Name: Saba Saadat

Title/Course Code: Educational Psychology & Guideance (6501)

Roll No. cc529144

Reg No. 12pcr01924

Semester: Autumn, 2020

Q.1) Discuss different stages and aspects of cognitive development. Critically analyze the

role of heredity and environment in this regard.

A) Cognitive Development: is the development of points of view, including recalling, critical

thinking, and dynamic, from youth through adolescence to adulthood.

Cognitive development alludes to how an individual sees, thinks, and gains comprehension of
their reality through the collaboration of hereditary and learned elements. Among the areas of
cognitive development are information processing, intelligence, reasoning, language
development, and memory.

According to Piaget there are 4 basic elements in development:

1. Maturation.

2. Experience.

3. Social transmission (learning through language, schooling or teaching by parents)

4. Equilibrium.

Stages of cognitive development .

Sensorimotor Stage: (Birth through around 2 years) during this stage, kids find out about the
world through their faculties and the manipulation of objects

Preoperational Stage: (Ages 2 through 7) during this stage, kids foster memory and creative
mind. They are likewise ready to comprehend things emblematically and to comprehend the
thoughts of the past and future.

Concrete Operational Stage: (Ages 7 through 11) during this stage, youngsters become
more mindful of outer occasions, just as sentiments other than their own. They become less
egocentric and start to comprehend that not every person shares their considerations, convictions,
or sentiments.
Formal Operational Stage: (Ages 11 and older) during this stage, youngsters can utilize
rationale to solve issues, see their general surroundings, and plan for the future

The Role of Hereditary and Environment in Development

HEREDITARY: The transfer of physical or mental characteristics from parent to child through genes is
called heredity. Genes are inherited traits encoded into a persona DNA

How does hereditary influence child development

Heredity influences the different aspects of growth and development i.e. height, weight and
structure of the body, colour of hair and eye, intelligence, interest and certain behaviours.
Heredity is a static social structure meaning once we inherit certain genes they cannot be
modified or changed.

ENVIRONMENT: The word environment in this context means the environment around the child,
his interaction with his family, his neighbourhood, his school, the nutrition the child receives.

Environmental factors which influence development:

There are various environmental factors which influence the development. Some of these are
classified as follows:

1. Physical factors: Physical and geographical conditions influences a child behavior,

responses, and attitudes. For examples, a person born in Chennai would be more tolerant to hot,
humid environment, as compared to someone born in Himachal Pradesh.

2. Family: Family plays an important role in a child development since the first interaction a
child has, is with his/ her family. The behaviors that a child observers, the values she or he is
taught are all through this initial interactions.

3. School and teachers: The school environment and the teachers also play a very important
role in the grooming of a child. The teachers are the first role models for a child and through the
way a teacher conducts her/him, or interacts with the child affect the knowledge they acquire,
and the people they become. There are various other environmental factors, in addition to these,
like the book a child reads, or what he/she watches on TV, the sport they play, affects their
development.

It is believed that it is both Heredity and Environment together influence the development in
children.

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Q.2) Explain the nature and causes of maladjustment? Discuss different adjustment mechanisms
and their characteristics with the help of examples. How guidance and counseling can help in
adjustment of students?

A) Maladjustment is the normal term used to depict a failure to keep a steady relationship
or conform to evolving conditions.

Maladjustment can be both intrinsic and extrinsic. Intrinsic maladjustment is the

disparities between the needs, motivations and evaluations of an individual, with the
actual reward gain through experiences. Extrinsic maladjustment on the other hand, is
referred to when an individual’s behavior does not meet the cultural or social
expectations of society.

The causes of maladjustment can be attributed to a wide variety of factors, including:

family environment, personal factors and school-related factors. Maladjustment affects an
individual’s development and the ability to maintain a positive interpersonal relationship
with others. Often maladjustment emerges during early stages of childhood, when child is
in the process of learning methods to solve problem that occurs in interpersonal
relationship in their social network. A lack of intervention for individuals who are
maladjusted can cause negative effects later on in life.

Adjustment mechanisms and their characteristics

Though there is no general agreement regarding the adjustment mechanism yet some
common mechanisms are as follows:

Compensation:

Compensation is a tendency of human being to make up the deficiency of one area or trait
of development in another area. When a person fails in one area,he tries to compensate
for his failure by trying to succeed in another area. The most potent example is
Napoleon’s drive for power. Probably his short figure and feminine build created in him a
sense of inferiority which in turn made him a power monger.

Identification:

It is a process by which and individual establishes a strong emotional tie

1) With another person

2) A group of persons
3) Or an institutions
Through such ties, he achieves his satisfaction. He draws his strength from the strength of
others. As an example, we may mention how Infants identify themselves with their father
or mother.

Rationalization:

It is a mechanism by which an individual devises socially acceptable reasons for some

socially unacceptable act or opinion, belief, faith etc. It is very difficult to have a wholly
rational man. We generally color our reasoning by emotional factors which impel us to
rationalize in order that our actual behavior will appear in a better light in our eyes and in
the eyes of others.

Daydreaming:

This mechanism is used mostly by all people. An individual may turn to day dreaming in
order to satisfy a need which he is unable to satisfy. For example, an adolescent boy
desires popularity but is not liked by his peer group. In that case he may imagine himself
in his daydream as the centre of the group whom everybody admires.

Repression:

In this mechanism an individual tries to repress the thoughts, experiences which are
painful. Repression is an undesirable mental mechanism of adjustment because it is more
tension producing than the tension reducing.

Projection:

In this method an individual tries to defend himself against his repressed guilt feelings by
projecting them into other things and people. Extreme use of projection is frequently
observed in neurotic and psychotic personalities.

How guidance and counseling can help in adjustment of students?

Guidance and counselors often help students:

1) Maintain academic standards and set goals for academic success.

2) Develop skills to improve organization, study habits and time management.
3) Work through personal problems that may affect academics or relationships.
4) Improve social skills.
5) Cope with school or community-related violence, accidents and trauma.
6) Identify interests, strengths and aptitudes through assessment.
School counselors offer individual counseling to help students resolve personal or
interpersonal problems. They may offer small group counseling to help students enhance
listening and social skills, learn to emphasize with others and find social support through
healthy peer relationships. For students who are otherwise unable to access mental health
services, school counselors provide support at no cost. School counselors also provide
support to school staff by assisting with classroom management techniques and the
development of programs to improve mental health or school safety .When necessary,
Counselors may also intervene in a disrupted learning environment.

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Q.3) Differentiate between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation by providing examples.

How would you, as a teacher enhance motivation of your students by using intrinsic and
extrinsic motivational techniques?

A) The most clear distinction among extrinsic and intrinsic motivation is where the
inspiration is coming from remotely or inside. Yet, past that, there are two huge contrasts
in the results of the two inspirations.

Longevity: While extrinsic motivation can be valuable, it can get debilitating over the
long haul if it's the lone help for an assignment. Intrinsic motivation, then again, is any
longer enduring.

Satisfaction: Extrinsic motivation offers compensate that can fulfill. For internal
motivation, the actual movement is the fulfillment. Along these lines, intrinsic
inspirations add to an individual's general feeling of prosperity, and they are more
fulfilling than extrinsic motivators.

How can teachers spark their students’ intrinsic and extrinsic motivational techniques
• Become more acquainted with your understudies and their one of a kind interests.
Whenever the situation allows, structure your tasks in a way that can incorporate
their inclinations. In the event that you have an understudy who loves dinosaurs,
for instance, compose a numerical statement that includes tallying animation
dinosaurs.
• Pick remunerates that energize inherent inspiration. In case you're holding an
understanding challenge, for instance, you could make the prize a book of the kid's
decision.
• At the point when understudies have some independence over their tasks, they're
bound to be motivated. Consider attempting mixed learning, a procedure that
includes a blend of autonomous learning and entire class exercises.
• Incorporate some educational plan that is pertinent to your understudies' lives and
current necessities to support motivation.
• Give your understudies positive criticism on their tasks to urge them and to build
up that they can do well.
• Inspiration is frequently improved through curiosity. Ask your understudies what
they are interested about and help them discover something that intrigues them
about a task.
• Offer your affection for a subject or idea with your understudies. In the event that
you show why you love learning, your understudies are bound to get your
excitement, as well.