Pre-Columbian Transoceanic Contact Theories

Pre-Columbian transoceanic contact theories - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theor...
Pre-Columbian transoceanic contact

theories
Pre-Columbian transoceanic contact
theories are speculative theories which
propose that possible visits to the Americas,
possible interactions with the indigenous
peoples of the Americas, or both, were made by
people from Africa, Asia, Europe, or Oceania
prior to Christopher Columbus' first voyage to
the Caribbean in 1492 (i.e., during any part of
the pre-Columbian era).[1] There is a growing
body of evidence indicating that the earliest
human migrations to the Americas may have
been made by sea voyages, contemporary with
and possibly predating land migrations over the Reenactment of a Viking landing in L'Anse aux
Beringia land bridge,[2] but whether Meadows
transoceanic travel may have continued into the
historic period, resulting in pre-Columbian
contact between the settled American peoples and voyagers from other continents, is vigorously
debated.
Only a few cases of pre-Columbian contact are widely accepted by mainstream scientists and
scholars. Maritime explorations by Norse peoples from Scandinavia during the late 10th century
led to the Norse colonization of Greenland and L'Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland,[3] which
preceded Columbus' arrival in the Americas by some 500 years. Recent genetic studies have also
suggested that some eastern Polynesian populations have admixture from coastal northern South
American peoples, with an estimated date of contact around 1200 CE.[4]
Scientific and scholarly responses to other claims of post-prehistory, pre-Columbian transoceanic

contact have varied. Some of these claims are examined in reputable peer-reviewed sources. Many
others—especially those based on circumstantial or ambiguous interpretations of archaeological
evidence, alleged out-of-place artifacts, superficial cultural comparisons, comments in historical
documents, or narrative accounts—have been dismissed as fringe science, pseudoarchaeology, or
pseudohistory.[5][6]
Contents
Norse colonization of the Americas
Polynesian, Melanesian, and Austronesian contact
Genetic studies
Other potential evidence of Polynesian and/or Melanesian contact
1 of 36 1/3/2022, 3:17 PM
Sweet potato
California canoes
Chickens
Ageratum conyzoides
Turmeric
Words for axes
Similarities of features
Cartography
Claims of East Asian contact
Claims of contact with Ecuador
Claims of Chinese contact
Claims of Japanese contact
Claims of Indian contact
Claims of African and West Asian contact
Claims of African contact
Claims of Arab contact
Claims of ancient Phoenician contact
Claims of ancient Judaic contact
Claims of European contact
Solutrean hypothesis
Claims of ancient Roman contact
Tecaxic-Calixtlahuaca head
14th- and 15th-century European contact
Irish and Welsh legends
Claims of transoceanic travel from the New World to the Old World
Claims of Egyptian coca and tobacco
Claims of travel in Roman times
Icelander DNA finding
Norse legends and sagas
Inuit
Inca-Polynesian contact
Claims based on religious traditions or symbols
Claims of pre-Columbian contact with Christian missionaries
Claims of ancient Jewish migration to the Americas
Latter Day Saint movement's teachings
See also
Notes
References
Further reading
2 of 36 1/3/2022, 3:17 PM
Norse colonization of the Americas

Norse journeys to Greenland and Canada prior to Columbus' voyages
are supported by historical and archaeological evidence.[7] A Norse
colony was established in Greenland in the late 10th century and
lasted until the mid-15th century, with court and parliament
assemblies (þing) taking place at Brattahlíð and a bishop being posted
at Garðar.[8] The remains of a Norse settlement at L'Anse aux
Meadows in what is now Newfoundland, a large island on the Atlantic
coast of Canada, were discovered in 1960 and have been radiocarbon-
dated to between 990 and 1050 CE.[3] More recently, tree-ring
analysis of structures at the site have been dated to the year 1021.[9]
This remains the only site widely accepted as evidence of post- Co-discoverer Anne Stine
prehistory, pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact with the Americas. Ingstad examines a fire pit
L'Anse aux Meadows was named a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in at L'Anse aux Meadows in
1978.[10] It is also possibly connected with the attempted colony of 1963.
Vinland established by Leif Erikson around the same period or, more
broadly, with Norse exploration of the Americas.[11]
Though L'Anse aux Meadows establishes that Norse colonists traveled to and built permanent
structures in North America, few sources describing contact between indigenous peoples and
Norse people exist. Contact between the Thule people (ancestors of the modern Inuit) and Norse in
the 12th or 13th centuries is known. The Norse Greenlanders called these incoming settlers
"skrælingar". Conflict between the Greenlanders and the "skrælings" is recorded in the Icelandic
Annals. The term skrælings is also used in the Vínland sagas, which relate to events during the
10th century, when describing trade and conflict with native peoples.[12]
Polynesian, Melanesian, and Austronesian contact
Genetic studies
Between 2007 and 2009, geneticist Erik Thorsby and colleagues published two studies in Tissue
Antigens that evidence an Amerindian genetic contribution to human populations on Easter
Island, determining that it was probably introduced before European discovery of the island.[13][14]
In 2014, geneticist Anna-Sapfo Malaspinas of The Center for GeoGenetics at the University of
Copenhagen published a study in Current Biology that found human genetic evidence of contact
between the populations of Easter Island and South America, dating to approximately 600 years
ago (i.e. 1400 CE ± 100 years).[15]
Two remains of "Botocudo" people (a term used to refer to Native Americans who live in the
interior of Brazil that speak Macro-Jê languages), were found in research published in 2013 to have
been members of mtDNA haplogroup B4a1a1, which is normally found only among Polynesians
and other subgroups of Austronesians. This was based on an analysis of fourteen skulls. Two
belonged to B4a1a1 (while twelve belonged to subclades of mtDNA haplogroup C1, common among
Native Americans). The research team examined various scenarios, none of which they could say
for certain were correct. They dismissed a scenario of direct contact in prehistory between
3 of 36 1/3/2022, 3:17 PM
Polynesia and Brazil as "too unlikely to be seriously entertained." While B4a1a1 is also found
among the Malagasy people of Madagascar (which experienced significant Austronesian settlement
in prehistory), the authors described as "fanciful" suggestions that B4a1a1 among the Botocudo
resulted from the African slave trade (which included Madagascar).[16] A 2020 study strongly
questioned the premise of the paper as being based on outdated racial classifications.[17]
A genetic study published in Nature in July 2015 stated that "some Amazonian Native Americans
descend partly from a ... founding population that carried ancestry more closely related to
indigenous Australians, New Guineans and Andaman Islanders than to any present-day Eurasians
or Native Americans."[18][19] The authors, who included David Reich, added: "This signature is not
present to the same extent, or at all, in present-day Northern and Central Americans or in a
~12,600-year-old Clovis-associated genome, suggesting a more diverse set of founding populations
of the Americas than previously accepted." This appears to conflict with an article published
roughly simultaneously in Science which adopts the previous consensus perspective, i.e. that the
ancestors of all Native Americans entered the Americas in a single wave of migration from Siberia
no earlier than ~23 ka, separated from the Inuit, and diversified into "northern" and "southern"
Native American branches ~13 ka. There is evidence of post-divergence gene flow between some
Native Americans and groups related to East Asians/Inuit and Australo-Melanesians.[20]
In 2020 another study in Nature found that populations in the Mangareva, Marquesas, and
Palliser islands and Easter Island had genetic admixture from indigenous populations of South
America, with the DNA of contemporary populations of Zenú people from the Pacific coast of
Colombia being the closest match. The authors suggest that the genetic signatures were probably
the result of a single ancient contact. They proposed that an initial admixture event between
indigenous South Americans and Polynesians occurred in eastern Polynesia between 1150 and
1230 CE, with later admixture in Easter Island around 1380 CE,[4] but suggested other possible
contact scenarios—for example, Polynesian voyages to South America followed by Polynesian
people's returning to Polynesia with South American people, or carrying South American genetic
heritage.[21] Several scholars uninvolved in the study suggested that a contact event in South
America was more likely.[22][23][24]
Other potential evidence of Polynesian and/or Melanesian contact
Sweet potato
The sweet potato, a food crop native to the Americas, was

widespread in Polynesia by the time European explorers first
reached the Pacific. Sweet potato has been radiocarbon-dated
in the Cook Islands to 1000 CE, and current thinking is that it
was brought to central Polynesia c. 700 CE and spread across
Polynesia from there.[25] It has been suggested that it was
brought by Polynesians who had traveled across the Pacific to
The spread of sweet potatoes. The
South America and back, or that South Americans brought it to red lines indicate the likely spread
Polynesia.[26] It is also possible that the plant floated across the carried out by the Polynesians.
ocean after being discarded from the cargo of a boat.[27]
Phylogenetic analysis supports the hypothesis of at least two
separate introductions of sweet potatoes from South America into Polynesia, including one before
and one after European contact.[28]
4 of 36 1/3/2022, 3:17 PM
Dutch linguists and specialists in Amerindian languages

Willem Adelaar and Pieter Muysken have suggested that the
word for sweet potato is shared by Polynesian languages and
languages of South America. Proto-Polynesian *kumala[29]
(compare Easter Island kumara, Hawaiian ʻuala, Māori
kūmara; apparent cognates outside Eastern Polynesian may be
borrowed from Eastern Polynesian languages, calling Proto-
Polynesian status and age into question) may be connected
with Quechua and Aymara k'umar ~ k'umara. Sweet potatoes for sale, Thames,
New Zealand. The name "kumara"
Adelaar and Muysken assert that the similarity in the word for has entered New Zealand English
sweet potato "constitutes near proof of incidental contact from Māori, and is in wide use.
between inhabitants of the Andean region and the South
Pacific." The authors argue that the presence of the word for
sweet potato suggests sporadic contact between Polynesia and South America, but not necessarily
migrations.[30]
California canoes
Researchers including Kathryn Klar and Terry Jones have

proposed a theory of contact between Hawaiians and the
Chumash people of Southern California between 400 and 800
CE. The sewn-plank canoes crafted by the Chumash and
neighboring Tongva are unique among the indigenous peoples
of North America, but similar in design to larger canoes used by
Polynesians and Melanesians for deep-sea voyages. Tomolo'o,
the Chumash word for such a craft, may derive from
'Elye'wun, a reconstructed Chumash
tumula'au/kumula'au, the Hawaiian term for the logs from
tomol
which shipwrights carve planks to be sewn into canoes.[31][32]
The analogous Tongva term, tii'at, is unrelated. If it occurred,
this contact left no genetic legacy in California or Hawaii. This theory has attracted limited media
attention within California, but most archaeologists of the Tongva and Chumash cultures reject it
on the grounds that the independent development of the sewn-plank canoe over several centuries
is well-represented in the material record.[33][34][35]
Chickens
In 2007, evidence emerged which suggested the possibility of pre-Columbian contact between the
Mapuche people (Araucanians) of south-central Chile and Polynesians. Bones of Araucana
chickens found at El Arenal site in the Arauco Peninsula, an area inhabited by Mapuche, support a
pre-Columbian introduction of landraces from the South Pacific islands to South America.[36] The
bones found in Chile were radiocarbon-dated to between 1304 and 1424, before the arrival of the
Spanish. Chicken DNA sequences were matched to those of chickens in American Samoa and
Tonga, and found to be dissimilar to those of European chickens.[37][38]
However, this finding was challenged by a 2008 study which questioned its methodology and
concluded that its conclusion is flawed, although the theory it posits may still be possible.[39]
Another study in 2014 reinforced that dismissal, and posited the crucial flaw in the initial research:
5 of 36 1/3/2022, 3:17 PM
"The analysis of ancient and modern specimens reveals a unique Polynesian genetic signature" and
that "a previously reported connection between pre-European South America and Polynesian
chickens most likely resulted from contamination with modern DNA, and that this issue is likely to
confound ancient DNA studies involving haplogroup E chicken sequences."[40]
Ageratum conyzoides
Ageratum conyzoides, also known as billygoat-weed, chick weed, goatweed, or whiteweed, is native
to the tropical Americas, and was found in Hawaii by William Hillebrand in 1888 who considered it
to have grown there before Captain Cook's arrival in 1778. A legitimate native name (meie parari
or mei rore) and established native medicinal usage and use as a scent and in leis have been
offered as support for the pre-Cookian age.[41][42]
Turmeric
Turmeric (Curcuma longa) originated in Asia, and there is linguistic and circumstantial evidence
of the spread and use of turmeric by the Austronesian peoples into Oceania and Madagascar.
Günter Tessmann in 1930 (300 years after European contact) reported that a species of Curcuma
was grown by the Amahuaca tribe to the east of the Upper Ucayali River in Peru and was a dye-
plant used for the painting of the body, with the nearby Witoto people using it as face paint in their
ceremonial dances.[43][44] David Sopher noted in 1950 that "the evidence for a pre-European,
transpacific introduction of the plant by man seems very strong indeed".[45]
Words for axes
On Easter Island, the word for a stone axe is toki; among the New Zealand Maori, the word toki
denotes an adze; in the Mapuche language of Chile and Argentina, the word for a stone axe is toqui;
and further afield in Colombia, the Yurumanguí word for an axe is totoki.[30] The Mapuche word
toqui may also mean "chief" and thus may be related to the Quechua word toqe ("militia chief") and
the Aymara word toqueni ("person of great judgement").[46] In the view of Moulian et al. (2015)
the possible South American links complicate matters regarding the meaning of the word toki
because they are suggestive of Polynesian contact.[46]
Similarities of features
In December 2007, several human skulls were found in a

museum in Concepción, Chile. These skulls originated on
Mocha Island, an island which is located just off the coast of
Chile on the Pacific Ocean, formerly inhabited by the Mapuche.
Craniometric analysis of the skulls, according to Lisa Matisoo-
Smith of the University of Otago and José Miguel Ramírez Mocha Island off the coast of the
Aliaga of the Universidad de Valparaíso, suggests that the Arauco Peninsula, Chile
skulls have "Polynesian features" – such as a pentagonal shape
when they are viewed from behind, and rocker jaws.[47]
Cartography
6 of 36 1/3/2022, 3:17 PM
After Afonso de Albuquerque conquered Malacca in 1511, the Portuguese recovered a chart from a
Javanese pilot, which already included part of the Americas. Albuquerque wrote that the chart
consisted of
... a large map of a Javanese pilot, containing the Cape of Good Hope, Portugal and the
land of Brazil, the Red Sea and the Sea of Persia, the Clove Islands, the navigation of the
Chinese and the Gom, with their rhumbs and direct routes followed by the ships, and
the hinterland, and how the kingdoms border on each other. It seems to me. Sir, that
this was the best thing I have ever seen, and Your Highness will be very pleased to see
it; it had the names in Javanese writing, but I had with me a Javanese who could read
and write. I send this piece to Your Highness, which Francisco Rodrigues traced from
the other, in which Your Highness can truly see where the Chinese and Gores come
from, and the course your ships must take to the Clove Islands, and where the gold
mines lie, and the islands of Java and Banda, of actions of the period, than any of his
contemporaries; and it appears highly probable, that what he has related is
substantially true: but there is also reason to believe that he composed his work from
recollection, after his return to Europe, and he may not have been scrupulous in
supplying from a fertile imagination the unavoidable failures of a memory, however
richly stored.[48]
— Letter of Albuquerque to King Manuel I of Portugal, April 1512.
Claims of East Asian contact
Claims of contact with Ecuador
A 2013 genetic study suggests the possibility of contact between Ecuador and East Asia. The study
suggests that the contact could have been trans-oceanic or a late-stage coastal migration that did
not leave genetic imprints in North America.[49]
Claims of Chinese contact
Some researchers have argued that the Olmec civilization came into existence with the help of
Chinese refugees, particularly at the end of the Shang dynasty.[51] In 1975, Betty Meggers of the
Smithsonian Institution argued that the Olmec civilization originated around 1200 BCE due to
Shang Chinese influences.[52] In a 1996 book, Mike Xu, with the aid of Chen Hanping, claimed that
celts from La Venta bear Chinese characters.[53][54] These claims are unsupported by mainstream
Mesoamerican researchers.[55]
Other claims of early Chinese contact with North America have been made. In 1882, approximately
30 brass coins, perhaps strung together, were reportedly found in the area of the Cassiar Gold
Rush, apparently near Dease Creek, an area which was dominated by Chinese gold miners. A
contemporary account states:[56]
In the summer of 1882 a miner found on De Foe (Deorse?) creek, Cassiar district, Br.
7 of 36 1/3/2022, 3:17 PM
Columbia, thirty Chinese coins in the auriferous sand,

twenty-five feet below the surface. They appeared to have
been strung, but on taking them up the miner let them
drop apart. The earth above and around them was as
compact as any in the neighborhood. One of these coins I
examined at the store of Chu Chong in Victoria. Neither in
metal nor markings did it resemble the modern coins, but
in its figures looked more like an Aztec calendar. So far as I
can make out the markings, this is a Chinese chronological
cycle of sixty years, invented by Emperor Huungti, 2637
BCE, and circulated in this form to make his people
remember it.
A jade Olmec mask from
Grant Keddie, Curator of Archeology at the Royal B.C. Museum Central America. Gordon
identified these as good luck temple tokens minted in the 19th century. Ekholm, an archaeologist
He believed that claims that these were very old made them notorious and curator at the American
and that "The temple coins were shown to many people and different Museum of Natural History,
versions of stories pertaining to their discovery and age spread around suggested that the Olmec
the province to be put into print and changed frequently by many art style might have
originated in Bronze Age
authors in the last 100 years."[57]
China.[50]
A group of Chinese Buddhist missionaries led by Hui Shen before 500
CE claimed to have visited a location called Fusang. Although Chinese
mapmakers placed this territory on the Asian coast, others have suggested as early as the 1800s[58]
that Fusang might have been in North America, due to perceived similarities between portions of
the California coast and Fusang as depicted by Asian sources.[59]
In his book 1421: The Year China Discovered the World, British author Gavin Menzies made the
groundless claim that the treasure fleets of Ming admiral Zheng He arrived in America in 1421.[60]
Professional historians contend that Zheng He reached the eastern coast of Africa, and dismiss
Menzies' hypothesis as entirely without proof.[61][62][63][64]
In 1973 and 1975, doughnut-shaped stones which resembled stone anchors which were used by
Chinese fishermen were discovered off the coast of California. These stones (sometimes called the
Palos Verdes stones) were initially thought to be up to 1,500 years old and therefore proof of pre-
Columbian contact by Chinese sailors. Later geological investigations showed them to be made of a
local rock which is known as Monterey shale, and they are thought to have been used by Chinese
settlers who fished off the coast during the 19th century.[65]
Claims of Japanese contact
Archaeologist Emilio Estrada and co-workers wrote that pottery which was associated with the
Valdivia culture of coastal Ecuador and dated to 3000–1500 BCE exhibited similarities to pottery
which was produced during the Jōmon period in Japan, arguing that contact between the two
cultures might explain the similarities.[66][67] Chronological and other problems have led most
archaeologists to dismiss this idea as implausible.[68][69] The suggestion has been made that the
resemblances (which are not complete) are simply due to the limited number of designs possible
when incising clay.
8 of 36 1/3/2022, 3:17 PM
Alaskan anthropologist Nancy Yaw Davis claims that the Zuni people of
New Mexico exhibit linguistic and cultural similarities to the
Japanese.[70] The Zuni language is a linguistic isolate, and Davis
contends that the culture appears to differ from that of the surrounding
natives in terms of blood type, endemic disease, and religion. Davis
speculates that Buddhist priests or restless peasants from Japan may
have crossed the Pacific in the 13th century, traveled to the American
Southwest, and influenced Zuni society.[70]
In the 1890s, lawyer and politician James Wickersham[71] argued that

pre-Columbian contact between Japanese sailors and Native
Americans was highly probable, given that from the early 17th century
to the mid-19th century several dozen Japanese ships are known to
have been carried from Asia to North America along the powerful
Kuroshio Currents. Japanese ships landed at places between the
Aleutian Islands in the north and Mexico in the south, carrying a total
of 293 people in the 23 cases where head-counts were given in
historical records. In most cases, the Japanese sailors gradually made
their way home on merchant vessels. In 1834, a dismasted, rudderless
Japanese ship was wrecked near Cape Flattery in the Pacific Northwest. Otokichi, a Japanese
Three survivors of the ship were enslaved by Makahs for a period castaway in America in
before being rescued by members of the Hudson's Bay Company. They 1834, depicted here in
were never able to return to their homeland due to Japan's isolationist 1849
policy at the time.[72][73] Another Japanese ship went ashore in about
1850 near the mouth of the Columbia River, Wickersham writes, and
the sailors were assimilated into the local Native American population. While admitting there is no
definitive proof of pre-Columbian contact between Japanese and North Americans, Wickersham
thought it implausible that such contacts as outlined above would have started only after
Europeans arrived in North America and began documenting them.
Claims of Indian contact

In 1879, Alexander Cunningham wrote a description of the carvings on
the Stupa of Bharhut in central India, dating from c. 200 BCE, among
which he noted what appeared to be a depiction of a custard-apple
(Annona squamosa).[74] Cunningham was not initially aware that this
plant, indigenous to the New World tropics, was introduced to India
after Vasco da Gama's discovery of the sea route in 1498, and the
problem was pointed out to him. A 2009 study claimed to have found
carbonized remains that date to 2000 BCE and appear to be those of
custard-apple seeds.[75]
Grafton Elliot Smith claimed that certain motifs present in the

carvings on the Mayan stelae at Copán represented the Asian elephant,
and wrote a book on the topic entitled Elephants and Ethnologists in The Somnathpur figures at
1924. Contemporary archaeologists suggested that the depictions were the sides hold maize-like
almost certainly based on the (indigenous) tapir, with the result that objects in their left hands
Smith's suggestions have generally been dismissed by subsequent
research.[76]
9 of 36 1/3/2022, 3:17 PM
Some objects depicted in carvings from Karnataka, dating from the

12th century, that resemble ears of maize (Zea mays—a crop native to
the New World), were interpreted by Carl Johannessen in 1989 as
evidence of pre-Columbian contact.[77] These suggestions were
dismissed by multiple Indian researchers based on several lines of
evidence. The object has been claimed by some to instead represent a
"Muktaphala", an imaginary fruit bedecked with pearls.[78][79]
Claims of African and West Asian

Copán stela B was claimed contact
by Smith as representing
elephants
Claims of African contact
Proposed claims for an African presence in Mesoamerica stem

from attributes of the Olmec culture, the claimed transfer of
African plants to the Americas,[80] and interpretations of
European and Arabic historical accounts.
The Olmec culture existed in what is now southern Mexico

from roughly 1200 BCE to 400 BCE. The idea that the Olmecs
are related to Africans was first suggested by José Melgar, who
discovered the first colossal head at Hueyapan (now Tres
Zapotes) in 1862.[81] More recently, Ivan Van Sertima Several Olmec colossal heads have
speculated an African influence on Mesoamerican culture in his features that some diffusionists link
book They Came Before Columbus (1976). His claims included to African contact
the attribution of Mesoamerican pyramids, calendar
technology, mummification, and mythology to the arrival of
Africans by boat on currents running from Western Africa to the Americas. Heavily inspired by Leo
Wiener (see below), Van Sertima suggested that the Aztec god Quetzalcoatl represented an African
visitor. His conclusions have been severely criticized by mainstream academics and considered
pseudoarchaeology.[82]
Leo Wiener's Africa and the Discovery of America suggests similarities between the Mandinka
people of West Africa and native Mesoamerican religious symbols such as the winged serpent and
the sun disk, or Quetzalcoatl, and words that have Mandé roots and share similar meanings across
both cultures, such as "kore", "gadwal", and "qubila" (in Arabic) or "kofila" (in Mandinka).[83][84]
North African sources describe what some consider to be visits to the New World by a fleet from
the Mali Empire in 1311, led by Abu Bakr II.[85] According to the abstract of Columbus' log made by
Bartolomé de las Casas, the purpose of Columbus' third voyage was to test both the claims of King
John II of Portugal that "canoes had been found which set out from the coast of Guinea [West
Africa] and sailed to the west with merchandise" as well as the claims of the native inhabitants of
the Caribbean island of Hispaniola that "from the south and the southeast had come black people
whose spears were made of a metal called guanín...from which it was found that of 32 parts: 18
were gold, 6 were silver, and 8 copper."[86][87][88]
Brazilian researcher Niede Guidon, who led the excavations of the Pedra Furada sites, "... said she
10 of 36 1/3/2022, 3:17 PM
believed that humans ... might have come not overland from Asia but by boat from Africa", with the
journey taking place 100,000 years ago, well before the accepted dates for the earliest human
migrations that led to the prehistoric settlement of the Americas. Michael R. Waters, a
geoarchaeologist at Texas A&M University, noted the absence of genetic evidence in modern
populations to support Guidon's claim.[89]
Claims of Arab contact
Early Chinese accounts of Muslim expeditions state that Muslim sailors reached a region called
Mulan Pi ("magnolia skin") (Chinese: ⽊蘭⽪; pinyin: Mùlán Pí; Wade–Giles: Mu-lan-p'i). Mulan
Pi is mentioned in Lingwai Daida (1178) by Zhou Qufei and Zhufan Zhi (1225) by Chao Jukua,
together referred to as the "Sung Document". Mulan Pi is normally identified as Spain and
Morocco of the Almoravid dynasty (Al-Murabitun),[90] though some fringe theories hold that it is
instead some part of the Americas.[91][92]
One supporter of the interpretation of Mulan Pi as part of the Americas was historian Hui-lin Li in
1961,[91][92] and while Joseph Needham was also open to the possibility, he doubted that Arab
ships at the time would have been able to withstand a return journey over such a long distance
across the Atlantic Ocean, pointing out that a return journey would have been impossible without
knowledge of prevailing winds and currents.[93]
According to Muslim historian Abu al-Hasan Ali al-Mas'udi

(871–957), Khashkhash Ibn Saeed Ibn Aswad sailed over the
Atlantic Ocean and discovered a previously unknown land (Arḍ
Majhūlah, Arabic: ‫ )ﺃﺭﺽ ﻣﺠﻬﻮﻟﺔ‬in 889 and returned with a
shipload of valuable treasures.[94][95] The passage has been
alternatively interpreted to imply that Ali al-Masudi regarded
the story of Khashkhash to be a fanciful tale.[96]
Claims of ancient Phoenician contact
In 1996, Mark McMenamin proposed that Phoenician sailors

discovered the New World c. 350 BC.[97] The Phoenician state Al-Mas'udi's atlas of the world
of Carthage minted gold staters in 350 BC bearing a pattern in includes a continent west (or south)
the reverse exergue of the coins, which McMenamin initially of the Old World
interpreted as a map of the Mediterranean with the Americas
shown to the west across the Atlantic.[97][98] McMenamin later
demonstrated that these coins found in America were modern forgeries.[99]
Claims of ancient Judaic contact
The Bat Creek inscription and Los Lunas Decalogue Stone have led some to suggest the possibility
that Jewish seafarers may have traveled to America after they fled from the Roman Empire at the
time of the Jewish–Roman Wars in the 1st and 2nd centuries CE.[100]
However, American archaeologists Robert C. Mainfort Jr. and Mary L. Kwas argued in American
Antiquity (2004) that the Bat Creek inscription was copied from an illustration in an 1870 Masonic
11 of 36 1/3/2022, 3:17 PM
reference book and introduced by the Smithsonian field

assistant who found it during excavation activities.[101][102]
As for the Decalogue Stone, there are mistakes which suggest

that it was carved by one or more novices who either
overlooked or misunderstood some details on a source
Decalogue from which they copied it. Since there is no other The Bat Creek inscription
evidence or archaeological context in the vicinity, it is most
likely that the legend at the nearby university is true—that the
stone was carved by two anthropology students whose signatures can be seen inscribed in the rock
below the Decalogue, "Eva and Hobe 3-13-30."[103]
Scholar Cyrus H. Gordon believed that Phoenicians and other Semitic groups had crossed the
Atlantic in antiquity, ultimately arriving in both North and South America.[104] This opinion was
based on his own work on the Bat Creek inscription.[105] Similar ideas were also held by John
Philip Cohane; Cohane even claimed that many geographical placenames in the United States have
a Semitic origin.[106][107]
Claims of European contact
Solutrean hypothesis
The Solutrean hypothesis argues that Europeans migrated to

the New World during the Paleolithic era, circa 16,000 to
13,000 BCE. This hypothesis proposes contact partly on the
basis of perceived similarities between the flint tools of the
Solutrean culture in modern-day France, Spain and Portugal
(which thrived circa 20,000 to 15,000 BCE), and the Clovis
culture of North America, which developed circa 9000
BCE.[108][109] The Solutrean hypothesis was proposed in the Examples of Clovis and other
mid-1990s.[110] It has little support amongst the scientific Paleoindian point forms, markers of
community, and genetic markers are inconsistent with the archaeological cultures in
idea.[111][112] northeastern North America
Claims of ancient Roman contact
Evidence of contacts with the civilizations of Classical Antiquity—primarily with the Roman
Empire, but sometimes also with other contemporaneous cultures—have been based on isolated
archaeological finds in American sites that originated in the Old World. For example, the Bay of
Jars in Brazil has been yielding ancient clay storage jars that resemble Roman amphorae[113] for
over 150 years. It has been proposed that the origin of these jars is a Roman shipwreck, although it
has also been suggested that they could be 15th- or 16th-century Spanish olive oil jars.
Archaeologist Romeo Hristov argues that a Roman ship, or the drifting of such a shipwreck to
American shores, is a possible explanation for the alleged discovery of artifacts that are apparently
ancient Roman in origin (such as the Tecaxic-Calixtlahuaca bearded head) in America. Hristov
claims that the possibility of such an event has been made more likely by the discovery of evidence
12 of 36 1/3/2022, 3:17 PM
of travels by Romans to Tenerife and Lanzarote in the Canary Islands, and of a Roman settlement
(from the 1st century BCE to the 4th century CE) on Lanzarote.[114]
In 1950, an Italian botanist, Domenico Casella, suggested that a

depiction of a pineapple (a fruit native to the New World
tropics) was represented among wall paintings of
Mediterranean fruits at Pompeii. According to Wilhelmina
Feemster Jashemski, this interpretation has been challenged by
other botanists, who identify it as a pine cone from the
umbrella pine tree, which is native to the Mediterranean
area.[115]
Floor mosaic depicting a fruit which

Tecaxic-Calixtlahuaca head looks like a pineapple. Opus
vermiculatum, Roman artwork of the
A small terracotta sculpture of a head, with a beard and
end of the 1st century
European-like features, was found in 1933 in the Toluca Valley,
BCE/beginning of the 1st century
72 kilometres (45 mi) southwest of Mexico City, in a burial CE.
offering under three intact floors of a pre-colonial building
dated to between 1476 and 1510. The artifact has been studied
by Roman art authority Bernard Andreae, director emeritus of the German Institute of
Archaeology in Rome, Italy, and Austrian anthropologist Robert von Heine-Geldern, both of whom
stated that the style of the artifact was compatible with small Roman sculptures of the 2nd century.
If genuine and if not placed there after 1492 (the pottery found with it dates to between 1476 and
1510),[116] the find provides evidence for at least a one-time contact between the Old and New
Worlds.[117]
According to Arizona State University's Michael E. Smith, a leading Mesoamerican scholar named
John Paddock used to tell his classes in the years before he died that the artifact was planted as a
joke by Hugo Moedano, a student who originally worked on the site. Despite speaking with
individuals who knew the original discoverer (García Payón), and Moedano, Smith says he has
been unable to confirm or reject this claim. Though he remains skeptical, Smith concedes he
cannot rule out the possibility that the head was a genuinely buried post-Classic offering at
Calixtlahuaca.[118]
14th- and 15th-century European contact
Henry I Sinclair, Earl of Orkney and feudal baron of Roslin (c. 1345 – c. 1400), was a Scottish
nobleman who is best known today from a modern legend which claims that he took part in
explorations of Greenland and North America almost 100 years before Christopher Columbus
discovered the Americas.[119] In 1784, he was identified by Johann Reinhold Forster[120] as
possibly being the Prince Zichmni who is described in letters which were allegedly written around
1400 by the Zeno brothers of Venice, in which they describe a voyage which they made throughout
the North Atlantic under the command of Zichmni.[121]
Henry was the grandfather of William Sinclair, 1st Earl of Caithness, the builder of Rosslyn Chapel
near Edinburgh, Scotland. The authors Robert Lomas and Christopher Knight believe some
carvings in the chapel were intended to represent ears of New World corn or maize.[122] This crop
was unknown in Europe at the time of the chapel's construction, and was not cultivated there until
13 of 36 1/3/2022, 3:17 PM
several hundred years later. Knight and Lomas view these carvings as evidence supporting the idea
that Henry Sinclair traveled to the Americas well before Columbus. In their book they discuss
meeting with the wife of the botanist Adrian Dyer and explain that Dyer's wife told them that Dyer
agreed that the image thought to be maize was accurate.[122] In fact Dyer found only one
identifiable plant among the botanical carvings and instead suggested that the "maize" and "aloe"
were stylized wooden patterns, only coincidentally looking like real plants.[123] Specialists in
medieval architecture have variously interpreted the carvings as stylised depictions of wheat,
strawberries, or lilies.[124][125]
Some have conjectured that Columbus was able to persuade the

Catholic Monarchs of Castile and Aragon to support his planned
voyage only because they were aware of some recent earlier voyage
across the Atlantic. Some suggest that Columbus himself visited
Canada or Greenland before 1492, because according to Bartolomé de
las Casas he wrote he had sailed 100 leagues past an island he called
Thule in 1477. Whether Columbus actually did this and what island he
visited, if any, is uncertain. Columbus is thought to have visited Bristol
in 1476.[126] Bristol was also the port from which John Cabot sailed in
1497, crewed mostly by Bristol sailors. In a letter of late 1497 or early
1498, the English merchant John Day wrote to Columbus about
Cabot's discoveries, saying that land found by Cabot was "discovered
in the past by the men from Bristol who found 'Brasil' as your lordship
knows".[127] There may be records of expeditions from Bristol to find
A 1547 edition of Oviedo's
the "isle of Brazil" in 1480 and 1481.[128] Trade between Bristol and
La historia general de las
Iceland is well documented from the mid-15th century.
Indias
Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés records several such legends in
his Historia general de las Indias of 1526, which includes biographical
information on Columbus. He discusses the then-current story of a Spanish caravel that was swept
off its course while on its way to England, and wound up in a foreign land populated by naked
tribesmen. The crew gathered supplies and made its way back to Europe, but the trip took several
months and the captain and most of the men died before reaching land. The caravel's ship pilot, a
man called Alonso Sánchez, and a few others made it to Portugal, but all were very ill. Columbus
was a good friend of the pilot, and took him to be treated in his own house, and the pilot described
the land they had seen and marked it on a map before dying. People in Oviedo's time knew this
story in several versions, though Oviedo himself regarded it as a myth.[129]
In 1925, Soren Larsen wrote a book claiming that a joint Danish-Portuguese expedition landed in
Newfoundland or Labrador in 1473 and again in 1476. Larsen claimed that Didrik Pining and Hans
Pothorst served as captains, while João Vaz Corte-Real and the possibly mythical John Scolvus
served as navigators, accompanied by Álvaro Martins.[130] Nothing beyond circumstantial evidence
has been found to support Larsen's claims.[131]
The historical record shows that Basque fishermen were present in Newfoundland and Labrador
from at least 1517 onward (therefore predating all recorded European settlements in the region
except those of the Norse). The Basques' fishing expeditions led to significant trade and cultural
exchanges with Native Americans. A fringe theory suggests that Basque sailors first arrived in
North America prior to Columbus' voyages to the New World (some sources suggest the late 14th
century as a tentative date) but kept the destination a secret in order to avoid competition over the
fishing resources of the North American coasts. There is no historical or archaeological evidence to
14 of 36 1/3/2022, 3:17 PM
support this claim.[132]
Irish and Welsh legends
The legend of Saint Brendan, an Irish monk from what is now County
Kerry, involves a fantastical journey into the Atlantic Ocean in search
of Paradise in the 6th century. Since the discovery of the New World,
various authors have tried to link the Brendan legend with an early
discovery of America. In 1977, the voyage was successfully recreated by
Tim Severin using a replica of an ancient Irish currach.[133]
According to a British myth, Madoc was a prince from Wales who

explored the Americas as early as 1170. While most scholars consider
this legend to be untrue, it was used to bolster British claims in the
Americas vis-à-vis those of Spain.[134][135] The "Madoc story"
remained popular in later centuries, and a later development asserted
that Madoc's voyagers had intermarried with local Native Americans,
Saint Brendan and the
and that their Welsh-speaking descendants still live somewhere in the
whale, from a 15th-century
United States. These "Welsh Indians" were credited with the
manuscript
construction of a number of landmarks throughout the Midwestern
United States, and a number of white travelers were inspired to go
look for them. The "Madoc story" has been the subject of much speculation in the context of
possible pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact. No conclusive archaeological proof of such a man or
his voyages has been found in the New or Old World; however, speculation abounds connecting
him with certain sites, such as Devil's Backbone, located on the Ohio River at Fourteen Mile Creek
near Louisville, Kentucky.[136]
A plaque at Fort Mountain State Park in Georgia recounts a nineteenth-century interpretation of

the ancient stone wall that gives the site its name. The plaque repeats Tennessee governor John
Sevier's statement that the Cherokees believed "a people called Welsh" had built a fort on the
mountain long ago to repel Indian attacks.[137] The plaque has been changed, leaving no reference
to Madoc or the Welsh.[138]
Biologist and controversial amateur epigrapher Barry Fell claims that Irish Ogham writing has
been found carved into stones in the Virginias.[139] Linguist David H. Kelley has criticized some of
Fell's work but nonetheless argued that genuine Celtic Ogham inscriptions have in fact been
discovered in America.[140] However, others have raised serious doubts about these claims.[141]
Claims of transoceanic travel from the New World to the

Old World
Claims of Egyptian coca and tobacco
Traces of coca and nicotine which are found in some Egyptian mummies have led to speculation
that Ancient Egyptians may have had contact with the New World. The initial discovery was made
by a German toxicologist, Svetlana Balabanova, after examining the mummy of a priestess who was
15 of 36 1/3/2022, 3:17 PM
named Henut Taui. Follow-up tests on the hair shaft, which

were performed in order to rule out the possibility of
contamination, revealed the same results.[142]
A television show reported that examinations of numerous

Sudanese mummies which were also undertaken by
Balabanova mirrored what was found in the mummy of Henut
Taui.[143] Balabanova suggested that the tobacco may be
accounted for since it may have also been known in China and
Europe, as indicated by analysis run on human remains from The mummy of Ramesses II
those respective regions. Balabanova proposed that such plants
native to the general area may have developed independently,
but have since gone extinct.[143] Other explanations include fraud, though curator Alfred Grimm of
the Egyptian Museum in Munich disputes this.[143] Skeptical of Balabanova's findings, Rosalie
David, Keeper of Egyptology at the Manchester Museum, had similar tests performed on samples
which were taken from the Manchester mummy collection and she reported that two of the tissue
samples and one hair sample tested positive for the presence of nicotine.[143] Sources of nicotine
other than tobacco and sources of cocaine in the Old World are discussed by the British biologist
Duncan Edlin.[144]
Mainstream scholars remain skeptical, and they do not see the results of these tests as proof of
ancient contact between Africa and the Americas, especially because there may be possible Old
World sources of cocaine and nicotine.[145][146] Two attempts to replicate Balabanova's findings of
cocaine failed, suggesting "that either Balabanova and her associates are misinterpreting their
results or that the samples of mummies tested by them have been mysteriously exposed to
cocaine."[147]
A re-examination of the mummy of Ramesses II in the 1970s revealed the presence of fragments of
tobacco leaves in its abdomen. This finding became a popular topic in fringe literature and the
media and it was seen as proof of contact between Ancient Egypt and the New World. The
investigator, Maurice Bucaille, noted that when the mummy was unwrapped in 1886 the abdomen
was left open and "it was no longer possible to attach any importance to the presence inside the
abdominal cavity of whatever material was found there, since the material could have come from
the surrounding environment."[148] Following the renewed discussion of tobacco sparked by
Balabanova's research and its mention in a 2000 publication by Rosalie David, a study in the
journal Antiquity suggested that reports of both tobacco and cocaine in mummies "ignored their
post-excavation histories" and pointed out that the mummy of Ramesses II had been moved five
times between 1883 and 1975.[146]
Claims of travel in Roman times
Pomponius Mela writes,[149] and is copied by Pliny the Elder,[150] that Quintus Caecilius Metellus
Celer (died 59 BCE), proconsul in Gaul, received "several Indians" (Indi) who had been driven by a
storm to the coasts of Germania as a present from a Germanic king:
Metellum Celerem adjicit, eumque ita retulisse commemorat: Cum Galliae proconsule
praeesset, Indos quosdam a rege [Suevorum] dono sibi datos; unde in eas terras
devenissent requirendo, cognôsse, vi tempestatum ex Indicis aequoribus abreptos,
16 of 36 1/3/2022, 3:17 PM
emensosque quae intererant, tandem in Germaniae litora exiise. Restat ergo pelagus;
sed reliqua lateris ejusdem assiduo gelu durantur, et ideo deserta sunt.
Metellus Celer recalls the following: when he was proconsul in Gaul, he was given
people from India by the king of the Sueves; upon requesting why they were in this
land, he learnt that they were caught in a storm away from India, that they became
castaways, and finally landed on the coast of Germania. They thus resisted the sea, but
suffered from the cold for the rest of their travel, and that is the reason why they
left.[149]
Frederick J. Pohl suggested that these castaways were possibly American Indians.[151] Edward
Herbert Bunbury suggested that they were Finns. This account is open to question, since Metellus
Celer died just after his consulship, before he ever got to Gaul.
Icelander DNA finding
In 2010 Sigríður Sunna Ebenesersdóttir published a genetic study showing that over 350 living
Icelanders carried mitochondrial DNA of a new type, C1e, belonging to the C1 clade which was
until then known only from Native American and East Asian populations. Using the deCODE
genetics database, Sigríður Sunna determined that the DNA entered the Icelandic population not
later than 1700, and likely several centuries earlier. However Sigríður Sunna also states that "while
a Native American origin seems most likely for [this new haplogroup], an Asian or European origin
cannot be ruled out".[152]
In 2014, a study discovered a new mtDNA subclade C1f from the remains of three people found in
north-western Russia and dated to 7,500 years ago. It has not been detected in modern
populations. The study proposed the hypothesis that the sister C1e and C1f subclades had split
early from the most recent common ancestor of the C1 clade and had evolved independently, and
that subclade C1e had a northern European origin. Iceland was settled by the Vikings 1,130 years
ago and they had raided heavily into western Russia, where the sister subclade C1f is now known to
have resided. They proposed that both subclades were brought to Iceland through the Vikings, and
that C1e went extinct on mainland northern Europe due to population turnover and its small
representation, and subclade C1f went extinct completely.[153]
Norse legends and sagas
In 1009, legends report that Norse explorer Thorfinn Karlsefni abducted two children from
Markland, an area on the North American mainland where Norse explorers visited but did not
settle. The two children were then taken to Greenland, where they were baptized and taught to
speak Norse.[154]
In 1420, Danish geographer Claudius Clavus Swart wrote that he personally had seen "pygmies"
from Greenland who were caught by Norsemen in a small skin boat. Their boat was hung in
Nidaros Cathedral in Trondheim along with another, longer boat also taken from "pygmies".
Clavus Swart's description fits the Inuit and two of their types of boats, the kayak and the umiak.
[155][156] Similarly, the Swedish clergyman Olaus Magnus wrote in 1505 that he saw in Oslo
17 of 36 1/3/2022, 3:17 PM
Cathedral two leather boats taken decades earlier. According to Olaus,

the boats were captured from Greenland pirates by one of the
Haakons, which would place the event in the 14th century.[155]
In Ferdinand Columbus's biography of his father Christopher, he says

that in 1477 his father saw in Galway, Ireland, two dead bodies which
had washed ashore in their boat. The bodies and boat were of exotic
appearance, and have been suggested to have been Inuit who had
drifted off course.[157]
Inuit
It has been suggested that the Norse took other indigenous peoples to Statue of Thorfinn Karlsefni
Europe as slaves over the following centuries, because they are known
to have taken Scottish and Irish slaves.[155][156]
There is also evidence of Inuit coming to Europe under their own power or as captives after 1492.
In Scotland, they were known as the Finn-men. A substantial body of Greenland Inuit folklore first
collected in the 19th century told of journeys by boat to Akilineq, here depicted as a rich country
across the ocean.[158]
Inca-Polynesian contact
Topa Inca Yupanqui is credited with leading a roughly 10-month-long voyage of exploration into
the Pacific around 1480, reportedly visiting islands he called Nina Chumpi ("fire belt") and Hawa
Chumpi ("outer belt", also spelled Avachumpi, Hahua chumpi).[159]
Claims based on religious traditions or symbols
Claims of pre-Columbian contact with Christian missionaries
During the period of Spanish colonization of the Americas, several indigenous myths and works of
art led a number of Spanish chroniclers and authors to suggest that Christian preachers may have
visited Mesoamerica well before the Age of Discovery. Bernal Díaz del Castillo, for example, was
intrigued by the presence of cross symbols in Mayan hieroglyphs, which according to him
suggested that other Christians may have arrived in ancient Mexico before the Spanish
conquistadors. Fray Diego Durán, for his part, linked the legend of the Pre-Columbian god
Quetzalcoatl (whom he describes as being chaste, penitent, and a miracle-worker) to the Biblical
accounts of Christian apostles. Bartolomé de las Casas describes Quetzalcoatl as being fair-skinned,
tall, and bearded (therefore suggesting an Old World origin), while Fray Juan de Torquemada
credits him with bringing agriculture to the Americas. Modern scholarship has cast serious doubts
on several of these claims, since agriculture was practiced in the Americas well before the
emergence of Christianity in the Old World, and Mayan crosses have been found to have a very
different symbolism from that present in Christian religious traditions.[160]
According to Pre-Columbian myth, Quetzalcoatl departed Mexico in ancient times by travelling
18 of 36 1/3/2022, 3:17 PM
east across the ocean, promising he would return. Some scholars have argued that Aztec emperor
Moctezuma Xocoyotzin believed Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés (who arrived in what today
is Mexico from the east) to be Quetzalcoatl, and his arrival to be a fulfilling of the myth's prophecy,
though others have disputed this claim.[161] Fringe theories suggest that Quetzalcoatl may have
been a Christian preacher from the Old World who lived among indigenous peoples of ancient
Mexico, and eventually attempted to return home by sailing eastwards. Carlos de Sigüenza y
Góngora, for example, speculated that the Quetzalcoatl myth might have originated from a visit to
the Americas by Thomas the Apostle in the 1st century CE. Later on, Fray Servando Teresa de Mier
argued that the cloak with the image of the Virgin of Guadalupe, which the Catholic Church claims
was worn by Juan Diego, was instead brought to the Americas much earlier by Thomas, who used
it as an instrument for evangelization.[160]
Mexican historian Manuel Orozco y Berra conjectured that both the cross hieroglyphs and the
Quetzalcoatl myth might have originated on a visit to Mesoamerica by a Catholic Norse missionary
in medieval times. However, there is no archaeological or historical evidence to suggest that the
Norse explorations ever made it as far as ancient Mexico or Central America.[160] Other proposed
identities for Quetzalcoatl – which have been attributed to their proponents pursuing religious
agendas – include St. Brendan or even Jesus Christ.[162]
According to at least one historian, a fleet of Knights Templar departed from La Rochelle in 1307,
fleeing persecution from king Philip IV of France.[163] What destination, if any, was reached by this
fleet is uncertain. A fringe theory suggests the fleet may have made its way to the Americas, where
the Knights Templar interacted with the aboriginal population. It is speculated this hypothetical
visit may have influenced the cross symbols made by Mesoamerican peoples, as well as their
legends about a fair-skinned deity.[163] Helen Nicholson of Cardiff University has cast doubt on the
existence of this voyage, arguing that the Knights Templar did not have ships capable of navigating
the Atlantic Ocean.[164]
Claims of ancient Jewish migration to the Americas
Since the first centuries of European colonization of the Americas and up until the 19th century,
several European intellectuals and theologians tried to account for the presence of the Amerindian
aboriginal peoples by connecting them to the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel, who according to Biblical
tradition, were deported following the conquest of the Israelite kingdom by the Neo-Assyrian
Empire. In the past as well as in the present, these efforts were and still are being used to further
the interests of religious groups, both Jewish and Christian, and they have also been used to justify
European settlement of the Americas.[165]
One of the first people to claim that the indigenous peoples of the Americas were descendants of
the Lost Tribes was the Portuguese rabbi and writer Menasseh Ben Israel, who in his book The
Hope of Israel argued that the discovery of the alleged long-lost Jews heralded the imminent
coming of the Biblical Messiah.[165] In 1650, a Norfolk preacher, Thomas Thorowgood, published
Jewes in America or Probabilities that the Americans are of that Race,[166] for the New England
missionary society. Tudor Parfitt writes:
The society was active in trying to convert the Indians but suspected that they might be
Jews and realized they better be prepared for an arduous task. Thorowgood's tract
argued that the native population of North America were descendants of the Ten Lost
19 of 36 1/3/2022, 3:17 PM
Tribes.[167]
In 1652 Sir Hamon L'Estrange, an English author writing on history and theology, published
Americans no Jews, or improbabilities that the Americans are of that Race in response to the
tract by Thorowgood. In response to L'Estrange, Thorowgood published a second edition of his
book in 1660 with a revised title and included a foreword written by John Eliot, a Puritan
missionary who had translated the Bible into an Indian language.[168]
Latter Day Saint movement's teachings
The Book of Mormon, a sacred text of the Latter Day Saint movement,
which its founder and leader, Joseph Smith Jr, published in 1830
when he was 24 years old, states that some ancient inhabitants of the
New World are descendants of Semitic peoples who sailed from the
Old World. Mormon groups such as the Foundation for Ancient
Research and Mormon Studies attempt to study and expand on these
ideas.
The National Geographic Society, in a 1998 letter to the Institute for

Religious Research, stated "Archaeologists and other scholars have
long probed the hemisphere's past and the society does not know of Izapa Stela 5
anything found so far that has substantiated the Book of
Mormon."[169]
Some LDS scholars hold the view that archaeological studies of the Book of Mormon's claims are
not meant to vindicate the literary narrative. For example, Terryl Givens, professor of English at
the University of Richmond, points out that there is a lack of historical accuracy in the Book of
Mormon in relation to modern archaeological knowledge.[170]
In the 1950s, Professor M. Wells Jakeman popularized a belief that the Izapa Stela 5 represents the
Book of Mormon prophets Lehi and Nephi's tree of life vision, and was a validation of the
historicity of the claims of pre-Columbian settlement in the Americas.[171] His interpretations of
the carving and its connection to pre-Columbian contact have been disputed.[172] Since that time,
scholarship on the Book of Mormon has concentrated on cultural parallels rather than "smoking
gun" sources.[173][174][175]
See also
▪ Ancient maritime history ▪ Genetic history of indigenous peoples of the
▪ Antillia – 15th-century phantom island Americas
▪ Atlantis Expedition – Raft journey across ▪ Gwennan Gorn – Ship of supposed Welsh
Atlantic in 1984 sea-voyager
▪ Burrows Cave – Alleged cave site ▪ Hyperdiffusionism in archaeology
▪ Columbian exchange ▪ Institute for the Study of American Cultures
▪ Davenport Tablets ▪ Jean Cousin (navigator)
▪ Diffusion (anthropology) ▪ Kensington Runestone – Faked
'Scandinavian' runestone
20 of 36 1/3/2022, 3:17 PM
▪ Kon-Tiki expedition – 1947 raft journey from ▪ Pre-Columbian rafts

South America to Polynesia ▪ Vinland Map – Forged 'Norse' map of North
▪ Maine penny – Norwegian silver coin America
▪ Newport Tower (Rhode Island) – Remains of ▪ Westford Knight – Pattern on a rock in the
17th-century windmill United States
▪ Origins of Paleoindians
Oceans portal
Notes
1. Carroll L. Riley; J. Charles Kelley; Campbell W. Pennington; Robert L. Rands (2014). Man
Across the Sea: Problems of Pre-Columbian Contacts (https://books.google.com/books?id=lmv
UBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT9). University of Texas Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-1-4773-0478-5.
2. Lizzie Wade (August 10, 2017). "Most archaeologists think the first Americans arrived by boat.
Now, they're beginning to prove it" (http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2017/08/most-archaeologi
sts-think-first-americans-arrived-boat-now-they-re-beginning-prove-it). Science.
3. Linda S. Cordell; Kent Lightfoot; Francis McManamon; George Milner (2008). Archaeology in
America: An Encyclopedia [4 volumes]: An Encyclopedia (https://books.google.com/books?id=
arfWRW5OFVgC&pg=PA83). ABC-CLIO. pp. 82–83. ISBN 978-0-313-02189-3.
4. Ioannidis, Alexander G.; Blanco-Portillo, Javier; Sandoval, Karla; Hagelberg, Erika; Miquel-
Poblete, Juan Francisco; Moreno-Mayar, J. Víctor; Rodríguez-Rodríguez, Juan Esteban;
Quinto-Cortés, Consuelo D.; Auckland, Kathryn; Parks, Tom; Robson, Kathryn (July 8, 2020).
"Native American gene flow into Polynesia predating Easter Island settlement" (http://www.natu
re.com/articles/s41586-020-2487-2). Nature. 583 (7817): 572–577.
Bibcode:2020Natur.583..572I (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020Natur.583..572I).
doi:10.1038/s41586-020-2487-2 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41586-020-2487-2).
ISSN 0028-0836 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0028-0836). PMID 32641827 (https://pubmed.n
cbi.nlm.nih.gov/32641827). S2CID 220420232 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2204
20232).
5. Kehoe, Alice Beck (2003). "The Fringe of American Archaeology: Transoceanic and
Transcontinental Contacts in Prehistoric America" (https://www.scientificexploration.org/docs/1
7/jse_17_1_kehoe.pdf) (PDF). Journal of Scientific Exploration. 17 (1): 19–36.
6. Garrett G. Fagan (2006). Archaeological Fantasies: How Pseudoarchaeology Misrepresents
the Past and Misleads the Public (https://books.google.com/books?id=sIYpx9mzd4gC&pg=PA4
05). Psychology Press. p. 405. ISBN 978-0-415-30592-1.
7. Kuitems, Margot; Wallace, Birgitta L.; et al. (2021). "Evidence for European presence in the
Americas in AD 1021" (https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03972-8). Nature.
Retrieved October 21, 2021.
8. S. A. Wurm; Peter Mühlhäusler; Darrell T. Tyron (1996). Atlas of Languages of Intercultural
Communication in the Pacific, Asia, and the Americas (https://books.google.com/books?id=glU
0vte5gSkC&pg=PA1048). Walter de Gruyter. p. 1048. ISBN 978-3-11-013417-9.
21 of 36 1/3/2022, 3:17 PM
9. Kuitems, Margot; Wallace, Birgitta L.; Lindsay, Charles; Scifo, Andrea; Doeve, Petra; Jenkins,
Kevin; Lindauer, Susanne; Erdil, Pınar; Ledger, Paul M.; Forbes, Véronique; Vermeeren,
Caroline (October 20, 2021). "Evidence for European presence in the Americas in ad 1021" (htt
ps://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03972-8). Nature: 1–4.
doi:10.1038/s41586-021-03972-8 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41586-021-03972-8).
ISSN 1476-4687 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1476-4687). "Our result of AD 1021 for the
cutting year constitutes the only secure calendar date for the presence of Europeans across
the Atlantic before the voyages of Columbus. Moreover, the fact that our results, on three
different trees, converge on the same year is notable and unexpected. This coincidence
strongly suggests Norse activity at L’Anse aux Meadows in AD 1021. In addition, our research
demonstrates the potential of the AD 993 anomaly in atmospheric 14C concentrations for
pinpointing the ages of past migrations and cultural interactions."
10. John Logan Allen (2007). North American Exploration (https://books.google.com/books?id=7R
Glz9a4wVYC&pg=PA27). U of Nebraska Press. p. 27. ISBN 978-0-8032-1015-8.
11. Axel Kristinsson (2010). Expansions: Competition and Conquest in Europe Since the Bronze
Age (https://books.google.com/books?id=9s2uzr47M-cC&pg=PA216). ReykjavíkurAkademían.
p. 216. ISBN 978-9979-9922-1-9.
12. Kirsten A. Seaver (2014). The Last Vikings: The Epic Story of the Great Norse Voyagers (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=-gGUBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA63). I.B.Tauris. p. 63.
ISBN 978-1-78453-057-0.
13. Lie, B. A.; Dupuy, B. M.; Spurkland, A.; Fernández-Viña, M. A.; Hagelberg, E.; Thorsby, E.
(2007). "Molecular genetic studies of natives on Easter Island: evidence of an early European
and Amerindian contribution to the Polynesian gene pool". Tissue Antigens. 69 (1): 10–18.
doi:10.1111/j.1399-0039.2006.00717.x (https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1399-0039.2006.00717.x).
PMID 17212703 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17212703).
14. Thorsby, E.; Flåm, S. T.; Woldseth, B.; Dupuy, B. M.; Sanchez-Mazas, A.; Fernandez-Vina, M.
A. (2009). "Further evidence of an Amerindian contribution to the Polynesian gene pool on
Easter Island". Tissue Antigens. 73 (6): 582–5. doi:10.1111/j.1399-0039.2009.01233.x (https://d
oi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1399-0039.2009.01233.x). PMID 19493235 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.g
ov/19493235).
15. Westerholm, Russell (October 24, 2014). "Easter Island Was Not Populated Solely by the
Polynesians, According to New Genetic Study" (http://www.universityherald.com/articles/12415
/20141024/easter-island-was-not-populated-solely-by-the-polynesians-according-to-new-geneti
c-study.htm). University Herald. Retrieved December 24, 2014.
16. Vanessa Faria Gonçalves; Jesper Stenderup; Cláudia Rodrigues-Carvalho; Hilton P. Silva;
Higgor Gonçalves-Dornelas; Andersen Líryo; Toomas Kivisild; Anna-Sapfo Malaspinas; Paula
F. Campos; Morten Rasmussen; Eske Willerslev; Sergio Danilo J. Pena (2013). "Identification
of Polynesian mtDNA haplogroups in remains of Botocudo Amerindians from Brazil" (https://ww
w.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3631640). Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of America. 110 (16): 6465–6469.
Bibcode:2013PNAS..110.6465G (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013PNAS..110.6465G).
doi:10.1073/pnas.1217905110 (https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1217905110). PMC 3631640
(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3631640). PMID 23576724 (https://pubmed.nc
bi.nlm.nih.gov/23576724).
17. Santos, Ricardo Ventura; Douglas, Bronwen (April 2020). " 'Polynesians' in the Brazilian
hinterland? Sociohistorical perspectives on skulls, genomics, identity, and nationhood" (http://jo
urnals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0952695119891044). History of the Human Sciences. 33 (2):
22–47. doi:10.1177/0952695119891044 (https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0952695119891044).
ISSN 0952-6951 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0952-6951).
22 of 36 1/3/2022, 3:17 PM
18. Pontus Skoglund; Swapan Mallick; Maria Cátira Bortolini; Niru Chennagiri; Tábita Hünemeier;
Maria Luiza Petzl-Erler; Francisco Mauro Salzano; Nick Patterson; David Reich (July 2015).
"Genetic evidence for two founding populations of the Americas" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC4982469). Nature. 525 (7567): 104–8. Bibcode:2015Natur.525..104S (https://
ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015Natur.525..104S). doi:10.1038/nature14895 (https://doi.org/10.
1038%2Fnature14895). PMC 4982469 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC498246
9). PMID 26196601 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26196601).
19. Skoglund, P.; Reich, D. (2016). "A genomic view of the peopling of the Americas" (https://www.
ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5161672). Current Opinion in Genetics & Development. 41:
27–35. doi:10.1016/j.gde.2016.06.016 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.gde.2016.06.016).
PMC 5161672 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5161672). PMID 27507099 (http
s://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27507099).
20. Raghavan, M; Steinrucken, M; Harris, K; Schiffels, S; Rasmussen, S; Degiorgio, M;
Albrechtsen, A; Valdiosera, C; Avila-Arcos, M. C; Malaspinas, A.-S; Eriksson, A; Moltke, I;
Metspalu, M; Homburger, J. R; Wall, J; Cornejo, O. E; Moreno-Mayar, J. V; Korneliussen, T. S;
Pierre, T; Rasmussen, M; Campos, P. F; Damgaard, P. d. B; Allentoft, M. E; Lindo, J; Metspalu,
E; Rodriguez-Varela, R; Mansilla, J; Henrickson, C; Seguin-Orlando, A; et al. (July 2015).
"Genomic evidence for the Pleistocene and recent population history of Native Americans" (htt
ps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4733658). Science. 349 (6250): aab3884.
doi:10.1126/science.aab3884 (https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.aab3884). PMC 4733658 (htt
ps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4733658). PMID 26198033 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nl
m.nih.gov/26198033).
21. Wallin, Paul (July 8, 2020). "Native South Americans were early inhabitants of Polynesia" (http
s://doi.org/10.1038%2Fd41586-020-01983-5). Nature. 583 (7817): 524–525.
Bibcode:2020Natur.583..524W (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020Natur.583..524W).
doi:10.1038/d41586-020-01983-5 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fd41586-020-01983-5).
PMID 32641787 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32641787). S2CID 220436442 (https://api.se
manticscholar.org/CorpusID:220436442).
22. Gannon, Megan (July 8, 2020). "DNA reveals Native American presence in Polynesia centuries
before Europeans arrived" (https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/2020/07/dna-pre-colum
bian-contact-polynesians-native-americans/). National Geographic. Retrieved July 9, 2020.
23. Wade, Lizzie (July 8, 2020). "Polynesians steering by the stars met Native Americans long
before Europeans arrived" (https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2020/07/polynesians-steering-st
ars-met-native-americans-long-europeans-arrived). Science | AAAS. Retrieved July 9, 2020.
24. Zimmer, Carl (July 8, 2020). "Some Polynesians Carry DNA of Ancient Native Americans, New
Study Finds" (https://www.nytimes.com/2020/07/08/science/polynesian-ancestry.html). The
New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331). Retrieved July 9,
2020.
25. Van Tilburg, Jo Anne. 1994. Easter Island: Archaeology, Ecology and Culture. Washington
D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press
26. Langdon, Robert (2001). "The Bamboo Raft as a Key to the Introduction of the Sweet Potato in
Prehistoric Polynesia". The Journal of Pacific History. 36 (1): 51–76.
doi:10.1080/00223340123312 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00223340123312).
27. Montenegro, Álvaro; Avis, Chris; Weaver, Andrew (2008). "Modeling the prehistoric arrival of
the sweet potato in Polynesia". Journal of Archaeological Science. 35 (2): 355–367.
doi:10.1016/j.jas.2007.04.004 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jas.2007.04.004).
23 of 36 1/3/2022, 3:17 PM
28. Roullier, Caroline; et al. (January 22, 2013), "Historical collections reveal patterns of diffusion of
sweet potato in Oceania obscured by modern plant movements and recombination" (http://ww
w.pnas.org/content/110/6/2205), PNAS, 110 (6), pp. 2205–2210,
Bibcode:2013PNAS..110.2205R (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013PNAS..110.2205R),
doi:10.1073/pnas.1211049110 (https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1211049110), PMC 3568323
(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3568323), PMID 23341603 (https://pubmed.nc
bi.nlm.nih.gov/23341603)
29. Greenhill, Simon J.; Clark, Ross; Biggs, Bruce (2010). "Entries for KUMALA.1 [LO] Sweet
Potato (Ipomoea)" (http://pollex.org.nz/entry/kumala1/). POLLEX-Online: The Polynesian
Lexicon Project Online. Retrieved July 16, 2013.
30. Willem F. H. Adelaar; Pieter C. Muysekn (June 10, 2004). "Genetic relations of South American
Indian languages" (https://books.google.com/books?id=UiwaUY6KsY8C&pg=PA41). The
Languages of the Andes. Cambridge University Press. p. 41. ISBN 978-1-139-45112-3.
31. Did ancient Polynesians visit California? Maybe so. (http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?fil
e=/c/a/2005/06/20/MNG9GDBBLG1.DTL), San Francisco Chronicle
32. Jones, Terry L.; Kathryn A. Klar (June 3, 2005). "Diffusionism Reconsidered: Linguistic and
Archaeological Evidence for Prehistoric Polynesian Contact with Southern California" (https://w
eb.archive.org/web/20060927085144/http://www.saa.org/Publications/AmAntiq/70-3/Jones.htm
l). American Antiquity. 70 (3): 457–484. doi:10.2307/40035309 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F400
35309). JSTOR 40035309 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/40035309). S2CID 161301055 (https://
api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161301055). Archived from the original (http://www.saa.org/
publications/AmAntiq/70-3/Jones.html) (– Scholar search (https://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?
hl=en&lr=&q=author%3AJones+intitle%3ADiffusionism+Reconsidered%3A+Linguistic+and+Arc
haeological+Evidence+for+Prehistoric+Polynesian+Contact+with+Southern+California&as_pub
lication=American+Antiquity&as_ylo=&as_yhi=&btnG=Search)) on September 27, 2006.
Retrieved March 6, 2008. and Adams, James D.; Cecilia Garcia; Eric J. Lien (January 23,
2008). "A Comparison of Chinese and American Indian (Chumash) Medicine" (https://www.ncb
i.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2862936). Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative
Medicine. 7 (2): 219–25. doi:10.1093/ecam/nem188 (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fecam%2Fnem
188). PMC 2862936 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2862936).
PMID 18955312 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18955312).. See also Terry Jones's
homepage (http://cla.calpoly.edu/~tljones/) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20080511194
439/http://cla.calpoly.edu/~tljones/) May 11, 2008, at the Wayback Machine, California
Polytechnic State University.
33. For the argument against the Chumash—Polynesian contact theory, see Arnold, J.E. (2007).
"Credit Where Credit is Due: The History of the Chumash Oceangoing Plank Canoe". American
Antiquity. 72 (2): 196–209. doi:10.2307/40035811 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F40035811).
JSTOR 40035811 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/40035811). S2CID 145274737 (https://api.sema
nticscholar.org/CorpusID:145274737).
34. Arnold, Jeanne E. (ed.) 2001. The Origins of a Pacific Coast Chiefdom: The Chumash of the
Channel Islands. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press.
35. Gamble, Lynn H. (2002). "Archaeological Evidence for the Origin of the Plank Canoe in North
America". American Antiquity. 67 (2): 301–315. doi:10.2307/2694568 (https://doi.org/10.2307%
2F2694568). JSTOR 2694568 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/2694568). S2CID 163616908 (http
s://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:163616908).
24 of 36 1/3/2022, 3:17 PM
36. Storey, A. A.; Ramirez, J. M.; Quiroz, D.; Burley, D. V.; Addison, D. J.; Walter, R.; Anderson, A.
J.; Hunt, T. L.; Athens, J. S.; Huynen, L.; Matisoo-Smith, E. A. (2007). "Radiocarbon and DNA
evidence for a pre-Columbian introduction of Polynesian chickens to Chile" (https://www.ncbi.nl
m.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1965514). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 104
(25): 10335–10339. Bibcode:2007PNAS..10410335S (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007P
NAS..10410335S). doi:10.1073/pnas.0703993104 (https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.07039931
04). PMC 1965514 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1965514). PMID 17556540
(https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17556540).
37. Whipps, Heather (June 4, 2007). "Chicken Bones Suggest Polynesians Found Americas
Before Columbus" (http://www.livescience.com/history/070604_polynesian_chicken.html). Live
Science. Retrieved June 5, 2007.
38. "Top 10 Discoveries of 2007 – Polynesian Chickens in Chile – Archaeology Magazine Archive"
(http://archive.archaeology.org/0801/topten/chicken.html). archaeology.org.
39. Gongora, J.; Rawlence, N. J.; Mobegi, V. A.; Jianlin, H.; Alcalde, J. A.; Matus, J. T.; Hanotte,
O.; Moran, C.; Austin, J. J.; Ulm, S.; Anderson, A. J.; Larson, G.; Cooper, A. (2008). "Indo-
European and Asian origins for Chilean and Pacific chickens revealed by mtDNA" (https://www.
ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2492461). Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences. 105 (30): 10308–10313. Bibcode:2008PNAS..10510308G (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.
edu/abs/2008PNAS..10510308G). doi:10.1073/pnas.0801991105 (https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fp
nas.0801991105). PMC 2492461 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2492461).
40. Thomson, Vicki A; Lebrasseur, Ophélie; Austin, Jeremy J.; Hunt, Terry L.; Burney, David A.;
Denham, Tim; Rawlence, Nicolas J.; Wood, Jamie R.; Gongor, Jaime; Flink, Linus Girdland;
Linderholm, Anna; Dobney, Keith; Larson, Greger; Cooper, Alan (April 1, 2014). "Using ancient
DNA to study the origins and dispersal of ancestral Polynesian chickens across the Pacific" (htt
ps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3977275). Proceedings of the National Academy
of Sciences of the United States of America. 111 (13): 4826–4831.
Bibcode:2014PNAS..111.4826T (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014PNAS..111.4826T).
doi:10.1073/pnas.1320412111 (https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1320412111). PMC 3977275
(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3977275). PMID 24639505 (https://pubmed.nc
bi.nlm.nih.gov/24639505).
41. Hillebrand, William (1888). Flora of the Hawaiian Islands (https://archive.org/details/mobot3175
3003034128). London: Williams and Norgate.
42. Brown, Forest B. H. (1935). "Flora of Southeastern Polynesia, III. Dicotyledons". Bishop
Museum Bulletin, Honolulu. 130.
43. Tessman, Günter (1930). Die Indianer Nordost-Perus. Hamburg: Friederichsen, de Gruyter, &
Co. pp. 161, 324.
44. Tessman, Günter (1928). Menschen ohne Gott : ein Besuch bei den Indianern des Ucayali.
Stuttgart: Strecker und Schroder.
45. Sopher, David E. (1950). Turmeric in the Color Symbolism of Southern Asia and the Pacific
Islands. Berkeley California: M.A. Thesis, University of California, Berkeley. p. 88.
46. Moulian, Rodrígo; Catrileo, María; Landeo, Pablo (2015). "Afines quechua en el vocabulario
mapuche de Luis de Valdivia" (https://scielo.conicyt.cl/scielo.php?pid=S0718-48832015000200
004&script=sci_arttext) [Akins Quechua words in the Mapuche vocabulary of Luis de Valdivia].
Revista de lingüística teórica y aplicada (in Spanish). 53 (2): 73–96.
doi:10.4067/S0718-48832015000200004 (https://doi.org/10.4067%2FS0718-48832015000200
004). Retrieved January 13, 2019.
25 of 36 1/3/2022, 3:17 PM
47. Lawler, Andrew (June 11, 2010). "Beyond Kon-Tiki: Did Polynesians Sail to South America?".
Science. 328 (5984): 1344–1347. Bibcode:2010Sci...328.1344L (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/
abs/2010Sci...328.1344L). doi:10.1126/science.328.5984.1344 (https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscie
nce.328.5984.1344). PMID 20538927 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20538927).
48. Cartas de Afonso de Albuquerque, Volume 1, p. 64, April 1, 1512
49. Roewer, Lutz; Nothnagel, Michael; Gusmão, Leonor; Gomes, Veronica; González, Miguel;
Corach, Daniel; Sala, Andrea; Alechine, Evguenia; Palha, Teresinha; Santos, Ney; Ribeiro-
Dos-Santos, Andrea; Geppert, Maria; Willuweit, Sascha; Nagy, Marion; Zweynert, Sarah;
Baeta, Miriam; Núñez, Carolina; Martínez-Jarreta, Begoña; González-Andrade, Fabricio;
Fagundes De Carvalho, Elizeu; Da Silva, Dayse Aparecida; Builes, Juan José; Turbón, Daniel;
Lopez Parra, Ana Maria; Arroyo-Pardo, Eduardo; Toscanini, Ulises; Borjas, Lisbeth; Barletta,
Claudia; Ewart, Elizabeth; et al. (2013). "Continent-Wide Decoupling of Y-Chromosomal
Genetic Variation from Language and Geography in Native South Americans" (https://www.ncb
i.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3623769). PLOS Genetics. 9 (4): e1003460.
doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1003460 (https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pgen.1003460).
50. Pool, p. 92, who cites Gordon Ekholm (1964) "Transpacific Contacts" in Prehistoric Man in the
New World JD Jennings and E. Norbeck, eds., Chicago: University of Chicago, pp. 489—510.
51. This theory is mentioned in the history book The Rise of the West: A History of the Human
Community (1963) by William H. McNeill
52. Meggers.
53. Xu, Origin of the Olmec civilization.
54. Dr. Mike Xu's Transpacific website (http://www.chinese.tcu.edu/www_chinese3_tcu_edu.htm)
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20010802024552/http://www.chinese.tcu.edu/www_chin
ese3_tcu_edu.htm) August 2, 2001, at the Wayback Machine, comparing Olmec and Chinese
Shang period artifacts.
55. David C. Grove (1976) "Olmec origins and transpacific diffusion: reply to Meggers" [1] (https://w
ww.academia.edu/1553330/Olmec_origins_and_transpacific_diffusion_reply_to_Meggers)
56. Dean, James (January 1884). "Anthropology" (https://doi.org/10.1086%2F273578). The
American Naturalist. 18 (1): 98–99. doi:10.1086/273578 (https://doi.org/10.1086%2F273578).
JSTOR 2450831 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/2450831).
57. Keddie, Grant (1990). "The Question of Asiatic Objects on the North Pacific Coast of North
America: Historic or Prehistoric?" (http://staff.royalbcmuseum.bc.ca/wp-content/uploads/2014/1
2/Asiatic-Objects.pdf) (PDF). Contributions to Human History. Royal British Columbia Museum
(3). ISSN 0832-8609 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0832-8609). Retrieved February 8, 2020.
58. Anonymous (1892). "The Land of Fu-Sang,' Science 20:148; reprinted in William R. Corliss, ed.
(1978) Ancient Man: A Handbook of Puzzling Artifacts, Glen Arm, Maryland: Sourcebook
Project, ISBN 0-915554-03-8 p. 767
59. Feder, Kenneth L. (1999). Frauds, Myths and Mysteries (Third ed.). Mayfield. pp. 103–104.
ISBN 978-0-7674-0459-4.
60. Menzies, Gavin. 1421: The Year China Discovered the World (Transworld Publishers, 2003).
61. "The 1421 myth exposed" (https://web.archive.org/web/20180318191709/http://1421exposed.c
om/). Archived from the original (http://1421exposed.com/) on March 18, 2018. Retrieved
March 22, 2007.
26 of 36 1/3/2022, 3:17 PM
62. "Zheng He in the Americas and Other Unlikely Tales of Exploration and Discovery" (https://web.
archive.org/web/20070317044419/http://www.csicop.org/sb/2004-09/tales.html). Archived from
the original (http://www.csicop.org/sb/2004-09/tales.html) on March 17, 2007. Retrieved
March 22, 2007.
63. "1421: The Year China Discovered the World by Gavin Menzies" (https://web.archive.org/web/2
0030705160338/http://www.asianreviewofbooks.com/arb/article.php?article=201). Archived
from the original (http://www.asianreviewofbooks.com:80/arb/article.php?article=201) on July 5,
2003. Retrieved March 22, 2007.
64. Finlay, Robert (2004). "How Not to (Re)Write World History: Gavin Menzies and the Chinese
Discovery of America" (https://web.archive.org/web/20131109021554/http://www.michaelsheise
r.com/PaleoBabble/1421.pdf) (PDF). Journal of World History. 15 (2): 229–242.
doi:10.1353/jwh.2004.0018 (https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fjwh.2004.0018). S2CID 144478854 (htt
ps://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144478854). Archived from the original (http://www.mich
aelsheiser.com/PaleoBabble/1421.pdf) (PDF) on November 9, 2013.
65. Feder, Kenneth L. (2010). Encyclopedia of Dubious Archaeology: From Atlantis to the Walam
Olum. Westport, CN: Greenwood. page 209. ISBN 978-0-313-37919-2
66. Estrada, E; Meggers, BJ; Evans, C (1962). "Possible Transpacific Contact on the Coast of
Ecuador". Science. 135 (3501): 371–2. Bibcode:1962Sci...135..371E (https://ui.adsabs.harvar
d.edu/abs/1962Sci...135..371E). doi:10.1126/science.135.3501.371 (https://doi.org/10.1126%2
Fscience.135.3501.371). PMID 17782632 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17782632).
S2CID 33126483 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:33126483).
67. Evans, Clifford; Meggers, Betty (January 1966). "A Transpacific Contact in 3000BC". Scientific
American. 214 (1): 28. Bibcode:1966SciAm.214a..28M (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1966
SciAm.214a..28M). doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0166-28 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientifi
camerican0166-28).
68. Valdivia, Jomon Fishermen, and the Nature of the North Pacific: Some Nautical Problems with
Meggers, Evans, and Estrada's (1965) Transoceanic Contact Thesis Gordon F. McEwan, D.
Bruce Dickson American Antiquity, Vol. 43, No. 3 (Jul. 1978), pp. 362–371.
69. Prehistory of the Americas By Stuart J. Fiedel pp 188–189.
70. Davis, Nancy Yaw (200). The Zuni Enigma. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-32230-0,
ISBN 978-0-393-32230-9
71. Wickersham, James (1892). "Origin of the Indians--The Polynesian Route." American
Antiquarian, 16:323-335, partly reprinted in William R. Corliss, ed. (1978) Ancient Man: A
Handbook of Puzzling Artifacts, Glen Arm, Maryland: Sourcebook Project, ISBN 0-915554-03-8
pp. 705-709
72. "Japanese Castaways of 1834: The Three Kichis - HistoryLink.org" (http://www.historylink.org/F
ile/9065). www.historylink.org. Retrieved January 30, 2018.
73. Banse, Tom. "Japanese Retrace Path Of History-Making Castaways, 180 Years Later" (http://k
uow.org/post/japanese-retrace-path-history-making-castaways-180-years-later). Retrieved
January 30, 2018.
74. Cunningham, Alexander (1879). The Stupa of Bharhut (https://archive.org/stream/stpabharhuta
bud00offigoog#page/n58/mode/2up/). London: W.H.Allen. p. 47.
75. Pokharia, Anil Kumar; Sekar, B.; Pal, Jagannath; Srivastava, Alka (2009). "Possible evidence
of pre-Columbian transoceanic voyages based on conventional LSC and AMS 14C dating of
associated charcoal and a carbonized seed of custard apple (Annona squamosa L.)" (https://do
i.org/10.1017%2FS0033822200033993). Radiocarbon. 51 (3): 923–930.
doi:10.1017/S0033822200033993 (https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0033822200033993).
27 of 36 1/3/2022, 3:17 PM
76. Yetts, W. Perceval (1924). "Elephants and Maya Art". The Burlington Magazine for
Connoisseurs. 45 (261): 262–265, 268–269. JSTOR 862358 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/8623
58).
77. Johannessen, Carl L.; Parker, Anne Z. (1989). "Maize ears sculptured in 12th and 13th century
A.D. India as indicators of pre-columbian diffusion". Economic Botany. 43 (2): 164–180.
doi:10.1007/bf02859857 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fbf02859857). S2CID 27633077 (https://ap
i.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:27633077).
78. Payak, M.M.; Sachan, J.K.S (1993). "Maize ears not sculpted in 13th century Somnathpur
temple in India". Economic Botany. 47 (2): 202–205. doi:10.1007/BF02862023 (https://doi.org/1
0.1007%2FBF02862023). S2CID 21225997 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:212259
97).
79. Veena, T.; Sigamani, N. (1991). "Do objects in friezes of Somnathpur temple (1286 AD) in
South India represent maize ears?" (http://www.currentscience.ac.in/Downloads/article_id_061
_06_0395_0397_0.pdf) (PDF). Current Science. 61 (6): 395–397.
80. John L. Sorenson, Carl L. Johannessen, Scientific Evidence for Pre-Columbian Transoceanic
Voyages, Sino-Platonic Papers, Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations,
University of Pennsylvania, no.133, 2004
81. Stirling, p. 2, who cites Melgar, Jose (1869) "Antigüedades mexicanas, notable escultura
antigua", in Boletín de la Sociedad Mexicana de Geografía y Estadística, época 2, vol. 1, pp.
292–297, Mexico, as well as Melgar, Jose (1871) "Estudio sobre la antigüedad y el origen de la
Cabeza Colosal de tipo etiópico que existe en Hueyapan del cantón de los Tuxtlas" in Boletín
de la Sociedad Mexicana de Geografía y Estadística, época 2, vol. 3, pp. 104–109; Mexico.
82. "CA Forum on Anthropology in Public: Robbing Native Cultures: Van Sertima's Afrocentricity
and the Olmecs (http://www.unl.edu/rhames/courses/current/vansertima.pdf)", Current
Anthropology, Vol. 38, no. 3 (June 1997), 419–441.
83. Leo Wiener, Africa and the Discovery of America (Philadelphia: Inness and Sons, 1922), Vol. 3,
p. 259.
84. Leo Wiener, "Africa and the Discovery of America", American Anthropologist, New Series, Vol.
23, No. 1 (Jan.–Mar. 1921), pp. 83–94.
85. Joan Baxter (December 13, 2000). "Africa's 'greatest explorer' " (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/afric
a/1068950.stm). BBC News. Retrieved February 12, 2008.
86. Morison, Samuel Eliot (1963). Journals & Other Documents on the Life & Voyages of
Christopher Columbus. New York: The Heritage Press. pp. 262, 263.
87. Thacher, John Boyd (1903). Christopher Columbus: his life, his work, his remains, as revealed
by original printed and manuscript records, together with an essay on Peter Martyr of Anghera
and Bartolomé De Las Casas, the first Historians of America (https://archive.org/details/christo
phercolum02thac). New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons. pp. 379, 380.
88. Olson, Julius E.; Bourne, Edward Gaylord, eds. (1906). The Northmen, Columbus and Cabot,
985-1503. New York City: Charles Scribner's Sons – via Project Gutenberg.
89. Romero, Simon (March 27, 2014). "Discoveries Challenge Beliefs on Humans' Arrival in the
Americas (https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/28/world/americas/discoveries-challenge-beliefs-o
n-humans-arrival-in-the-americas.html?_r=0)". The New York Times. Retrieved December 4,
2014.
90. Qiong Zhang (June 5, 2015). Making the New World Their Own: Chinese Encounters with
Jesuit Science in the Age of Discovery (https://books.google.com/books?id=WVPFCQAAQBAJ
&pg=PA135). Brill. pp. 134–135. ISBN 9789004284388.
91. Joseph Needham & Colin A. Ronan (1986). The Shorter Science and Civilisation in China. 3.
Cambridge University Press. pp. 119–20. ISBN 978-0-521-31560-9.
28 of 36 1/3/2022, 3:17 PM
92. Hui-lin Li; Li, Hui-lin (1960–1961). "Mu-lan-p'i: A Case for Pre-Columbian Transatlantic Travel
by Arab Ships". Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies. 23: 114–126. doi:10.2307/2718572 (https://
doi.org/10.2307%2F2718572). JSTOR 2718572 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/2718572).
93. Joseph Needham & Colin A. Ronan (1986). The Shorter Science and Civilisation in China. 3.
Cambridge University Press. p. 120. ISBN 978-0-521-31560-9.
94. Tabish Khair (2006). Other Routes: 1500 Years of African and Asian Travel Writing, p. 12.
Signal Books. ISBN 1-904955-11-8
95. Ali al-Masudi (940). Muruj Adh-Dhahab (The Book of Golden Meadows), Vol. 1, p. 268.
96. Jason Colavito (June 22, 2013). "Did Columbus Find an Ancient Mosque in Cuba?" (http://ww
w.jasoncolavito.com/blog/did-columbus-find-an-ancient-mosque-in-cuba).
97. Scott, J. M. 2005. Geography in Early Judaism and Christianity. Cambridge University Press,
pp. 182–183.
98. McMenamin, M. A. 1997. The Phoenician World Map. Mercator's World 2(3): 46–51.
99. McMenamin, Mark A. (2000). Phoenicians, Fakes and Barry Fell: Solving the Mystery of
Carthaginian Coins Found in America (https://books.google.com/books?id=42FlAAAACAAJ).
Meanma Press. p. 22. ISBN 978-1-893882-01-0. Retrieved February 8, 2020. "The putative
Carthaginian coins must now be removed from the body admissible evidence favoring a pre-
Columbian transatlantic crossing. It gives me some chagrin to admit this, as I had earlier come
out mildly in support of the authenticity of these coins (McMenamin 1999b, 2000a, 2000b).
Weak evidence (involving measurements of die axis; the Arkansas coin has a die axis [33
degrees] differing from the Alabama type coins [12 to 20 degrees]) in support of the authenticity
of these coins (McMenamin 2000b) is superseeded by the strong evidence in the current
work."
100. McCulloch, J. Huston (July–August 1993). "Did Judean Refugees Escape to Tennessee?".
Biblical Archaeology Review. 19: 46–53, 82–83.
101. Mainfort, Robert C.; Kwas, Mary L. (2004). "The Bat Creek Stone Revisited: A Fraud Exposed".
American Antiquity. 69 (4): 761–769. doi:10.2307/4128448 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F412844
8). JSTOR 4128448 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/4128448). S2CID 161826727 (https://api.sem
anticscholar.org/CorpusID:161826727).
102. McCulloch, Huston. "The Bat Creek Stone" (https://www.asc.ohio-state.edu/mcculloch.2/arch/b
atcrk.html). OSU Arts and Sciences. Ohio State University. Retrieved July 31, 2019.
103. Ungar-Sargon, Batya (February 27, 2013). "The Mystery Stone" (https://www.tabletmag.com/je
wish-arts-and-culture/125339/the-mystery-stone). Tablet Magazine. Retrieved July 31, 2019.
104. Pace, Eric (April 9, 2001). "Cyrus Gordon, Scholar of Ancient Languages, Dies at 92" (https://w
ww.nytimes.com/2001/04/09/obituaries/09GORD.html). The New York Times.
105. Mainfort, Robert C., Jr.; Kwas, Mary L. (Spring 1991). "The Bat Creek Stone: Judeans in
Tennessee?" (https://web.archive.org/web/20070816103039/http://ramtops.co.uk/bat1.html).
Tennessee Anthropologist. XVI (1). Archived from the original (http://ramtops.co.uk/bat1.html)
on August 16, 2007 – via Ramtops.co.uk.
106. Gordon, Cyrus Herzl (1971). Before Columbus: Links Between the Old World and Ancient
America. Crown. p. 138.
107. Weigand, Phil C. (1978). "Review of In Search of Noah's Ark by Dave Balsiger, Charles E.
Sellier; Remote Kingdoms by Tertius Chandler; The Key by John Philip Cohane; Gods of the
Cataclysm: A Revolutionary Investigation of Man and His Gods Before and After the Great
Cataclysm by Hugh Fox" (https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1978.80.3.02a00760). American
Anthropologist. 80 (3): 731–733. doi:10.1525/aa.1978.80.3.02a00760 (https://doi.org/10.1525%
2Faa.1978.80.3.02a00760).
29 of 36 1/3/2022, 3:17 PM
108. Bradley, Bruce; Stanford, Dennis (2004). "The North Atlantic ice-edge corridor: a possible
Palaeolithic route to the New World" (http://planet.uwc.ac.za/nisl/Conservation%20Biology/Kare
n%20PDF/Clovis/Bradley%20&%20Stanford%202004.pdf) (PDF). World Archaeology. 36 (4):
459–478. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.694.6801 (https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.
1.1.694.6801). doi:10.1080/0043824042000303656 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F004382404200
0303656). S2CID 161534521 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161534521).
109. Carey, Bjorn (February 19, 2006). "First Americans may have been European" (http://www.lives
cience.com/history/060219_first_americans.html). Live Science.
110. Meltzer, David J. (2009). First Peoples in the New World, Berkeley: University of California
Press, 2009, p. 188
111. Fagundes, Nelson J.R.; Kanitz, Ricardo; Eckert, Roberta; et al. (2008). "Mitochondrial
Population Genomics Supports a Single Pre-Clovis Origin with a Coastal Route for the
Peopling of the Americas" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2427228). American
Journal of Human Genetics. 82 (3): 583–592. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2007.11.013 (https://doi.org/1
0.1016%2Fj.ajhg.2007.11.013). PMC 2427228 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC
2427228). PMID 18313026 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18313026).
112. Kashani, Baharak Hooshia; Perego, Ugo A.; Olivieri, Anna; et al. (January 2012).
"Mitochondrial haplogroup C4c: A rare lineage entering America through the ice-free corridor?".
American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 147 (1): 34–39. doi:10.1002/ajpa.21614 (https://do
i.org/10.1002%2Fajpa.21614). PMID 22024980 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22024980).
"Recent analyses of mitochondrial genomes from Native Americans have brought the overall
number of recognized maternal founding lineages from just four to a current count of 15.
However, because of their relative low number, almost nothing is known about some of these
lineages. This leaves a considerable void in understanding the events that led to the
colonization of the Americas following the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). In this study, we
identified and completely sequenced 14 mitochondrial DNAs belonging to one extremely rare
Native American lineage known as haplogroup C4c. Its age and geographical distribution raise
the possibility that C4c marked the Paleo-Indian group(s) that entered North America from
Beringia through the ice-free corridor between the Laurentide and Cordilleran ice sheets. The
similarities in ages and geographical distributions for C4c and the previously analyzed X2a
lineage provide support to the scenario of a dual origin for Paleo-Indians."
113. "MIT Museum Collections - Objects" (https://web.archive.org/web/20141009085241/http://web
museum.mit.edu/detail.php?type=related&kv=87136&t=objects). MIT Museum. Archived from
the original (http://webmuseum.mit.edu/detail.php?type=related&kv=87136&t=objects) on
October 9, 2014.
114. Hristov, Romeo H.; Genovés T., Santiago (1999), "Mesoamerica evidence of pre-Columbian
transoceanic contacts", Ancient Mesoamerica, 10 (2): 207–213,
doi:10.1017/S0956536199102013 (https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0956536199102013)
115. Jashemski, Wilhelmina (2002). The natural history of Pompeii (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=3xfjyTqqR7IC&pg=PA81). Cambridge University Press. p. 81. ISBN 978-0-521-80054-9.
116. Forbes, Jack D. The American Discovery of Europe University of Illinois Press; April 16, 2007
ISBN 978-0-252-03152-6 p. 108
117. Hristov and Genovés (1999).
118. Smith, Michael E., "The 'Roman Figurine' Supposedly Excavated at Calixtlahuaca (http://www.p
ublic.asu.edu/~mesmith9/tval/RomanFigurine.html)". Accessed: February 13, 2012. (Archived
by WebCite at https://www.webcitation.org/65PlUfqJr)
119. "Earl Henry Sinclair" (http://www.orkneyjar.com/history/historicalfigures/henrysinclair/).
Orkneyjar. Retrieved February 3, 2011.
30 of 36 1/3/2022, 3:17 PM
120. Johann Reinhold Forster, History of the Voyages and Discoveries Made in the North, Printed
for G.G.J. and J. Robinson, London, 1786
121. T. J. Oleson, "ZENO, NICOLÒ," (http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/zeno_nicolo_1E.html) in
Dictionary of Canadian Biography, vol. 1, University of Toronto/Université Laval, 2003–,
accessed October 1, 2014
122. Christopher Knight and Robert Lomas. The Hiram Key. Fair Winds Press, 2001
ISBN 1-931412-75-8.
123. Turnbull, Michael TRB (August 6, 2009). "Rosslyn Chapel" (http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religio
ns/christianity/places/rosslynchapel_1.shtml). BBC. Retrieved December 14, 2016.
124. Mark Oxbrow & I. Robertson. Rosslyn and the Grail. Mainstream Publishing, 2005
ISBN 1-84596-076-9.
125. Historian Mark Oxbrow, quoted in "The ship of dreams" (http://heritage.scotsman.com/myths.cf
m?id=515952005) by Diane MacLean, Scotsman.com, May 13, 2005
126. "It is most probable that Columbus visited Bristol, where he was introduced to English
commerce with Iceland." Bedini, Silvio A. and David Buisseret (1992). The Christopher
Columbus encyclopedia, Volume 1, University of Michigan press, republished by Simon &
Schuster, ISBN 0-13-142670-2, p. 175.
127. Seaver (1995) p. 222
128. Seaver, K.A.(1995) The Frozen Echo Stanford University Press ISBN 0-8047-3161-6 p. 221.
129. Columbus, Christopher; Cohen, J. M. (translator) (May 5, 1992). The Four Voyages, pp. 27–37.
New York: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-044217-0.
130. Soren, Larsen. (1925) The Pining voyage: The Discovery of North America Twenty Years
Before Columbus.
131. Thomas L. Hughes, The German Discovery of America: A Review of the Controversy over
Didrik Pining's Voyage of Exploration in 1473 in the North Atlantic (http://www.ghi-dc.org/public
ations/ghipubs/bu/033/79.pdf) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20070927204928/http://w
ww.ghi-dc.org/publications/ghipubs/bu/033/79.pdf) September 27, 2007, at the Wayback
Machine in: German Historical Institute Bulletin, No. 33 (Fall 2003)
132. "El mito de que los balleneros vascos estuvieron en América antes que Cristóbal Colón" (http
s://www.abc.es/espana/20150514/abci-balleneros-vascos-estuvieron-america-201505131925.h
tml). May 13, 2015.
133. Howley, Andrew (May 16, 2013). "Did St. Brendan Reach North America 500 Years Before the
Vikings? – National Geographic Society (blogs)" (http://voices.nationalgeographic.com/2013/05
/16/did-st-brendan-reach-north-america-500-years-before-the-vikings/).
voices.nationalgeographic.com. Retrieved October 22, 2017.
134. Williams, Gwyn A (1979): Madoc: The Making of a Myth. London: Eyre Methuen
135. Llwyd, Humphrey; Williams, Ieuan (2002). Cronica Walliae (https://books.google.com/books?id
=I2FnAAAAMAAJ) (Print). Cardiff: University of Wales Press. ISBN 978-0-7083-1638-2.
136. Curran, Kelly (January 8, 2008). "The Madoc legend lives in Southern Indiana: Documentary
makers hope to bring pictures to author's work" (http://newsandtribune.com/clarkcounty/x51938
8801/The-Madoc-legend-lives-in-Southern-Indiana-Documentary-makers-hope-to-bring-picture
s-to-author-s-work). News and Tribune, Jeffersonville, Indiana. Retrieved October 16, 2011.
137. "Fort Mountain's Mysterious Wall" (https://web.archive.org/web/20160131225825/http://planeta
nimals.com/logue/Ftmount.html). Touring the Backroads of North and South Georgia. Native
American Tour. Archived from the original (http://planetanimals.com/logue/Ftmount.html) on 31
January 2016. Retrieved 3 April 2013.
31 of 36 1/3/2022, 3:17 PM
138. "Prince Madoc: The Legend of How the Welsh Colonized North America" (https://historyofyeste
rday.com/prince-madoc-the-legend-of-how-the-welsh-colonized-north-america-14e8c99648ff).
historyofyesterday.com. Retrieved July 5, 2021.
139. Sisson, David (September 1984)"Did the Irish discover America?" (https://web.archive.org/web/
20050321123920/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1189/is_v256/ai_3410276). The
Saturday Evening Post. Retrieved July 23, 2006.
140. Kelley, D. H. (Spring 1990). "Proto-Tifinagh and Proto-Ogham in the Americas: Review of Fell;
Fell and Farley; Fell and Reinert; Johannessen, et al.; McGlone and Leonard; Totten" (https://w
eb.archive.org/web/20080709172608/http://www.reviewofarchaeology.com/pastissues.html).
The Review of Archaeology. 11 (1). Archived from the original (http://www.reviewofarchaeology.
com/pastissues.html) on July 9, 2008. "I have no personal doubts that some of the inscriptions
which have been reported [in the Americas] are genuine Celtic ogham. [...] Despite my
occasional harsh criticism of Fell's treatment of individual inscriptions, it should be recognized
that without Fell's work there would be no [North American] ogham problem to perplex us. We
need to ask not only what Fell has done wrong in his epigraphy, but also where we have gone
wrong as archaeologists in not recognizing such an extensive European presence in the New
World."
141. Oppenheimer, Monroe; Wirtz, Willard (Spring 1989). "A Linguistic Analysis of Some West
Virginia Petroglyphs" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110418055631/http://cwva.org/ogam_rebu
tal/wirtz.html). The West Virginia Archeologist. 41 (1). Archived from the original (http://cwva.or
g/ogam_rebutal/wirtz.html) on April 18, 2011. Retrieved August 8, 2007.
142. S A Wells. "American Drugs in Egyptian Mummies" (http://www.faculty.ucr.edu/~legneref/ethnic
/mummy.htm). Retrieved October 8, 2021.
143. "Curse of the Cocaine Mummies" written and directed by Sarah Marris. (Producers: Hilary
Lawson, Maureen Lemire and narrated by Hilary Kilberg). A TVF Production for Channel Four
in association with the Discovery Channel, 1997.
144. "A look at the Evidence for Cocaine in Mummies" (http://www.hallofmaat.com/precolumbian/the
-stoned-age/). Thehallofmaat.com. Retrieved February 14, 2020.
145. "The Stoned Age?" (http://www.hallofmaat.com/precolumbian/the-stoned-age/). Hall of Maat.
Retrieved February 3, 2011.
146. Buckland, P.C.; Panagiotakopulu, E. "Rameses II and the tobacco beetle". Antiquity. 75
(549–56): 2001.
147. Counsell, D. C., "Intoxicants in Ancient Egypt? Opium, nymphea, coca, and tobacco," in David,
Ann Rosalie, ed. Egyptian Mummies and Modern Science, Cambridge University Press, 2008,
ISBN 978-0-521-86579-1 p.213
148. Bucaille, M. Mummies of the Pharaohs: Modern Medical Investigations NY: St. Martin's Press
pp 186-188
149. Pomponius Mela. De situ orbis libri III (https://archive.org/details/pomponiimalaedes00mela),
chapter 5.
150. Pliny the Elder, Natural History, Book 2, chaapter 67.
151. Pohl, Frederick J. (1961). Atlantic Crossings before Columbus. New York: W. W. Norton &
Company.
152. Ebenesersdóttir, Sigríður Sunna; Sigurðsson, Ásgeir; Sánchez-Quinto, Federico; Lalueza-Fox,
Carles; Stefánsson, Kári; Helgason, Agnar (2011). "A new subclade of mtDNA haplogroup C1
found in icelanders: Evidence of pre-columbian contact?". American Journal of Physical
Anthropology. 144 (1): 92–9. doi:10.1002/ajpa.21419 (https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fajpa.21419).
32 of 36 1/3/2022, 3:17 PM
153. Der Sarkissian, Clio; Brotherton, Paul; Balanovsky, Oleg; Templeton, Jennifer E. L.; Llamas,
Bastien; Soubrier, Julien; Moiseyev, Vyacheslav; Khartanovich, Valery; Cooper, Alan; Haak,
Wolfgang (2014). "Mitochondrial Genome Sequencing in Mesolithic North East Europe
Unearths a New Sub-Clade within the Broadly Distributed Human Haplogroup C1" (https://ww
w.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3913659). PLOS ONE. 9 (2): e87612.
Bibcode:2014PLoSO...987612D (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014PLoSO...987612D).
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0087612 (https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0087612).
154. Eirik the Red's Saga by John Sephton (https://www.gutenberg.org/files/17946/17946-h/17946-
h.htm) paragraph 14
155. Forbes, Jack D. (2007). The American Discovery of Europe (https://books.google.com/books?i
d=cd8yZn7MfSQC&q=American+Discovery+of+Europe). University of Illinois Press. p. 163.
ISBN 978-0-252-03152-6. Retrieved December 20, 2011.
156. Forbes, Jack D. (1993). Africans and Native Americans: The Language of Race and the
Evolution of Red-Black Peoples (https://books.google.com/books?id=6aLAeB5QiHAC&q=Tron
dheim+cathedral+Inuit&pg=PA20). University of Illinois Press. pp. 18–21.
ISBN 978-0-252-06321-3. Retrieved December 20, 2011.
157. Seaver (1995), p. 208
158. Fossett, Renée (2001). In Order to Live Untroubled: Inuit of the Central Arctic, 1550–1940 (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=yK7cac_mXGgC&q=Inuit+in+Europe+Trondheim&pg=PA80).
University of Manitoba Press. pp. 75–77. ISBN 978-0-88755-647-0.
159. "¿Viajarón los Incas por Oceanía?" (https://revistaenraizada.com/index.php/2020/11/07/viajaro
n-los-incas-por-oceania/) Revista Enraizada. (In Spanish) 2020.
160. "Quetzalcóatl ¿blanco y de ojos azules?" (https://arqueologiamexicana.mx/mexico-antiguo/quet
zalcoatl-blanco-y-de-ojos-azules). June 28, 2016.
161. "Hernán Cortés y el regreso de Quetzalcóatl" (https://www.gaceta.unam.mx/hernan-cortes-y-el-
regreso-de-quetzalcoatl/). Gaceta UNAM. April 9, 2019.
162. Riley, Carroll L.; Charles Kelley, J.; Pennington, Campbell W.; Rands, Robert L. (October 14,
2014). Man Across the Sea: Problems of Pre-Columbian Contacts (https://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=lmvUBAAAQBAJ&q=was+quetzalcoatl+european&pg=PT312).
ISBN 9781477304785.
163. Villatoro, Manuel P. (October 12, 2019). "El 'otro' 12 de octubre: la flota perdida de la Orden del
Temple que pudo llegar a América antes que Colón (https://www.abc.es/historia/abci-otro-12-o
ctubre-flota-perdida-orden-temple-pudo-llegar-america-antes-colon-201910120115_noticia.htm
l)". ABC Historia. Retrieved June 6, 2021.
164. Nicholson, Helen (2001). The Knights Templar: A New History. Stroud, Gloucestershire:
Sutton. pp. 12, 191–92. ISBN 0-7509-2517-5.
165. "Native Americans and Jews: The Lost Tribes Episode" (https://www.myjewishlearning.com/arti
cle/native-americans-jews-the-lost-tribes-episode/).
166. "Oliver's Bookshelf, The Premier Web-Site for Early Mormon History" (https://web.archive.org/w
eb/20131029184039/http://olivercowdery.com/texts/1660Thor.htm). Archived from the original
(http://olivercowdery.com/texts/1660Thor.htm) on October 29, 2013.
167. Parfitt, Tudor (2003). The Lost Tribes of Israel: The History of a Myth. Phoenix. p. 66.
168. Parfitt, Tudor (2003). The Lost Tribes of Israel: The History of a Myth. Phoenix. pp. 66, 76.
33 of 36 1/3/2022, 3:17 PM
169. "National Geographic Society Statement on the Book of Mormon" (http://mit.irr.org/national-geo

graphic-society-statement-on-book-of-mormon). August 12, 1998. Letter from Julie Crain
addressed to Luke Wilson of the Institute for Religious Research.
170. Givens, Terryl (January 1, 2004). The Latter-day Saint Experience in America (https://books.go
ogle.com/books?id=IEEkTWyIpZkC&pg=PA145). Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 145–.
ISBN 978-0-313-32750-6. Retrieved November 8, 2014.
171. *B��, S�� W., (1999); "The History of an Idea: The Scene on Stela 5 from Izapa,
Mexico, as a Representation of Lehi's Vision of the Tree of Life" (http://farms.byu.edu/display.p
hp?table=jbms&id=180) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20040915054621/http://farms.b
yu.edu/display.php?table=jbms&id=180) September 15, 2004, at the Wayback Machine, (p. 12)
172. Paulson, Matthew A. (September 1, 2000). Breaking the Mormon Code (https://books.google.c
om/books?id=Pbi_OfkPhzwC&pg=PA236). WingSpan Press. pp. 236–.
ISBN 978-1-59594-067-4. Retrieved November 8, 2014.
173. Lund, John (November 22, 2007). MesoAmerica And The Book of Mormon. Granite Publishing
& Distribution. p. 286. ISBN 978-1891114403.
174. Allen, Joseph (June 15, 1989). Exploring the Lands of the Book of Mormon. S.A. Publishers.
p. 437. ISBN 9780842523936.
175. Wirth, Diane (August 1, 2007). Decoding Ancient America: A Guide to the Archaeology of the
Book of Mormon. Horizon Publishers, an Imprint of Cedar Fort, Inc. pp. 150–.
ISBN 978-0882908205.
References
▪ Ashe, Geoffrey, The Quest for America (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1971);
▪ Blench, Roger (2010). "Remapping the Austronesian expansion". In Evans, Bethwyn (ed.).
Festschrift for Malcolm Ross (http://www.rogerblench.info/Language/Austronesian/General/Ble
nch%20Ross%20Festschrift%20paper%20revised.pdf) (PDF). Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.
pp. 1–25. Retrieved August 5, 2013.
▪ Fagan, Brian M. The Great Journey. Thames and Hudson. (1987)
▪ Feder, Kenneth L. (1999) "Frauds, myths, and mysteries: science and pseudoscience in
archaeology" (3rd ed., Mountain View, Calif. : Mayfield Pub. Co.
▪ Fell, Barry (1984) America B.C.: Ancient Settlers in the New World (New York: Simon &
Schuster, 1984)
▪ William J. Hamblim Archaeology and the Book of Mormon (Provo, Utah: Maxwell Institute,
1993), Volume 5, Issue 1, pp. 250–272, Text (https://web.archive.org/web/20030702180516/htt
p://farms.byu.edu/display.php?id=126&table=review) ;
▪ Gerol, E. Harry Dioses, Templos y Ruinas.
▪ G��, J�� (2006) Ritual and Power in Stone: The Performance of Rulership in
Mesoamerican Izapan Style Art, University of Texas Press, Austin, Texas,
ISBN 978-0-292-71323-9.
▪ Hey, J. (2005). "On the number of New World founders: A population genetic portrait of the
peopling of the Americas" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1131883). PLOS
Biology. 3 (6): e193. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0030193 (https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pbi
o.0030193). PMC 1131883 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1131883).
▪ Howgaard, William (1971) The Voyages of the Norsemen to America (New York: The
American-Scandinavian Foundation, 1914, Kraus Reprint Co., 1971);
34 of 36 1/3/2022, 3:17 PM
▪ Hristov, Romeo H. and Santiago Genovés T. (2001) "The Roman Head from Tecaxic-
Calixtlahuaca, Mexico: A Review of the evidence" (https://web.archive.org/web/200410100028
22/http://www.unm.edu/~rhristov/Romanhead.html), Paper prepared for the 66th—Annual
Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, New Orleans (2001).
▪ Huyghe, Patrick (1992) Columbus was Last: A Heretical History of who was First (New York:
Hyperion, 1992; Anomalist Books, 2005)
▪ Ingstad, Helge Westward to Vinland (New York: St. Martins, 1969);
▪ Johnson, Adrian America Explored (New York: The Viking Press, 1974);
▪ Jones, Gwyn A History of the Vikings (Oxford University Press, 1984);
▪ Jones, Peter N. American Indian mtDNA, Y Chromosome Genetic Data, and the Peopling of
North America. Boulder: Bauu Press. 2004;
▪ Lawrence, Harold G. (1962). African Explorers of the New World. John Henry and Mary Louisa
Dunn Bryant Foundation. ASIN B0007HV7US (https://www.amazon.com/dp/B0007HV7US).
▪ Arlington Mallery and Mary Roberts Harrison, The Rediscovery of Lost America (New York:
E.P. Dutton, 1979);
▪ Marcus, G. J., "The Conquest of the North Atlantic" (New York: Oxford University Press, 1980);
▪ Mowat, Farley (1998) The Farfarers (Toronto, Key Porter Books, 1998) ISBN 1-55013-989-4;
▪ Frederick J. Pohl, The Lost Discovery (New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 1952);
▪ Frederick J. Pohl, The Viking Explorers (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Co., 1966);
▪ Gary A. Rendsburg, "'Someone Will Succeed in Deciphering Minoan': Minoan Linear A as a
West Semitic Dialect," Biblical Archaeologist, 59:1 (1996), pp. 36–43, esp. p. 40.
▪ Seaver, K.A.(1995) The Frozen Echo: Greenland and the Exploration of North America ca A.D.
1000–1500 Stanford University Press ISBN 0-8047-3161-6
▪ Smith, Michael E. "The 'Roman Figurine' Supposedly Excavated at Calixtlahuaca (http://www.p
ublic.asu.edu/~mesmith9/tval/RomanFigurine.html)", accessed December 2007.
▪ Sorenson, John L. and Johannessen, Carl L. (2006) "Biological Evidence for Pre-Columbian
Transoceanic Voyages." In: Contact and Exchange in the Ancient World. Ed. Victor H. Mair.
University of Hawai'i Press. Pp. 238–297. ISBN 978-0-8248-2884-4; ISBN 0-8248-2884-4
▪ Sorenson, John L.; Raish, Martin H. (1996) Pre-Columbian Contact with the Americas Across
the Oceans: An Annotated Bibliography. 2v. 2d ed., rev., Provo, Utah: Research Press,
ISBN 0-934893-21-7.
▪ Sorenson, John L. and Johannessen, Carl L. (2009) World Trade and Biological Exchanges
Before 1492, Bloomington, IN: iUniverse, ISBN 978-0-595-52441-9;
▪ Stirling, Matthew (1967) "Early History of the Olmec Problem", in Dumbarton Oaks Conference
on the Olmec, E. Benson, ed., Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, D.C.
▪ Van Sertima, Ivan (1976). They Came Before Columbus. Random House.
ISBN 978-0-394-40245-1.
▪ Von Wuthenau, Alexander (1975). Unexpected Faces in Ancient America: The Historical
Testimony of Pre-Columbian Artists (https://archive.org/details/unexpectedfacesi0000wuth).
Crown Publishers. ISBN 978-0-517-51657-7.
▪ Wauchope, Robert (1962) Lost Tribes & Sunken Continents. University of Chicago Press.
▪ Williams, Stephen (1991) "Fantastic Archaeology: The Wild Side of North American
Prehistory", Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press,
ISBN 0-8122-8238-8/0-8122-1312-2.
35 of 36 1/3/2022, 3:17 PM
▪ Man across the sea: Problems of Pre-Columbian contacts (Austin and London: University of
Texas Press, 1971).
▪ Report of Severin's trip in the National Geographic Magazine, Volume 152, Number 6
(December 1977).
Further reading
▪ Wahlgren, Erik (2000) [1986]. The Vikings and America. ISBN 978-0-500-28199-4.
▪ Kowtko, Stacy (2006). Nature and the Environment in Pre-Columbian American Life.
ISBN 978-0-313-33472-6.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories&

oldid=1057680518"
This page was last edited on 29 November 2021, at 01:10 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using
this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia
Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
36 of 36 1/3/2022, 3:17 PM

Pre-Columbian Transoceanic Contact Theories

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Pre-Columbian Transoceanic Contact Theories

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Pre-Columbian transoceanic contact theories - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theor...

Pre-Columbian transoceanic contact

Scientific and scholarly responses to other claims of post-prehistory, pre-Columbian transoceanic

Norse colonization of the Americas

Polynesian, Melanesian, and Austronesian contact

Other potential evidence of Polynesian and/or Melanesian contact

The sweet potato, a food crop native to the Americas, was

Dutch linguists and specialists in Amerindian languages

Researchers including Kathryn Klar and Terry Jones have

Words for axes

In December 2007, several human skulls were found in a

— Letter of Albuquerque to King Manuel I of Portugal, April 1512.

Claims of East Asian contact

Claims of contact with Ecuador

Claims of Chinese contact

Columbia, thirty Chinese coins in the auriferous sand,

Claims of Japanese contact

In the 1890s, lawyer and politician James Wickersham[71] argued that

Claims of Indian contact

Grafton Elliot Smith claimed that certain motifs present in the

Some objects depicted in carvings from Karnataka, dating from the

Claims of African and West Asian

Proposed claims for an African presence in Mesoamerica stem

The Olmec culture existed in what is now southern Mexico

Claims of Arab contact

According to Muslim historian Abu al-Hasan Ali al-Mas'udi

Claims of ancient Phoenician contact

In 1996, Mark McMenamin proposed that Phoenician sailors

Claims of ancient Judaic contact

reference book and introduced by the Smithsonian field

As for the Decalogue Stone, there are mistakes which suggest

Claims of European contact

The Solutrean hypothesis argues that Europeans migrated to

Claims of ancient Roman contact

In 1950, an Italian botanist, Domenico Casella, suggested that a

Floor mosaic depicting a fruit which

14th- and 15th-century European contact

Some have conjectured that Columbus was able to persuade the

support this claim.[132]

Irish and Welsh legends

According to a British myth, Madoc was a prince from Wales who

A plaque at Fort Mountain State Park in Georgia recounts a nineteenth-century interpretation of

Claims of transoceanic travel from the New World to the

Claims of Egyptian coca and tobacco

named Henut Taui. Follow-up tests on the hair shaft, which

A television show reported that examinations of numerous

Claims of travel in Roman times

Icelander DNA finding

Norse legends and sagas

Cathedral two leather boats taken decades earlier. According to Olaus,

In Ferdinand Columbus's biography of his father Christopher, he says

Claims based on religious traditions or symbols

Claims of pre-Columbian contact with Christian missionaries

According to Pre-Columbian myth, Quetzalcoatl departed Mexico in ancient times by travelling

Claims of ancient Jewish migration to the Americas

Latter Day Saint movement's teachings

The National Geographic Society, in a 1998 letter to the Institute for

▪ Kon-Tiki expedition – 1947 raft journey from ▪ Pre-Columbian rafts

169. "National Geographic Society Statement on the Book of Mormon" (http://mit.irr.org/national-geo

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories&

This page was last edited on 29 November 2021, at 01:10 (UTC).

You might also like