THE METHOD OF PFAFFIANS IN THE THEORY OF CURVES AND SURFACES

1. Pfaffians. A linear differential form of the first order in the differ- entials dx1, dX2, . . . , dXn of the
variables Xl, X2, . . . , X n :

VI dXI + V2 dX2 + · · · + V n dXn = LVi dXi, i = 1, 2, . . . , n,

where the Vi are functions of the Xi (which may be constants), is called a Pfaffian form or Pfaffian. We
shall write

w(d) = Vi dXi (1-1)

where (see Section 3-3, Exercise 13) we omit the L and agree to sum on the index which is repeated,
here i. If no ambiguity exists, we simply write w instead of w(d). The Vi shall be continuous functions
with a suffi- cient number of continuous partial derivatives in the domain X n (n- dimensional domain
with coordinates Xi) considered .

When n = 3 the expression v · dx is a Pfaffian. In analogy we can call the Vi in Eq. (1-1) the components
of the vector v in X n corresponding to w .

The following operations with Pfaffians will be useful .

(a) Linear combination. If WI = Vi dXi, W2 = Wi dXi, w3 = Ui dXi, then

XWI + J..I, W 2 + JlW3 = (XVi + J..I,Wi + JlUi) dXi
is a linear combination of the three given Pfaffians.
Here the X, J..I" JI are scalar functions which, as in the case of Eq. (5-5), Section 2-5, can be
vectors, e.g., wla + W2b = (via + Wib) dXi. We can construct linear com- binations of any
number k of Pfaffians .

(b) Linear dependence. Such a set of k Pfaffians is linearly independent in X n, if the corresponding
vectors are linearly independent. For instance, in the case that k = 3, this means that the matrix VI V2
V3 WI W2 W3 UI U2 U3 is of rank 3. In the case of k vectors the corresponding matrix must be 205
20G APPENDIX of rank k. In particular, if n = 2 and WI = PI du + ql dv, W2 = P2 du + q2 dv, (1-2) -
these two })faffians are linearly independent in X 2 if Plq2 - P2Ql o .

(c) Exterior multiplication. When two Pfaffians WI (d) = Vi dXi, W2( 0) = Wi O.ri, where dXi and OXi
represent two different directions in X n, are combined in the following way: [WI, W2] = WI (d)W2( 0)
- W2( O)WI (d) = (vWj - VJWi) dXi OXj - !(ViWj - vJwi)(dxi OXj - dXj OXi) (summed on all i and j) -
(vWj - vjwi)(dxi OXj - dXj OXi), i < j, (1-3) then we call [WI, W2] the exterior product of WI and W2.
It is alternating, tha t is [WI, W2] = -[W2, WI], ([W, w] = 0) .

(1-4) Necessary and sufficient condition that WI and W2 are linearly independent is [WI, W2] O .

When n = 2 and WI, W2 are given by (1-2): [WI, W2] = (PIQ2 - P2QI)(du OV - dv ou) .

(1-5 ) In the special case WI = du, W2 = OV, we find [WI, W2] = du OV - dv OU and we often write
[du dv] instead of [du, ov]. Hence [du dv] = du OV - dv OU, [WI, W2] = (ViWj - VjWi) [dXi dXj], i < j
.

The vector product of v = vlel + V2e2 and W = wlel + W2e2 in the plane can be written in this notation
as follows: v X W = (VIW2 - v2wI)el X e2 = [vw] = (VIW2 - v2wI)[ele2] .

lVlore general, if v = Viei, W = Wiei we can define [vw] = (ViWj - ViWi) [eiei], i < j .

rrhis is often called the Grassmann method .

(d) Exterior differentiation. When W = Vi dXi, then ,ve define the e:c- terior derivative Dw as follows
(Vii = aVi/ aXi) :
Dw = [dVi, dXi] = dVi OXj - OVi dXi = (Vij - Vji) dXj OXi (summed on all i, j) - (Vji - Vij)(dxi OXj -
dXj OX i) = (Vji - Vij)[dxi dXj], 't < j .

(1-6) In particular, if n = 2, w = p du + q dv, we find, by virtue of (1-5): Dw = ( a q _ a p ) [du dv] .

au OV ( 1-7) (e) Some theorems on composition. It can be readily verified that [WI, W2 + 3] = [WI,
W2] + }.L[wt, W3], D(WI :::!:: (2) = DWI :f: DW2, D(pw) = pDw + [dp, w] .

When w = dp, then Dw = O .

(1-8 ) (1-9 ) (1-10) (1-11) Here , }.L, p are scalar functions .

2. Invariance. When in X n we pass from one system of coordinates Xi to another system x by means of
the transformation Xi = f i (x't, X, . . . , X), i = 1, 2, . . . , n, with Jacobian O, so that the x can also be
expressed as functions of the Xi, then aXi dx i = -;;-; dx';, uX .

J d ' OX d Xi = Xj, uX' J and w = Vi dxi becomes w = v dx, where , aXj Vi = Vj .

uX .

, The linear differential form Vi dXi is thus transformed into another linear differential form v.dxi. For
the exterior differential forms WI = Vi dXi = vi dxi and W2 = Wi OXi = wi Oxi we find the exterior
product in the new variables in the form [WI, W2] = (vwj - vjw)[dx dxi], i < j, so that this expression
also retains its form in the new variables. It is therefore often called the bilinear covariant of WI and W2.
The exterior
208 APPENDIX derivative Dw shows the same character: Dw = (vji - vj)[dx dxj]. The notations w,
[WI, W2], Dw are therefore independent of the coordinates, are invariant notations like the vector
notation; w = Vi dXi = v dx = v? dx? etc .

For n = 2 (comp. Section 2-1, Eq. 1-11) we find [du dv] = (:' ,) [du'dv'] .

(2-1) The expression fw, taken along a curve C in X n , that is, evaluated for the case that the Xi depend
on one parameter Xi = Xi(t) is a line integral .

The notation is an invariant one. We obtain an invariant notation for a surface integral fff(u, v) du dv if
we change the symbol du dv into [du, dv] .

Indeed, because of (2-1) we find under a change of coordinates III(U, v)[du dv] = 11f'(U', v') (:, ,)
[du'dv'], (2-2) where f'(u', v') = f[u'(u, v), v'(u, v)] and the integral is taken over a region R in X 2 (a
surface). This notation therefore extends to double integrals Leibniz' well-known transformation rule of
iT\tgrals of functions of one variable: II(U) du = 1f'(V') ;; du', f'(v') = f(u(u')] .

3. Stokes' theorem. By means of Green's theorem (p. 154) an integral along a closed curve C in an X 2
can be transformed into an integral over the surface S enclosed by it. We write the theorem as follows
(see Eq. 2-2): I r r ( av 2 aVl ) VI dXl + V2 dX2 = J J aXl - aX2 [dXl dX2]' C S' (3-1 ) For the
orientation see Figure 4-14. We take the region S simply con- nected and C sufficiently smooth, also in
the case of a general X n , e.g., for n = 3, when we have Stokes' theorem as a generalization of Green's
theorem. It can be written as follows: I rr ( a v 2 aVl ) VI dXl + V2 dX2 + Va dxa = J J aXl - aX2 [dXl
dX2] C s' ( ava aV2 ) + - - - [ dX 2 dx a] aX2 aXa ( av i ava ) + - - - [dxa dXl], aXa ax} (3- 2)
THE METHOD OF PFAFFIANS 209 where S is an (orientable) region X 2 bounded by the closed
curve C in X 3 .

If X 3 is ordinary space, [dXl dX2] can be considered equal to dA cos 'Y where dA is the element of area
of Sand 'Y the angle of its normal with the Z-axis* (compare also Eq. 5-3) .

Both Eqs. (3-1) and (3-2) can be written f w = f f Dw .

c s (3-3 ) It can be shown that this equation holds for any number of variables Xi .

It is called Stokes' theorem for Xn .

When a function P(Xi) exists such that the Vi are the first partial deriva- tives of P with respect to the Xi,
hence Vi = ap/aXi, then w = Vi dXi = dp .

We then call w a total differential. In this case Dw = 0 (see Eq. 1-11) .

Inversely, if Dw = 0 in a region of X n in which Stokes' theorem holds, then a line integral fw from point
A to a point B in X n is independent of the path and from this can be shown that w is of the form dp.
Under proper safeguardst we can therefore express this property as follows: Necessary and sufficient
condition that w be a total differential is that Dw = o .

In ordinary vector analysis this theorem is usually expressed by saying that a vector is a gradient vector if
and only if its rotation vanishes .

EXERCISES 1. Find out whether the following Pfaffians independent .

(a) WI = Xl dXI + X2 dX2 + X3 dX3 W2 = (Xl + X2) dXI - 2X2 dX2 W3 = dXI + X3 dX2 - XIX2 dX3
(in X3, resp. X2) are linearly (b) WI = x dXI - XIX2 dX2 c.12 = XX2 dXl - XIX dX2 2. Prove that the
necessary and sufficient condition that WI and W2 are linearly independent is that [WI, W2] o .

3. A set of n + 1 Pfaffians in X n are always linearly dependent. Prove .

4. Let WI = Xl dXI + X2 dX2 + X3 d X 3, W2 = X2 dXI - Xl dX2 .

Find [WI, W2], DWI, and DW2 .

* See, e.g., Ph. Franklin, A treatise on advanced calculus, 1940, pp. 380, 382; also R. Creighton Buck,
Advanced calculus, N ew York, Toronto, London, 1956, pp. 338, 346 .

t See e.g. Buck, Ope cit., pp. 356-357 .

210 APPENDIX 5. Prove that for directions dXi and OXi for which 0 dxi = d OXi, Dw = Ow(d) -
dw(o) .

6. Prove (a): necessary and sufficient condition that for a function f(xI, X2, . . . , x n ) the relation 0 df =
d of holds is 0 dXi = d OXi; (b) that in this case "Ijdti/dXj = tjd"li/dXj, if the directions dXi and OXi are
given by dXi = ti dt, ox" = "Ii dt .

7. Interpreting x and y as cartesian coordinates in the plane, prove by actual integration over a convex
region that its area can be expressed as f f [dx dy] "" f f (dx 8y - 8x dy) .

8. Consider the Pfaffian w = (x dy - Y dx)/(x 2 + y2) in the (not simply connected) region between the
concentric circles x2 + y2 = 2 and x2 + y2 = 4 .

Show that Dw = 0 in this region, but that f w is not necessarily zero along a closed path inside this region
.

4. Curves in Rg. We consider, as in Section 1-1, a curve C with equa- tion x = x(u) in ordinary space
with a fixed system of rectangular co- ordinate axes. To each point of C we associate a trihedron (el, e2,
eg) of mutually orthogonal unit vectors ei: el · el = 62 ..e2 = eg · eg = 1, ei · ej = 0, i :f: j, i, j = 1, 2, 3
(4-1) (in general not along the coordinates axes). The ei are functions of u, and when P moves along C
the change of position of P and of the ei is given by equations of the form dx = Wiei dei = Wije j, (4-2)
where the Wi, Wij are differentials of the form fi(u) du, fij(u) duo Since, according to Eq. (4-1) ei · dej =
-ej. dei = Wji, we find Wij = -Wji (hence WII = W22 = Wgg = 0) .

We therefore meet in Eq. (4-2) six differentials, WI, W2, Wg, W12, WIg, WgI' When we select the
trihedron in such a way that el = t, e2 = n, eg = b, we obtain in Eq. (4-2) the Frenet equations of the
curve, with WI = ds = V Xu · Xu du, W2 = Wg = 0, Wl2 = K ds, WIg = 0, W2g = T ds .

The fundamental theorem (p. 29) states that the Wi, Wij, 'given as single- valued functions of u by means
of (4-2), determine one and only one curve
THE METHOD OF PFAFFIANS 211 but for its position in space, endowed with a trihedron of
mutually or- thogonal vectors ei at each point. For the proof we can follow a reason- ing analogous to
that given on p. 29 .

5. Surfaces in Ra. We now consider a surface S, given by x = x(u, v) as in Section 2-1. To each point P of
S we associate a (uniquely defined) trihedron (el, e2, ea) satisfying Eq. (4-1). The ei are here functions of
u and v, and the change from P in the direction dx on the surface is given by equations of the form dx =
Wiei , dei. = Wijej Wij = -Wji, i, j = 1, 2, 3, (5-1) where the six coefficients Wi, Wij are now Pfaffians
in two variables, e.g .

WI = Pl(U, v) du + ql (u, v) dv, etc .

We select ea = N (p. 62). Since dx. N = 0, the Pfaffian Wa = 0, which is the ne.cessary and sufficient
condition that ea = N. Since, accord- ing to (1-3), [WI, W2] = [el. dx, e2 · 8x] = (el X e2) · (dx X 8x) =
ea . (dx X 8x ) = ea. (xu X xv)[du dv] = y EG - F2 [du dv], (5-2) (comp. Eqs. 3-2 and 3-4, Section 2-3),
we conclude [WI, W2] = dA 0 ( Y EG - F2 > 0, p. 59) .

(5-3 ) Tn Section 3-3 we have introduced the compatibility relations for Eq. (2-6), Section 3-2, using
also the condition (xu)v = (xv)u. This leads us to establish the compatibility relations for Eq. (5-1). They
express that the components of dx and dei with respect to the cartesian axes are six total differentials, so
that by virtue of the theorem at the end of Sec- tion 3, this Appendix: D dx = 0, D dei = o .

(5-4) (5-5 ) From Eq. (5-4) follows, using Eqs. (1-8), (1-9) and (1-10), eiDwi + [Dei, Wi] = 0, or eiDwi
+ [Wij, wi]ej = eiDwi + [Wji, Wj]ei = 0, (5-6} hence I DWi = [Wi/, Wj] I (5-7)
212 APPENDIX or, since W3 = 0: DWI = [WI2, W2], DW2 = [W2I, WI] [W3 I, WI] + [W32, wtJ =
O.

(5-7a) From Eq. (5-5) follows in a similar way DWij = [Wjk, Wik] = [Wik, Wkj] (5-8 ) or DW23 =
[W2I, WI3], DW31 = [W32, W21], DW12 = [WI3, W32] .

(5-8a) Equations (5-7) and (5-8) are the equations of structure of the Wi, Wij .

Eqs. (5-8), as we shall see, are the equivalent of Gauss-Codazzi equations .

The fundamental theorem (Section 3-6) states that if the single valued Pfaffians in two variables Wi, Wij
with [WI, W2] 0 satisfy the equations of structure, then they determine one and only surface, given but
for its position in space, and endowed with a trihedron (el, e2, e3) at each point .

For a proof we must refer to the literature, see below .

From Eq. (5-1) we can derive the following expression for the three fundamental forms of the surface
(pp. 59, 73, 103): ds 2 = I = dx · dx = (Wl)2 + (W2)2 II = -dx. e3 = WIW13 + W2W23 III = de3 · de3 =
(WI3)2 + (W23)2 .

6. Gaussian curvature. We introduce the Gaussian curvature by means of the formula K = [W31, W32] ,
[w I, W2] (6-1) in which the denominator is the element of area of the surface (Eq. 5-3): dA = (WI,
W2]. When dAs is the element cf area of the spherical image e3 = e3(u, v), Eq. 5-3 shows that dAs =
[WI3, W23], so that Eq. (6-1) is equivalent to K = dAs/dA (see p. 157). Since [WI3, W23] = [el · de3,
e2 . oe3] = (el X e2) · ( de 3 X oe3) = e3 · (N u X Nv)[du dv],
THE METHOD OF PFAFFIANS 213 we find, with the aid of the Weingarten equations (see p. 156): eg
- f2 [W13, W23] = EG _ F2 e3 · (xu X xv)[du dv], from which we derive, using Eq. (5-2): eg - j2 K =
EG - F2 .

Now, according to the third of Eq. (5-8a), the numerator of the fraction in Eq. (6-1) can be written as
-DW12; moreover, W12 can be expressed as a linear combination of WI and W2 (Exercise 3, Section 3,
this Appendix): W12 = aWl + {jW2 .

(6-2) By virtue of the first two equations of (5-7a): DW1 = a[w1, W2], DW2 = {j[Wl, W2], ( 6-3) so
that K - -1 D[ DWI + DW2 ] - WI W2 · [WI, W2] [WI, W2] [WI, W2] (6-4 ) The Gaussian curvature
can thus be expressed exclusively in terms of WI, W2, their first and second derivatives. This Eq. (6-4) is
equivalent to the theorema egregium (p. 111), since bending, a procedure which leaves d8 2 = (W1)2 +
(W2)2 invariant, can be performed in such a way that WI and W2 remain themselves invariant (by
appropriate selection of the tri- hedron under this transformation). This theorema egregium has been
obtained as a consequence of the third of the equations of structure (5-8a). It can also be shown that the
first and second equations of struc- ture (5-8a) are the equivalent of the Codazzi equations (see Exercise
1 of Section 8, this Appendix) .
7. Curves on the surface. We have, so far, imposed no special condi- tions on the set (e1, e2) except that
it be situated in the tangent plane .

In this plane, however, we still have 00 1 choices, depending on one param- eter cp: e 1 = e) cos cp - e
sin 'P (7-1 ) e2 = e sin cp + e cos cp, which represent rotations about an angle cp, counterclockwise
from (el, e2)
214 APPENDIX to (e, e;) if cp > O. The cp is a function of position. Then, if dx = CJJ,-ei = CJJ-e, de =
CJJjei, e3 = e = N, (7-2) we find del = d(e) cos cp - e sin cp) d ' d ,. ,. d ' d = el cos cp - e2 sIn cp - el
SIn cp «J - e2 COS cp cp - (CJJ)2e + CJJ)3e) cos cp - (CJJle) + CJJ3e) sin cp ,. d ' d - el SIn cp cp - e2
COS cp cp, as well as del = CJJl2e2 + CJJl3e3 = CJJI2(e) sin cp + e cos cp) + CJJI3e, So that, equating
the coefficients of e, e;, e in both equations, we obtain the transformation formulas CJJ)2 = CJJl2 + dcp,
, I · Wl3 = CJJl3 COS cp - CJJ23 SIn cpo Similar operations on dx and e2 give us (a) CJJ) = CJJI COS
cp + CJJ2 sin cp , . + CJJ 2 = -CJJ I SIn cp CJJ2 COS cp (b) CJJ I = CJJ31 COS cp + CJJ32 sin cp , . +
CJJ32 = -CJJ31 SIn cp CJJ32 COS cp (c) CJJ = CJJ3 = 0 (d) CJJ)2 = CJJl2 + dcp .

(7-3) These formulas can be used in selecting trihedra in a way appropriate to the study of special curves
C on the surface. Let the tangent unit tangent vector t be given, as on p. 130, by t = el cos 8 + e2 sin 8, U
= U(8), V = V(8), 8 = 8(8). (7-4) Then dx = t ds = CJJlel + W2e2, so that along the curve CJJI = cos 8
ds, CJJ2 = sin 8 ds, ds = CJJI COS 8 + CJJ2 sin 8 .

We now select el = t, e2 = u (Section 4-1). With e3 = N this trihedron forms a natural frame defined by
CJJ2 = 0, hence CJJ1 = ds. Then, if along the curve dei = Wijej, CJJij = CJJij(S) , we cali introduce (see
Problem 4, p. 202) geodesic curvature, Kg, normal curvature K, and geodesic torsion 'fg by the formulas
.

CJJl2 = Kg ds, CJJl3 = Kn ds, CJJ32 = T g d8 .

(7-5)
THE METHOD OF PFAFFIANS 215 When we replace the natural frame by an arbitrary frame through
a rotation 0, in a clockwise direction in order to obtain the relation (7-4), then we obtain for a general
frame (with e3 = N): Kgds = W]2 + dO, Kn = WI3 cos 0 + W23 sin 0, (7-6) Tg ds = Wl3 sin 0 + W23
cos O .

The equations of the geodesics with respect to an arbitrary frame are ob- tained in the form Kg = 0 or -
Wl2 + dO = O .

From Eqs. (7-6), (6-2), and (6-3) we conclude that the geodesics, as well as the geodesic curvature, are
bending invariants .

Lines of curvature can be defined as lines of zero geodesic torsion: or Wl3 sin 0 - W23 cos 0 = WI W 23
+ W2WSI = 0, or Wl3 = KWI, W23 = KW2, which express Rodrigues' theorem (p. 94), with K as
principal curvature .

Asymptotic lines can be defined as lines of zero normal curvature: WI3 COS 0 + W23 sin 0 = WIWl3 +
W2W23 = O .

This means that along the asymptotic lines the second fundamental form vanishes .

8. Gauss-Bonnet theorem. Along a closed curve C on the surface, bounding a simply connected region R,
as in Fig. 4-15, f dO = 21r .

Hence, by virtue of Stokes' theorem, Eq. (6-1) for K, and Eq. (7-6) for Kg: f Kg ds = f (W12 + d8) =
211'" + f W12 = 211'" + f DW12 = 211'" + f f [W13, W23] = - f f K dA + 211'", which expresses the
Gauss-Bonnet theorem (p. 155) .

The method of the moving trihedron and its systematic study by means of Pfaffians is typical of the work
of E. Cartan (1869-1951), who, inspired by
216 APPENDIX S. Lie and G. Darboux, introduced his method c. 1900 for the investigation of
continuous groups. See his Theorie des groupes finis et continus et la geometrie differentielle (1937).
Application to classical differential geometry in W .
Blaschke. Einfuhrung in die Differentialgeometrie (1950). In Russian: S. P .

Finikov, The method of the exterior forms of Cart an in differential geometry (1948) .

For Dw = [dVi dXiJ we also find the notation dw and w' in the literature .

EXERCISES 1. Prove that the first and second equations of structure (5-Sa) are equivalent with the
Codazzi equations (3-4), Section 3-3. Take an orthogonal net of curvilinear coordinates or, even more
simple, take the lines of curvature as para- metric lines .

2. From Eq. (7-6) derive Liouville's formula (1-13, Section 4-1) for the geodesic curvature .

3. From Eq. (6-4) derive Liouville's formula for the Gaussian curvature ex- pressed in Exercise 13,
Section 4-2, 2nd formula .

4. Defining developable surfaces as surfaces for which K = 0, hence [W13, W23] = 0, show that ds 2 can
be written in the form du 2 + dv 2 .

5. Prove that for two directions on the surface dXi and dx: I I I I W1W13 + W2W23 = W1W13 +
W2W23 and that conjugate lines are characterized by the vanishing of these expressions .

6. Prove that minimal surfaces are characterized by the equations W13 = aw2, W23 = awl, where a is a
scalar function. ('rake a natural frame along the asymptotic lines, and use the third equation (5-7a.) 7.
Prove that surfaces of constant curvature are characterized by the equa- tion WIW2 = CW13W23, C a
constant .

8. A plane curve x = x(s) intersects all lines through the origin at an angle of 45°. The moving trihedron
is formed by t, n, b. Find Wi, Wi;' i = 1, 2, 3 .

9. On a. sphere a trihedron (el, e2, e3) is defined at each point by the outward surface normal in the
direction of e3 and the vectors e 1, e2 along the meridians and parallels in the direction of increasing cp
and 8 (Fig. 2-1). Find the Wi, Wij .