approaches: DOMAIN DOMAIN

RELATED BY
LAPLACE TRANSFORM

1-6

Laplace Transforms
Definition: The Laplace transform of f(t) is
∞
F ( s ) = ∫ e − st f (t ) dt
0

Notation: F(s) also written L[f ( t )].

Capital for L-transf
transf.;
transf small letter for function of t
Function of s = σ +jω

The variable s is called the COMPLEX FREQUENCY.

Elementary Transform Pairs

1. Unit Step:
0 t <0 1
1(t ) = 
1 t ≥0 t
t
L[1( t )] = ∫
0
∞
e − st 1(t ) dt = [ ] = 1s
e− st

−s
∞

0
 1-7

2. Unit Impulse
As ε → 0, δ ε (t ) → δ (t ) δε(t)
1/ε
satisfying S
R δ (t ) = 0 outside [0, 0 ) +

T z δ (t ) dt = 1
0+
0
Area = 1

L[δ (t )] = z e δ (t ) dt = z e δ (t ) dt = 1
∞ − st 0+ − st
t
0 0
οε
3. Exponentials

L[e − at ] = z
∞ − st
e e − at dt = z
∞ − ( s + a )t
e dt = LM e OP
− ( s + a )t ∞
= 1
0 0
N − ( s + a) Q 0 s+a

4. Sin and Cos

cos ωt + j sin ωt = e j ω t ⇒ L[cos ωt] + j L[sin ωt] = L[e j ωt]
s
∴ L[cos ωt] = 2 2
s +ω

ω
L[sin ωt] = 2 2
s +ω

1-8

L-transf. maps a function of time into a fcn of freq:

1(t)
1 L[f(t)]=F(s)
s
δ(t)
L
1 f(t) & F(s) called a
1 . L-transform pair
e-at s+a (This mapping is usually
..... .... displayed in the form of a
Laplace Transform table.)

L-transf. turns integral & differential operations in time domain

into algebraic operations in freq. domain:
Time Domain L Freq Domain
Integral: z
t
0
f (t ) dt L−1 1
s F (s )
Derivative: d f (t ) sF (s ) − f (0)
dt
Convolution: f (t ) * g (t ) = z ∞
−∞
f (τ )g (t − τ ) dτ F(s)G(s)
 1-9

Properties of L-transf.
1. Linearity L[f(t)+g(t)] = L[f(t)]+ L[g(t)]

2. Shift Theorems f(t)1(t) f(t-T)1(t-T)

If L[f(t)1(t)]=F(s),
then (a) L[f(t − T)1(t − T)]=e − sT F(s) (Time Shift )
− at 0 T t
(b) L[e f(t)]= F(s+a) (Freq. Shift )
− at − at
Ex: Find L-transf. of e − sin ω t , e − cos ω t

3. Time Derivative
d
L [ dt f(t)] = sF(s) – f(0)
2
Ex: Find L [ ddt 2 f(t)]

4. Final Value Theorem (FVT)

lim f (t ) = lim s F ( s )
t →∞ s→ 0

1-10

Inverse L-transform

L L[f(t)]=F(s)
TIME FREQ Want:
DOMAIN DOMAIN −1
−1 L [F(s)]=f(t)
L
−1
L can be defined as:
−1 σ + j∞
L [F(s)] = 2π1 j ∫σ − j∞ e st F ( s )ds
−1
A simpler way of taking L :
1. Decompose F(s) by partial fractions into standard forms.
2. Look up L-transform table.
Exercises:
F1 ( s ) = s 2
−1
Find L of (a)
+3
(b) F2 ( s ) = 2 s + 5
s +4s+3

(c) F3 ( s ) = 2 1
s + 2s + 5
 1-11

Poles and Zeros

Let n( s )
L[f(t)] = F(s) =
d (s )
where n(s) and d(s) are coprime polynomials.
Define
Zeros of F(s) = pts where F(s) vanishes (i.e. roots of n(s)).
Poles of F(s) = pts where F(s) → ∞ (i.e., roots of d(s)).
e.g. For f (t ) = e − at cos ω t , Imag
F ( s) = s+a
( s + a )2 +ω 2 j
Zero: s = −a
Re
Poles: s = − a ± jω -a

-j
Pole-zero diagram

1-12

Bounded Signals
A signal f(t) is said to be bounded f(t) is unbounded if it is not
∞) s.t. f (t ) ≤ M
if ∃ M (<∞ ∀t bounded.

f(t)
f(t)
t
t
unbounded
bounded

Let L[f(t)1(t)] = F(s)

Any rational F(s) can be factorized as:
m
∏ (s − β i )
F (s ) = k i =1
n
∏ (s − λ i )
i =1

Certain properties (e.g. boundedness) of f(t) can be characterized

in terms of the poles of F(s).
 1-13

Characterization of bounded signals by location of poles

e
-at Imag at
e
1
F (s) = s+a 1
F(s)= s F ( s ) = s −1 a

Real

ω ω
F (s ) = F (s) = ω F (s ) =
2
( s + a ) +ω
2 ( s − a )2 + ω 2
s +ω 2
2

1-14
Observation: OLHP = Open LHP (excl. j ω-axis)

The real part of the pole(s) of F(s) corresponds to the index of the
exponential envelope for f(t):
a>0 Real part = -a : F(s) has pole(s) in OLHP ⇔ f(t) has decaying envelope
Real part = 0 : F(s) has pole(s) on jωω-axis ⇔ f(t) has tube envelope
Real part = a : F(s) has pole(s) in ORHP ⇔ f(t) has exp. inc. envelope
Imag
BOUNDED UNBOUNDED
SIGNALS SIGNALS
have poles have poles in
in this Re this region
region only!
Theorem
bm s m + L + bo
If L[f(t)] = F(s) = n (n > m)
s + an −1s n −1 + L + ao
has poles in the LHP only (poles, if any, on the jω ω-axis are of multiplicity 1)
then f(t) is bounded. Further, if all poles lie in OLHP, then lim f (t ) = 0 .
t →∞
 1-15

SYSTEM MODELLING
Math. Models are needed as a basis for analysis, design & simulation.
Models can be:
TIME-DOMAIN FREQ-DOMAIN
MODELS MODELS
L Transfer Functions
D.E.s ( TF)
Examples
(1) Heated Water Tank (HWT)
OUTPUT
Want to model TEMP.
o
relationship of C
the system (above ambient)
between input u INPUT:
and output θ : u watts
Rate of
Heat Loss = k J/sec

1-16
 1-17
(2) Mass-Spring-Dashpot System

k x
m u
b

DASHPOT: a mechanical device, known

as a shock absorber, to provide viscous
friction, or damping; consists of a piston
in oil-filled cylinder; movement of piston
is resisted by oil which must flow
through holes provided in piston.
A dashpot absorbs & dissipates energy
as heat (like friction). It does not store
any K.E. or P.E.

To model relationship between u and x :

1-18

1
X(s) m
= (6)
U( s ) s2 + b s + k
m m
 1-19
(3) Electromechanical System - Loudspeaker
As cone moves back & forth, fluctuations of air pressure
propagate away from cone as sound. Let M be the mass of the
cone and b be the coefficient of viscous damping (due to air
resistance).

Electromechanical force:
F = B l i = ai (where a = B l ) (7)
Current Coil soft
Length of coil wire suspension
Magnetic field strength S

N Force = F
Mechanical motion:
S Cone
MAGNET

Electrical circuit:

spring
coeff. k
i R
To relate v to x:
v L Force = F
x = cone position

1-20

X(s) a
=
V(s) LM s 3 + ( RM + Lb ) s 2 + ( Rb + Lk ) s + Rk
 1-21

(4) DC Motors
Used in control systems as torque transducers to convert Principle:
electrical energy into mechanical energy.
Moving Coil (Servo) Motor:
Hollow cup-shaped
non-magnetic
Armature Force F
material e.g. Armature Conductors Current
fibre glass Cond. Array I
N N Magnetic Field:
Flux density =
Conductor carrying current I in field
Core S S produces a force F µ Φ I.
Side view Cross-section If conductor moves with velocity v,
back emf e µ Φ v.
Characteristics:
• low moment of inertia
• low armature inductance
• used for high performance position control

Equivalent Circuit
I R
T
T
V DC
Motor e
Load
Load

1-22
For simplicity, neglect L (small for moving-coil motor):
Back emf, e = K bω Torque-Speed Characteristics
(for constant V)
V = IR + e = IR + Kbω
Torque T
Ki KK
Torque, T = Ki I = V − i b ω
R R
To relate input V to output ω :
Let J = moment of inertia, Speed
b = coeff. of viscous friction
Law of motion: T = Jω& + bω
 1-23

Transfer Function (TF)

The examples given above show that TFs can be used to represent not only
circuits, but also the HWT and electromechanical systems - in fact, anything that
can be described by linear D.E.s with constant coefficients.
In general, if the input u(t) and output y(t) of a system are related by:

d ny d n − 1y m m −1

n
+ an − 1 n −1
+ L + ao y = bm d mu + bm − 1 d m −u1 + L + bo u (n >m) (11)
dt dt dt dt
Taking L-transform with zero I.C.s:
s nY ( s ) + an − 1s n −1Y ( s ) + L + aoY ( s ) = bm s mU ( s ) + L + bo U ( s )

Y (s) bm s m + bm − 1s m − 1 + L + bo
= = G( s ) (12)
U(s) s n + an −1s n − 1 + L + ao
order of system = n TF relating Y to U
Block diagram:
TF is a "Black Box"
N.B. L-transf used for 2 different purposes:
Representation • to represent signals → U(s), Y(s)
U(s) G(s) Y(s) • to represent a system → G(s)

1-24

Impulse Response
u(t) = (t) SYSTEM y(t) IMPULSE
RESPONSE
G(s)
t t
For impulse i/p, U(s) = 1 :
∴ Y ( s ) = G( s ) U ( s ) = G( s )
Impulse Response: y(t) = L −1[G(s)] = g(t)
The Impulse Response is given by the inverse L-transform of the TF.
N.B. y(t) (& ∴ g(t)) = 0 for t < 0 because the system reacts only after the impulsive
i/p (at t = 0) has occurred. This property is called causality.
Example
Find the impulse response of the mass-spring system.
x
k u
m
 1-25
SYSTEM RESPONSE BY CONVOLUTION (t)
Let the impulse function δ(t) be approximated by
 1∆ 0≤t ≤∆
δ ∆ (t ) =  t
0 otherwise

Then, any u(t) can be approximated as a sequence of pulses:

u (t ) = L + u ( 0)δ ∆τ (t ) ∆ τ + u ( ∆ τ )δ ∆τ (t − ∆ τ ) ∆ τ u(t)
+ u ( 2 ∆ τ )δ ∆τ (t − 2 ∆ τ ) ∆ τ + L
∞
= ∑ u ( k∆ τ )δ ∆τ (t − k∆ τ ) ∆ τ (14) t
k = −∞

u(t) (t) y(t) g(t)

G(s)

t t
o/p response due to: δ ∆τ (t ) is g(t)
δ ∆ τ (t − k∆ τ ) is g (t - k∆τ )
u(t) is y(t) =

1-26
Let ∆ τ →0 and write τ = k ∆ τ , dτ = ∆ τ :
∞
y(t) = ∫ u (τ ) g (t − τ ) dτ (15)
−∞

Let τ ' = t − τ , (15) can be written

∞
y(t) = ∫ g (τ ' ) u (t − τ ' ) dτ '
−∞

= g(t)∗
∗u(t) Convolution (16)
∞
Since g(t) = 0 for t < 0, (16) becomes: y(t) = ∫ g (τ ) u (t − τ ) dτ
0
t
Further, if u(t) = 0 for t < 0, then y(t) = ∫ g (τ ) u (t − τ ) dτ (17)
0

Input-Output Relationship in:

TIME
u(t) y(t)
DOMAIN

FREQ
DOMAIN U(s) Y(s)
 1-27

STABILITY
Definition
A system is said to be Bounded-Input-Bounded-Output (BIBO) stable if
for any bounded input, the output response is also bounded. A system
is unstable if it is not BIBO stable.
u(t) UNSTABLE
y(t) RESPONSE

SYSTEM
t t
STABLE
RESPONSE

Necessary and Sufficient Conditions for Stability:

(a) A system with TF G(s) is BIBO stable iff all the poles of G(s) lie in
the OLHP.
(b) A system with impulse response g(t) is BIBO stable iff g(t) is
∞
absolutely integrable, i.e., ∃ M < ∞ s.t. ∫ g (t ) dt ≤ M (20)
0

1-28
Routh’s Stability Test
Given n( s )
G( s ) =
d(s)
where
d ( s ) = ao s n + a1s n − 1 + L + an − 1s + an (21)

Routh’s stability test can be used to determine if d(s) has all its roots in
OLHP, without actually solving for the roots.

Routh’s Array:
1st i th (i+1)
n
s ao a2 a4 a6 … ↓ ↓ ↓
From d(s) n -1
s a1 a3 a5 a7 … w … ∗ x
s n -2
b1 b2 b3 … consecutive y … ∗ z
3rd and
rows ∗ ∆ ∗
subsequent sn -3 c1 c2 c3 …
rows are −1 w x
computed … … ∆ = (22)
by rule (22): y y z
o
s q1
 1-29

Routh’s Stability Criterion

If all the elements in the 1st column of the Routh’s array are non-zero,
then the no. of roots of d(s) in the RHP is given by the no. of sign
changes in the 1st column.

Hence, d(s) has all its poles in the OLHP iff there is no sign change in
the 1st column of the Routh’s array.

Example
n(s )
A second order system has TF G(s ) = 2
.
as + bs + c
Find conditions on a, b, c for G(s) to be stable.
Soln:

1-30
Example
n(s )
Let G (s ) = 3 2
.
s + 2s + 4 s + K
(a) Find the poles of G(s) if K = 21. How many unstable poles are there?
(b) Find the range of K for which G(s) is stable.
Soln:
 1-31

TRANSIENT RESPONSE ANALYSIS

First Order System Imag

G( s ) = k
sT + 1
Re
Time constant = T -1
dc gain = G(0) = k
Step Response:
y(t) Slope = k/T
Y(s) = G(s)U(s)
k
 
k 1  1 
= × = k 1 − 
sT + 1 s  s s+1 
 T  63.2%
−1 − t/T
L : y(t) = k(1−
−e ) t
0 T
initial slope: ⇒ y& ( 0) = k T
y& (t ) = Tk e
− t /T

N.B. Smaller time constant (pole further away from j ω-axis) ⇒ Faster response.

Identifying parameters of 1st order system

♦ Obtain step response experimentally
♦ Measure k as steady-state output
♦ deduce T as time to reach 63.2% (or from initial slope)

1-32

Second Order System

k Terminology:
G(s) = (23)
(ωs )
n
2
+ 2ζ (ωsn ) + 1 dc gain = G(0) = k
damping ratio = ζ (pronounced “zeta”)
kω 2n undamped natural freq. = ωn
= (24)
s 2 + 2ζω n s + ω n2
Characteristic Equation:
(ωs )n
2
( )
+ 2 ζ ωsn + 1 = 0
Poles: s = ωn (−ζ ± ζ2 −1 )
3 possibilities
(1) ζ > 1 (overdamped):
2 real poles: s1,2 = ω n ( − ζ ± ζ 2 − 1 )
(2) ζ = 1 (critically damped):
Imag
repeated poles: s1,2 = − ω n
j d
(3) ζ < 1 (underdamped): n

2 complex poles: s1,2 = − ζω n ± jω d , Re

n
2
ω d = ω n 1− ζ called damped natural frequency
= cos
 1-33
Step Response of 2nd-order system
kω 2n u(t)
Y ( s ) = G( s ) U ( s ) = ×1 G(s) y(t)?
s 2 + 2ζω n s + ω n2 s
s + 2ζω n
= 1 − 2 (for simplicity, take k = 1)
s s + 2ζω n s + ω n2
−1  s + 2 ζ ωn 
y(t) = 1 − L  2 2
 s + 2 ζ ω n s + ω n 

If ζ<1
−1  s + 2 ζ ωn 
y(t) = 1 − L  2 2 2
 ( s + ζω n ) + (1 − ζ ) ω n 
( ζω
= 1 − e −ζω n t cos ωd t + ωdn e −ζω n t sin ω d t )
− ζω t
= 1− e − ζω n sin(ω d t + θ )
1− ζ 2
Underdamped response (ζ < 1): oscillatory with overshoot
Critically damped response (ζ = 1): no overshoot
t
Overdamped response (ζ > 1): slow with no overshoot
(see page 1-37 for step
responses for a range of ζ )

1-34
Example (step response of mass-spring-dashpot) k x
X (s ) 1
m
= 2 m
u
U (s ) s + b
s + mk
m b
Comparing with (24): ωn = m
k

ζ = b ⇒ damping µ friction
2 km
For a step change in input force u :
if ζ < 1 (less friction), m oscillates before settling down to new equilibrium position;
if ζ > 1 (more friction), m moves slowly to equilibrium position without overshoot.
Terminology:
For underdamped response + 5%
H
Tr = rise time (at 100% of final value)
Tp = peak time (at 1st peak)
H = max overshoot (from final value, usually in %)
Td = period of damped oscillation (at 1st undershoot) t
Ts = settling time (to settle within ±5% of final value)
r p d s
For overdamped response
90%
Rise time = time to rise from 10% to 90% 10%
t
Tr
 1-35
− ζω n t
Consider the underdamped response: y (t ) = 1 − e sin(ω d t + θ ) (27)
2
1− ζ

Rise Time: Tr =
π −θ = π −θ (28)
ωd ωn 1− ζ
2

To find max. and min. points of y(t):

dy ζω ne − ζωnt e − ζωnt
= sin( ω t + θ ) − ωd cos( ωd t + θ ) = 0
dt 1− ζ 2
d
1− ζ 2

π
Peak Time: Tp = ωd (29)

Period of Damped Osc.: Td = ω2π = 2Tp (30)

d

− ζπ 1− ζ 2
Max. Overshoot: H = y (Tp ) − 1 = e − ζπ (31)

1-36
Approx. Ts by time for envelope to decay to 5%:
− ζω Ts
e − ζω n
= 0.05
1− ζ 2
t
Settling Time: Ts ≅
(
− ln 0.05 1 − ζ 2 ) (32)
ζ ωn

Example
Identify the parameters
y(t)
u(t) 0.9
k, ζ and ω n of the 2nd kω n
2
1 3
order system from its
s + 2ζω n s + ω n
2 2
t
step response.
t
Soln:
 1-37
Step Response of a Second-order System

2
ωn
G( s ) = 2 2
s + 2ζω n s + ω n

where
ωn = undamped natural frequency

ζ = damping ratio
y(t)

nt

1-38

For the case of an underdamped system ( 0 < ζ < 1 ) :

Imag
− ζω n t
e j
y (t ) = 1 − sin (ω d t + θ ) n
d
2
1−ζ
Re
n
2
where ω d = ω n 1− ζ , damped natural frequency

−1 Pole diagram
θ = cos ζ

Rise time, Tr = π − θ 100

ωd
90

= ωπ
80
Peak time, Tp
Percent overshoot (%)

d 70
60
Settling time, − ln ( 0.05 1− ζ )
2
Ts = 50
(5% criterion) ζ ωn 40

2 30
− ζπ 1− ζ
Maximum overshoot, H =e 20
10
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Damping ratio