Chuong 3

Học viện Hàng Không Việt Nam – Khoa Không lưu
CRUISE – CLIMB
– DESCENT
GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 1

1. Crusing flight
❑ Cruising flight: Cruise is the level portion of aircraft travel where
flight is most fuel efficient.Technically, cruising consists of heading
(direction of flight) changes only at a constant airspeed and altitude.
D = T W
 T=
L = W CL CD

1. Crusing flight
❑Cruise Performance
Best range cruise
Range refer to distance aircraft can fly on a given amount of fuel.
The maximum range means to fly the greatest possible distance with
available fuel.
Specific Range (SR) express the range performance of the aircraft at

a moment in time.
NM/hour Knots
Specific Range = = (best ratio of velocity to fuel flow)
Fuel/hour Fuel Flow

1. Crusing flight
Best range cruise
The specific range (SR) is the distance covered per fuel unit.
Basically speaking, the specific range is equal to:
Considering air distance, the specific range is equal to:

1. Crusing flight
Best range cruise

1. Crusing flight
Best range cruise
The optimum cruise altitude is that at which a given thrust setting
results in the corresponding maximum range speed. The optimum
altitude is not constant and changes over the period of a long flight as
atmospheric conditions and the weight of the aircraft change.
Weight  = Optimum altitude 

Temperature  = Optimum altitude 
(A small change in temperature will not significantly alter the optimum altitude)

1. Crusing flight
Best range cruise

1. Crusing flight
Best range cruise

1. Crusing flight
Best range cruise
Pwr Reqd.
Power
Velocity (TAS)

1. Crusing flight
Best range cruise
If we have a 20kt headwind:
Pwr Reqd.
Power
20kt
Velocity (TAS)

1. Crusing flight
Best range cruise
If we have a 20kt headwind:
Pwr Reqd.
Power
20kt
Velocity (TAS)

1. Crusing flight
Best range cruise
If we have a 20kt tailwind:
Power
Pwr Reqd.
Velocity (TAS)
20kt
1. Crusing flight
Best range cruise
Comparison of wind conditions on range:
Pwr Reqd.
Power
Headwind
Nil Wind
Tailwind
Velocity (TAS)
20kt 20kt
1. Crusing flight
Best range cruise

1. Crusing flight
Best range cruise
Maximum Cruise Altitude: Each engine has a limited Max-Cruise
rating. This rating depends on the maximum temperature that the
turbines can sustain. As a result, when outside temperature increases,
maximum thrust decreases:

1. Crusing flight
Best range cruise

1. Crusing flight
Best range cruise

1. Crusing flight
Best range cruise

1. Crusing flight
Best endurance cruise
Endurance is the time that aircraft can remain airborne with the
fuel available.
In other words, how long an aircraft is able to remain airborne on a
given amount of fuel.
It will be greatest when the fuel is used at the lowest possible rate, that
is, the fuel flow is minimum.
Specific Endurance will have units of time/units of fuel.
Flight hours/hour 1
Specific Endurance = =
Fuel/hour Fuel Flow

1. Crusing flight
Best endurance cruise
Pwr Reqd.
Power
Wind has no significant

effect on endurance as
the distanced covered
is not important.
Velocity (TAS)

1. Crusing flight
Best speed cruise
The maximum speed means to fly the greatest possible velocity with
available fuel.

1. Crusing flight
Short Range Jetliner
Characteristics Boeing 737-300 Airbus 320
Passengers (pax) 149 150

Maximum Fuel 20,000L 22000L
Maximum Range 4,180 km 4,815 to 5,555 km
Cruise Speed 910km/hr 845 km/hr
Service Ceiling 40,000ft 39,000 ft

1. Crusing flight
Medium Range Jetliner
Characteristics Boeing 767-300 Airbus 330
Passengers (pax) 218 in three 253 in three

classes classes
Maximum Fuel 90,770 L 139,090 L
Maximum Range 11,320 km 11,850 km
Cruise Speed 850 km/h 880 km/h
Service Ceiling 39,000 ft 39,370 ft

1. Crusing flight
Long Range Jetliner
Characteristics Boeing 747- 400 Airbus 380
Passengers (pax) 416/524 525 (max:800)

Maximum Fuel 216 800 L 310 000L
Maximum Range 13 450km 15 200km
Cruise Speed at FL35 910km/hr 900km/hr
Service Ceiling 41,000 ft 42,980 ft

1. Crusing flight
❑Factors Affecting Range and Endurance
There are several factors will have effect on the maximum possible
range and speed: which are aircraft’s mass and speed, altitude and
wind.
Aircraft Mass
Increased aircraft mass, increases the drag.
This requires greater thrust to balance the drag, which increases the
fuel flow and reduces the specific range.
Since fuel flow increases, endurance also decreases.

1. Crusing flight
❑Factors Affecting Range and Endurance
Air density (altitude)
Altitude   Density   Drag   fuel flow decrease and range increase
Wind
The best range will be reduced in a headwind condition.

The opposite occurs in a tailwind condition, the best range will be
increased.

1. Crusing flight
❑Avoid wake turbulence

2. Climbing flight
In aviation, a climb is the operation of increasing the altitude of an
aircraft. It is also the logical phase of a typical flight (the climb phase
or climbout) following takeoff and preceding the cruise. During the
climb phase there is an increase in altitude to a predetermined level.

2. Climbing flight
T − D − W sin  = 0

 L − W cos  = 0
T −D T 1
Climb angle (góc leo): sin  = = −
W W L
D
The climb angle is usually very small (<10o = 0.175 rad):
sin     T − D  W 

cos   1  L  W
2. Climbing flight

2. Climbing flight
Can you actually SEE
- Longer Time
BUT!
what angle they are
- Shorter Distance talking about?
This plane’s flight path stayed

Vy
above the other plane’s flight
path the entire time - Shorter Time
Vx
So… had there been an - Longer Distance
obstacle at just the right
height… This plane climbed higher
in that amount of time
It also covered more

distance, because Vy is a
higher airspeed than Vx
Best Angle of Climb (Vx)
Most altitude in least
Same starting point horizontal distance
(used for obstacles) Same amount of time passed
Ex. 7 - Climbing Best Rate of Climb (Vy)
Most altitude in least time
(used on normal take-off)
2. Climbing flight
VX < VY

2. Climbing flight DISADVANTAGES of Vx DISADVANTAGES of Vy

 poor forward visibility slightly higher fuel burn
Optimal combination of:  engine may overheat! increased time spent in
✓ climb performance low altitude turbulence
✓ visibility best rate = Vy

Cruise climb (or
✓ engine cooling best angle = Vx normal climb)

2. Climbing flight
Ceiling (trần bay): is the maximum
❑Climb Management
pressure altitude an aircraft can
Climb Ceiling reach under a set of conditions.
• Absolute ceiling (or aerodynamic
ceiling): is the altitude at which the
(maximum) rate of climb goes to
zero.
• Service ceiling: is where the rate

of climb drops below a prescribed
value. The service ceiling is the
maximum usable altitude of an
aircraft.

2. Climbing flight
❑Climb Management
Climb Ceiling

2. Climbing flight
❑Climb Management
Climb Ceiling
• Propulsion ceiling: Is that altitude that the available thrust provided
by the engines permits to reach. It is usually lower than the
aerodynamic ceiling.
• Design ceiling: It is the maximum altitude that the aircraft can
reach taking into account the structural limits (maximum differential
pressure, etc).
• Cruise ceiling: is the altitude at which the maximum climb rate is
300 ft/min.
• Combat ceiling: is the altitude at which the maximum rate of climb
is 500 ft/sec or 2.5 m/s. Sometimes this is called a “service ceiling”
for jet powered aircraft.

2. Climbing flight
❑Climb Management
Thrust Setting
The standard climb rating is
called “Maximum Climb
Thrust”. At the reduction
altitude, pilots have to reduce
thrust from take off power to
climb power by setting the thrust
throttles to the climb (CL) gate.
This must be done prior to a
maximum time of 5 minutes
after brake release.

2. Climbing flight
❑Climb Management
Energy Sharing
Aircraft energy is provided by the engines. To fly, an aircraft needs:
̶ Kinetic energy: Energy necessary to maintain speed and accelerate.
̶ Potential energy: Energy necessary to maintain altitude and climb.
The FMGS manages this energy sharing during the climb (70% for
speed, 30% for altitude). As a result, when:
̶ TAS increases: The climb gradient and the rate of climb decrease, as
potential energy is converted into kinetic energy.
̶ TAS decreases: The climb gradient and rate of climb increase, as
kinetic energy is converted into potential energy.

2. Climbing flight
❑Climb Management
Cabin climb
As the cabin is pressurized, a cabin pressurization system adjusts
cabin altitude to provide passengers with a comfortable flight.
During normal operations, the cabin altitude is limited to a maximum

value, which depends on the aircraft type. The purpose of this is to
limit differential pressure ∆P (between the inside and outside) to a
maximum value. For instance:
- A320 family : Max cabin altitude = 8,000 feet , ∆P max = 556 hPa
(8.06 PSI)
- AA340-200/300 : Max cabin altitude = 7,350 feet , ∆P max = 593
hPa (8.6 PSI)
2. Climbing flight
❑Climb Management
Cabin climb

2. Climbing flight
❑Climb at Given IAS/Mach Law
A climb is generally operated at a constant IAS and Mach Number.
For instance, a standard climb profile for the A320 family is:
- Below 10,000 feet: Climb at constant IAS = 250 knots. The
speed is limited by Air Traffic Control (ATC) laws.
- Above 10,000 feet: Climb at constant IAS = 300 knots (limited to
M0.78). At 10,000 feet, the aircraft accelerates to a more optimum
climb speed (300 knots), which is maintained as long as the Mach
number remains under 0.78.
- Above the crossover altitude: Climb at constant Mach = M0.78.
The crossover altitude is the altitude where 300 knots IAS is equal
to M0.78. Above this altitude, a constant ratio between the TAS and
the sound velocity must be maintained to avoid high speed
buffeting.

2. Climbing flight
❑Climb at Given IAS/Mach Law

2. Climbing flight
❑Factors Affecting the Climb performance (Climb Angle
and Rate of Climb)
Wind Aircraft Weight
Temperature Speed and

& Air Density Acceleration
Retraction of flap
and landing gear

2. Climbing flight
and Rate of Climb)
Speed and Acceleration
When the aircraft is accelerating during climb some portion of the
excess thrust is required for the acceleration, so there will be less
excess thrust and therefore reduce climb angle.

2. Climbing flight
and Rate of Climb)
Weight
At given PA, given TAS
m  climb angle 
rate of climb 

2. Climbing flight
and Rate of Climb)
Weight

2. Climbing flight
and Rate of Climb)
Temperature
The higher the air temperature, less thrust can be produced by the
engines. Because of that the difference between the thrust and the
drag during climb is smaller. Therefore the climb angle & the rate of
climb will be reduced.
Temp   climb angle 

rate of climb 

2. Climbing flight
and Rate of Climb)
Air Density
Altitude increase (density decrease)
 the climb angle & the rate of
climb will be reduced.

2. Climbing flight
and Rate of Climb)
Air Density

2. Climbing flight
and Rate of Climb)
Wind
In wind conditions, headwind or tailwind will have affect on the
aircraft’s ground speed.
So, a headwind will reduce the ground speed and therefore reduce the
horizontal distance that an aircraft travels in comparison to the no wind
conditions. Therefore a headwind gives increased climb angle, while a
tailwind affects in opposite direction and gives reduced climb angle.
Crosswind component has no effect on the climb gradient.
WIND HAS NO AFFECT ON THE RATE OF CLIMB

2. Climbing flight
and Rate of Climb)
Wind

2. Climbing flight
and Rate of Climb)
Retraction of flap and landing gear
When the flap and landing gears are retracted, the drag is reduced,
resulting in an increase in excess thrust, therefore the rate of climb is
increased.

2. Climbing flight
▪ Avoid wake turbulence

3. Descending flight
A descent during air travel is any portion where an aircraft decreases

altitude, and is the opposite of an ascent or climb.

T − D + W sin  = 0
 (*)
 L − W cos  = 0
D −T
sin  =
W
RD = TAS  sin 


Best rate of descent

Furthest distance per altitude lost
Best descent angle

Most time in air per
altitude lost
- Longer Time - Shorter Time

- Shorter Distance - Longer Distance

❑Top of descent point
The top of descent point or TOD is the point for an aircraft to initiate a
descent to a lower level for arrival at the destination airfield. The
aircraft is leaving the cruise phase of the flight and start a descent
phase to the first approach altitude expected at one approach fix.

❑Rule of 3
In aviation and based on a 3° descent rate, transport pilots adopted a
formula to assure a slow, steady and comfortable descent for their
passengers: the rule of three or "3:1 rule of descent".

❑Descent rate
Fly a groundspeed of 180 knots, Descend at 1,000 feet per minute (fpm)

❑Descent rate

❑Descent rate

❑Descent rate

❑Descent at Given MACH/IAS Law
A descent is generally operated at a constant Mach Number and
Indicated Air Speed (IAS). TAS variations during descent are
illustrated (A320 family):

❑Cabin Descent
The cabin pressure rate is optimized during descent, so that it
reaches the landing field pressure + 0.1 psi just prior to landing.
Depending on the initial cabin and destination airport altitudes, the

FMGS calculates the necessary cabin descent time. This time is
obtained from the selected cabin rate of descent, defaulted to –350
feet per minute in the FMGS, but which can be modified up to a
maximum of –750 feet per minute.
As soon as the cabin descent time is longer than the aircraft descent
time, a repressurization segment is necessary, during which the
aircraft vertical speed is limited to permit cabin repressurization

❑Cabin Descent

❑Cabin Descent
Note that, in some particular cases (landing at high altitude airports) ,
the cabin pressure at cruise level is higher than the pressure at the
landing airport. Therefore, the cabin pressure has to decrease during
descent, which means that the cabin’s vertical speed is positive while
the aircraft’s vertical speed is negative.

❑Factors Affecting the Descent performance
Wind Aircraft Weight
Temperature Speed and

& Air Density Acceleration
Aircraft
Configuration

Speed
In general, rate of descent increases with increasing speed and
increasing drag.
Rate of descent = V x (DRAG - THRUST) / WEIGHT
Optimum speeds required for the best descent performance.

Weight
At given PA, given TAS
m  descent angle 
rate of descent 

Density
ρ  descent angle 
rate of descent 

Wind Headwind: reduce the horizontal
distance => increased descent
NO
TAILWIND
HEADWIND
WIND angle
x x x

Wind
But, wind has no affect on the rate of descent.
The rate of descent is independent from the wind speed, because it is
always considered in reference to the airspeed not the groundspeed.
Crosswind component has no effect on the descent gradient.

Aircraft configuration (flap/slat and landing gear)
 More lift: can safely descend at lower airspeeds
 More drag: steeper descent given same
airspeed
 More nose-down attitude: better forward
visibility given same airspeed
Airspeed must be
in white arc before
flaps are extended!


❑Descent at Given MACH/IAS Law

4. Gliding flight
In the ultimate situation,

there is no power at all; in
this case, the airplane will
be in gliding.

5. Turnning flight
This maneuver is used to change the aircraft heading. The turn is
initiated by using the ailerons or spoilers to roll, or bank, the aircraft to
one side. Vertical Component of Lift
Keeps aircraft in air (opposes
Lift
weight)
Centrifugal Force Centripetal Force

Imaginary force that Horizontal component of lift,
pulls aircraft outside of pulls aircraft into turn
turn (is really inertia)
Angle of Bank
Weight
5. Turnning flight
Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge_FAA

5. Turnning flight
❑Effect of Airspeed
When airspeed is
increased in a turn the
following occurs:
• Slower rate of turn
• Larger radius of turn
Radius:

5. Turnning flight
❑Effect of Bank Angle
If Bank angle is increased
in a turn, the following
occurs:
• Higher rate of turn
• Smaller radius of turn
• Higher stall speed

5. Turnning flight
❑Load factor in turn
Angle of bank increase = Load factor
increase
60° bank = 2 G's
Dangers
High load factor = Possible structural
failure (overload)
Increased load factor = Increased

stall speed

5. Turnning flight
❑Spiral dive
Definition: Steep descending turn in
which airplane has excessive nose
down attitude
Characteristics:
Excessive angle of bank
Rapidly increasing airspeed
Rapidly increasing rate of descent
Structural damage can occur if

airspeed increases beyond limits

5. Turnning flight
❑Spiral dive

5. Turnning flight
❑Spins
Definition: Auto-rotation which develops
after aggravated stall
• When The wing that stalls first will drop:
− increasing its angle of attack and
deepening the stall.
− The other wing will rise, decreasing its
angle of attack, and the aircraft will yaw
towards the more deeply stalled wing.
− Drag on down wing increases, further
increasing angle of attack. The aircraft to
continue yawing. Wing stalls further, nose
drops, auto-rotation starts.

5. Turnning flight
❑Spins

5. Turnning flight
❑Spins
• Spin:
– Aircraft stalled
– Airspeed constant and low
• Spiral Dive:
– Aircraft not stalled
– Airspeed increasing rapidly

5. Turnning flight
❑Spins

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Học viện Hàng Không Việt Nam – Khoa Không lưu

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 1

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Specific Range (SR) express the range performance of the aircraft at

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Considering air distance, the specific range is equal to:

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Weight  = Optimum altitude 

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Wind has no significant

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Characteristics Boeing 737-300 Airbus 320

Passengers (pax) 149 150

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Characteristics Boeing 767-300 Airbus 330

Passengers (pax) 218 in three 253 in three

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Characteristics Boeing 747- 400 Airbus 380

Passengers (pax) 416/524 525 (max:800)

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 24

Increased aircraft mass, increases the drag.

Since fuel flow increases, endurance also decreases.

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 25

Altitude   Density   Drag   fuel flow decrease and range increase

The best range will be reduced in a headwind condition.

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This plane’s flight path stayed

It also covered more

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2. Climbing flight DISADVANTAGES of Vx DISADVANTAGES of Vy

✓ visibility best rate = Vy

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• Service ceiling: is where the rate

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During normal operations, the cabin altitude is limited to a maximum

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Wind Aircraft Weight

Temperature Speed and

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