hapter 16

DIGESTIVE
SYSTEM
SEELEY'S ESSENTIALS OF ANATOMY AND
PHYSIOLOGY, 9TH EDITION.

Created by: Johmel De Ocampo

 Created by: Johmel De Ocampo

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
With the help of the circulatory system, is like a gigantic ‘meals on wheels’, serving
100 T customers the nutrients they need
Has its own quality control and waste disposal methods

FUNCTIONS OF 2. Submucosa
Thick layer of loose CT,
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM consists of nerves, blood
1. Ingestion of food. vessels, small glands
2. Digestion of food. Plexus – extensive network
3. Elimination of wastes. of nerve cell processes
4. Absorption of nutrients (innervated by the
autonomic nerves)
ANATOMY AND 3. Muscularis
Consists of circular SM
HISTOLOGY (inner), longitudinal SM
(outer)
Enteric nervous system –
DIGESTIVE TRACT /
composed of the nerve
GASTROINTESTINAL plexuses of the submucosa
TRACT and muscularis; controls
Oral cavity, pharynx, movement and secretion
esophagus, stomach, small within the tract
intestine, large intestine, anus 4. Serosa
Outermost layer
FOUR TUNICS Consists of the peritoneum
1. Mucosa
(smooth epithelial layer +
Innermost tunic
underlying CT)
Consists of mucous
Adventitia – connective
epithelium, lamina propria
tissue; regions of the DT not
(loose CT), muscularis
covered by the peritoneum
mucosae (thins SM layer)
Mouth, esophagus, anus;
resists abrasion
Stomach, intestine; absorbs
and secrets
 Created by: Johmel De Ocampo

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
PERITONEUM
1. Visceral Peritoneum / Serosa
– serous membrane that covers
the organs
2. Parietal Peritoneum – serous
membrance that covers the wall
of the abdominal cavity
Mesenteries – CT sheets that
hold the abdominal cavity
organs in place
a. Lesser omentum –
connects the lesser
curvature of the stomack to
the liver and diaphragm
b. Greater omentum –
connects the greater
curvature of the stomach to
the transverse colon and
posterior body wall
Omental bursa – a long, double
fold of mesentery that extends
inferiorly from the stomach
before looping back to the
transverse colon to create a
cavity/pocket
Mesentery proper – attaches
the small intestine to the
posterior abdominal wall
Retroperitoneal – abdominal
organs that have no
mesenteries; duodenum,
pancreas, ascending +
descending colon, rectum,
kidneys, adrenal glands,
urinary bladder
Created by: Johmel De Ocampo
ORAL CAVITY,
PHARYNX, AND
ESOPHAGUS
ANATOMY OF ORAL
CAVITY
Bounded by the lips and
cheeks ++ contains the teeth
and tongue
Lips – muscular structures
formed by the orbicularis oris
muscle
Cheeks – buccinators muscles
flatten the cheeks against teeth
Mastification – begins the
process of mechanical digestion
Tongue – plays a major role in
the process of swallowing; major
sensory organ for taste; one of
the major organs of speech
Frenulum – thin fold of tissue
inferior to the tongue
TEETH
32 teeth in normal adult
mouth
Located in the mandible and
maxillae
1. Incisor – to cut
2. Canine – to tear
3. Premolars
4. Molars
5. Wisdom teeth – third molars
 Created by: Johmel De Ocampo

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Permanent teeth – secondary teeth
Primary teeth – deciduous teeth; milk or baby teeth
Parts
a. Crown
b. Cusps
c. Neck
d. Root
Pulp cavity – center of the tooth; contains blood vessels nerves, and pulp
(connective tissue)
Dentin – bonelike tissue that surrounds the pulp cavity
Enamel – extremely hard, acellular substance that covers the dentin of
the tooth drown
Cementum – covers the surface of the dentin in the root; anchors the tooth
in the jaw
Alveoli (along the alveolar process of mandible x maxillae) – where the
teeth are rooted
Gingiva – dense fibrous CT and most stratified squamous epithelium that
covers the alveolar processes
Periodontal ligaments – CT fibers that extend from the alveolar walls that
hold the teeth in place
Dental caries / Tooth decay – result of the breakdown of enamel by acids
produced by bacteria on tooth surface
Periodontal disease – inflammation x degeneration of the periodontal
ligaments, gingiva, alveolar bone
 Created by: Johmel De Ocampo

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
PALATE AND
TONSILS
Palate – roof of the oral cavity;
prevents food from passing into
the nasal cavity during chewing
and swallowing
a. Hard palate – anterior part
that contains bone
b. Soft palate – posterior
portion that consists of
skeletal muscle _ CT
Uvula – grape-like;
posterior extension of the
soft palate
Tonsils – protect against
pathogens from entering the
nose and mouth
Created by: Johmel De Ocampo
SALIVARY GLANDS
Produce saliva (serous +
mucous fluids)
3 Pairs of SG
1. Parotid glands – largest;
serous glands located
anterior to each ear
2. Submandibular glands –
produce more serous than
mucous secretions
3. Sublingual glands –
smallest; produce primarily
mucous secretions
Mumps – inflammation of the
parotid gland caused by viral
infection
SALIVA
Helps keep the oral cavity
moist
Contains enzymes that begin
the process of digestion
Salivary amylase – a digestive
enzyme that breaks the
covalent bonds bet. glucose
molecules (starch) and other
polysaccharides; enhances the
sweet taste of food
Lysozyme – enzyme that has
weak antibacterial action
 Created by: Johmel De Ocampo

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
MASTIFICATION
Breaks large food particles into
many small ones
Increases the efficiency of
digestion
PHARYNX
Throat
Connects the mouth with the
esophagus
Oropharynx + laryngopharynx –
transmit food
Contains pharyngeal constrictor
muscles
 Created by: Johmel De Ocampo

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
ESOPHAGUS
Muscular tube that ransports food from the pharynx to the stomach
Esophageal sphincters – regulate the movement of food into and out of the
esophagus
Cardiac sphincter – lower ES
SWALLOWING / DEGLUTITION
1. Voluntary Phase
Bolus (mass of food) us formed in the mouth
Bolus is pushed by the tongue forcing in into the oropharynx
2. Pharyngeal Phase
A reflex initiated when a bolus of food stimulates receptors in the
oropharynx
Epiglottis – tipped posteriorly to cover the larynx
3. Esophageal Phase
Responsible for moving food form the pharynx to the stomach
Peristaltic waves – muscular contractions of the esophagus
 Created by: Johmel De Ocampo

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
STOMACH
Functions primarily as a
storage and mixing chamber for
ingested food
ANATOMY
Gastroesophageal opening –
opening from the esophagus ino
the stomach
Cardiac region – region of t
around the gastroesophageal
opening; near the heart
Fundus – most superior part of
the stomach
Body – largest part of the
stomach
Greater curvature
Lesser curvature
Pyloric opening – opening from
the stomach into the small
intestine
Pyloric sphincter – thick ring of
smooth muscle
Pyloric region – region near the
pyloric opening
Outer longitudinal, middle
circular, and inner obique layer
– produce a churning action in
the stomach
Rugae – large folds where the
submucosa and mucosa are
thrown into when the stomach
is empty
Gastric pits – openings for the
gastric glands; formed by simple
columnar epithelium
Created by: Johmel De Ocampo
Epithelial cells of the Stomach
1. Surface mucous cells –
inner surface of stomach &
lining the gastric pits; coats
and protects the stomach
lining
2. Mucous neck cells –
produce mucus
3. Parietal cells – produce
hydrochloric acid & intrinsic
factor
4. Endocrine cells – produce
regulatory chemicals
5. Chief cells – produce
pepsinogen (precursor of the
protein digesting enzyme
pepsin)
SECRETIONS OF THE
STOMACH
Chyme – semifluid mixture (food +
stomach secretions)
1. Hydrochloric acid kills
microorganisms and activates
pepsin
2. Pepsin breaks covalent bond
of proteins to form smaller
peptide chains.
3. Mucus lubricates and protects
epithelial cells from the
damaging effect of acidic chime
+ pepsin
4. Intrinsic factor binds with vit.
B12 (DNA synthesis and RBC
prod.) and makes it more readily
absorbed in the small intestine
 Created by: Johmel De Ocampo

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
 Created by: Johmel De Ocampo

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

REGULATION OF STOMACH SECRETIONS

1. Cephalic phase – stomach secretions are initiated by the sight, smell,
taste, or thought of food
2. Gastric phase – partially digested proteins and distention of the stomach
promote secretion
Gastrin – hormone that enters the circulation and is carried back to the
stomach
3. Intestinal phase – acidic chime in the duodenum stimulates neuronal
reflexes and the secretion of hormones that inhibit gastric secretions by
negative feedback loops
Secretin – hormone that inhibits gastric secretions; released from the
duodenum in response to low pH
Cholecystokinin – major inhibitor of gastric motility; released from the
duodenum initiated by fatty acids and peptides
 Created by: Johmel De Ocampo

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

MOVEMENT IN THE STOMACH

Increased motility = increases emptying
Distention of stomach = increases gastric motility
A. Mixing waves – thoroughly mix ingested food with stomach secretions to
form chime
Fluid part of chime – pushed toward the pyloric sphincter
Solid center – moves back toward the body of the stomach
B. Peristaltic waves – force the chime toward and through the pyloric
sphincter
 Created by: Johmel De Ocampo

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
SMALL INTESTINE
Major site of digestion and
absorption of food
Major function is the absorption
of nutrients
ANATOMY
1. Duodenum – 12 in. long
2. Jejunum – 2.5 m long; makes
up 2/5
3. Ileum – 3.5 m long; makes up
3/5
Common bile duct (liver) and
pancreatic duct (pancreas) – join
and empty into the duodenum
Increased surface area
1. Circular folds – formed by
mucosa and submucosa that
run perpendicular to the long
axis of the digestive tract
2. Villi – formed by tiny,
fingerlike projections of the
mucosa
3. Microvilli – numerous
cytoplasmic extensions on
the surface of the villi
Lacteal – lymphatic capillary
Simple Columnar Epithelium
1. Absorptive cells – have
microvilli, produce digestive
enzymes, absorb digested
food
2. Goblet cells – produce a
protective mucus
3. Granular cells – help
protect the intestinal
epithelium from bacteria
Created by: Johmel De Ocampo
4. Endocrine cells – produce
regulatory hormones
Intestinal glands – epithelial
cells produced within tubular
galnds of mucosa
Duodenal glands – mucous
glands in the submucosa of the
duodenum
Peyer patches – clusters of
lymphatic nodules along the
digestive tract
Ileocecal junction – where the
ileum connects to the large
intestine
Ileocecal sphincter – ring of
smooth muscle
Ileocecal valve – allow
intestinal contents to move
from the ileum to the large
intestine; but not in opposite
direction
SECRETIONS OF THE
SMALL INTESTINE
1. Peptidases – break peptide bonds
in proteins to form amino acids
2. Disaccharidases – break down
disaccharides (maltose) into
monosaccharides (glucose)
 Created by: Johmel De Ocampo

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
 Created by: Johmel De Ocampo

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
MOVEMENT OF THE Portal Triads
1. Hepatic artery
SMALL INTESTINE 2. Hepatic portal vein
A. Peristaltic contractions –
3. Hepatic duct
proceed along the length of the
Hepatic cords – located bet. the
intestine for variable distances;
center and margins of each
causes the chime to move along
lobule
the small intestine
Hepatocytes – platelike groups
B. Segmental contractions –
that form the hepatic cords
propagate for shot distances;
Hepatic sinusoids – blood
mix intestinal contents
channels that separates the
hepatic cords from one another
LIVER AND PANCREAS Central vein – where mixed
blood flows toward the center of
ANATOMY OF LIVER each lobule
Major Lobes Bile canaliculus – a cleftlike
1. Right lobe lumen bet. the cells of each
2. Left lobe hepatic cord
Falciform ligament – CT septum Common hepatic duct – right +
that separates the right and left left hepatic ducts
lobe of the liver Common bile duct – common
Smaller Lobes hepatic duct + cystic duct
1. Caudate lobe Gallbladder – stores and
2. Quadrate lobe
concentrates bile
Porta – gate through which blood
Duodenal papilla – where the
vessels, ducts, and nerves enter
common bile duct joind the
and exit the liver
Sources of Blood in the Liver
pancreatic duct and opens into
1. Hepatic artery – takes oxygen- the duodenum
rich blood to the liver; supplies
liver with oxygen
2. Hepatic portal vein – oxygen-
poor blood but rich in nutrients
Hepatic veins – where blood exits
the liver and empty into the
inferior vena cava
 Created by: Johmel De Ocampo

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
FUNCTIONS OF THE
LIVER
1. Digestion
2. Excretion
3. Nutrient storage
4. Nutrient conversion
5. Detoxification of harmful
chemicals
6. Synthesis of new
molecules
Bile – dilutes and neutralizes
stomach acid; dramatically
increases the efficiency of fat
digestion and absorption;
stimulated by secretin
Bile salts – emulsify fats
Bilirubin – bile pigment that
results from the breakdown of
hemoglobin
ANATOMY OF
PANCREAS
1. Head – near the midline of the
body
2. Tail – extends to the left
Pancreatic islet / Islets of
Langerhans – endocrine part;
produce insulin and glucagon
Compound acinar gland – exocrine
part
Acini – produce digestive enymes
Pancreatic duct – formed by larger
ducts from clusters of acini
Created by: Johmel De Ocampo
FUNCTIONS OF THE
PANCREAS
Major Proteolytic enzymes –
continue protein digestion that
began in the stomach
1. Trypsin
2. Chymotrypsin
3. Carboxypeptidase
Pancreatic amylase – continues
polysaccharide digestion that
began in the oral cavity
Lipase – lipid-digesting enzyme
Nucleases – enzymes that
degrade DNA and RNA to their
component nucleotides
LARGE INTESTINE
ANATOMY
Cecum
Proximal end of the large
intestine
Appendix – 9 cm tube attached to
the cecum
Colon
1. Ascending colon
2. Transverse colon
3. Descending colon
4. Sigmoid colon
Crypts – straight, tubular glands in
the mucosal lining of the colon
Teniae coli – three bands
 Created by: Johmel De Ocampo

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Rectum
Straight, muscular tube that
begins at the termination of
sigmoid colon & ends at the
anal canal
Anal Canal
Begins at the inferior end of
the rectum and ends at the
anus (external digestive
tract opening)
Internal anal sphincter –
smooth muscle layer at superior
end
External anal sphincter –
skeletal muscle at inferior end
Hemorrhoids – enlarged or
inflamed rectal or
hemorrhoidal, veins that supply
the anal canal; may cause pain,
itching, bleeding around anus
DIGESTION,
ABSORPTION, AND
TRANSPORT
Digestion – breakdown of food to
molecules tha are small enough to
be absorbed into the circulation
a. Mechanical digestion – breaks
large good particles into smaller
ones
b. Chemical digestion – breaking
of covalent chemical bonds in
organic molecules by digestive
enzymes
Absorption – begin in stomach;
lipid-soluble molecules diffuse
through the stomach epithelium
into the circulation
Transport – requires carrier
molecules and includes facilitated
diffusion, cotransport, and active
transport

FUNCTIONS OF LARGE
INTESTINE
1. Feces production
2. Water absorption
Feces – converted chyme
Defecation – elimination of feces
from the colon
Mass movements – strong
contractions in the large parts of
the colon; propel the colon
contents a considerable distance
towards the anys
Defecation reflex – local (weak
contractions) + parasympathetic
(strong contractions) reflexes
 Created by: Johmel De Ocampo

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
 Created by: Johmel De Ocampo

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
 Created by: Johmel De Ocampo

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

CARBOHYDRATES
Consist primarily of starches,
cellulose, sucrose (table sugar),
small amounts of fructose (fruit
sugar), and lactose (milk sugar)
Polysaccharides – large
carbohydrates that consist of
many sugars linked by chemical
bonds
Salivary amylase – begins the
digestion of carbohydrates in the
mouth
Pancreatic amylase – continues
digestion of carbohydrates
Disaccharides – two sugars; broken
down polysaccharide
Disaccharidase – group of enzymes
that break the disaccharides to
monosaccharides
Monosaccharides – single sugars;
glucose, galactose, and fructose

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
LIPIDS
Molecules which are insoluble or
slightly soluble in water
Triglycerides – most common type
of lipid; 3 fatty acids bound to
glycerol
Saturated – fatty acids have only
single bonds
Unsaturated – fatty acids have one
or more double bonds
Emulsification – large lipid
droplets are transformed into
much smaller droplets
Lipase – secreted by pancreas;
digests lipid molecules
Micelles – aggregated bile salts
around small droplets of digested
lipids
Chylomicrons – packaged lipid-
protein complexes (lipoproteins)
Chyle – lymph containing late
amounts of absorbed lipid
Created by: Johmel De Ocampo
PROTEINS
Chains of amino acids
Pepsin – enzyme secreted by
stomach that breaks down proteins
Polypeptides – shorter amino acid
chains
Trypsin, Chymotrypsin,
Carboxypeptidase – enzymes
produced by pancreas that
continue the digestive process
Peptidases – small peptides
WATER AND
MINERALS
Approximately 9 L of water enters
the digestive tract
Approximately 2 L from food &
drink & remaining 7 liters is from
digestive secretions
 Created by: Johmel De Ocampo

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
 Created by: Johmel De Ocampo

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
 Created by: Johmel De Ocampo

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
 Created by: Johmel De Ocampo

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM