ASSIGNMENT#2

DILAWAR FA18-EPE-130

SUBMITTED TO
MAAM SAIMA ALI
Q) A
Until now electric and electromagnetic fields have been regarded as probably the most abstract
and difficult part of the undergraduate electrical engineering curriculum. This is largely due to
the fact that such fields cannot be visualized directly Electric fields can be computed using
various methods with different precision. However, for insulation of electrical equipment a
more accurate electric field prediction is required. With the advent of computing power and
numerical techniques in recent years, it has become practical to use different techniques to
compute the electric fields. Such numerical techniques enable the designer to solve problems
that are difficult and use of analytical approach with many empirical factors is impossible. The
aim of this paper is to give a review of the application of different numerical techniques in the
electric fields computation that is useful for an undergraduate course, so methods are as
follow:
(a)Finite Difference Method (FDM)
(b) Finite Element Method (FEM)
(c)Charge Simulation Method (CSM)
(d)Surface Charge Simulation Method (SSM) or Boundary Element Method (BEM).
The first two methods are generally classified as domain methods and the last two are
categorized as boundary methods.

Finite Difference Method (FDM)

Apart from other numerical methods for solving partial differential equations, the Finite
Difference Method (FDM) is universally applied to solve linear and even non-linear problems.
Although the applicability of difference equations to solve the Laplace’s equation was used
earlier, it was not until 1940s that FDMs have been widely used. The applicability of FDMs to
solve general partial differential equation is well documented in specialized books.
The field problem for which the Laplace’s or Poisson’s equation applies is given within a (say x,
y), plane, the area of which is limited by given boundary conditions, i.e., by contours on which
some field quantities are known. Every potential φ and its distribution within the area under
consideration will be continuous. Therefore, an unlimited number of φ (x, y) values will be
necessary to describe the complete potential distribution. Since any numerical computation can
provide only a limited amount of information, discretization of the area will be necessary to
represent all the nodes for which the solution is needed. Such nodes are generally produced by
any net or grid laid down on the area’ as shown in Fig
The unknown potential φ (p) can be expressed by the surrounding potentials which are
assumed to be known for the single difference equation. For every two-dimensional problem,
most of the field region can be subdivided by a regular square net. Then, if the step size chosen
for discretization is h, the following approximate equation becomes valid.

In the above equation, φ1 + φ2 + φ3 + φ4 are the potentials at the immediate neighborhood

nodes with respect to the node p of interest (of which the potential φ(p) needs to be
determined). The potentials at the neighborhood points are expected to be known a priori,
either from given boundary conditions or from any previous computational results. The term
F(p) arises if the field region is governed by the Poisson’s equation, (i.e., the relation ∇2φ=F(p)
holds good).
Thus, any general field problem to be treated needs sub-division of the finite plane by a
predominantly regular grid, which is supplemented by irregular elements at the boundaries, if
required. The whole grid will then contain n nodes, for which the potential φ(p) is to be
calculated. Then, a system of n simultaneous equations would result. Here, it may be noted that
simple problems with small number of unknowns can be treated by long hand computation
using the concept of residuals and point relaxation. For more complex problems, machine
computation is necessary and iterative schemes are most efficient in combination with
successive relaxation methods.

Finite Element Method (FEM)

Finite Element Method is widely used in the numerical solution of Electric Field Equation and
became very popular. In contrast to other numerical methods, FEM is a very general method
and therefore is a versatile tool for solving wide range of Electric Field Equation.
The finite element analysis of any problem involves basically four steps:
(a)Finite Element Discretization
To start with, the whole problem domain is fictitiously divided into small areas/ volumes called
elements (see Fig. 1.3). The potential, which is unknown throughout the problem domain, is
approximated in each of these elements in terms of the potential at their vertices called nodes.
As a result of this the potential function will be unknown only at the nodes. Normally, a certain
class of polynomials, is used for the interpolation of the potential inside each element in terms
of their nodal values. The coefficients of this interpolation function are then expressed in terms
of the unknown nodal potentials. As a result of this, the interpolation can be directly carried out
in terms of the nodal values. The associated algebraic functions are called shape frictions. The
elements derive their names through their shape, i.e., bar elements in one dimension (1D),
triangular and quadrilateral elements in 2D, and tetrahedron and hexahedron elements for 3D
problems.
(b)Governing Equations

The potential Ve within an element is first approximated and then interrelated to the potential
distributions in various elements such that the potential is continuous across inter-element
boundaries. The approximate solution for the whole region then becomes.

where N is the number of elements into which the solution region is divided. The most common
form of approximation for the voltage V within an element is a polynomial approximation

For the triangular element, and for the quadrilateral element the equation becomes
The potential Ve in general is not zero within the element e but it is zero outside the element in
view of the fact that the quadrilateral elements are non-confirming elements (see Fig. 1.3).
Consider a typical triangular element shown in Fig. 1.4. The potentials Ve1,Ve2 and Ve3 at
nodes 1, 2, and 3 are obtained from Eq. (1.15), as

the coefficients a, b, and c are determined from the above equation as

Substituting this equation in Eq. (1.15), we get

Where

and A is the area of the element e, that is,

The value of A is positive if the nodes are numbered counterclockwise (starting from any node)
as shown by the arrow in Fig. 1.4. It may be noted that Eq. (1.19) gives the potential at any
point (x, y) within the element provided that the potentials at the vertices are known. These are
called the element shape functions. They have the following properties:

The energy per unit length associated with the element e is given by the following equation:

where, T denotes the transpose of the matrix

The matrix given above is normally called as element coefficient matrix: The matrix element Cij(e) of the
coefficient matrix is considered as the coupling between nodes i and j
(c) Assembling of All Elements
Having considered a typical element, the next stage is to assemble all such elements in the
solution region. The energy associated with all the elements will then be

and, n is the number of nodes, N is number of elements and [C] is called the global coefficient
matrix which is the sum of the individual coefficient matrices.
(d) Solving the Resulting Equations
It can be shown that the Laplace’s (and Poisson’s) equation is satisfied when the total energy in
the solution region is minimum. Thus, we require that the partial derivatives of W with respect
to each nodal value of the potential is zero, i.e.

In general, δW/δVk=0 leads to

where, n is the number of nodes in the mesh. By writing the above Eq. (1.28) for all the nodes, k
= 1, 2, … n, we obtain a set of simultaneous equations from which the solution for V1, V2 … Vn
can be found. This can be done either by using the Iteration Method or the Band Matrix Method.
Now, for solving the nodal unknowns, one cannot resort directly to the governing partial
differential equations, as a piece-wise approximation has been made to the unknown potential.
Therefore, alternative approaches have to be sought. One such classical approach is the calculus
of variation. This approach is based on the fact that potential will distribute in the domain such
that the associated energy will reach extreme values. Based on this approach, Euler has showed
that the potential function that satisfies the above criteria will be the solution of corresponding
governing equation. In FEM, with the approximated potential function, extremization of the
energy function is sought with respect to each of the unknown nodal potential. This process leads
to a set of linear algebraic equations. In this matrix form, these equations form normally a
symmetric sparse matrix, which is then solved for the nodal potentials.
Within the individual elements the unknown potential function is approximated by the shape
functions of lower order depending on the type of element. An approximate solution of the exact
potential is then given in the form of an expression whose terms are the products of the shape
function and the unknown nodal potentials. It can be shown that the solution of the differential
equation describing the problem corresponds to minimization of the field energy. This leads to a
system of algebraic equations the solution for which under the corresponding boundary
conditions gives the required nodal potentials. Thus, this procedure results in a potential
distribution in the form of discrete potential value at the nodal points of the FEM mesh. The
related field strengths at the centers of all elements are then obtained from the potential gradient.
The values of the field thus obtained are dependent on the distance between the centers of the
elements and the electrode surface, and thus on the sizes of the elements.

Charge Simulation Method for Electric Field:

Charge Simulation Method (CSM) belongs to the family of integral methods for calculation of
electric fields. There are two variations of this method: CSM with discrete charges and CSM
with area charges.
Charge Simulation Method with discrete charges is based on the principle that the real surface
charges on the surface of electrodes or dielectric interfaces are replaced by a system of point and
line charges located outside the field domain. The position and the type of simulation charges are
to be determined first and then the magnitudes of the charges are calculated so that their
combined effect satisfies the boundary conditions. After determining these magnitudes by using
the method of solving a system of liner equations, it is to be verified whether the systems of
simulation charges fulfils the boundary conditions between the location points with sufficient
accuracy. Then the voltage and field strength at any point within the field domain can be
calculated analytically by the superposition of simple potential and gradient functions.

Working Principle of Charge Simulation Method:

When the conductor is excited by an applied voltage, charges appear on the surface of the
conductor. These charges produce an electric field outside the conductor, while at the same time
maintains the conductor at equipotential. Similarly, when a dielectric is excited by an external
field, it gets polarized, i.e. the charged particles of the molecules of the dielectric get shifted from
their neutral state to produce a volume of dipoles. In essence, it is possible to replace this volume
polarization by the charged surface. Charge Simulation Method employs this physical
description and attempts to simulate the above-mentioned continuous charge distribution by a set
of discrete charges kept just outside the computational domain. The values of these discrete
charges are then evaluated by forcing the specified voltages at some selected points called
contour points on the surface of the conductor and by forcing the material interface conditions at
some selected points on the dielectric interface.
It is required that at any of these contour points on the electrode, the potential resulting from the
superposition of the charges is equal to the electrode potential φ
where, Pij are the potential coefficients which can be evaluated analytically for many types of
charges by solving Laplace’s or Poisson’s equation. For example, in Fig. 1.5 which shows three-
point charges Q1, Q2 and Q3 in free space, the potential φi at point Ci will be

Thus, once the types of charges and their locations are defined, it is possible to relate φij and Qj
quantitatively at any boundary point. In Charge Simulation Method, the simulation charges are
placed outside the space where the field solution is desired (or inside any equipotential surface
such as metal electrodes). If the boundary point Ci is located on the surface of a conductor, then
φi at this contour point will be equal to the conductor potential φ. When this procedure is applied
to m contour points, it leads to the following system of m linear equations for n unknown
charges.

This equation is the basis of the CSM as discussed below.

Boundary Element Method (BEM) in Electric Field:

Though the charge simulation method is known for its accuracy and speed, it is not very efficient
in case of multi-dielectric problems and very thin electrodes, which are often used to control and
get the electric field strength in condenser bushings, transformers, etc. Such problems can be
solved using the Surface Charge Simulation Method (SSM) which is also called Boundary
Element Method (BEM).
In many cases, electrodes and insulators used in high voltage equipment consists of cylinders,
spheres, cones, and plane electrodes. Therefore, it is necessary to consider elements having these
shapes to achieve a realistic field simulation by using variable charge distribution on these
surfaces. The elements are combined in computer code and used for the calculation of complex
geometries wherever possible. Curved triangles are employed only at those positions where the
above elements cannot be used. This method requires a large number of elements, normally more
than 2000, independent of the surface shape and therefore leads to a very large number of system
equations.
Principle of Boundary Element Method:
Principle of Boundary Element Method is very similar to CSM with area elements. Like in CSM,
the BEM uses area charge elements to replace the real charges. However, BEM does not require
that the system components should have actual symmetry. The discretization of the real charges
is generally carried out by boundary elements having three or four nodes, which use linear shape
functions to approximate the internal charge distribution. If the outer surface geometry is not
covered, then suitable intermediate points can be added. BEM having predetermined shapes like
cylinders, cones, spheres and toroids are available. The evaluation of the resulting potential
functions of the Boundary Element Method is done by numerical integration.
Boundary Element Method Formulation:
Boundary Element Method Formulation calls for the scalar electric potential due to surface
charge density, which is written as

where, φ1 denotes the fundamental solution of the potential problem, α = 1 or 2 for two or three-
dimensional problems respectively, and ρs(x) denotes the surface charge density. Equation (1.37)
is the basic equation for the source Formulation of the BEM. This equation can be solved using
the standard point collocation procedure for discretized image charges that lie within the
conducted boundaries. The collocation approach has been recognized as charge simulation. The
electric field is then given by

The resulting system of equations obtained using the source formulation will again be
asymmetric. By solving this system of equations, the unknown values of the charge density can
be found. Once the charge distribution is known, potential and electric field values can be
calculated throughout the domain using Eqs. (1.37) and (1.38) given above.
Q) B
Field Effects
For particles that are small compared to the wavelength, the electric field inside the particle Ein
is different from the field E in the surrounding medium. In an irregularly shaped particle, the
field can be highly nonuniform and is concentrated in the regions of large curvature. In the
general case there is no simple analytical form to describe the distribution of the field inside the
particle. For some simple geometrical shapes, however, such as spheres or ellipsoids, the field
inside the particle is uniform and proportional to the field outside. The ratio of these fields is
described by the local field factor f, which is defined as
f = Ein/E.
Under the assumption that the nanoparticles are spherical and that they occupy only a small
volume fraction, f is approximately given by where nnp is the refractive index of the
nanoparticles and mis the refractive index of the glass matrix. nnp is usually complex and
frequency dependent. The absorption and frequency dependence of the glass matrix can normally
be neglected.
The presence of the local field effect requires the correction of the nonlinear response of the
material. Under the assumption that the third-order susceptibility of the nanoparticles is much
higher than that of the matrix, the expression for the degenerated third-order Kerr susceptibility χ
(3) of the composite material can be written as where p is the volume fraction of the
nanoparticles.
In the case of metal nanoparticles, the local field factor can lead to a resonant enhancement of the
nonlinear response in the vicinity of the surface plasmon resonance [203]. For semiconductor
glasses this factor is usually omitted. The main reason for this is that the frequency dependence
of the refractive index nnp is normally weak. Thus, the local field factor is a constant that is
added to the volume fraction p. For a standard semiconductor-doped glass with nm ≈ 1.55 and
nnp ≈ 2.4, the local field factor is on the order of f ≈ 0.68. This means that in this case the
electrical field inside the nanoparticle is smaller than the field in the matrix, and the net
nonlinearity is therefore about five times smaller.
It was shown that the local field factor can theoretically lead to intrinsic bistability for
semiconductor nanoparticles near resonance . The nonlinear response of such a particle can be
approximately described by a saturated two-level system. Thus, because of the saturation, the
refractive index inside the particle depends on the light intensity (i.e., the electrical field), and
hence any change in the intensity of the light that is incident on the particle will modify the local
field factor; this in turn will change the intensity in the particle, which will change the refractive
index, and so on. This establishes an intrinsic feedback mechanism that can lead to intrinsic
bistability. A reexamination of this problem, however, which took into account nonlocal effects,
has shown that the conditions required to observe this intrinsic bistability are generally out of
reach.
Some geometrical configurations and the field factors

Q) C
1. Electrostatic generator

An electrostatic generator, or electrostatic machine, is an electromechanical generator that

produces static electricity, or electricity at high voltage and low continuous current. The
knowledge of static electricity dates back to the earliest civilizations, but for millennia it
remained merely an interesting and mystifying phenomenon, without a theory to explain its
behavior and often confused with magnetism. By the end of the 17th century, researchers had
developed practical means of generating electricity by friction, but the development of
electrostatic machines did not begin in earnest until the 18th century, when they became
fundamental instruments in the studies about the new science of electricity. Electrostatic
generators operate by using manual (or other) power to transform mechanical work into electric
energy. Electrostatic generators develop electrostatic charges of opposite signs rendered to two
conductors, using only electric forces, and work by using moving plates, drums, or belts to carry
electric charge to a high potential electrode. The charge is generated by one of two methods:
either the triboelectric effect (friction) or electrostatic induction.

Description
Electrostatic machines are typically used in science classrooms to safely demonstrate electrical
forces and high voltage phenomena. The elevated potential differences achieved have been also
used for a variety of practical applications, such as operating X-ray tubes, particle
accelerators, spectroscopy, medical applications, sterilization of food, and nuclear physics
experiments. Electrostatic generators such as the Van de Graaff generator, and variations as
the Pelletron, also find use in physics research.
Electrostatic generators can be divided into two categories depending on how the charge is
generated:
 Friction machines use the triboelectric effect (electricity generated by contact or friction)
 Influence machines use electrostatic induction

2. The Kelvin electrostatic generator

The Kelvin water dropper, invented by Scottish scientist William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) in
1867, is a type of electrostatic generator. Kelvin referred to the device as his water-dropping
condenser. The apparatus is variously called the Kelvin hydroelectric generator, the Kelvin
electrostatic generator, or Lord Kelvin's thunderstorm. The device uses falling water to generate
voltage differences by electrostatic induction occurring between interconnected, oppositely
charged systems. This eventually leads to an electric arc discharging in the form of a spark. It is
used in physics education to demonstrate the principles of electrostatics.
The charge on the left ring will attract negative charges in the water (ions) into the left-hand
stream by the Coulomb electrostatic attraction. When a drop breaks off the end of the left-hand
stream, the drop carries a negative charge with it. When the negatively charged water drop falls
into its bucket (the left one), it gives that bucket and the attached ring (the right one) a negative
charge. Once the right ring has a negative charge, it similarly attracts a positive charge into the
right-hand stream.
When drops break off the end of that stream, they carry positive charge to the positively charged
bucket, making that bucket even more positively charged. Thus, positive charges are attracted
to the right-hand stream by the ring, and positive charge drips into the positively charged right
bucket. The higher the charge that accumulates in each bucket, the higher the electrical potential
on the rings and the more effective this process of electrostatic induction is. [2] During the
induction process, there is an electric current that flows in the form of positive or negative ions in
the water of the supply lines.
If the water flow is set such that it breaks into droplets in the vicinity of the rings, the drops may
be attracted to the rings enough to touch the rings and deposit their charge on the oppositely
charged rings, which decreases the charge on that side of the system. The opposite charges
which build up on the buckets represent electrical potential energy, as shown by the energy
released as light and heat when a spark passes between them. The kinetic energy is wasted as
heat when the water drops land in the buckets, so when considered as an electric power generator
the Kelvin machine is very inefficient.

3. Van de Graaff generators

In Van de Graaff generators, electric charge is transported to the high-voltage terminal on a
rapidly moving belt of insulating material driven by a pulley mounted on the grounded end of the
structure; a second pulley is enclosed within a large, spherical high-voltage terminal. The belt is
charged by a comb of sharp needles with the points close to the belt a short distance from the
place at which it moves clear of the grounded pulley. The comb is connected to a power supply
that raises its potential to a few tens of kilovolts. The gas near the needle points is ionized by the
intense electric field, and in the resulting corona discharge the ions are driven to the surface of
the belt. The motion of the belt carries the charge into the high-voltage terminal and transfers it
to another comb of needles, from which it passes to the outer surface of the terminal. A carefully
designed Van de Graaff generator insulated by pressurized gas can be charged to a potential of
about 20 megavolts. An ion source within the terminal then produces positive particles that are
accelerated as they move downward to ground potential through an evacuated tube.

schematic diagram of a Van de Graaff high-voltage electrostatic generator

High voltages introduced at the charge source are transferred by a moving belt to the spherical
dome, where the accumulated positive charge propels a beam of positively charged subatomic
particles the length of an accelerating tube. First built in the 1930s, Van de Graaff generators are
still used in particle acceleration.
In most constant-voltage accelerators, Van de Graaff generators are the source of high voltage,
and most of the electrostatic proton accelerators still in use are two-stage tandem accelerators.
These devices provide a beam with twice the energy that could be achieved by one application of
the high voltage. For the first stage of a tandem accelerator, an ion source yields a beam of
protons, which are accelerated to a low energy by an auxiliary high-voltage supply. This beam
passes through a region containing a gas at low pressure, where some of the protons are
converted to negative hydrogen ions by the addition of two electrons. As the mixture of charged
particles moves through a magnetic field, those with positive charge are deflected away. Those
with negative charge are deflected into the accelerator tube, and the beam of negative ions is then
accelerated toward a positive high-voltage terminal. In this terminal the particles pass through a
thin carbon foil that strips off the two electrons, changing many of the negative ions back into
positive ions (protons). These, now repelled by the positive terminal, are further accelerated
through the second part of the tube. At the output end of the accelerator, the protons are
magnetically separated, as before, from other particles in the beam and directed to the target. In
three- or four-stage tandem accelerators, two Van de Graaff generators are combined with the
necessary additional provisions for changing the charge of the ions.
two-stage tandem particle accelerator
A beam of negative ions enters from the top and is accelerated toward the positive terminal at the
centre. There it passes through carbon foil in a stripping chamber, where many of the negative
ions lose electrons and emerge as positive ions. The beam is then accelerated away from the
positive terminal, and the positive ions are separated by magnets and steered toward the target.
Van de Graaff and Cockcroft-Walton generators also are utilized for accelerating electrons. The
rates at which charge is transported in electron beams correspond to currents of several
milliamperes; the beams deliver energy at rates best expressed in terms of kilowatts. These
intense beams are used for sterilization, industrial radiography, cancer therapy, and processing of
plastics.