Goodwin What is political theory

3. The importance of political theory (PT) for evaluating the validity of ideological arguments.
4. PT: Logical answers to questions.
PT: Abstract and general. OED: Abstract: Existing in thought or as an idea but not having a
physical or concrete existence.
PT frees us to think critically normatively speculatively or idealistically instead of being trapped
into describing what exists as if it could never change. A critical approach rests on the ability to
escape from the existent.
PT may be defined as the discipline which aims to explain justify or criticise the disposition of
power in society.
5. A fundamental problem which haunts all social sciences: which comes first concept/theory or
fact/reality?1
Idealism vs. materialism: Idealism: Reality approximates to unchanging transcendental ideas.
Ideas/theory precede observation. Materialism: Our concepts and ideas derive from our
observation of physical or material reality. 2 Empiricism vs. rationalism: Empiricism requires the
observation of reality first and then the induction of a general theory (based on a large number
of instances of facts). Rationalism: The approach which starts with a theory rather than with
observation of facts.3
6. To define ‘democracy’ through a study of existing, self-proclaimed democracies assumes that
we already know what democracy is and that they instantiate it. A theory so formed can only
mirror observed phenomena, whereas a theory which is to have critical power needs to make
reference to the ideal composition of democracy.
N/P. The case against the empirical or ‘concrete’ approach to political concepts was well put by
Marcuse. He contended that our political vocabulary had become ‘closed’ with key words defined
in concrete factual terms so that critical usages have become impossible. ‘One-dimensional.’
Marcuse’s general thesis was that the concrete approach to political matters deliberately precludes
the proper use of abstract concepts as open-ended tools for criticism and protest.4
Criticism as the central task of PT.5
Only by taking an abstract conceptual approach starting from ideas or theory can we achieve an
appraisal which is detached from existing society.
7. The next few pages are intended to show not only that a. PT can sharply analyse current
political controversies but also that b. even the crudest political argument relies on [PT].
Natural justice: The fallacious idea that there is a set of natural social principles and that a
situation in accordance with these must be just.6

1 This is the modern reiteration of the most ancient philosophical controversy: does reality reflect ideas or
vice-versa?

2 Materialism is often associated with empiricism.

3 The conflict between empiricism and rationalism is one of epistemology, that is, it is concerned with the
criteria by which knowledge can be established. This debate is closely related to issues in political theory (as
we shall see).
4 Agreeing with Marcuse, Goodwin says: The critical dimension is essential to thought and argument.

5 Criticism as the tool by which our reason appraises the social order.

6 Ditto: 8. The concept of natural justice collapses under scrutiny.

10. A misleading idea so often accorded final authority in political arguments: human nature.7,8,9
11. The arguments of the last few pages illustrate that political theories, ideologies and opinions
conceal a wealth of assumptions and arguments, not always well founded, which a student of PT
is better equipped to uncover than a bystander.
Descriptive-evaluative: Descriptive: Describes reality and builds explanatory theories on the facts.
Evaluative: Analyses and evaluates ideas by reference to other concepts and values.
Descriptive-normative: Normative (in PT) means ‘bearing or promoting norms (in the sense of
“values”). Descriptive-prescriptive: A prescriptive theory describes what ought to be the case.10
12. The opposition between descriptive vs. evaluative approaches is mirrored in the distinction
between facts vs. values.11 ,12
The fact/value dispute relates back to the choice of methodology: an empiricist approach
purports to deal in facts whereas a theoretical approach admits insubstantiable even
metaphysical13 hypotheses and values.
Appearance-essence: Differing approaches to the analysis of a political idea: Appearance: The
contingent or accidental characteristics of an object, person or system (usually contrasted with
essence). Essence: The necessary or defining characteristics of an object, person or system
(usually contrasted with appearance).
Relativism: See pp.12-13.
Subjective-objective: The distinction between subjective (person, individual) and objective
(impartial, impersonal) often plays a pivotal role in PT.14
Both moral and political philosophy attempt to define the Good Life15 the first on an individual
level the second for the community at large.
I assume that all PT is susceptible to ideological bias (and that a necessary task is to identify and
evaluate that bias).
14. ‘PT’ is an umbrella term. It comprehends that persuasive and normative doctrines called
ideologies; it also embraces the analytical activity known as ‘political philosophy’ which styles
itself ‘value-free’. Rather than propounding grandiose these about the nature of political society
and the Good Life, this examines the units of which PT, including ideology, is composed, the
‘concepts’. Hence it is sometimes called ‘conceptual analysis’.16

7 Human nature claims about the essential characteristics, motivations and desires of human beings.

8 11. The debate on heredity vs. environment/nature vs. nurture.

9 11. As this brief account of the ‘human nature’ debate suggests we should beware when confident claims
are made about what people are ‘really’ like and should carefully scrutinise any political argument or PT for
concealed assumptions of this kind.
10 Normative: Expressing value judgements rather than stating facts. Normative PT suggests how things
ought to be.

11 Value: Something which people consider good (for whatever reason).

12 Some philosophers argue that the fact/value distinction has been conceptually dissolved.

13 OED: Metaphysics: The branch of philosophy that deals with the first principles of things, including
abstract concepts such as being, knowing, identity, time, and space.
14 Both terms defined more fully on p.13.

15 This term is associated with Aristotle.

16 GH: Link to lecture slide titled ‘When we study political concepts we are doing PT’ and the slides that
follow it.
14. Some recent political philosophers have argued that political concepts are ‘essentially
contested’.17
A postmodernist approach: See p.14.
Two cautions: First on values and value-neutrality. Second the idiosyncratic way in which political
theorists argue.

17 GH: Link to slide titled ‘PT and political concepts’. Here PT is described as contested rational inquiry.